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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Energy System of Matter, by James Weir
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Energy System of Matter
+       A Deduction from Terrestrial Energy Phenomena
+
+Author: James Weir
+
+Release Date: December 20, 2011 [EBook #38348]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER ***
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+Produced by David Garcia, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Cathy
+Maxam and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from scanned
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+project.)
+
+
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+
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+
+
+
+THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER
+
+
+
+
+  THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER
+
+  A DEDUCTION FROM TERRESTRIAL
+  ENERGY PHENOMENA
+
+  BY
+  JAMES WEIR
+
+  _WITH 12 DIAGRAMS_
+
+  LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO.
+  39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
+  NEW YORK BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA
+  1912
+
+  All rights reserved
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+An intimate study of natural phenomena and a lengthened experience in
+physical research have resulted in the formation of certain
+generalisations and deductions which I now present in this volume. I
+have reached the conclusion that every physical phenomenon is due to the
+operation of energy transformations or energy transmissions embodied in
+material, and takes place under the action or influence of incepting
+energy fields. In any instance the precise nature of the phenomena is
+dependent on the peculiar form of energy actively engaged, on the nature
+of the material to which this energy is applied, and on the nature of
+the incepting field which influences the process. In the course of the
+work several concrete cases are discussed, in which these features of
+energy are illustrated and explained by the use of simple experimental
+apparatus. It is hoped that, by this means, the distinctive differences
+which exist in the manifestations of energy, in its transformation, in
+its transmission, and in its incepting forms will be rendered clear to
+the reader. I have to express my indebtedness to Mr. James Affleck,
+B.Sc., for his assistance in the preparation of this work for
+publication.
+
+JAMES WEIR.
+
+OVER COURANCE,
+LOCKERBIE, SCOTLAND.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                 PAGE
+
+  INTRODUCTION                                                 1
+
+
+  PART I
+
+  GENERAL STATEMENT
+
+   1. ADVANTAGES OF GENERAL VIEW OF NATURAL OPERATIONS         7
+
+   2. SEPARATE MASS IN SPACE                                   8
+
+   3. ADVENT OF ENERGY--DISTORTIONAL EFFECTS                   9
+
+   4. THE GRAVITATION FIELD                                   11
+
+   5. LIMITS OF ROTATIONAL ENERGY--DISRUPTIONAL
+      PHENOMENA                                               13
+
+   6. PASSIVE FUNCTION AND GENERAL NATURE OF GRAVITATION
+      FIELD                                                   17
+
+   7. LIMIT OF GRAVITATION TRANSFORMATION                     18
+
+   8. INTERACTIONS OF TWO PLANETARY BODIES--EQUILIBRIUM
+      PHENOMENA                                               19
+
+   9. AXIAL ENERGY--SECONDARY PROCESSES                       22
+
+  10. MECHANISM OF ENERGY RETURN                              27
+
+  11. REVIEW OF COSMICAL SYSTEM--GENERAL FUNCTION OF
+      ENERGY                                                  29
+
+  12. REVIEW OF COSMICAL SYSTEM--NATURAL CONDITIONS           31
+
+
+  PART II
+
+  PRINCIPLES OF INCEPTION
+
+  13. ILLUSTRATIVE SECONDARY PROCESSES                        34
+
+  14. INCEPTING ENERGY INFLUENCES                             40
+
+  15. COHESION AS AN INCEPTING INFLUENCE                      45
+
+  16. TERRESTRIAL GRAVITATION AS AN INCEPTING INFLUENCE       48
+
+  17. THE GRAVITATION FIELD                                   51
+
+  18. THE THERMAL FIELD                                       54
+
+  19. THE LUMINOUS FIELD                                      58
+
+  20. TRANSFORMATIONS--UPWARD MOVEMENT OF A MASS
+      AGAINST GRAVITY                                         62
+
+  21. TRANSFORMATIONS--THE SIMPLE PENDULUM                    67
+
+  22. STATICAL ENERGY CONDITIONS                              68
+
+  23. TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE MOVING PENDULUM--ENERGY
+      OF MOTION TO ENERGY OF POSITION AND VICE VERSA          72
+
+  24. TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE MOVING PENDULUM--FRICTIONAL
+      TRANSFORMATION AT THE BEARING SURFACES                  77
+
+  25. STABILITY OF ENERGY SYSTEMS                             79
+
+  26. THE PENDULUM AS A CONSERVATIVE SYSTEM                   81
+
+  27. SOME PHENOMENA OF TRANSMISSION PROCESSES--TRANSMISSION
+      OF HEAT ENERGY BY SOLID MATERIAL                        84
+
+  28. SOME PHENOMENA OF TRANSMISSION PROCESSES--TRANSMISSION
+      BY FLEXIBLE BAND OR CORD                                89
+
+  29. SOME PHENOMENA OF TRANSMISSION PROCESSES--TRANSMISSION
+      OF ENERGY TO AIR MASSES                                 92
+
+  30. ENERGY MACHINES AND ENERGY TRANSMISSION                 95
+
+  31. IDENTIFICATION OF FORMS OF ENERGY                      107
+
+  32. COMPLETE SECONDARY CYCLICAL OPERATION                  114
+
+
+  PART III
+
+  TERRESTRIAL CONDITIONS
+
+  33. GASEOUS EXPANSION                                      118
+
+  34. GRAVITATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM OF GASES                     124
+
+  35. TOTAL ENERGY OF GASEOUS SUBSTANCES                     131
+
+  36. COMPARATIVE ALTITUDES OF PLANETARY ATMOSPHERES         135
+
+  37. REACTIONS OF COMPOSITE ATMOSPHERE                      139
+
+  38. DESCRIPTION OF TERRESTRIAL CASE                        143
+
+  39. RELATIVE PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC
+      CONSTITUENTS                                           150
+
+  40. TRANSMISSION OF ENERGY FROM AQUEOUS VAPOUR TO
+      AIR MASSES                                             153
+
+  41. TERRESTRIAL ENERGY RETURN                              160
+
+  42. EXPERIMENTAL ANALOGY AND DEMONSTRATION OF THE
+      GENERAL MECHANISM OF ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
+      AND RETURN IN THE ATMOSPHERIC CYCLE                    170
+
+  43. APPLICATION OF PENDULUM PRINCIPLES                     181
+
+  44. EXTENSION OF PENDULUM PRINCIPLES TO TERRESTRIAL
+      PHENOMENA                                              188
+
+  45. CONCLUDING REVIEW OF TERRESTRIAL CONDITIONS--EFFECTS
+      OF INFLUX OF ENERGY                                    192
+
+
+
+
+THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The main principles on which the present work is founded were broadly
+outlined in the author's _Terrestrial Energy_ in 1883, and also in a
+later paper in 1892.
+
+The views then expressed have since been amply verified by the course of
+events. In the march of progress, the forward strides of science have
+been of gigantic proportions. Its triumphs, however, have been in the
+realm, not of speculation or faith, but of experiment and fact. While,
+on the one hand, the careful and systematic examination and
+co-ordination of experimental facts has ever been leading to results of
+real practical value, on the other, the task of the theorists, in their
+efforts to explain phenomena on speculative grounds, has become
+increasingly severe, and the results obtained have been decreasingly
+satisfactory. Day by day it becomes more evident that not one of the
+many existing theories is adequate to the explanation of the known
+phenomena: but, in spite of this obvious fact, attempts are still
+constantly being made, even by most eminent men, to rule the results of
+experimental science into line with this or that accepted theory. The
+contradictions are many and glaring, but speculative methods are still
+rampant. They have become the fashion, or rather the fetish, of modern
+science. It would seem that no experimental result can be of any value
+until it is deductively accommodated to some preconceived hypothesis,
+until it is embodied and under the sway of what is practically
+scientific dogma. These methods have permeated all branches of science
+more or less, but in no sphere has the tendency to indulge in
+speculation been more pronounced than in that which deals with
+energetics. In no sphere, also, have the consequences of such indulgence
+been more disastrous. For the most part, the current conceptions of
+energy processes are crude, fanciful, and inconsistent with Nature. They
+require for their support--in fact, for their very existence--the
+acceptance of equally fantastic conceptions of mythical substances or
+ethereal media of whose real existence there is absolutely no
+experimental evidence. On the assumed properties or motions of such
+media are based the many inconsistent and useless attempts to explain
+phenomena. But, as already pointed out, Nature has unmistakably
+indicated the true path of progress to be that of experimental
+investigation. In the use of this method only phenomena can be employed,
+and any hypothesis which may be formulated as the result of research on
+these lines is of scientific value only in so far as it is the correct
+expression of the actual facts observed. By this method of holding close
+to Nature reliable working hypotheses can, if necessary, be formed, and
+real progress made. It is undeniably the method of true science.
+
+In recent years much attention has been devoted to certain speculative
+theories with respect to the origin and ultimate nature of matter and
+energy. Such hypotheses, emanating as they do from prominent workers,
+and fostered by the inherent imaginative tendency of the human mind,
+have gained considerable standing. But it is surely unnecessary to point
+out that all questions relating to origins are essentially outside the
+pale of true science. Any hypotheses which may be thus formulated have
+not the support of experimental facts in their conclusions; they belong
+rather to the realm of speculative philosophy than to that of science.
+In the total absence of confirmatory phenomena, such theories can, at
+best, only be regarded as plausible speculations, to be accepted, it may
+be, without argument, and ranking in interest in the order of their
+plausibility.
+
+Of modern research into the ultimate constitution of matter little
+requires to be said. It is largely founded on certain radio-active and
+electrical phenomena which, in themselves, contribute little
+information. But aided by speculative methods and the use of
+preconceived ethereal hypotheses, various elaborate theories have been
+formulated, explaining matter and its properties entirely in terms of
+ethereal motions. Such conceptions in their proper sphere--namely, that
+of metaphysics--would be no doubt of interest, but when advanced as a
+scientific proposition or solution they border on the ridiculous. In the
+absence of phenomena bearing on the subject, it would seem that the last
+resort of the modern scientist lies in terminology. To the average
+seeker after truth, however, the term "matter," as applied to the
+material world, will still convey as much meaning as the more elaborate
+scientific definitions.
+
+It is not the purpose of this work to add another thread to the already
+tangled skein of scientific theory. It is written, rather, with the
+conviction, that it is impossible ever to get really behind or beyond
+phenomena; in the belief that the complete description of any natural
+process is simply the complete description of the associated phenomena,
+which may always be observed and co-ordinated but never ultimately
+explained. Phenomena must ever be accepted simply as phenomena--as the
+inscrutable manifestations of Nature. By induction from phenomena it is
+indeed possible to rise to working hypotheses, and thence, it may be, to
+general conceptions of Nature's order, and as already pointed out, it is
+to this method, of accepting phenomena, and of reasoning only from
+experimental facts, that all the advances of modern science are due. On
+the other hand, it is the neglect of this method--the departure, as it
+were, from Nature--which has led to the introduction into the scientific
+thought of the day of the various ethereal media with their extreme and
+contradictory properties. The use of such devices really amounts to an
+admission of direct ignorance of phenomena. They are, in reality, an
+attempt to explain natural operations by a highly artificial method,
+and, having no basis in fact, their whole tendency is to proceed, in
+ever-increasing degree, from one absurdity to another.
+
+It is quite possible to gain a perfectly true and an absolutely reliable
+knowledge of the properties of matter and energy, and the part which
+each plays, without resorting to speculative aids. All that is required
+is simply accurate and complete observation at first hand. The field of
+research is wide; all Nature forms the laboratory. By this method every
+result achieved may be tested and verified, not by its concurrence with
+any approved theory, however plausible, but by direct reference to
+phenomena. The verdict of Nature will be the final judgment on every
+scheme.
+
+It is on these principles, allied with the great generalisations with
+respect to the conservation of matter and energy, that this work is
+founded. As the result of a long, varied, and intimate acquaintance with
+Nature, and much experimental research in many spheres, the author has
+reached the conclusion, already foreshadowed in _Terrestrial Energy_,
+that the great principle of energy conservation is true, not only in the
+universal and generally accepted sense, but also in a particular sense
+with respect to all really separate bodies, such as planetary masses in
+space. Each of these bodies, therefore, forms within itself a completely
+conservative energy system. This conclusion obviously involves the
+complete denial of the transmission of energy in any form across
+interplanetary space, and the author, in this volume, now seeks to
+verify the conclusion by the direct experimental evidence of terrestrial
+phenomena.
+
+Under present-day conditions in science, the acceptance of the ordinary
+doctrine of transmission across space involves likewise the acceptance
+of the existence of an ethereal substance which pervades all space and
+forms the medium by which such transmission is carried out. The
+properties of this medium are, of course, precisely adapted to its
+assumed function of transmission. These properties it is not necessary
+to discuss, for when the existence of the transmission itself has been
+finally disproved, the necessity for the transmitting medium clearly
+vanishes.
+
+
+
+
+PART I
+
+GENERAL STATEMENT
+
+
+1. _Advantages of General View of Natural Operations_
+
+The object of this statement is to outline and illustrate, in simple
+fashion, a broad and general conception of the operation and interaction
+of matter and energy in natural phenomena.
+
+Such a conception may be of value to the student of Nature, in several
+ways. In modern times the general tendency of scientific work is ever
+towards specialisation, with its corresponding narrowness of view. A
+broad outlook on Nature is thus eminently desirable. It enables the
+observer to perceive to some extent the links uniting the apparently
+most insignificant of natural processes to those of seemingly greater
+magnitude and importance. In this way a valuable idea of the natural
+world as a whole may be gained, which will, in turn, tend generally to
+clarify the aspect of particular operations. A broad general view of
+Nature also leads to the appreciation of the full significance of the
+great doctrines of the conservation of matter and energy. By its means
+the complete verification of these doctrines, which appears to be beyond
+human experiment, may be traced on the face of Nature throughout the
+endless chain of natural processes. Such a view also leads to a firm
+grasp of the essential nature and qualities of energy itself so far as
+they are revealed by its general function in phenomena.
+
+
+2. _Separate Mass in Space_
+
+In the scheme now to be outlined, matter and energy are postulated at
+the commencement without reference to their ultimate origin or inherent
+nature. They are accepted, in their diverse forms, precisely as they are
+familiar from ordinary terrestrial experience and phenomena.
+
+For the purpose of general illustration the reader is asked to conceive
+a mass of heterogeneous matter, concentrated round a given point in
+space, forming a single body. This mass is assumed to be assembled and
+to obtain its coherent form in virtue of that universal and inherent
+property of matter, namely, gravitative or central attraction. This
+property is independent of precise energy conditions, its outward
+manifestation being found simply in the persistent tendency of matter on
+all occasions to press or force itself into the least possible space. In
+the absence of all disturbing influences, therefore, the configuration
+of this mass of matter, assumed assembled round the given point, would
+naturally, under the influence of this gravitative tendency, resolve
+itself into that of a perfect sphere. The precise magnitude or
+dimensions of the spherical body thus constituted are of little moment
+in the discussion, but, for illustrative purposes, it may, in the
+meantime, be assumed that in mass it is equivalent to our known solar
+system. It is also assumed to be completely devoid of energy, and as a
+mass to be under the influence of no external constraint. Under these
+conditions, the spherical body may obviously be assumed as stationary in
+space, or otherwise as moving with perfectly uniform velocity along a
+precisely linear path. Either conception is justifiable. The body has no
+relative motion, and since it is absolutely unconstrained no force could
+be applied to it and no energy expenditure would be required for its
+linear movement.
+
+
+3. _Advent of Energy--Distortional Effects_
+
+Nature, however, does not furnish us with any celestial or other body
+fulfilling such conditions. Absolutely linear motion is unknown, and
+matter is never found divorced from energy. To complete the system,
+therefore, the latter factor is required, and, with the advent of energy
+to the mass, its prototype may be found in the natural world.
+
+This energy is assumed to be communicated in that form which we shall
+term "work" energy (§§ 13, 31) and which, as a form of energy, will be
+fully dealt with later. This "work" energy is assumed to be manifested,
+in the first place, as energy of motion. As already pointed out, no
+expenditure of energy can be associated with a linear motion of the
+mass, since that motion is under no restraint, but in virtue of the
+initial central attraction or gravitative strain, the form of energy
+first communicated may be that of kinetic energy of rotation. Its
+transmission to the mass will cause the latter to revolve about some
+axis of symmetry within itself. Each particle of the mass thus pursues a
+circular path with reference to that axis, and has a velocity directly
+proportional to its radial displacement from it.
+
+This energised rotating spherical mass is thus the primal conception of
+the energy scheme now to be outlined. It will be readily seen that, as a
+primal conception, it is essentially and entirely natural; so much so,
+indeed, that any one familiar with rotatory motion might readily predict
+from ordinary experience the resulting phenomena on which the scheme is,
+more or less, based.
+
+When energy is applied to the mass, the first phenomenon of note will be
+that, as the mass rotates, it departs from its originally spherical
+shape. By the action of what is usually termed centrifugal force, the
+rotating body will be distorted; it will be flattened at the polar or
+regions of lowest velocity situated at the extremities of the axis of
+rotation, and it will be correspondingly distended at the equatorial or
+regions of highest velocity. The spherical body will, in fact, assume a
+more or less discoidal form according to the amount of energy applied to
+it; there will be a redistribution of the original spherical matter;
+certain portions of the mass will be forced into new positions more
+remote from the central axis of rotation.
+
+
+4. _The Gravitation Field_
+
+These phenomena of motion are the outward evidence of certain energy
+processes. The distortional movement of the material is carried out
+against the action and within the field of certain forces which exist in
+the mass of material in virtue of its gravitative or cohesive qualities.
+It is carried out also in virtue of the application of energy to the
+sphere, which energy has been, as it were, transformed or worked down,
+in the distortional movement, against the restraining action of this
+gravitation field or influence. The outward displacement of the material
+from the central axis is thus coincident with a gain of energy to the
+mass, this gain of energy being, of course, at the expense of, and by
+the direct transformation of, the originally applied energy. It is
+stored in the distorted material as energy of position, potential
+energy, or energy of displacement relative to the central axis. But, in
+the distortive movement, the mass will also gain energy in other forms.
+The movement of one portion of its material relative to another will
+give rise (since it is carried out under the gravitational influence) to
+a fractional process in which, as we know from terrestrial experience,
+heat and electrical energy will make their appearance. These forms of
+energy will give rise, in their turn, to all the phenomena usually
+attendant on their application to material. As already pointed out also,
+the whole mass gains, in varying degree, energy of motion or kinetic
+energy. It would appear, then, that although energy was nominally
+applied to the mass in one form only, yet by its characteristic property
+of transformation it has in reality manifested itself in several
+entirely different forms. It is important to note the part played in
+these transformation processes by the gravitation field or influence.
+Its action really reveals one of the vital working principles of
+energetics. This principle may be generally stated thus:--
+
+     EVERY TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY IS CARRIED OUT BY THE ACTION OF
+     ENERGISED MATTER IN THE LINES OR FIELD OF AN INCEPTING ENERGY
+     INFLUENCE.
+
+In the particular case we have just considered, the incepting field is
+simply the inherent gravitative property of the energised mass. This
+property is manifested as an attractive force between portions of
+matter. This, however, is not of necessity the only aspect of an
+incepting influence. In the course of this work various instances of
+transformation will be presented in which the incepting influence
+functions in a guise entirely different. It is important to note that
+the incepting influence itself is in no way changed, altered, or
+transformed during the process of transformation which it influences.
+
+
+5. _Limits of Rotational Energy. Disruptional Phenomena_
+
+It is clear that the material at different parts of the rotating
+spheroid will be energised to varying degrees. Since the linear velocity
+of the material in the equatorial regions of the spheroid is greater
+than that of the material about the poles, the energy of motion of the
+former will exceed that of the latter, the difference becoming greater
+as the mass is increasingly energised and assumes more and more the
+discoidal form.
+
+The question now arises as to how far this process of energising the
+material mass may be carried. What are its limits? The capacity of the
+rotating body for energy clearly depends on the amount of work which
+may be spent on its material in distorting it against the influence of
+the gravitative attraction. The amount is again dependent on the
+strength of this attraction. But the value of the gravitative attraction
+or gravitation field is, by the law of gravitation, in direct proportion
+to the quantity of material or matter present, and hence the capacity of
+the body for energy depends on its mass or on the quantity of matter
+which composes it.
+
+Now if energy be impressed on this mass beyond its capacity a new order
+of phenomena appears. Distortion will be followed by disruption and
+disintegration. By the action of the disruptive forces a portion of the
+primary material will be projected into space as a planetary body. The
+manner of formation of such a secondary body is perhaps best illustrated
+by reference to the commonplace yet beautiful and suggestive phenomenon
+of the separation of a drop of water or other viscous fluid under the
+action of gravitation. In this process, during the first downward
+movement of the drop, it is united to its source by a portion of
+attenuated material which is finally ruptured, one part moving downwards
+and being embodied in the drop whilst the remainder springs upwards
+towards the source. In the process of formation of the planetary body we
+are confronted with an order of phenomena of somewhat the same nature.
+The planetary orb which is hurled into space is formed in a manner
+similar to the drop of viscous fluid, and under the action of forces of
+the same general nature. One of these forces is the bond of gravitative
+attraction between planet and primary which is never severed, and when
+complete separation of the two masses finally occurs, the incessant
+combination of this force with the tangential force of disruption acting
+on the planet will compel it into a fixed orbit, which it will pursue
+around the central axis. When all material links have thus been severed,
+the two bodies will then be absolutely separate masses in space. The
+term "separate" is here used in its most rigid and absolute sense. No
+material connection of any kind whatever exists, either directly or
+indirectly, between the two masses. Each one is completely isolated from
+the other by interplanetary space, and in reality, so far as material
+connection is concerned, each one might be the sole occupant of that
+space. This conception of separate masses in space is of great
+importance to the author's scheme, but, at the same time, the condition
+is one which cannot be illustrated by any terrestrial experimental
+contrivance. It will be obvious that such a device, as might naturally
+be conceived, of isolating two bodies by placing them in an exhausted
+vessel or vacuous space, by no means complies with the full conditions
+of true separation portrayed above, because some material connection
+must always exist between the enclosed bodies and the containing
+vessel. This aspect is more fully treated later (§ 30). The condition of
+truly separate masses is, in fact, purely a celestial one. No means
+whatever are existent whereby such a condition may be faithfully
+reproduced in a terrestrial environment.
+
+In their separate condition the primary and planetary mass will each
+possess a definite and unvarying amount of energy. It is to be noted
+also, that since the original mass of the primary body has been
+diminished by the mass of the planet cast off, the capacity for energy
+of the primary will now be diminished in a corresponding degree. Any
+further increment of energy to the primary in any form has now, however,
+no direct influence on the energy of the planet, which must maintain its
+position of complete isolation in its orbit. But although thus separate
+and distinct from the primal mass in every material respect, the planet
+is ever linked to it by the invisible bond of gravitation, and every
+movement made by the planet in approaching or receding from the primary
+is made in the field or influence of this attraction. In accordance,
+therefore, with the general principle already enunciated (§ 4), these
+actions or movements of the energised planetary mass, being made in the
+field of the incepting gravitative influence, will be accompanied by
+transformations, and thus the energy of the planet, although unvarying
+in its totality, may vary in its form or distribution with the inward or
+outward movement of the planet in its orbital path. As the planet
+recedes from the primary it gains energy of position, but this gain is
+obtained solely at the expense, and by the direct transformation of its
+own orbital energy of motion. Its velocity in its orbit must, therefore,
+decrease as it recedes from the central axis of the system, and increase
+as it approaches that axis. Thus from energy considerations alone it is
+clear that, if the planetary orbit is not precisely circular, the
+velocity of the planet must vary at different points of its path.
+
+
+6. _Passive Function and General Nature of Gravitation Field_
+
+From the phenomena described above, it will be observed that, in the
+energy processes of transformation occurring in both primary and planet,
+the function of the gravitation field or influence is entirely passive
+in nature. The field is, in truth, the persistent moving or directing
+power behind the energy processes, the incepting energy influence or
+agency which determines the nature of the transformation in each case
+without being, in any way, actively engaged in it. In accelerating or
+retarding the transformation process it has thus absolutely no effect.
+These features are controlled by other factors. Neither does this
+incepting agency affect, in any way, the limits of the transformation
+process, these limits being prescribed by the physical or energy
+qualities of the acting materials. In general nature the gravitation
+field appears to be simply an energy influence--a peculiar manifestation
+of certain passive qualities of energy. This aspect will, however,
+become clearer to the reader when the properties of gravitation are
+studied in conjunction with those of other incepting energy influences
+(§§ 17, 18, 19).
+
+
+7. _Limit of Gravitation Transformation_
+
+In the case of a planetary body, there is a real limit to the extent of
+the transformation of its orbital energy of motion under the influence
+of the gravitation field. As the orbit of the planet widens, and its
+mean distance from the primary becomes greater, its velocity in its
+orbital path must correspondingly decrease. As already pointed out (§
+5), this decrease is simply the result of the orbital energy of motion
+being transformed or worked down into energy of position. But since this
+orbital energy is strictly limited in amount, a point must ultimately be
+reached where it would be transformed in its entirety into energy of
+position. When this limiting condition is attained, the planet clearly
+could have no orbital motion; it would be instantaneously at rest in
+somewhat the same way as a projectile from the earth's surface is at
+rest at the summit of its flight in virtue of the complete
+transformation of its energy of motion into energy of position. In this
+limiting condition, also, the energy of position of the planet would be
+the maximum possible, and its orbital energy zero. The scope of the
+planetary orbital path is thus rigidly determined by the planetary
+energy properties. Assuming the reduction of gravity with distance to
+follow the usual law of inverse squares, the value of the displacement
+of the planet from the central axis when in this stationary or limiting
+position may be readily calculated if the various constants are known.
+In any given case it is obvious that this limiting displacement must be
+a finite quantity, since the planetary orbital energy which is being
+worked down is itself finite in amount.
+
+
+8. _Interactions of Two Planetary Bodies--Equilibrium Phenomena_
+
+Up to the present point, the cosmical system has been assumed to be
+composed of one planetary body only in addition to the primary mass. It
+is clear, however, that by repetition of the process already described,
+the system could readily evolve more than one planet; it might, in fact,
+have several planetary masses originating in the same primary, each
+endowed with a definite modicum of energy, and each pursuing a
+persistent orbit round the central axis of the system. Since the mass of
+the primary decreases as each successive planet is cast off, its
+gravitative attractive powers will also decrease, and with every such
+decline in the central restraining force the orbits of the previously
+constituted planets will naturally widen. By the formation in this way
+of a series of planetary masses, the material of the original primary
+body would be as it were distributed over a larger area or space, and
+this separation would be accompanied by a corresponding decrease in the
+gravitative attraction between the several masses. If the distributive
+or disruptive process were carried to its limit by the continuous
+application of rotatory energy to each separate unit of the system, this
+limit would be dependent on the capacity of the system for energy. As is
+shown later (§ 20), this capacity would be determined by the mass of the
+system.
+
+For simplicity, let us consider the case in which there are two
+planetary bodies only in the system in addition to the primary. In
+virtue of the gravitative attraction or gravitation field between the
+two, they will mutually attract one another in their motion, and each
+will, in consequence, be deflected more or less out of that orbital path
+which it would normally pursue in the absence of the other. This
+attraction will naturally be greatest when the planets are in the
+closest proximity; the planet having the widest orbit will then be drawn
+inwards towards the central axis, the other will be drawn outwards. The
+distance moved in this way by each will depend on its mass, and on the
+forces brought to bear on it by the combined action of the two remaining
+masses of the system. Moving thus in different directions, the motion of
+each planet is carried out in the lines of the gravitation field between
+the two. One planet, therefore, gains and the other loses energy of
+position with respect to the central axis of the system. The one planet
+can thus influence, to some extent, the energy properties of the other,
+although there is absolutely no direct energy communication between the
+two; as shown hereafter, the whole action and the energy change will be
+due simply to the motion carried out in the field of the incepting
+gravitation influence.
+
+It is clear, however, that this influence is exerted on the distribution
+of the energy, on the form in which it is manifested, and in no way
+affects the energy totality of either planet. Each, as before, remains a
+separate system with conservative energy properties. That planet which
+loses energy of position gains energy of motion, and is correspondingly
+accelerated in its orbital path; the other, in gaining energy of
+position, does so at the expense of its own energy of motion, and is
+retarded accordingly. The action is really very simple in nature when
+viewed from a purely energy standpoint. It has been dealt with in some
+detail in order to emphasise the fact that there is absolutely nothing
+in the nature of a transmission of energy between one planet and the
+other. Taking a superficial view of the operation, it might be inferred
+that, as the planets approach one another, energy of motion (or energy
+of position) is transmitted from one to the other, causing one to retard
+and the other to accelerate its movement, but a real knowledge of the
+energy conditions shows that the phenomenon is rather one of a simple
+restoration of equilibrium, a redistribution or transformation of the
+intrinsic energy of each to suit these altering conditions. Each planet
+is, in the truest sense, a separate mass in space.
+
+
+9. _Axial Energy--Secondary Processes_
+
+Passing now to another aspect of the energy condition of a planetary
+body, let the planet be assumed to be endowed with axial energy or
+energy of rotation, so that, while pursuing its orbital path in space,
+it also rotates with uniform angular velocity about an axis within
+itself. What will be the effect of the primary mass on the planet under
+these new energy conditions? We conceive that the effect is again purely
+one of transformation. In this process the primary mass functions once
+more as an entirely passive or incepting agent, which, while exerting a
+continuous transforming influence on the planet, does not affect in any
+way the inherent energy properties of the latter. Up to the present
+point we have only dealt with one incepting influence in transformation
+processes, namely, that of gravitation, which has always been
+manifested as an attractive force. It is not to be supposed, however,
+that this is the only aspect in which incepting influences may be
+presented. Although attractive force is certainly an aspect of some
+incepting influences, it is not a distinctive feature of incepting
+influences generally. In many cases, the aspect of force, in the sense
+of attraction or repulsion, is entirely awanting. In the new order of
+transformations which come into play in virtue of the rotatory motion of
+a planetary mass in the field of its primary, we shall find other
+incepting influences in action entirely different in nature from the
+gravitation influence, but, nevertheless, arising from the same primary
+mass in a similar way. Now the application of energy to the planet,
+causing it to rotate in the lines or under the influence of these
+incepting fields of the primary, brings into existence on the planet an
+entirely new order of phenomena. So long as the planet had no axial
+motion of rotation, some of the incepting influences of the primary were
+compelled, as it were, to inaction; but with the advent of axial energy
+the conditions are at once favourable to their action, and to the
+detection of their transforming effects. In accordance with the general
+principle already enunciated (§ 4), the action of the planetary
+energised material in the lines of the various incepting fields of the
+primary is productive of energy transformations. The active energy of
+these transformations is the axial or rotatory energy of the planet
+itself, and, in virtue of these transformations, certain other forms of
+energy will be manifested on the planet and associated with the various
+forms of planetary material. These manifestations of energy, in fact,
+constitute planetary phenomena. Since the action or movement of the
+rotating material of the planet through the incepting fields of the
+primary is most pronounced in the equatorial or regions of highest
+linear velocity, and least in the regions of low velocity adjoining the
+poles of rotation, the transforming effect may naturally be expected to
+decrease in intensity from equator to poles. Planetary energy phenomena
+will thus vary according to the location of the acting material. It will
+be clear, also, that each incepting agency or influence associated with
+the primary mass will give rise to its own peculiar transformations of
+axial energy on the planetary surface. These leading or primary
+transformations of axial energy, in which the incepting influence is
+associated with the primary mass only, we term primary processes. But it
+is evident that the various forms of energy thus set free on the planet
+as a result of the primary processes will be communicated to, and will
+operate on, the different forms of planetary material, and will give
+rise to further or secondary transformations of energy, in which the
+incepting agency is embodied in or associated with planetary material
+only. The exact nature of these secondary transformations will vary
+according to the circumstances in which they take place. Each of them,
+however, as indicated above, will be, in itself, carried out in virtue
+of some action of the energised planetary material in the lines or field
+of what we might term a secondary incepting influence. The latter,
+however, must not be confused with the influences of the primary. It is
+essentially a planetary phenomenon, an aspect of planetary energy; it is
+associated with the physical or material machine by means of which the
+secondary process of transformation is carried out. The nature of this
+secondary influence will determine the nature of the secondary
+transformation in each case. Its precise extent may be limited by other
+considerations (§ 15).
+
+As an example, assume a portion of the axial energy to be primarily
+transformed into heat in virtue of the planet's rotation in the field of
+an independent thermal incepting influence exerted by the primary. To
+the action of this agency, which we might term the thermal field, we
+assume are due all primary heating phenomena of planetary material. Now
+the secondary transformations will take place when the heat energy thus
+manifested is applied to some form of matter. It is obvious, however,
+that this application might be carried out in various ways. Heat may be
+devoted to the expansion of a solid against its cohesive forces. It may
+be expended against the elastic forces of a gas, or it may be worked
+down against chemical or electrical forces. In every case a
+transformation of energy will result, varying in nature according to the
+peculiar conditions under which it is carried out. In this or a similar
+fashion each primary incepting influence may give rise to a series of
+secondary actions more or less complex in nature. These secondary
+transformation processes, allied with other processes of transmission,
+will, in fact, constitute the visible phenomena of the planet, and in
+their variety will exactly correspond to these phenomena.
+
+With regard to the gravitation field, its general influence on the
+rotating mass may be readily predicted. The material on that part of the
+planetary surface which is nearest to or happens to face the primary in
+rotation is, during the short time it occupies that position, subjected
+to a greater attractive influence than the remainder which is more
+remote from the primary. It will, in consequence, tend to be more or
+less distorted or elevated above its normal position on the planetary
+surface. This distorting effect will vary in degree according to the
+nature of the material, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, but the
+general effect of the distortional movement, combined with the rotatory
+motion of the planet, will be to produce a tidal action or a periodical
+rise and fall of the more fluid material distributed over the planetary
+surface. The distortion will, of course, be accompanied by energy
+processes in which axial energy will be transformed into heat and other
+forms, which will finally operate in the secondary processes exactly as
+in previous cases.
+
+
+10. _Mechanism of Energy Return_
+
+But the question now arises, as to how this continuous transformation of
+the axial energy can be consistent with that condition of uniformity of
+rotation of the planet which was originally assumed. If the total energy
+of the planetary mass is limited, and if it can receive no increment of
+energy from any external source, it is clear that the axial energy
+transformed must, by some process, be continuously returned to its
+original form. Some process or mechanism is evidently necessary to carry
+out this operation. This mechanism we conceive to be provided by certain
+portions of the material of the planet, principally the gaseous matter
+which resides on its surface, completely enveloping it, and extending
+outwards into space (§ 38). In other words, the atmosphere of the planet
+forms the machine or material agency by which this return of the
+transformed axial energy is carried out. It has already been pointed out
+(§ 9) how the working energy of every secondary transformation is
+derived from the original axial energy of the planet itself. Each of
+these secondary transformations, however, forms but one link of one
+cyclical chain of secondary transformations, in which a definite
+quantity of energy, initially in the axial form, passes, in these
+secondary operations, through various other forms, by different
+processes and through the medium of different material machines, until
+it is eventually absorbed into the atmosphere of the planet. These
+complete series of cyclical operations, by which the various portions of
+axial energy are carried to the atmosphere, may in some cases be of a
+very simple nature, and may be continuously repeated over very short
+intervals of time; in other cases, the cycle may seem obscure and
+complicated, and its complete operation spread over very long periods,
+but in all cases the final result is the same. The axial energy
+abstracted, sooner or later, recurs to the atmospheric machine. By its
+action in this machine, great masses of gaseous material are elevated
+from the surface of the planet against the attractive force of
+gravitation; the energy will thus now appear in the form of potential
+energy or energy of position. By a subsequent movement of these gaseous
+masses over the surface of the planet from the regions of high velocity
+towards the poles, combined with a movement of descent to lower levels,
+the energy of position with which they were endowed is returned once
+more in the original axial form.
+
+This, roughly, constitutes the working of the planetary atmospheric
+machine, which, while in itself completely reversible and
+self-contained, forms also at the same time the source and the sink of
+all the energy working in the secondary transformations. In the
+ceaseless rounds of these transformations which form planetary phenomena
+it links together the initial and concluding stages of each series by a
+reversible process. Energy is thus stored and restored continuously. The
+planet thus neither gains nor loses energy of axial motion; so far as
+its energy properties are concerned, it is entirely independent of every
+external influence. Its uniformity of rotation is absolutely maintained.
+Each planet of the system will, in the same way, be an independent and
+conservative unit.
+
+
+11. _Review of Cosmical System--General Function of Energy_
+
+Reviewing the system as a whole, the important part played by energy in
+its constitution is readily perceived. The source of the energy which
+operates in all parts of the system is found in that energy originally
+applied (§ 3). When the system is finally constituted, this energy is
+found distributed amongst the planets, each of which has received its
+share, and each of which is thereby linked to the primary by its
+influence. It is part of this same energy which undergoes transformation
+in virtue of the orbital movements of the planets in the field of the
+gravitative influence. Again, it is found in the form of planetary
+axial energy, and thence, under the influence of various incepting
+agencies, it passes in various forms through the whole gamut of
+planetary phenomena, and finally functions in the atmospheric machine.
+Every phenomenon of the system, great or small, is, in fact, but the
+external evidence either of the transformation or of the transmission of
+this energy--the outward manifestation of its changed or changing forms.
+Its presence, which always implies its transformation (§ 4), is the
+simple primary condition attached to every operation. The primal mass
+originally responded to the application of energy by the presentation of
+phenomena. Every material portion of the system will similarly respond
+according to circumstances. Energy is, in fact, the working spirit of
+the whole cosmical scheme. It is the influence linking every operation
+of the system to the original transformations at the central axis, so
+that all may be combined into one complete and consistent whole. It is
+to be noted, however, that although they have a common origin the
+orbital energy of each planetary mass is entirely distinct from its
+energy of axial rotation, and is not interchangeable therewith. The
+transformation of the one form of energy in no way affects the totality
+of the other.
+
+The disruption of the primary mass furnishes a view of what is virtually
+the birth of gravitation as it is conceived to exist between separate
+bodies. It may now be pointed out that the attractive influence of
+gravitation is, in reality, but one of the many manifestations of energy
+of the system. It is not, however, an active manifestation of the
+working energy, but rather an aspect of energy as it is related to the
+properties of matter. We have absolutely no experimental experience of
+matter devoid of energy. Gravitation might readily be termed an energy
+property of matter, entirely passive in nature, and requiring the advent
+of some other form in order that it may exercise its function as an
+incepting agency.
+
+From a general consideration of the features of this system, in which
+every phenomenon is an energy phenomenon, it seems feasible to conclude
+also that every property of matter is likewise an energy property. It is
+certain, indeed, that no reasonable or natural concept of either matter
+or energy is possible if the two be dissociated. The system also
+presents a direct and clear illustration of the principles of
+conservation in the working of the whole, and also in each planetary
+unit.
+
+
+12. _Natural Conditions_
+
+It will be noted that, up to the present point, the cosmical system has
+been discussed from a purely abstract point of view. This method has
+been adopted for a definite reason. Although able, at all points, to
+bring more or less direct evidence from Nature, the author has no desire
+that his scheme should be regarded in any way as an attempt to originate
+or describe a system of creation. The object has been, by general
+reasoning from already accepted properties of matter and energy, to
+arrive at a true conception of a possible natural order of phenomena. It
+is obvious, however, that the solar system forms the prototype of the
+system described above. The motion of the earth and other planets is
+continuously occurring under the influence of gravitation, thermal,
+luminous, and other incepting fields which link them to the central
+mass, the sun. As a result of the action of such fields, energy
+transformations arise which form the visible phenomena of the system in
+all its parts, each transformation, whether associated with animate or
+inanimate matter, being carried out through the medium of some
+arrangement of matter hereafter referred to as a material machine. The
+conditions are precisely as laid down above. The system is dominated, in
+its separate units, and as a whole, by the great principle of the
+conservation of energy. Each planetary mass, as it revolves in space,
+is, so far as its energy properties are concerned, an absolutely
+conservative unit of that system. At the same time, however, each
+planetary mass remains absolutely dependent on the primary for those
+great controlling or incepting influences which determine the
+transformation of its inherent energy.
+
+In the special case of the earth, which will be dealt with in some
+detail, it is the object of this work to show that its property of
+complete energy conservation is amply verified by terrestrial phenomena.
+The extension of the principle from the earth to the whole planetary
+system has been made on precisely the same grounds as Newton extended
+the observed phenomena to his famous generalisation with respect to
+gravitation.
+
+
+
+
+PART II
+
+PRINCIPLES OF INCEPTION
+
+
+13. _Illustrative Secondary Processes_
+
+In this part of the work, an attempt will be made to place before the
+reader some of the purely terrestrial and other evidential phenomena on
+which the conclusions of the preceding General Statement are founded.
+The complete and absolute verification of that Statement is obviously
+beyond experimental device. Bound, as we are, within the confines of one
+planet, and unable to communicate with the others, we can have no direct
+experimental acquaintance with really separate bodies (§ 5) in space.
+But, if from purely terrestrial experience we can have no direct proofs
+on such matters, we have strong evidential conclusions which cannot be
+gainsayed. If the same kind of energy operates throughout the solar
+system, the experimental knowledge of its properties gained in one field
+of research is valuable, and may be readily utilised in another. The
+phenomena which are available to us for study are, of course, simply the
+ordinary energy processes of the earth--those operations which in the
+foregoing Statement have been described as secondary energy processes.
+Their variety is infinite, and the author has accordingly selected
+merely a few typical examples to illustrate the salient points of the
+scheme. The energy acting in these secondary processes is, in every
+case, derived, either directly or indirectly, from the energy of
+rotation or axial energy of the earth. In themselves, the processes may
+be either energy transformations or energy transmissions or a
+combination of both these operations. When the action involves the
+bodily movement of material mass in space, the dynamical energy thus
+manifested, and which may be transmitted by the movement of this
+material, is termed mechanical or "work" energy (§ 31); when the energy
+active in the process is manifested as heat, chemical, or electrical
+energy, we apply to it the term "molecular" energy. The significance of
+these terms is readily seen. The operation of mechanical or "work"
+energy on a mass of material may readily proceed without any permanent
+alteration in the internal arrangement or general structure of that
+mass. Mechanical or "work" energy is dissociated from any molecular
+action. On the other hand, the application of such forms of energy as
+heat or electrical energy to material leads to distinctly molecular or
+internal effects, in which some alteration in the constitution of the
+body affected may ensue. Hence the use of the terms, which of course is
+completely arbitrary.
+
+The principal object of this part of the work is to illustrate clearly
+the general nature, the working, and the limits of secondary processes.
+For this purpose, the author has found it best to refer to certain more
+or less mechanical contrivances. The apparatus made use of is merely
+that utilised in everyday work for experimental or other useful
+purposes. It is essentially of a very simple nature; no originality is
+claimed for it, and no apology is offered for the apparent simplicity of
+the particular energy operations chosen for discussion. In fact, this
+feature has rather led to their selection. In scientific circles to-day,
+familiarity with the more common instances of energy operations is apt
+to engender the belief that these processes are completely understood.
+There is no greater fallacy. In many cases, no doubt, the superficial
+phenomena are well known, but in even the simplest instances the
+mechanism or ultimate nature of the process remains unknown. A free and
+somewhat loose method of applying scientific terms is frequently the
+cloak which hides the ignorance of the observer. No attempt will here be
+made to go beyond the simple phenomena. The object in view is simply to
+describe such phenomena, to emphasise and explain certain aspects of
+already well-known facts, which, up to the present, have been neglected.
+
+In some of the operations now to be described, mechanical or "work"
+energy is the active agent, and material masses are thereby caused to
+execute various movements in the lines or field of restraining
+influences. For ordinary experimental convenience, the material thus
+moved must of necessity be matter in the solid form. The illustrative
+value of our experimental devices, however, will be very distinctly
+improved if it be borne in mind that the operations of mechanical energy
+are not restricted to solids only, but that the various processes of
+transformation and transmission here illustrated by the motions of solid
+bodies may, in other circumstances, be carried out in a precisely
+similar fashion by the movements of liquids or even of gases. The
+restrictions imposed in the method of illustration are simply those due
+to the limitations of human experimental contrivance. Natural operations
+exhibit apparatus of a different type. By the movements of solid
+materials a convenient means of illustration is provided, but it is to
+be emphasised that, so far as the operations of mechanical energy are
+concerned, the precise form or nature of the material moved, whether it
+be solid, liquid, or gaseous, is of no consequence. To raise one pound
+of lead through a given distance against the gravitative attraction of
+the earth requires no greater expenditure of energy than to raise one
+pound of hydrogen gas through the same distance. The same principle
+holds in all operations involving mechanical energy.
+
+Another point of some importance which will be revealed by the study of
+secondary operations is that every energy process has in some manner
+definite energy limits imposed upon it. In the workings of mechanical or
+"work" energy it is the mass value of the moving material which, in this
+respect, is important. The mass, in fact, is the real governing factor
+of the whole process (§ 20). It determines the maximum amount of energy
+which can be applied to the material, and thus controls the extent of
+the energy operation.
+
+But in actions involving the molecular energies, the operation may be
+limited by other considerations altogether. For example, the application
+of heat to a solid body gives rise to certain energy processes (§ 27).
+These processes may proceed to a certain degree with increase of
+temperature, but a point will finally be attained where change of state
+of the heated material takes place. This is the limiting point of this
+particular operation. When change of state occurs, the phenomena will
+assume an entirely different aspect. The first set of energy processes
+will now be replaced by a set of operations absolutely different in
+nature, themselves limited in extent, but by entirely different causes.
+The first operation must thus terminate when the new order appears. In
+this manner each process in which the applied energy is worked will be
+confined within certain limiting boundaries. In any chain of energy
+operations each link will thus have, as it were, a definite length. In
+chemical reactions, the limits may be imposed in various ways according
+to the precise nature of the action. Chemical combination, and chemical
+disruption, must be looked on as operations which involve not only the
+transformation of energy but also the transformation of matter. In most
+cases, chemical reactions result in the appearance of matter in an
+entirely new form--in the appearance, in fact, of actually different
+material, with physical and energy properties absolutely distinct from
+those of the reacting constituents. This appearance of matter in the new
+form is usually the evidence of the termination, not only of the
+particular chemical process, but also of the energy process associated
+with it. Transformation of energy may thus be limited by transformation
+of matter.
+
+Examples of the limiting features of energy operations could readily be
+multiplied. Even a cursory examination of most natural operations will
+reveal the existence of such limits. In no case do we find in Nature any
+body, or any energy system, to which energy may be applied in unlimited
+amount, but in every case, rigid energy limits are imposed, and, if
+these limits are exceeded, the whole energy character of the body or
+system is completely changed.
+
+
+14. _Incepting Energy Influences_
+
+In experimental and in physical work generally, it has been customary,
+in describing any simple process of energy transformation, to take
+account only of those energies or those forms of energy which play an
+active part in the process--the energy in its initial or applied form
+and the energy in its transformed or final form. This method, however,
+requires enlarging so as to include another feature of energy
+transformation, a feature hitherto completely overlooked, namely, that
+of incepting energy. Now, this conception of incepting energy, or of
+energy as an incepting influence, is of such vital importance to the
+author's scheme, that it is necessary here, at the very outset, to deal
+with it in some detail. To obtain some idea of the general nature of
+these influences, it will be necessary to describe and review a few
+simple instances of energy transformation. One of the most illuminating
+for this purpose is perhaps the familiar process of dynamo-electric
+transformation.
+
+A spherical mass A (Fig. 1) of copper is caused to rotate about its
+central axis in the magnetic field in the neighbourhood of a long and
+powerful electro-magnet. In such circumstances, certain well-known
+transformations of energy will take place. The energy transformed is
+that dynamical or "work" energy which is being applied to the spherical
+mass by the external prime mover causing it to rotate. As a result of
+this motion in the magnetic field, an electrical action takes place;
+eddy currents are generated in the spherical mass, and the energy
+originally applied is, through the medium of the electrical process,
+finally converted into heat and other energy forms. The external
+evidence of the process will be the rise in temperature and
+corresponding expansion of the rotating mass.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1]
+
+Such is the energy transformation. Let us now review the conditions
+under which it takes place. Passing over the features of the "work"
+energy applied and the energy produced in the transformation, it is
+evident that the primary and essential condition of the whole process is
+the presence of the magnetic field. In the absence of this influence,
+every other condition of this particular energy operation might have
+been fulfilled without result. The magnetic field is, in reality, the
+determining agency of the process. But this field of magnetic force is
+itself an energy influence. Its existence implies the presence of
+energy; it is the external manifestation of that energy (usually
+described as stored in the field) which is returned, as shown by the
+spark, when the exciting circuit of the electro-magnet is broken. The
+transformation of the dynamical or "work" energy (§ 31) applied to the
+rotating sphere is thus carried out by the direct agency, under the
+power, or within the field of this magnetic energy influence, to which,
+accordingly, we apply the expression, incepting energy influence, or
+incepting energy.
+
+There are several points to be noted with regard to these phenomena of
+inception. In the first place, it is clear that the energy which thus
+constitutes the magnetic field plays no active part in the main process
+of transformation: during the operation it neither varies in value nor
+in nature: it is entirely a passive agent. Neither is any continuous
+expenditure of energy required for the maintenance of this incepting
+influence. It is true that the magnetic field is primarily due to a
+circulatory current in the coils or winding of the electro-magnet, but
+after the initial expenditure of energy in establishing that field is
+incurred, the continuous expenditure of energy during the flow of the
+current is devoted to simply heating the coils. A continuous heat
+transformation is thus in progress. The magnetic energy influence,
+although closely associated with this heat transformation, yet
+represents in itself a distinct and separate energy feature. This last
+point is, perhaps, made more clear if it be assumed that, without
+altering the system in any way, the electro-magnet is replaced by a
+permanent magnet of precisely the same dimensions and magnetic power.
+There would then be no energy expenditure whatever for excitation, but
+nevertheless, the main transformation would take place in precisely the
+same manner and to exactly the same degree as before. The incepting
+energy influence is found in the residual magnetism.
+
+If an iron ball or sphere were substituted, in the experiment, for the
+copper one, the phenomena observed on its rotation would be of an
+exactly similar nature to those described above. There is, however, one
+point of difference. Since the iron is magnetic, the magnet pole will
+now exert an attractive force on the iron mass, and if the latter were
+in close proximity to the pole (Fig. 1), a considerable expenditure of
+energy might be required to separate the two. It is evident, then, that
+in the case of iron and the magnetic metals, this magnetic influence is
+such that an expenditure of energy is required, not only to cause these
+materials to move in rotation so as to cut the lines of the field of the
+magnetic influence, but also to cause them to move outwards from the
+seat of the influence _along_ the lines of the field. The movements,
+indeed, involve transformations of energy totally different in nature.
+Assuming the energy to be obtained, in both cases, from the same
+external source, it is, in the first instance, converted by rotatory
+motion in the field into electrical and heat energy, whereas, in the
+second case, by the outward motion of displacement from the pole, it is
+transformed and associated with the mass in the form of energy of
+position or energy of displacement relative to the pole. Since the
+attractive force between the iron mass and the pole may be assumed to
+diminish according to a well-known law, the energy transformation per
+unit displacement will also diminish at the same rate. The precise
+nature and extent of the influence of the incepting agent thus depend on
+the essential qualities of the energised material under its power. In
+this case, the magnetic metals, such as iron, provide phenomena of
+attraction which are notably absent in the case of the dia-magnetic
+metals such as copper. Other substances, such as wood, appear to be
+absolutely unaffected by any movement in the magnetic field. The precise
+energy condition of the materials in the field of the incepting
+influence is also an important point. The incepting energy might be
+regarded as acting, not on the material itself, but rather on the energy
+associated with that material. From the phenomena already considered, it
+is clear that before the incepting influence of magnetism can act on the
+copper ball, the latter must be endowed with energy of rotation. It is
+on this energy, then, that the incepting influence exerts its
+transforming power. It would be useless to energise the copper ball, say
+by raising it to a high temperature, and then place it at rest in the
+magnetic field; the magnetic energy influence would not operate on the
+heat energy, and consequently, no transformation would ensue.
+
+It is easy to conceive, also, that in the course of an energy
+transformation, the material may attain an energy condition in which the
+incepting influence no longer affects it. Take once more the case of the
+iron ball. It is well known that, at a high temperature, iron becomes
+non-magnetic. It would follow, then, that if the rotational
+transformation in the magnetic field could be carried out to the
+requisite degree, so that, by the continuous application of that heat
+energy which is the final product of the process, the ball had attained
+this temperature, then the other transformation consequent on the
+displacement of the ball from the attracting pole could not take place.
+No change has really occurred in the incepting energy conditions. They
+are still continuous and persistent, but the energy changes in the
+material itself have carried it, to a certain degree, beyond the
+influence of these conditions.
+
+
+15. _Cohesion as an Incepting Influence_
+
+Other aspects of incepting energy may be derived from the examples cited
+above. Returning to the case of the rotating copper sphere, let it be
+assumed that in consequence of its rotation in the magnetic field it is
+raised from a low to a high temperature. Due to the heating effect
+alone, the mass will expand or increase in volume. This increase is the
+evidence of a definite energy process by which certain particles or
+portions of the mass have in distortion gained energy of
+position--energy of separation--or potential energy relative to the
+centre of the sphere. In fact, if the mass were allowed to cool back to
+its normal condition, this energy might by a suitable arrangement be
+made available for some form of external work. It is obvious, however,
+that this new energy of position or separation which has accrued to the
+mass in its heated condition has in reality been obtained by the
+transformation of the "work" energy originally applied. The abnormal
+displacement of certain particles or portions of the mass from the
+centre of the sphere is simply the external evidence of their increased
+energy. Now this displacement, or strain, due to the heat expansion, is
+carried out against the action of certain cohesive forces or stresses
+existing between the particles throughout the mass. These cohesive
+forces are, in fact, the agency which determines this transformation of
+heat into energy of position. Their existence is essential to the
+process. But these cohesive forces are simply the external manifestation
+of that energy by virtue of which the mass tends to maintain its
+coherent form. They are the symbol of that energy which might be termed
+the cohesion energy of the mass--they are, in fact, the symbol of the
+incepting energy influence of the transformation. This incepting energy
+influence of cohesion is one which holds sway throughout all solid
+material. It is, therefore, found in action in every movement involving
+the internal displacement or distortion of matter. It is a property of
+matter, and accordingly it is found to vary not only with the material,
+but also with the precise physical condition or the energy state of the
+material with which it is associated. In this respect, it differs
+entirely from the preceding magnetic influence. The latter, we have
+seen, has no direct association with the copper ball, or with the
+material which is the actual venue of the transformation. As an energy
+influence, it is itself persistent, and unaffected by the energy state
+of that material. On the other hand, the cohesion energy, being purely a
+property of the material which is the habitat of the energy process, is
+directly affected by its energy state. This point will be clearer by
+reference to the actual phenomena of the heat transformation. As the
+process proceeds, the temperature of the mass as the expansion increases
+will rise higher and higher, until, at a certain point, the solid
+material is so energised that change of state ensues. At this, the
+melting-point of the material, liquefaction takes place, and its
+cohesive properties almost vanish. In this fashion, then, a limit is
+clearly imposed on the process of heat transformation in the solid
+body--a limit defined by the cohesive or physical properties of the
+particular material. In this limiting power lies the difference between
+cohesion and magnetism as incepting influences. Looking at the whole
+dynamo-electric transformation in a general way, it will be clear that
+the magnetic influence in no way limits or affects the amount of
+dynamical or "work" energy which may be applied to the rotating sphere.
+This amount is limited simply by the cohesive properties of the material
+mass in rotation. The magnetic influence might, in fact, be regarded as
+the primary or inducing factor in the system, and the cohesion influence
+as the secondary or limiting factor.
+
+
+16. _Terrestrial Gravitation as an Incepting Influence_
+
+The attractive influence of gravitation appears as an incepting agency
+in terrestrial as well as in celestial phenomena. In fact, of all the
+agencies which incept energy transformations on the earth, gravitation,
+in one form or another, is the most universal and the most important.
+Gravitation being a property of all matter, no mundane body, animate or
+inanimate, is exempt from its all-pervading influence, and every
+movement of energised matter within the field of that influence leads
+inevitably to energy transformation.
+
+Let us take a concrete illustration. A block of solid material is
+supported on a horizontal table. By means of a cord attached, energy is
+applied to the block from an external source, so that it slides over the
+surface of the table. As a result of this motion and the associated
+frictional process, heat energy will make its appearance at the sliding
+surfaces of contact. This heat energy is obviously obtained by the
+transformation of that energy originally applied to the block from the
+external source. What is the incepting influence in this process of
+transformation? The incepting influence is clearly the gravitative
+attraction of the earth operating between the moving block and the
+table. The frictional process, it is well known, is dependent in extent
+or degree on the pressure between the surfaces in contact. This pressure
+is, of course, due to the gravitative attraction of the earth on the
+mass of the block. If it be removed, say by supporting the block from
+above, the heat-transformation process at the surfaces at once
+terminates. Gravity, then, is the primary incepting influence of the
+process. The effect of gravitation in transformation has apparently been
+eliminated by supporting the block from above and removing the pressure
+between block and table. It is not really so, however, because the
+pressure due to the gravitative attraction of the earth on the block has
+in reality only been transferred to this new point of support, and if a
+movement of the block is carried out it will be found that the heat
+transformation has been also transferred to that point. But there are
+also other influences at work in the process. The extent of the heat
+transformation depends, not only on the pressure, but also on the nature
+of the surfaces in contact. It is evident, that in the sliding movement
+the materials in the neighbourhood of the surfaces in contact will be
+more or less strained or distorted. This distortion is carried out in
+the lines of the cohesive forces of the materials, and is the real
+mechanism of the transformation of the applied work energy into heat. It
+is obvious that the nature of the surfaces in contact must influence the
+degree of distortion, that is, whether they are rough or smooth; the
+cohesive qualities of the materials in contact will depend also on the
+nature of these materials, and the extent of the heat transformation
+will be limited by these cohesive properties in precisely the same way
+as described for other examples (§ 15). The function of gravitation in
+this transformation is, obviously, again quite passive in nature, and is
+in no way influenced by the extent of the process. Gravitation is, as it
+were, only the agency whereby the acting energy is brought into
+communication with the cohesive forces of the sliding materials.
+
+A little reflection will convey to the reader the vast extent of this
+influence of gravitation in frictional phenomena, and the important
+place occupied by such phenomena in the economy of Nature. From the
+leaf which falls from the tree to the mighty tidal motions of air,
+earth, and sea due to the gravitative effects of the sun and moon, all
+movements of terrestrial material are alike subject to the influence of
+terrestrial gravitation, and will give rise to corresponding heat
+processes. These heat processes are continually in evidence in natural
+phenomena; the effect of their action is seen alike on the earth's
+surface and in its interior (internal heating). Of the energy operating
+in them we do not propose to say anything further at this stage, except
+that it is largely communicated to the atmospheric air masses.
+
+
+17. _The Gravitation Field_
+
+The foregoing examples of transformation serve to place before the
+reader some idea of the general nature and function of an incepting
+energy influence. But for the broadest aspects of the latter agencies it
+is necessary to revert once more to celestial phenomena. As already
+indicated in the General Statement, the primary transformations of
+planetary axial energy are stimulated by certain agencies inherent to,
+and arising from, the central mass of the system. These energy agencies
+or effects operate through space, and are entirely passive in nature.
+They are in no way associated with energy transmission; they are merely
+the determining causes of the energy-transforming processes which they
+induce, and do not in the least affect the conservative energy
+properties of the planetary masses over which their influence is cast.
+Of the precise number and nature of such influences thus exerted by the
+primary mass we can say nothing. The energy transformations which are
+the direct result of their action are so extensive and so varied in
+character that we would hesitate to place any limit on the number of the
+influences at work. Some of these influences, however, being associated
+with the phenomena of everyday experience, are more readily detected in
+action than others and more accessible to study. It is to these that we
+naturally turn in order to gain general ideas for application to more
+obscure cases.
+
+Of the many incepting influences, therefore, which may emanate from the
+primary mass there are three only which will be dealt with here. Each
+exerts a profound action on the planetary system, and each may be
+readily studied and its working verified by the observation of common
+phenomena. These influences are respectively the gravitation, the
+thermal, and the luminous fields.
+
+The general nature and properties of the gravitation field have to some
+extent been already foreshadowed (§§ 4, 6, 16). Other examples will be
+dealt with later, and it is unnecessary to go into further detail here.
+The different aspects, however, in which the influence has been
+presented may be pointed out. Firstly, in the separate body in space, as
+an inherent property of matter (§ 2); secondly, as an attractive
+influence exerted across space between primary and planet, both
+absolutely separate bodies (§ 5); and thirdly, as a purely planetary or
+secondary incepting influence (§ 16). In every case alike we find its
+function to be of an entirely passive nature. Its most powerful effect
+on planetary material is perhaps manifested in the tidal actions (§ 9).
+With respect to these movements, it may be pointed out that the
+planetary material periodically raised from the surface is itself
+elevated against the inherent planetary gravitative forces, and also, to
+a certain extent, against the cohesive forces of planetary material.
+Each of these resisting influences functions as an incepting agency, and
+thus the elevation of the mass involves a transformation of energy (§
+4). The source of the energy thus transformed is the axial energy of the
+planet, and the new forms in which it is manifested are energy of
+position or potential energy relative to the planetary surface, and heat
+energy. On the return of the material to its normal position, its energy
+of position, due to its elevation, will be returned in its original form
+of axial energy. In the case of the heat transformation, however, it is
+to be noted that this process will take place both as the material is
+elevated and also as it sinks once more to its normal position. The
+heat transformation thus operates continuously throughout the entire
+movement. The upraising of the material in the tidal action is brought
+about entirely at the expense of inherent planetary axial energy. The
+gravitative and cohesive properties of the planetary material make such
+a transformation process possible. It is in virtue of these properties
+that energy may be applied to or expended on the material in this way.
+The tidal action on the planetary surface is, in fact, simply a huge
+secondary process in which axial energy is converted into heat. The
+primary incepting power is clearly gravitation.
+
+Of the aspect of gravitation as a purely planetary influence (§ 16)
+little requires to be said. The phenomena are so prominent and familiar
+that the reader may be left to multiply instances for himself.
+
+
+18. _The Thermal Field_
+
+The thermal field which is induced by and emanates from the primary mass
+differs from the gravitation field in that, so far as we know, it is
+unaccompanied by any manifestation of force, attractive or otherwise.
+Its action on the rotating planetary mass may be compared to that of the
+electro-magnet on the rotating copper sphere (§ 14); the electro-magnet
+exerts no force on the sphere, but an energy expenditure is,
+nevertheless, required to rotate the latter through the field of the
+magnetic influence.
+
+To this thermal field, then, in which the planets rotate, we ascribe all
+primary planetary heating phenomena. The mode of action of the thermal
+field appears to be similar to that of other incepting influences. By
+its agency the energy of axial rotation of planetary material is
+directly converted into the heat form. As already shown (§ 17), heat
+energy may be developed in planetary material as a result of the action
+of other incepting agencies, such as gravitation. These processes are,
+however, more or less indirect in nature. But the operation due to the
+thermal field is a direct one. The heat energy is derived from the
+direct transformation of planetary axial energy of rotation without
+passing through any intermediate forms. In common parlance, the thermal
+field is the agency whereby the primary mass heats the planetary system.
+No idea of transmission, however, is here implied in such phraseology;
+the heating effect produced on any planetary mass is entirely the result
+of the transformation of its own energy; the thermal field is purely and
+simply the incepting influence of the process. Now, in virtue of the
+configuration of the rotating planetary masses, their material in
+equatorial regions is much more highly energised than the material in
+the neighbourhood of the poles, and will, accordingly, move with much
+greater linear velocity through the thermal field. The heat
+transformation will vary accordingly. It will be much more pronounced at
+the equator than at the poles, and a wide difference in temperature will
+be maintained between the two regions. The thermal field, also, does not
+necessarily produce the same heating effect on all planetary material
+alike. Some materials appear to be peculiarly susceptible--others much
+less so. This we may verify from terrestrial experience. Investigation
+shows the opaque substances to be generally most susceptible, and the
+transparent materials, such as glass, rock-salt, tourmaline, &c. almost
+insusceptible, to the heating effect of the sun. The influence of the
+thermal field can, in fact, operate through the latter materials. A
+still more striking and important phenomenon may be observed in the
+varying action of the thermal field on matter in its different forms. It
+has been already pointed out that, in the course of transformation in
+the field of an incepting influence, a material may attain a certain
+energy state in which it is no longer susceptible to that influence.
+This has been exemplified in the case of the iron ball (§ 14) and a
+phenomenon of the same general nature is revealed in the celestial
+transformation. A piece of solid material of low melting-point is
+brought from the polar regions of the earth to the equator. Due to the
+more rapid movement across the sun's thermal field, and the consequent
+increased action of that field, a transformation of the axial energy of
+rotation of the body takes place, whereby it is heated and finally
+liquefied. In the liquid state the material is still susceptible to the
+thermal field, and the transformation process accordingly proceeds until
+the material finally assumes the gaseous form. At this point, however,
+it is found that the operation is suspended; the material, in assuming
+the gaseous state, has now attained a condition (§ 15) in which the
+thermal field has no further incepting or transforming influence upon
+it. No transformation of its axial energy into the heat form is now
+possible by this means; indeed, so far as the _direct_ heating effect of
+the sun is concerned, the free gaseous material on the planetary surface
+is entirely unaffected. All the evidence of Nature points to the
+conclusion that all gaseous material is absolutely transparent to the
+_direct_ thermal influence of the sun. Matter in the gaseous form
+reaches, as it were, an ultimate or limiting condition in this respect.
+This fact, that energised material in the gaseous form is not
+susceptible to the thermal field, is of very great importance in the
+general economy of Nature. It is, in reality, the means whereby the
+great primary process of the transformation of the axial energy of the
+earth into the heat form is limited in extent. As will be explained
+later, it is the device whereby the planetary energy stability is
+conserved. It will be apparent, of course, that heat energy may be
+readily applied to gaseous masses by other means, such as conduction or
+radiation from purely terrestrial sources. The point which we wish here
+to emphasise is, simply, that gaseous material endowed with axial energy
+on the planetary surface cannot have this axial energy directly
+transformed into heat through the instrumentality of the thermal field
+of the primary.
+
+
+19. _The Luminous Field_
+
+The planetary bodies are indebted to the primary mass not only for heat
+phenomena, but also for the phenomena of light. These light phenomena
+are due to a separate and distinct energy influence (or influences)
+which we term the luminous field.
+
+The mode of action of the luminous field is similar to that of other
+incepting influences. It operates from the primary, and is entirely
+passive in nature. Like the thermal field, it does not appear to be
+accompanied by any manifestation of physical stress or force, except,
+indeed, the experimental demonstrations of the "pressure of light" can
+be regarded as such. In any case, this in no way affects the general
+action of light as an incepting agency. Its action on energised
+planetary material gives rise to certain transformations of energy,
+transformations exclusive and peculiar to its own influence. We will
+refer to terrestrial phenomena for illustrations of its working.
+
+Perhaps the commonest example of transformation in which the luminous
+field appears as the incepting agency is seen in the growth of plant
+life on the surface of the earth. The growth and development of
+vegetation and plants generally is the outward evidence of certain
+energy transformations. The processes of growth, however, are of such a
+complex nature that it is impossible to state the governing energy
+conditions in their entirety, but, considering them merely in general
+fashion, it may be said that energy in various forms (potential,
+chemical, &c.) is stored in the tissues of the growing material. Now the
+source of this energy is the axial energy of the earth, and, as stated
+above, the luminous field is an incepting factor (there may be others)
+in the process of transformation, a factor whereby this axial energy is
+converted into certain new forms. It is well known that, amongst the
+factors which influence the growth of vegetation, one of the most potent
+is that of light. The presence of sunlight is one of the essential
+conditions for the successful working of certain transformations of
+plant life, and these transformations vary not only in degree but in
+nature, according to the variation of the imposed light in intensity and
+quality. Some of the processes of growth are no doubt chemical in
+nature. Here, again, light may be readily conceived to have a direct
+determining influence upon them, exactly as in the cases of its
+well-known action in chemical phenomena--for instance, as in
+photography. Other examples will readily occur to the reader. One of the
+most interesting is the action of light on the eye itself. It may be
+pointed out indeed that light is, first and foremost, a phenomenon of
+vision. Whatever may be its intrinsic nature, it is primarily an
+influence affecting the eye. But the action of seeing, like all other
+forms of human activity, involves a certain expenditure of bodily
+energy. This energy is, of course, primarily derived from the axial
+energy of the earth through the medium of plant and animal life and the
+physico-chemical processes of the body itself. Its presence in one form
+or another is, in fact, essential to all the phenomena of life. The
+action of seeing accordingly involves the transformation of a certain
+modicum of this energy, and the influence which incepts this
+transformation is the luminous field which originates in and emanates
+from the central mass of the system, the sun. In a similar way,
+planetary material under certain conditions may become the source of an
+incepting luminous field. It is this light influence or luminous field
+which, in common parlance, is said to enter the eye. In that organ,
+then, is found the mechanism or machine (§ 30), a complicated one, no
+doubt, whereby this process of transformation is carried out which makes
+the light influence perceptible to the senses. Of the precise nature of
+the action little can be said. The theme is rather one for a treatise on
+physiology. It may be pointed out, however, with regard to the process
+of transformation, that Dewar has already demonstrated the fact that
+when light falls on the retina of the eye, an electric current is set up
+in the optic nerve. The energy associated with this current is, of
+course, obtained at the expense of the bodily energy of the observer,
+and this energy, after passing, it may be, through a large number of
+transformation processes, will finally be returned to the source from
+which it was originally derived, namely, the axial energy of the earth.
+The luminous field, also, like the thermal field, has no transforming
+effect whatever on the energy of certain substances. It may pass
+completely through some and be reflected by others without any sign of
+energy transformation. Its properties are, in fact, simply the
+properties of light, and must be accepted simply as phenomena. Now, it
+is very important, in studying matters of this kind, to realise that it
+is impossible ever to get beyond or behind phenomena. It may be pointed
+out that in no sphere of physics has the influence of so-called
+explanatory mechanical hypotheses been stronger than in that dealing
+with the properties of light. New theories are being expounded almost
+daily in attempts to explain or dissect simple phenomena. But it may be
+asked, In what does our really useful knowledge of light consist?
+Simply in our knowledge of phenomena. Beyond this, one cannot go. We may
+attempt to explain phenomena, but to create for this purpose elastic
+ethereal media or substances without direct evidential phenomena in
+support is not to advance real knowledge. There are certain properties
+peculiar to the luminous as to all other incepting fields, certain
+conditions under which each respectively will act, and the true method
+of gaining real insight into these agencies is by the study of these
+actual properties (or phenomena) and conditions, and not by attempts to
+ultimately explain them. It will be evident that in most cases of
+natural energy operations there is more than one energy influence in
+action. As a rule there are several. In a growing plant, for example, we
+have the thermal, luminous, gravitation, and cohesive influences all in
+operation at the same time, each performing its peculiar function in
+transformation, each contributing its own peculiar energy phenomena to
+the whole. This feature adds somewhat to the complexity of natural
+operations and to the difficulties in the precise description of the
+various phenomena with which they are associated.
+
+
+20. _Transformations--Upward Movement of a Mass against Gravity_
+
+When the significance of energy inception and the characteristic
+properties of the various agencies have been grasped, it becomes much
+easier to deal with certain other aspects of energy processes. To
+illustrate these aspects it is, therefore, now proposed to discuss a few
+simple secondary operations embodied in experimental apparatus. A few
+examples of the operations of transformation and transmission of energy
+will be considered. The object in view is to show the general nature of
+these processes, and more especially the limits imposed upon them by the
+various factors or properties of the material machines in which they are
+of necessity embodied. The reader is asked to bear in mind also the
+observations already made (§ 13) with respect to experimental apparatus
+generally.
+
+The first operation for discussion is that of the upward movement of a
+mass of material against the gravitative attraction of the earth. This
+movement involves one of the most simple and at the same time one of the
+most important of secondary energy processes. As a concrete
+illustration, consider the case of a body projected vertically upwards
+with great velocity from the surface of the earth. The phenomena of its
+motion will be somewhat as follows:--As the body recedes from the
+earth's surface in its upward flight, its velocity suffers a continuous
+decrease, and an altitude is finally attained where this velocity
+becomes zero. The projectile, at this point, is instantaneously at rest.
+Its motion then changes; it commences to fall, and to proceed once more
+towards the starting-point with continuously increasing velocity.
+Neglecting the effect of the air (§ 29) and the rotational movement of
+the earth, it may be assumed that the retardation of the projectile in
+its upward flight is numerically equal to its acceleration in its
+downward flight, and that it finally returns to the starting-point with
+velocity numerically equal to the initial velocity of projection. The
+process then obviously involves a complete transformation and return of
+energy. At the earth's surface, where its flight commences and
+terminates, the body is possessed of energy of motion to a very high
+degree. At the highest point of flight, this form of energy has entirely
+vanished; the body is at rest. Its energy properties are then
+represented by its position of displacement from the earth's surface;
+its energy of motion in disappearing has assumed this form of energy of
+position, energy of separation, or potential energy. The moving body has
+thus been the mechanism of an energy transformation. At each stage of
+its upward progress, a definite modicum of its original energy of motion
+is converted into energy of position. Between the extreme points of its
+flight, the energy of the body is compounded of these two forms, one of
+which is increasing at the expense of the other. When the summit of
+flight is reached the conversion into energy of position is complete. In
+the downward motion, the action is completely reversed, and when the
+body reaches the starting-point its energy of position has again been
+completely transformed into energy of motion. It might be well to draw
+attention here to the fact, often overlooked, that this energy of
+position gained by the rising mass is, in reality, a form of energy,
+separate and distinct, brought into existence by the transformation and
+disappearance of the energy of the moving mass. Energy of position is as
+truly a form of energy as heat or kinetic energy.
+
+The transformation here depicted is clearly a simple process, yet we
+know absolutely nothing of its ultimate nature, of the why or wherefore
+of the operation. Our knowledge is confined to the circumstances and
+conditions under which it takes place. Let us now, therefore, deal with
+these conditions. The transformation is clearly carried out in virtue of
+the movement of the body in the lines or field of an incepting
+influence. This influence is that of gravitation, which links the body
+continually to the earth. Now the function of gravitation in this
+process, as in others already described, is that of a completely passive
+incepting agent. The active energy which suffers change in the process
+is clearly the original work energy (§ 31) communicated to the projected
+body. The whole process is, in fact, a purely mechanical operation, and
+as in the case of other processes involving mechanical energy, it is
+limited by the mass value of the moving material. It is clear that the
+greater the amount of energy communicated to the projectile at the
+starting-point, the greater will be the altitude it will attain in its
+flight. The amount of energy, however, which can thus be communicated is
+dependent on the maximum force which can be applied to the projectile.
+But the maximum force which can be applied to any body depends entirely
+on the resistance offered by that body, and in this case the resisting
+force is the gravitative attraction of the earth on the projectile,
+which attraction is again a direct function of its mass. The greater the
+mass, the greater the gravitative force, and the greater the possibility
+of transformation. The ultimate limit of the process would be reached if
+the projected mass were so great as to equal half the mass of the earth.
+In such circumstances, the earth being assumed to be divided into two
+equal masses, the maximum limiting value of the gravitative attraction
+would clearly be attained. Any increase of the one mass over the other
+would again lead, however, to a diminution in the attractive force and a
+corresponding decrease in the energy limit for transformation. The
+precise manner in which the operations of mechanical energy are limited
+by the mass will now be clear. The principle is quite general, and
+applicable to all moving bodies. Mass is ever a direct measure of energy
+capacity. A graphical method of representing energy transformations of
+this kind, by a system of co-ordinates, would enable the reader to
+appreciate more fully the quantitative relations of the forms of energy
+involved and also their various limits.
+
+
+21. _The Simple Pendulum_
+
+The remaining operations of transformation for discussion are embodied
+in the following simple apparatus. A spherical metallic mass M (Fig. 2)
+is supported by a rod P which is rigidly connected to a horizontal
+spindle HS as shown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2]
+
+The spindle is supported and free to revolve in the bearings B{1} and
+B{2} which form part of the supporting framework V resting on the
+ground; the bearing surfaces at B{1} and B{2} are lubricated, and the
+mass M is free to perform, in a vertical plane, complete revolutions
+about the axis through the centre of the spindle. In carrying out this
+motion its path will be circular, as shown at DCFE; the whole
+arrangement is merely an adaptation of the simple pendulum. As
+constituted, the apparatus may form the seat of certain energy
+operations. Some of these will only take place with the application of
+energy of motion to the pendulum from an external source, thereby
+causing it to vibrate or to rotate: others, again, might be said to be
+inherent to the apparatus, since they arise naturally from its
+construction and configuration. We shall deal with the latter first.
+
+
+22. _Statical Energy Conditions_
+
+The pendulum with its spindle has a definite mass value, and, assuming
+it to be at rest in the bearings B{1} and B{2}, it is acted upon by
+gravitation, or in other words, it is under the influence or within the
+field of the gravitative attraction of the earth's mass upon it. The
+effect of this field is directly proportional to the mass of the
+pendulum and spindle, and to its action is due that bearing pressure
+which is transmitted through the lubricant to the bearing surfaces and
+thence to the supporting arms N{1} and N{2} of the framework. Bearings
+and columns alike are thus subjected to a downward thrust or pressure.
+Being of elastic material, they will be more or less distorted. This
+distortion will proceed until the downward forces are balanced by the
+upward or reactive forces called into play in virtue of the cohesive
+properties of the strained material. Corresponding to a slight downward
+movement of the pendulum and spindle in thus straining or compressing
+them, the supporting columns will be decreased in length. This downward
+movement is the external evidence of certain energy operations. In
+virtue of their elevation above the earth's surface, the pendulum and
+spindle possess, to a certain degree, energy of position, and any free
+downward movement would lead to the transformation of this energy into
+energy of motion (§ 20). But the downward motion of pendulum and spindle
+is not free. It is made against the resistance of the material of the
+supporting columns, and the energy of position, instead of assuming the
+form of energy of motion, is simply worked down or transformed against
+the opposing cohesive forces of the supporting materials. This energy,
+therefore, now resides in these materials in the form of energy of
+strain or distortion. In general nature, this strain energy is akin to
+energy of position (§ 20). Certain portions of the material of the
+columns have been forced into new positions against the internal forces
+of cohesion which are ever tending to preserve the original
+configuration of the columns. This movement of material in the field of
+the cohesive influence involves the transformation of energy (§ 4), and
+the external evidence of the energy process is simply the strained or
+distorted condition of the material. If the latter be released, and
+allowed to resume its natural form once more, this stored energy of
+strain would be entirely given up. In reality, the material can be said
+to play the part of a machine or mechanism for the energy process of
+storage and restoration. No energy process, in fact, ever takes place
+unless associated with matter in some form. The supporting arms, in this
+case, form the material factor or agency in the energy operation. All
+such energy machines, also, are limited in the extent of their
+operation, by the qualities of the material factors. In this particular
+case, the energy compass of the machine is restricted by certain
+physical properties of the material, by the maximum value of these
+cohesive or elastic forces called into play in distortion. These forces
+are themselves the evidence of energy, of that energy by virtue of which
+the material possesses and maintains its coherent form. In this case
+this energy is also the factor controlling the transformation, and
+appears as a separate and distinct incepting agency. If the process is
+to be a reversible one, so that the energy originally stored in the
+material as strain energy or energy of distortion may be completely
+returned, the material must not be stressed beyond a certain point. Only
+a limited amount of work can be applied to it, only a limited amount of
+energy can be stored in it. Too much energy applied--too great a weight
+on the supporting columns--gives rise to permanent distortion or
+crushing, and an entirely new order of phenomena. This energy limit for
+reversibility is then imposed by the cohesive properties of the material
+or by its elastic limits. Up to this point energy stored in the material
+may be returned--the process is reversible in nature--but above this
+elastic limit any energy applied must operate in an entirely different
+manner.
+
+A little consideration will show also, that the state of distortion, or
+energy strain, is not confined to the material of the supporting columns
+alone. Action and reaction are equal. The same stresses are applied to
+the spindle through the medium of bearings and lubricant. In fact, every
+material substance of which the pendulum machine is built up is thus,
+more or less, strained against internal forces; all possess, more or
+less, cohesion or strain energy. It will be evident, also, that this
+condition is not peculiar to this or any other form of apparatus. It is
+the energy state or condition of every structure, either natural or
+artificial, which is built up of ordinary material, and which, on the
+earth's surface, is subjected to the influence of the gravitation field.
+This cohesion or strain energy is one of the forms in which energy is
+most widely distributed throughout material.
+
+In reviewing the statical condition of the above apparatus, the pendulum
+itself has been assumed to be hanging vertically at rest under the
+influence of gravitation. If energy be now applied to the system from
+some external source so that the pendulum is caused to vibrate, or to
+rotate about the axis of suspension, a new set of energy processes make
+their appearance. The movement of the pendulum mass, in its circular
+path around the central axis, is productive of certain energy reactions,
+as follows:--
+
+     _a._ A transformation of energy of motion into energy of position
+     and vice versa.
+
+     _b._ A frictional transformation at the bearing surfaces.
+
+These processes will each be in continuous operation so long as the
+motion of the pendulum is maintained. Their general nature is quite
+independent of the extent of that motion, whether it be merely vibratory
+through a small arc, or completely rotatory about the central axis. In
+the articles which immediately follow, the processes will be treated
+separately.
+
+
+23. _Transformations of the Moving Pendulum--a. Energy of Motion to
+      Energy of Position and Vice Versa_
+
+In this simple transformation the motion of the pendulum about the axis
+of suspension may be either vibratory or circular, according to the
+amount of energy externally applied. In each case, every periodic
+movement of the apparatus illustrates the whole energy operation. The
+general conditions of the process are almost identical with those in the
+case of the upward movement of a mass against gravity (§ 20).
+Gravitation is the incepting energy influence of the operation. If the
+pendulum simply vibrates through a small arc, then, at the highest
+points of its flight, it is instantaneously at rest. Its energy of
+motion is here, therefore, zero; its energy of position is a maximum. At
+the lowest point of its flight, the conditions are exactly reversed.
+Here its energy of motion is a maximum, while its energy of position
+passes through a minimum value. The same general conditions hold when
+the pendulum performs complete revolutions about the central axis. If
+the energy of motion applied is just sufficient to raise it to the
+highest point E (Fig. 2), the mass will there again be instantaneously
+at rest with maximum energy of position. As the mass falls downwards in
+completing the circular movement, its energy of position once more
+assumes the kinetic form, and reaches its maximum value at C (Fig. 2),
+the lowest position. The moving pendulum mass, so far as its energy
+properties are concerned, behaves in precisely the same manner as a body
+vertically projected in the field of the gravitative attraction (§ 20).
+This simple energy operation of the pendulum is perhaps one of the most
+familiar of energy processes. By its means, however, it is possible to
+illustrate certain general features of energy reactions of great
+importance to the author's scheme.
+
+The energy processes of the pendulum system are carried out through the
+medium of the material pendulum machine, and are limited, both in nature
+and degree, by the properties of that machine. As the pendulum vibrates,
+the transformation of energy of motion to energy of position or vice
+versa is an example of a reversible energy operation. The energy active
+in this operation continually alternates between two forms of energy:
+transformation is continually followed by a corresponding return.
+Neglecting in the meantime all frictional and other effects, we will
+assume complete reversibility, or that the energy of motion of the
+pendulum, after passing completely into the form of energy of position
+at the highest point, is again completely returned, in its original
+form, in the descent. Now, for any given pendulum, the amount of energy
+which can thus operate in the system depends on two factors, namely, the
+mass of the pendulum and the vertical height through which it rises in
+vibration. If the mass is fixed, then the maximum amount of energy will
+be operating in the reversible cycle when the pendulum is performing
+complete revolutions round its axis of suspension. The maximum height
+through which the pendulum can rise, or the maximum amount of energy of
+position which the system can acquire, is thus dependent on the length
+of the pendulum arm. These two factors, then, the mass and the length of
+the pendulum arm, are simply properties of this pendulum machine,
+properties by which its energy compass is restricted. Let us now
+examine these limiting factors more minutely.
+
+It is obvious that energy could readily be applied to the pendulum
+system in such a degree as to cause it to rotate with considerable
+angular velocity about the axis of suspension. Now the motion of the
+pendulum mass in the lines of the gravitation field, although productive
+of the same transformation process, differs from that of a body moving
+vertically upward in that, while the latter has a linear movement, the
+former is constrained into a circular path. This restraint is imposed in
+virtue of the cohesive properties of the material of the pendulum arm,
+and it is the presence of this restraining influence that really
+distinguishes the pendulum machine from the machine in which the moving
+mass is constrained by gravity alone (§ 20). It has been shown that the
+energy capacity of a body projected vertically against gravity is
+limited by its mass only; the energy capacity of the pendulum machine
+may be likewise limited by its mass, but the additional restraining
+factor of cohesion also imposes another limit. In the course of
+rotation, energy is stored in the material of the pendulum against the
+internal forces of cohesion. The action is simply that of what is
+usually termed centrifugal force. As the velocity increases, the
+pendulum arm lengthens correspondingly until the elastic limit of the
+material in tension is reached. At this point, the pendulum may be said
+to have reached the maximum length at which it can operate in that
+reversible process of transformation in which energy of motion is
+converted into energy of position. The amount of energy which would now
+be working in that process may be termed the limiting energy for
+reversibility. This limiting energy is the absolute maximum amount of
+energy which can operate in the reversible cycle. It is coincident with
+the maximum length of the pendulum arm in distortion. When the stress in
+the material of that arm reaches the elastic limit, it is clear that the
+transformation against cohesion will also have attained its limiting
+value for reversibility. This transformation, if the velocity of the
+pendulum is constant, is of the nature of a storage of energy. So long
+as the velocity is constant the energy stored is constant. If the
+elastic limiting stress of the material has not been exceeded, this
+energy--neglecting certain minor processes (§§ 15, 29)--will be returned
+in its original form as the velocity decreases. If, however, the
+material be stressed beyond its elastic powers, the excess energy
+applied will simply lead to permanent distortion or disruption of the
+pendulum arm, and to a complete breakdown and change in the character of
+the machine and the associated energy processes (§ 5). The physical
+properties of the material thus limit the energy capacity of the
+machine. This limiting feature, as already indicated, is not peculiar
+to the pendulum machine alone. Every energy process embodied in a
+material machine is limited in a similar fashion by the peculiar
+properties of the acting materials. Every reversible process is carried
+out within limits thus clearly defined. Nature presents no exception to
+this rule, no example of a reversible energy system on which energy may
+be impressed in unlimited amount. On the contrary, all the evidence
+points to limitation of the strictest order in such processes.
+
+
+24. _Transformations of the Moving Pendulum--b. Frictional
+      Transformation at the Bearing Surfaces_
+
+The motion of the pendulum, whether it be completely rotatory or merely
+vibratory in nature, invariably gives rise to heating at the bearings or
+supporting points. Since the heating effect is only evident when motion
+is taking place, and since the heat can only make its appearance as the
+result of some energy process, it would appear that this persistent heat
+phenomenon is the result of a transformation of the original energy of
+motion of the pendulum.
+
+The general energy conditions of the apparatus already adverted to (§
+21) still hold, and the lubricating oil employed in the apparatus being
+assumed to have sufficient capillarity or adhesive power to separate
+the metallic surfaces of bearings and journals at all velocities, then
+every action of the spindle on the bearings must be transmitted through
+the lubricant. The latter is, therefore, strained or distorted against
+the internal cohesive or viscous forces of its material. The general
+effect of the rotatory motion of the spindle will be to produce a motion
+of the material of the lubricant in the field of these incepting forces.
+To this motion the heat transformation is primarily due. Other
+conditions being the same, the extent of the transformation taking
+place, in any given case, is dependent on the physical properties of the
+lubricant, such as its viscosity, its cohesive or capillary power,
+always provided that the metallic surfaces are separated, so that the
+action is really carried out in the lines or field of the internal
+cohesive forces of the lubricant. In itself, this transformation is not
+a reversible process; no mechanism appears by which this heat energy
+evolved at the bearing surfaces could be returned once more to its
+original form of energy of motion. It may be, in fact, communicated by
+conduction to the metallic masses of the bearings, and thence, by
+conduction and radiation, to the air masses surrounding the apparatus.
+Its action in these masses is dealt with below (§ 29). The operation of
+bearing friction, though in itself not a reversible process, really
+forms one link of a complete chain (§ 9) of secondary operations
+(transmissions and transformations) which together form a comprehensive
+and complete cyclical energy process (§ 32).
+
+When no lubricant is used in the apparatus, so that the metallic
+surfaces of bearings and journals are in contact, the heat process is of
+a precisely similar nature to that described above (see also § 16).
+Distortion of the metals in contact takes place in the surface regions,
+so that the material is strained against its internal cohesive forces.
+The transformation will thus depend on the physical properties of these
+metals, and will be limited by these properties. Different metallic or
+other combinations will consequently give rise to quite different
+results with respect to the amounts of heat energy evolved.
+
+
+25. _Stability of Energy Systems_
+
+The ratio of the maximum or limiting energy for reversibility to the
+total energy of the system may vary in value. If the pendulum vibrates
+only through a very small arc, then, neglecting the minor processes (§§
+24, 29), practically the whole energy of the system operates in the
+reversible transformation. This condition is maintained as the length of
+the arc of vibration increases, until the pendulum is just performing
+complete revolutions about the central axis. After this, the ratio will
+alter in value, because the greater part of any further increment of
+energy does not enter into the reversible cyclical process, but merely
+goes to increase the velocity of rotation and the total energy of the
+system. The small amount of energy which thus enters the reversible
+cycle as the velocity increases, does so in virtue of the increasing
+length of the pendulum arm in distortion. To produce even a slight
+distortion of the arm, a large amount of energy will require to be
+applied to and stored in the system, and thus, at high velocities of
+rotation, the energy which operates in the reversible cycle, even at its
+limiting value, may form only a very small proportion of the total
+energy of the system. At low velocities or low values of the total
+energy, say when the pendulum is not performing complete rotations,
+practically the whole energy of the system is working in the reversible
+cycle; but, in these circumstances, it is clear that the total energy of
+the system, which, in this case, is all working in the reversible
+process, is much less than the maximum or limiting amount of energy
+which might so work in that process. Under these conditions, when the
+total energy of the system is less than the limiting value for
+reversibility, so that this total energy in its entirety is free to take
+part in the reversible process, then the energy system may be termed
+stable with respect to that process. Stability, in an energy system,
+thus implies that the operation considered is not being, as it were,
+carried out at full energy capacity, but within certain reversible
+energy limits.
+
+We have emphasised this point in order to draw attention to the fact
+that the great reversible processes which are presented to our notice in
+natural phenomena are all eminently stable in character. Perhaps the
+most striking example of a natural reversible process is found in the
+working of the terrestrial atmospheric machine (§§ 10, 38). The energy
+in this case is limited by the mass, but in actual operation its amount
+is well within the maximum limiting value. The machine, in fact, is
+stable in nature. Other natural operations, such as the orbital
+movements of planetary masses, (§ 8) illustrate the same conditions.
+Nature, although apparently prodigal of energy in its totality, yet
+rigidly defines the bounding limits of her active operations.
+
+
+26. _The Pendulum as a Conservative System_
+
+Under certain conditions the reversible energy cycle produces an
+important effect on the rotatory motion of the pendulum. For the purpose
+of illustration, let it be assumed that the pendulum is an isolated and
+conservative system endowed with a definite amount of rotatory energy.
+In its circular movement, the upward motion of the pendulum mass is
+accompanied by a gain in its energy of position. This gain is, in the
+given circumstances, obtained solely at the expense of its inherent
+rotatory energy, which, accordingly, suffers a corresponding decrease.
+The manifestation of this decrease will be simply a retardation of the
+pendulum's rotatory motion. Its angular velocity will, therefore,
+decrease until the highest altitude E (Fig. 2) is attained. After this,
+on the downward path, the process will be reversed. Acceleration will
+take place from the highest to the lowest point of flight, and the
+energy stored as energy of position will be completely returned in its
+original form of energy of motion. The effect of the working of the
+reversible cycle, then, on the rotatory system, under the given
+conditions, is simply to produce alternately a retardation and a
+corresponding acceleration. Now, it is to be particularly noted that
+these changes in the velocity of the system are produced, not by any
+abstraction from or return of energy to the system, which is itself
+conservative, but simply in consequence of the transformation and
+re-transformation of a certain portion of its inherent rotatory energy
+in the working of a reversible process embodied in the system. The same
+features may be observed in other systems where the conditions are
+somewhat similar.
+
+In the natural world, we find processes of the same general nature in
+constant operation. When any mass of material is elevated from the
+surface of a rotating planetary body against the gravitative attraction,
+it thereby gains energy of position (§ 20). This energy, on the body's
+return to the surface in the course of its cycle, reappears in the form
+of energy of motion. Now the material mass, in rising from the planetary
+surface, is not, in reality, separated from the planet. The atmosphere
+of the planet forms an integral portion of its material, partakes of its
+rotatory motion, and is bound to the solid core by the mutual
+gravitative forces. Any mass, then, on the solid surface of a planet is,
+in reality, in the planetary interior, and the rising of such a mass
+from that surface does not imply any actual separative process, but
+simply the radial movement, or displacement of a portion of the
+planetary material from the central axis. If the energy expended in the
+upraisal of the mass is derived at the expense of the inherent rotatory
+energy of the planet, as it would be if the latter were a strictly
+conservative energy system, then the raising of this portion of
+planetary material from the surface would have a retarding effect on the
+planetary motion of rotation. But if, on the other hand, the energy of
+such a mass as it fell towards the planetary surface were converted once
+more into its original form of energy of axial motion, exactly
+equivalent in amount to its energy of position, it is evident that the
+process would be productive of an accelerating effect on the planetary
+motion of rotation, which would in magnitude exactly balance the
+previous retardation. In such a process it is evident that energy
+neither enters nor leaves the planet. It simply works in an energy
+machine embodied in planetary material. This point will be more fully
+illustrated later. The reader will readily see the resemblance of a
+system of this nature to that which has already been illustrated by the
+rotating pendulum.
+
+In the meantime, it may be pointed out that matter displaced from the
+planetary surface need not necessarily be matter in the solid form. All
+the operations mentioned above could be quite readily--in fact, more
+readily--carried out by the movements of gaseous material, which is
+admirably adapted for every kind of rising, falling, or flowing motion
+relative to the planetary surface (§ 13).
+
+
+27. _Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes--Transmission of Heat
+      Energy by Solid Material_
+
+The pendulum machine described above furnishes certain outstanding
+examples of the operation of energy transformation. It will be noted,
+however, that it also portrays certain processes of energy transmission.
+In this respect it is not peculiar. Most of the material machines in
+which energy operates will furnish examples of both energy transmissions
+and energy transformations. In some instances, the predominant operation
+seems to be transformation, in others, transmission; and the machines
+may be classified accordingly. It is, however, largely a matter of
+terminology, since both operations are usually found closely associated
+in one and the same machine. The apparatus now to be considered is
+designed primarily to illustrate the operative features of certain
+energy transmissions, but the description of the machines with their
+allied phenomena will show that energy transformations also play a very
+important part in their constitution and working.
+
+A cylindrical metallic bar about twelve inches long, say, and one inch
+in diameter, is placed with its ends immersed in water in two separate
+vessels, A and B, somewhat as shown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3]
+
+By the application of heat energy, the temperature of the water in the
+vessel A is raised to a point say 100° F. above that of B, and steadily
+maintained at that point. It is assumed that B is also kept at the
+constant lower temperature. In these circumstances, a transmission of
+heat energy takes place from A to B through the metallic bar. When the
+steady temperature condition is reached, the transmission will be
+continuous and uniform; the rate at which it is carried out will be
+determined by the length of the bar, by the material of which it is
+composed, and by the temperature difference maintained between its
+ends. Now what has really happened is that by a combination of
+phenomena the bar has been converted into a machine for the transmission
+of heat energy. A full description of these phenomena is, in reality,
+the description of this machine, and vice versa. Let us, therefore, now
+try to outline some of these phenomena.
+
+The first feature of note is the gradient of temperature which exists
+between the ends of the bar. Further research is necessary regarding the
+real nature of this gradient--it appears to differ greatly in different
+materials--but the existence of such a gradient is one of the main
+features of the energy machine, one of the essential conditions of the
+transmission process.
+
+Another feature is that of the expansive motion of the bar itself. The
+expansion of the bar due to the heating varies in value along its
+length, from a maximum at the hot end to a minimum at the cool end. The
+expansion, also, is the evidence of a transformation of energy. The bar
+has been constrained into its new form against the action of the
+internal molecular or cohesive forces of its material (§ 16). The energy
+employed and transformed in producing the expansion is a part of the
+original heat energy applied to the bar, and before any transmission of
+this heat energy takes place between its extreme ends, a definite
+modicum of the applied energy has to be completely transformed for the
+sole purpose of producing this distortive movement or expansion against
+cohesion. This preliminary straining of the bar is, in fact, a part of
+the process of building up or constituting the energy transmission
+machine, and must be completely carried out before any transmission can
+take place. It is clear, then, that concurrent with the gradient of
+temperature, there also exists, along the bar, what might be termed a
+gradient of energy stored against cohesion, and that both are
+characteristic and essential features of this particular energy machine.
+A point of some importance to note is the permanency of these features.
+Once the machine has been constituted with a constant temperature
+difference, the transmission of energy will take place continuously and
+at a uniform rate. But no further transformation against cohesion takes
+place; no further expenditure of energy against the internal forces of
+the material is necessary. Neglecting certain losses due to possible
+external conditions, the whole energy applied to the machine at the one
+end is transmitted in its entirety to the other, without influencing in
+any way either the temperature or the energy gradient.
+
+Such is the general constitution of this machine for energy
+transmission. Its material foundation is, indeed, the metallic bar, but
+the temperature and energy gradients may be termed the true determining
+factors of its operation. As already indicated, the magnitude of the
+transformation is dependent on the temperature difference between the
+ends of the bar. But this applies only within certain limits. With
+respect to the cool end, the temperature may be as low as we please--so
+far as we know, the limit is absolute zero of temperature; but with the
+hot end, the case is entirely different, because here the limit is very
+strictly imposed by the melting-point of the material of the bar. When
+this melting temperature is attained, the melting of the bar indicates,
+simply, that the heat energy stored or transformed against the cohesive
+forces of the material has reached its limiting value; change of state
+of the material is taking place, and the machine is thereby being
+destroyed.
+
+It is evident, then, that the energy which is actually being transmitted
+has itself no effect whatever in restricting the action or scope of the
+transmission machine. It is, in reality, the residual energy stored
+against the cohesive forces which imposes the limits on the working. It
+is the maximum energy which can be transformed in the field of the
+cohesive forces of the material which determines the power of that
+material as a transmitting agent. This maximum will, of course, be
+different for different materials according to their physical
+constitution. It is attained in this machine in each case when melting
+of the bar takes place.
+
+
+28. _Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes--Transmission by Flexible
+      Band or Cord_
+
+This method is often adopted when energy of motion, or mechanical
+energy, is required to be transmitted from one point to another. For
+illustration, consider the case of two parallel spindles or shafts, A
+and B (Fig. 4), each having a pulley securely keyed upon it. Spindle A
+is connected to a source of of mechanical energy, and it is desired to
+transmit this energy across the intervening space to spindle B.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4]
+
+This, of course, might be accomplished in various ways, but one of the
+most simple, and, at the same time, one of the most efficient, is the
+direct drive by means of a flexible band or cord. The band is placed
+tightly round, and adheres closely to both pulleys; the coefficient of
+friction between band and pulleys may, in the first instance, be assumed
+to be sufficiently great to prevent slipping of the band up to the
+highest stress which it is capable of sustaining in normal working.
+Connected in this fashion, the spindles will rotate in unison, and
+mechanical energy, if applied at A, may be directly transmitted to B.
+The material operator in the transmission is the connecting flexible
+band, and associated with this material are certain energy processes
+which are also essential features of the energy machine. When
+transmission of energy is taking place, a definite tension or stress
+exists in the connecting band, and neglecting certain inevitable losses
+due to bearing friction (§ 24) and windage (§ 29), practically the whole
+of the mechanical or work energy communicated to the one spindle is
+transmitted to the other. Now the true method of studying this or any
+energy process is simply to describe the constitution and principal
+features of the machine by which it is carried out. These are found in
+the phenomena of transmission. One of the most important is the peculiar
+state of strain or tension existing in the connecting band. This, as
+already indicated, is an absolutely essential condition of the whole
+operation. No transmission is possible without some stress or pull in
+the band. This pull is exerted against the cohesive forces of the
+material of the band, so that before transmission takes place it is
+distorted and a definite amount of the originally applied work energy is
+expended in straining it against these forces. This energy is
+accordingly stored in the form of strain energy or energy of separation
+(§ 22), and, if the velocity is uniform, the magnitude of the
+transmission is proportional to this pull in the band, or to the
+quantity of energy thus stored against the internal forces of its
+material. But, in every case, a limit to this amount of energy is
+clearly imposed by the strength of the band. The latter must not be
+strained beyond its limiting elastic stress. So long as energy is being
+transmitted, a certain transformation and return of energy of strain or
+separation is taking place in virtue of the differing values of the
+tensions in the two sides of the band; and if the latter were stressed
+beyond the elastic limit, permanent distortion or disruption of the
+material would take place. Under such conditions, the reversible energy
+process, involving storage and restoration of strain energy as the band
+passes round the pulleys, would be impossible, and the energy
+transmission machine would be completely disorganised. The magnitude of
+the energy operation is thus limited by the physical properties of the
+connecting band.
+
+Another important feature of this energy transmission machine is the
+velocity, or rather the kinetic energy, of the band. The magnitude of
+the transmission process is directly proportional to this velocity, and
+is, therefore, also a function of the kinetic energy. At any given rate
+of transmission, this kinetic energy, like the energy stored against the
+cohesive influence, will be constant in amount, and like that energy
+also, will have been obtained at the expense of the originally applied
+energy. This kinetic energy is an important feature in the constitution
+of the transmission machine. As in the case of the strain energy, its
+maximum value is strictly limited, and thus imposes a limit on the
+general operation of the machine. For, at very high velocities, owing to
+the action of centrifugal force, it is not possible to keep the band in
+close contact with the surface of the pulleys. When the speed rises
+above a certain limit, although the energy actually being transmitted
+may not have attained the maximum value possible at lower speeds with
+greater tension in the band, the latter will, in virtue of the strain
+imposed by centrifugal action, be forced radially outwards from the
+pulley. The coefficient of friction will be thereby reduced; slipping
+will ensue, and the transmission may cease either in whole or in part.
+In this way the velocity or kinetic energy limit is imposed. The machine
+for energy transmission may thus be limited in its operation by two
+different factors. The precise way in which the limit will be applied in
+any given case will, of course, depend on the circumstances of working.
+
+
+29. _Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes--Transmission of Energy to
+      Air Masses_
+
+The movement of the pendulum (§ 23) is accompanied by a certain
+transmission of energy to the surrounding medium. When this medium is a
+gaseous one such as air, the amount of energy thus transmitted is
+relatively small. The process, however, has a real existence. To
+illustrate its general nature, let it be assumed that the motion of the
+pendulum is carried out, not in air, but in a highly viscous fluid, say
+a heavy oil. Obviously, a pendulum falling from its highest position to
+its lowest, in such a medium would transmit its energy almost in its
+entirety to the medium, and would reach its lowest position almost
+devoid of energy of motion. The energy of position with which it was
+originally endowed would thus be transformed and transmitted to the
+surrounding medium. The agent by which the transmission is carried out
+is the moving material of the pendulum, which, as it passes through the
+fluid, distorts that fluid in the lines or field of its internal
+cohesive or viscous forces which offer a continuous resistance to the
+motion. As the pendulum passes down through the liquid, the succeeding
+layers of the latter are thus alternately distorted and released. The
+distortive movement takes place in virtue of the communication of energy
+from the moving pendulum to the liquid, and during the movement energy
+is stored in the fluid as energy of strain and as kinetic energy. At the
+same time, a transformation of the applied energy into heat takes place
+in the distorted material. The release of this material from strain, and
+its movement back towards its original state, is also accompanied by a
+similar transformation, in which the stored strain energy is, in turn,
+converted into the heat form. The whole operation is similar in nature
+to that frictional process already described (§ 16) in the case of a
+body moving on a rough horizontal table. The final action of the heat
+energy thus communicated to the fluid is to expand the latter against
+the internal cohesive or viscous forces of its material, and also
+against the gravitative attraction of the earth.
+
+Now when the pendulum moves in air, the action taking place is of the
+same nature, and the final result is the same as in oil. It differs
+merely in degree. Compared with the oil, the air masses offer only a
+slight resistance to the motion, and thus only an exceedingly small part
+of the pendulum's energy is transmitted to them. The pendulum, however,
+does set the surrounding air masses in motion, and by a process similar
+in nature to that in the oil, a modicum of the energy of the falling
+pendulum is converted into heat, and thence by the expansion of the air
+into energy of position. In the downward motion from rest, the first
+stage of the process is a transformation peculiar to the pendulum
+itself, namely, energy of position into energy of motion. The
+transmission to the fluid is a necessary secondary result. It is
+important to note that this transmission is carried out in virtue of the
+actual movement of the material of the pendulum, and that the energy
+transmitted is in reality mechanical or work energy (§ 31). This
+mechanical or work energy, then actually leaves or is transmitted from
+the pendulum system, and is finally absorbed by the surrounding air
+masses in the form of energy of position.
+
+Considered as a whole, there is evidently no aspect of reversibility
+about the operation, but it will be shown later (§ 32) that with the
+introduction of other factors, it really forms part of a comprehensive
+cyclical process. It is itself a process of direct transmission. It is
+carried out by means of a definite material machine which embodies
+certain energy transformations, and which is strictly limited in the
+extent of its operations by certain physical factors. These factors are
+the cohesive properties of the moving pendulum mass and the fluid with
+which it is in contact (§ 16). It is clear, also, that in an apparatus
+in which the motion is carried out in oil, any heat energy communicated
+to the oil would inevitably find its way to the surrounding air masses
+by conduction and radiation. The final result of the pendulum's motion
+would therefore be the same in this case as in air; the heat energy
+would, when communicated to the surrounding air masses, cause an
+expansive movement against gravity.
+
+
+30. _Energy Machines and Energy Transmission_
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5]
+
+The various examples of energy transformation and transmission which
+have been discussed above (§§ 13-27) will suffice to show the essential
+differences which exist in the general nature of these operations. But
+they will also serve another purpose in portraying one striking and
+important aspect in which these processes are alike. From the
+descriptions given above, it will be amply evident that each of these
+processes, whether transformation or transmission, requires as an
+essential condition of its existence, the presence of a certain
+arrangement of matter; each process is of necessity associated with and
+embodied in a definite physical and material machine. This material
+machine is simply the contrivance provided by Nature to carry out the
+energy operation. It differs in construction and in character for
+different processes, but in every case there must be in its constitution
+some material substance, perceptible to the senses, with which the
+acting energy is intimately associated. This fact is but another aspect
+of the principle that energy is never found dissociated from matter (§
+11). In every energy machine, the material substance or operator forms
+the real foundation or basis of the energy operation, but besides this
+there are also always other phenomena of a secondary nature, totally
+different, it may be, from the main energy operation, which combine with
+that operation to constitute the whole. These subsidiary energy
+phenomena are the incepting factors, and are most important
+characteristics. Their presence is just as essential in energy
+transmission as it is in energy transformation. As demonstrated above,
+they are usually associated with the physical peculiarities of the basis
+or acting material of the energy machine, and their peculiar function is
+to conserve or limit the extent of its action. A complete description of
+these phenomena, in any given case, would not only be equivalent to a
+complete description of the machine, but would also serve as a complete
+description of the main energy operation embodied in that machine.
+Sometimes, however, the description of the machine is a matter of
+extreme difficulty, and may be, in fact, impossible owing to the lack of
+a full knowledge of the intimate phenomena concerned. An illustrative
+example of this is provided by the familiar phenomenon of heat
+radiation. Take the case of two isolated solid bodies A and B (Fig. 5)
+in close proximity on the earth's surface. If the body A at a high
+temperature be sufficiently near to B at a lower temperature, a
+transmission of energy takes place from A to B. This transmission is
+usually attributed to "radiation," but, after all, the use of the term
+"radiation" is merely a descriptive device which hides our ignorance of
+the operation. It is known that a transmission takes place, but the
+intimate phenomena are not known, and, accordingly, it is impossible to
+describe the machine or mechanism by which it is carried out. From
+general considerations, however, it appears that the material basis of
+this machine is to be found in the air medium which surrounds the two
+bodies. Experiment shows, indeed, that if this intervening material
+medium of air be even partially withdrawn or removed, the transmission
+is immensely reduced in amount. In fact, this latter phenomenon is
+largely taken advantage of in the so-called vacuum flasks or other
+devices to maintain bodies at a temperature either above or below that
+of the external surrounding bodies. The device adopted is, simply, as
+far as practicable to withdraw all material connection between the body
+which it is desired to isolate thermally and its surroundings. But it is
+clearly impossible to isolate completely any terrestrial body in this
+way. There must be some material connection remaining. As already
+pointed out (§ 5), we have no experimental experience of really separate
+bodies or of an absolute vacuum. It is to be noted that any vacuous
+space which we can experimentally arrange does not even approximately
+reproduce the conditions of true separation prevailing in interplanetary
+space. Any arrangement of separate bodies which might thus be contrived
+is necessarily entirely surrounded or enclosed by terrestrial material
+which, in virtue of its stressed condition, constitutes an energy
+machine of the same nature as those already described (§ 21). Even
+although the air could be absolutely exhausted from a vessel, it is
+still quite impossible to enclose any body permanently within that
+vessel without some material connection between the body and the
+enclosing walls. If for example, as shown in Fig. 6, CC represents a
+spherical vessel, completely exhausted, and having two bodies, A and B
+at different temperatures, in its interior, it is obvious that if these
+bodies are to maintain continuously their relative positions of
+separation, each must be united by some material connection to the
+containing vessel. But when such a connection is made, say as shown at D
+and E (Fig. 7), it is clear that A and B are no longer separate bodies
+in the fullest sense of the word, but are now in direct communication
+with one another through the supports at D and E and the enclosing sides
+of the vessel CC. The practicable conditions are thus far from those of
+separate bodies in a complete vacuum. It would seem, indeed, to be
+beyond human experimental contrivance to reproduce such conditions in
+their entirety. So far as these conditions can be achieved, however,
+and judging solely by the experimental results already attained with
+respect to the effect of exhaustion on radiation, it may be quite justly
+averred that, if the conditions portrayed in Fig. 6 could be realised,
+no transmission of energy would take place between two bodies, such as A
+and B, completely isolated from one another in a vacuous space. It
+appears, in fact, to be a quite reasonable and logical deduction from
+the experimental evidence that the energy operation of transmission of
+heat from one body to another by radiation is dependent on the existence
+between these bodies of a real and material substance which forms in
+some way (at present unknown) the transmitting medium or machine. The
+difficulty which arises in the description of this machine is due, as
+already explained above, simply to lack of knowledge of the intimate
+phenomena of its working. Many other energy processes will, no doubt,
+occur to the reader in which the same difficulty presents itself, due to
+the same cause.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6]
+
+In dealing with terrestrial operations generally, and particularly when
+transmission processes are under consideration, it is important to
+recognise clearly the precise nature of these operations and the
+peculiar conditions under which they work. It must ever be borne in mind
+that the terrestrial atmosphere is a real and material portion of the
+earth's mass, extending from the surface for a limited distance into
+space (§ 34), and whatever its condition of gaseous tenuity, completely
+occupying that space in the manner peculiar to a gaseous substance. When
+the whole mass of the planet, including the atmosphere, is taken into
+consideration, it is readily seen that all energy operations embodied in
+or associated with material on what is usually termed the surface of the
+earth take place at the bottom of this atmospheric ocean, or, in
+reality, in the interior of the earth. The operations themselves are the
+manifestations of purely terrestrial energy, which, by its working in
+various devices or arrangements of material is being transformed and
+transmitted from one form of matter to another. As will be fully
+demonstrated later (Part III.), the nature of the terrestrial energy
+system makes it impossible for this energy ever to escape beyond the
+confines of the planetary atmospheric envelope. These are briefly the
+general conditions under which the study of terrestrial or secondary
+energy operations is of necessity conducted, and it is specially
+important to notice these conditions when it is sought to apply the
+results of experimental work to the discussion of celestial phenomena.
+It must ever be borne in mind that even the direct observation of the
+latter must always be carried out through the encircling planetary
+atmospheric material.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7]
+
+In this portion of the work it is proposed to investigate in the light
+of known phenomena the possibility of energy transmission between
+separate masses. As explained above, the term separate is here meant to
+convey the idea of perfect isolation, and the only masses in Nature
+which truly satisfy this condition are the celestial and planetary
+bodies, separated as they are from one another by interplanetary space
+and in virtue of their energised condition (§ 5). Since this state of
+separation cannot be experimentally realised under terrestrial
+conditions, it is obvious, therefore, that no purely terrestrial energy
+process can be advanced either as direct verification or direct disproof
+of a transmission of energy between such truly separate masses as the
+celestial bodies. But as we are unable to experiment directly on these
+bodies themselves or across interplanetary space, we are forced of
+necessity to rely, for experimental facts and conclusions, on the
+terrestrial energy phenomena to which access is possible. As already
+indicated in the General Statement (§ 11), the same energy is bestowed
+on all parts of the cosmical system, and by the close observation of the
+phenomena of its action in familiar operations the truest guidance may
+be obtained as to its general nature and working. In such
+investigations, however, only the actual phenomena of the operation are
+of scientific or informative value. There is no gain to real knowledge
+in assuming, say in the examination of the phenomena of magnetic
+attraction between two bodies, that the one is urged towards the other
+by stresses in an intervening ethereal medium, when absolutely no
+phenomenal evidence of the existence of such a medium is available. It
+may be urged that the conception of an ethereal medium is adapted to the
+explanation of phenomena, and appears in many instances to fulfil this
+function. But as already pointed out (see Introduction), it is
+absolutely impossible to explain phenomena. So-called explanations must
+ever resolve themselves simply into revelations of further phenomena.
+While the value of true working hypotheses cannot be denied, it is
+surely evident that such hypotheses, unless they embody and are under
+the limitation of controlling facts, are not only useless, but, from the
+misleading ideas they are apt to convey, may even be dangerous factors
+in the search for truth. Now, if all speculative ideas or hypotheses are
+banished from the mind, and reliance is placed solely on the evidential
+phenomena of Nature, the study of terrestrial energy operations leads
+inevitably to certain conclusions on the question of energy
+transmission. In the first place, it must lead to the denial of what has
+been virtually the great primary assumption of modern science, namely,
+that a mass of material at a high temperature isolated in interplanetary
+space would radiate heat in all directions through that space. Such a
+conception is unsupported by our experimental or real knowledge of
+radiation. The fact that heat radiation takes place from a hot to a cold
+body in whatever direction the latter is placed relatively to the
+former, does not justify the assumption that such radiation takes place
+in all directions in the absence of a cold body. And since there is
+absolutely no manifestation of any real material medium occupying
+interplanetary space, no sign of the material agency or machine which
+the results of direct experiment have led us to conclude is a necessity
+for the transmission process of heat radiation, the whole conception
+must be regarded as at least doubtful. Even with our limited knowledge
+of radiation, the doctrine of heat radiation through space stands
+controverted by ordinary experimental experience. With this doctrine
+must fall also the allied conception of the transmission of heat energy
+by radiation from the sun to the earth. It is to be noted, however, that
+only the actual transmission of heat energy from the sun to the earth is
+inadmissible; the _heating effect_ of the sun on the earth, which leads
+to the manifestation of terrestrial energy in the heat form, is a
+continuous operation readily explained in the light of the general
+principle of energy transformation already enunciated (§ 4). With
+respect to other possible processes of energy transmission between the
+sun and the earth or across interplanetary space, the same general
+methods of experimental investigation must be adopted. The transmission
+of energy under terrestrial conditions is carried out in many different
+forms and by the working of a large variety of machines. In every case,
+no matter in what form the energy is transmitted, that energy must be
+associated with a definite arrangement of terrestrial material
+constituting the transmission machine. Each energy process of
+transmission has its own peculiar conditions of operation which must be
+completely satisfied. By the study of these conditions and the allied
+phenomena it is possible to gain a real knowledge of the precise
+circumstances in which the process can be carried out. Now let us apply
+the knowledge of transmission processes thus gained to the general
+celestial case, to the question of energy transmission between truly
+separate bodies, and particularly to the case of the sun and the earth.
+Do we find in this case any evidence of the presence of a machine for
+energy transmission? It is impossible, within the limits of this work,
+to deal with all the forms in which energy may be transmitted, but let
+the reader review any instance of the transmission of energy under
+terrestrial conditions, or any energy-transmission machine with which he
+is familiar, noting particularly the essential phenomena and material
+arrangements, and let him ask himself if there is any evidence of the
+existence of a machine of this kind in operation between the sun and
+the earth or across interplanetary space. We venture to assert that the
+answer must be in the negative. The real knowledge of terrestrial
+processes of energy transmission at command, on which all our deductions
+must be based, does not warrant in the slightest degree the assumption
+of transmission between the sun and the earth. The most plausible of
+such assumptions is undoubtedly that which attributes transmission to
+heat radiation, but this has already been shown to be at variance with
+well-known facts. The question of light transmission will offer no
+difficulty if it be borne in mind that light is not in itself a form of
+energy, but merely a manifestation of energy as an incepting influence,
+which like other incepting influences of a similar nature, can readily
+operate across either vacuous or interplanetary space (§ 19).
+
+On these general considerations, deduced from the observation of
+terrestrial phenomena, allied with the conception of energy machines and
+separate masses in space, the author bases one aspect of the denial of
+energy transmission between celestial masses. The doctrine of
+transmission cannot be sustained in the face of legitimate scientific
+deduction from natural phenomena. In the later parts of this work, and
+from a more positive point of view, the denial is completely justified.
+
+
+31. _Identification of Forms of Energy_
+
+Before leaving the question of energy transmission, there are still one
+or two interesting features to be considered. Although energy, as
+already pointed out, is ever found associated with matter, this
+association does not, in itself, always furnish phenomena sufficient to
+distinguish the precise phase in which the energy may be manifested.
+Some means must, as a rule, be adopted to isolate and identify the
+various forms.
+
+Now one of the most interesting and important features of the process of
+energy transmission is that it usually provides the direct means for the
+identification of the acting energy. Energy, as it were, in movement, in
+the process of transmission, is capable of being detected in its
+different phases and recognised in each. The phenomena of transmission
+usually serve, either directly or indirectly, to portray the precise
+nature of the energy taking part in the operation. One of the most
+direct instances of this is provided by the transmission of heat energy.
+For illustrative purposes, let it be assumed that a body A, possessed of
+heat energy to an exceedingly high degree, is isolated within a
+spherical glass vessel CC, somewhat as already shown (Fig. 6). If it be
+assumed that the space within CC is a perfect vacuum, and that no
+material connection exists between the walls of the vessel and the body
+A, the latter is completely isolated, and no means whatever are
+available for the detection of its heat qualities (§ 30). It may seem
+that, if the temperature of the body A were sufficiently high, its
+energy state might be detected, and in a manner estimated, by its effect
+on the eye or by its luminous properties, but we take this opportunity
+of pointing out that luminosity is not invariably associated with high
+temperature. On the contrary, many bodies are found in Nature, both
+animate and inanimate, which are luminous and affect the eye at
+comparatively low temperatures. How then is the energy condition of the
+body to be definitely ascertained? The only means whereby it is possible
+to identify the energy of the body is by transmitting a portion of that
+energy to some other body and observing the resultant phenomena.
+Suppose, then, another body, such as B (Fig. 6), at a lower temperature
+than A, is brought into contact with A, so that a transmission of heat
+energy ensues between the two. The phenomena which would result in such
+circumstances will be exactly as already described in the case of the
+transmission of energy through a solid (§ 27). Amongst other
+manifestations it would be noticeable that the material of B was
+expanded against its inherent cohesive forces. Now if, instead of a
+spherical body such as B, a mercurial thermometer were utilised, the
+phenomena would be of precisely the same nature. A definite portion of
+the heat energy would be transmitted to the thermometer, and would
+produce expansion of the contained fluid. By the amount of this
+expansion it becomes possible to estimate the energy condition and
+properties of the body A, relative to its surroundings or to certain
+generally accepted standard conditions. Thermometric measurement is, in
+fact, merely the employment of a process of energy transmission for the
+purpose of identifying and estimating the heat-energy properties of
+material substances.
+
+In everyday life, rough ideas of heat energy are constantly being
+obtained by the aid of the senses. This method is, however, only another
+aspect of transmission, for it will be clear that the sensations of heat
+and cold are, in themselves, but the evidence of the transformation of
+heat energy to or from the body.
+
+The process of energy transmission by a flexible band or cord (§ 28)
+also provides evidence leading to the identification of the peculiar
+form of energy which is being transmitted. At first sight, it would
+appear as if this energy were simply energy of motion or kinetic energy.
+A little reflection, however, on the general conditions of the process
+must dispel this idea, for it is clear that the precise nature of the
+energy transmitted has no real connection with the kinetic properties of
+the system. The latter, truly, influence the rate of transmission and
+impose certain limits, but evidently, if the pull in the band increases
+without any increase in its velocity, the actual amount of energy
+transmitted by the system would increase without altering in any respect
+the kinetic properties. It becomes necessary, then, to distinguish
+clearly the energy inherent to, or as it were, latent in the system,
+from the energy actually transmitted by the system, to recognise the
+difference between the energy transmitted by moving material and the
+energy of that material. In this special instance, to identify the form
+of energy transmitted it must of necessity be associated with the
+peculiar phenomena of transmission. Now the energy is evidently
+transmitted by the movement of the connecting belt or band. Before any
+transmission can take place, however, a certain amount of energy must be
+stored in the moving system, partly as cohesion or strain energy and
+partly as energy of motion or kinetic energy. It is this preliminary
+storage of energy which, in reality, constitutes the transmission
+machine, and for a given rate of transmission, the energy thus stored
+will be constant in value. It is obtained at the expense of the applied
+energy, and, neglecting certain minor processes, will be returned (or
+transmitted) in its entirety when the moving system once more comes to
+rest. This stored energy, in fact, works in a reversible process. But
+when the transmission machine is once constituted, the energy
+transmitted is then that energy which is being continually applied at
+the spindle A (Fig. 4) and as continually withdrawn at the spindle B. It
+must be emphasised that the energy thus transmitted is absolutely
+different from the kinetic or other energy associated with the moving
+material of the system. It is the function of this energised material of
+the band to transmit the energy from A to B, but this is the only
+relationship which the transmitted energy bears to the material. The
+energy thus transmitted by the moving material we term mechanical or
+work energy. We may thus define mechanical or work energy as "_that form
+of energy transmitted by matter in motion_."
+
+The idea of work is usually associated with that of a force acting
+through a certain distance. The form of energy referred to above as work
+energy is, in the same way, always associated with the idea of a thrust
+or of a pressure of some kind acting on moving material. Work energy
+thus bears two aspects, which really correspond to the familiar product
+of pressure and volume. Both aspects are manifested in transmission.
+Since work energy is invariably transmitted by matter in motion, every
+machine for its transmission must possess energy of motion as one of its
+essential features. As shown above (see also § 28), this energy of
+motion is really obtained at the expense of the originally applied work
+energy, and as it remains unaltered in value during the progress of a
+uniform transmission, it may be regarded as simply transformed work
+energy, stored or latent in the system, which will be returned in its
+entirety and in its original form at the termination of the operation.
+The energy stored against cohesion or other forces may be regarded in
+the same way. It is really the manifestation of the pressure or thrust
+aspect of the work energy, just as the kinetic energy is the
+manifestation of the translational or velocity aspect.
+
+Our definition of work energy given above enables us to recognise its
+operation in many familiar processes. Take the case of a gas at high
+pressure confined in a cylinder behind a movable piston. We can at once
+say that the energy of the gas is work energy because this energy may
+quite clearly be transmitted from the gas by the movement of the piston.
+If the latter form part of a steam-engine mechanism of rods and crank,
+the energy may, by the motion of this mechanism, be transmitted to the
+crank shaft, and there utilised. This is eminently a case in which
+energy is _transmitted_ by matter in motion. The moving material
+comprises the piston, piston-rod, and connecting-rod, which are, one and
+all, endowed with both cohesive and kinetic energy qualities, and form
+together the transmission machine. So long as the piston is at rest only
+one aspect of the work energy of the gas is apparent, namely, the
+pressure aspect, but immediately motion and transmission take place,
+both aspects are presented. The work energy of the gas, obtained in the
+boiler by a _transformation_ of heat energy is thus, by matter in
+motion, transmitted and made available at the crank shaft. The shaft
+itself is also commonly utilised for the further transmission of the
+work energy applied. By the application of the energy at the crank, it
+is thrown into a state of strain, and at the same time is endowed with
+kinetic energy of rotation. It thus forms a machine for transmission,
+and the work energy applied at one point of the shaft may be withdrawn
+at another point more remote. The transmission is, in reality, effected
+by the movement of the material of the shaft. So long as the shaft is
+stationary, it is clear that no actual transmission can be carried out,
+no matter how great may be the strain imposed. If our engine mechanism
+were, by a change in design, adapted to the use of a liquid substance as
+the working material instead of a gas, it is clear that no change would
+be effected in the general conditions. The energy of a liquid under
+pressure is again simply work energy, and it would be transmitted by the
+moving mechanism in precisely the same manner.
+
+From the foregoing, it will now be evident to the reader that the energy
+originally applied to the primary mass (§ 3) of our cosmical system must
+be work energy. It is this form of energy also which is inherent to each
+unit of the planetary system associated with the primary. In this system
+it is of course presented outwardly in the two phases of kinetic energy
+and energy of strain or distortion. It is apparent, also, that work
+energy could be transmitted from the primary mass to the separate
+planets on one condition only, that is, by the movement of some material
+substance connecting each planet to the primary. Since no such material
+connection is admitted, the transmission of work energy is clearly
+impossible.
+
+
+32. _Complete Secondary Cyclical Operation_
+
+A general outline of the conditions of working and the relationships of
+secondary processes has already been given in the General Statement (§
+9), but it still remains to indicate, in a broad way, the general
+methods whereby these operations are linked to the atmospheric machine.
+In the example of the simple pendulum, it has been pointed out that the
+energy processes giving rise to heating at the bearing surfaces and
+transmission of energy to the air masses are not directly reversible
+processes, but really form part of a more extensive cyclical operation,
+in itself, however, complete and self-contained. This cyclical operation
+may be regarded as a typical illustration of the manner in which
+separate processes of energy transmission or transformation, such as
+already described, are combined or united in a continuous chain forming
+a complete whole.
+
+It has been assumed, in all the experiments with the pendulum, that the
+operating energy is initially communicated from an outside source, say
+the hand of the observer. This energy is, therefore, the acting energy
+which must be traced through all its various phases from its origin to
+its final destination. At the outset, it may be pointed out that this
+energy, applied by hand, is obtained from the original rotational energy
+of the earth by certain definite energy processes. Due to the influences
+of various incepting fields which emanate from the sun (§§ 17-19), a
+portion of the earth's rotational energy is transformed into that form
+of plant energy which is stored in plant tissue, and which, by the
+physico-chemical processes of digestion, is in turn converted into heat
+and the various other forms of energy associated with the human frame.
+This, then, is the origin of the energy communicated to the pendulum.
+Its progress through that machine has already been described in detail
+(§§ 21-26). The transformation of energy of motion to energy of position
+which takes place is in itself a reversible process and may in the
+meantime be neglected. But the final result of the operations, at the
+bearing surfaces and in the air masses surrounding the moving pendulum,
+was shown to be, in each case, that heat energy was communicated to
+these air masses. The effect of the heat energy thus impressed, is to
+cause the expansion of the air and its elevation from the surface of the
+earth in the lines or field of the gravitative attraction, so that this
+heat energy is transformed, and resides in the air masses as energy of
+position. The energy then, originally drawn from the rotational energy
+of the earth, has thus worked through the pendulum machine, and is now
+stored in the air masses in this form of energy of position. To make the
+process complete and cyclical this energy must now, therefore, be
+returned once more to the earth in its original rotational form. This
+final step is carried out in the atmospheric machine (§ 41). In this
+machine, therefore, the energy of position possessed by the air masses
+is, in their descent to their original positions at lower levels,
+transformed once more into axial or rotational energy. In this fashion
+this series of secondary processes, involving both transformations and
+transmissions, is linked to the great atmospheric process. The amount of
+energy which operates through the particular chain of processes we have
+described is, of course, exceedingly small, but in this or a similar
+manner all secondary operations, great or small, are associated with the
+atmospheric machine. Instances could readily be multiplied, but a little
+reflection will show how almost every energy operation, no matter what
+may be its nature, whether physical, chemical, or electrical, leads
+inevitably to the communication of energy to the atmospheric air masses
+and to their consequent upraisal.
+
+It is interesting to note the infallible tendency of energy to revert
+to its original form of axial energy, or energy of rotation, by means of
+the air machine. All Nature bears witness to this tendency, and although
+the path of energy through the maze of terrestrial transformation often
+appears tortuous and uncertain, its final destination is always sure.
+The secondary operations are thus interlinked into one great whole by
+their association in the terrestrial energy cycle. Many of these
+secondary operations are of short duration; others extend over long
+periods of time. Energy, in some cases, appears to slumber, as in the
+coal seams of the earth, until an appropriate stimulus is applied, when
+it enters into active operation once more. The cyclical operations are
+thus long or short according to the duration of their constituent
+secondary energy processes. But the balance of Nature is ever preserved.
+Axial energy, transformed by the working of one cyclical process, is
+being as continuously returned by the simultaneous operation of others.
+
+
+
+
+PART III
+
+
+
+
+TERRESTRIAL CONDITIONS
+
+
+33. _Gaseous Expansion_
+
+Before proceeding to the general description of the atmospheric machine
+(§ 10), it is desirable to consider one or two features of gaseous
+reaction which have a somewhat important bearing on its working. Let it
+be assumed that a mass of gaseous material is confined within the lower
+portion of a narrow tube ABCD (Fig. 8) assumed to be thermally
+non-conducting; the upper portion of the tube is in free communication
+with the atmosphere. The gas within the tube is assumed to be isolated
+from the atmosphere by a movable piston EF, free to move vertically in
+the tube, and for the purpose of illustration, assumed also frictionless
+and weightless. With these assumptions, the pressure on the confined gas
+will simply be that due to the atmosphere. If heat energy be now
+applied to the gas, its temperature will rise and expansion will ensue.
+This expansion will be carried out at constant atmospheric pressure; the
+gaseous material, as it expands, must lift with it the whole of the
+superimposed atmospheric column against the downward attractive force of
+the earth's gravitation on that column. Work is thus done by the
+expanding gas, and in consequence of this work done, a definite quantity
+of atmospheric material gains energy of position or potential energy
+relative to the earth's surface. At the same time, the rise of
+temperature of the gas will indicate an accession of heat energy to its
+mass. These familiar phenomena of expansion under constant pressure
+serve to illustrate the important fact that, when heat energy is applied
+to a gaseous mass, it really manifests itself therein in two aspects,
+namely, heat energy and work energy. The increment of heat energy is
+indicated by the increase in temperature, the increment of work energy
+by the increase in pressure. In the example just quoted, however, there
+is no increase in pressure, because the work energy, as rapidly as it is
+applied to the gas, is transformed or worked down in displacing the
+atmospheric column resting on the upper side of the moving piston. The
+energy applied, in the form of heat from the outside source, has in
+reality been introduced into a definite energy machine, a machine in
+this case adapted for the complete transformation of work energy into
+energy of position. As already indicated, when the expansive movement is
+completed, the volume and temperature of the gaseous mass are both
+increased but the pressure remains unaltered. While the increase in
+temperature is the measure and index of a definite increase in the heat
+energy of the gas, it is important to note that, so far as its work
+energy is concerned, the gas is finally in precisely the same condition
+as at the commencement of the operation. Work energy has been, by the
+working of this energy machine, as it were passed through the gaseous
+mass into the surrounding atmosphere. The pressure of the gas is the
+true index of its work energy properties. So long as the pressure
+remains unaltered, the inherent work energy of the material remains
+absolutely unaffected. A brief consideration of the nature of work
+energy as already portrayed (§ 31) will make this clear. Work energy has
+been defined as "_that form of energy transmitted by matter in motion_,"
+and it is clear that pressure is the essential factor in any
+transmission of this nature. Temperature has no direct bearing on it
+whatever. It is common knowledge, however, that in the application of
+heat energy to a gaseous substance, the two aspects of pressure and
+temperature cannot be really dissociated. They are mutually dependent.
+Any increment of heat energy to the gas is accompanied by an increment
+of work energy, and vice versa. The precise mode of action of the work
+energy will, of course, depend on the general circumstances of the
+energy machine in which it operates. In the case just considered the
+work energy does not finally reside in the gaseous mass itself, but, by
+the working of the machine, is communicated to the atmosphere. If, on
+the other hand, heat energy were applied in the same fashion to a mass
+of gas in a completely enclosed vessel, that is to say at constant
+volume instead of at constant pressure, the general phenomena are merely
+altered in degree according to the change in the precise nature of the
+energy machine. In the former case, the nature of the energy machine was
+such that the work energy communicated was expended in its entirety
+against gravitation. Under what is usually termed constant volume
+conditions, only a portion of the total work energy communicated is
+transformed, and the transformation of this portion is carried out, not
+against gravitation, but against the cohesive forces of the material of
+the enclosing vessel which restrains the expansion. No matter how great
+may be the elastic properties of this material, it will be distorted,
+more or less, by the application of work energy. This distortional
+movement is the external evidence of the energy process of
+transformation. Energy is stored in the material against the forces of
+cohesion (§ 15). But the energy thus stored is only a small proportion
+of the total work energy which accrues to the gas in the heating
+process. The remainder is stored in the gas itself, and the evidence of
+such storage is found simply in the increase of pressure. Different
+energy machines thus offer different facilities for the transformation
+or the storage of the applied energy. In every case where the work
+energy applied has no opportunity of expending itself, its presence will
+be indicated by an increase in the pressure or work function of the gas.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8]
+
+The principles which underlie the above phenomena can readily be applied
+to other cases of gaseous expansion. It is a matter of common experience
+that if a given mass of gaseous material be introduced into a vessel
+which has been exhausted by an air-pump or other device for the
+production of a vacuum, the whole space within the vessel is instantly
+permeated by the gas, which will expand until its volume is precisely
+that of the containing vessel. Further phenomena of the operation are
+that the expanding gas suffers a decrease in temperature and pressure
+corresponding to the degree or ratio of the expansion. Before the
+expansive process took place the gaseous mass, as indicated by its
+initial temperature and pressure, is endowed with a definite quantity of
+energy in the form of heat and work energy. After expansion, these
+quantities are diminished, as indicated by its final and lower
+temperature and pressure. The operation of expansion has thus involved
+an expenditure of energy. This expenditure takes place in virtue of the
+movement of the gaseous material (§ 4). It is obvious that if the volume
+of the whole is to be increased, each portion of the expanding gas
+requires to move relatively to the remainder. This movement is carried
+out in the lines of the earth's gravitative attraction, and to a certain
+extent over the surface of the containing vessel. In some respects, it
+thus corresponds simply to the movement of a body over the earth's
+surface (§ 16). It is also carried out against the viscous or frictional
+forces existing throughout the gaseous material itself (§ 29). Assuming
+no influx of energy from without, the energy expended in the movement of
+the gaseous material must be obtained at the expense of the inherent
+heat and work energy of the gas, and these two functions will decrease
+simultaneously. The heat and work energy of the gas or its inherent
+energy is thus taken to provide the energy necessary for the expansive
+movement. This energy, however, does not leave the gas, but still
+resides therein in a form akin to that of energy of position or
+separation. It will be clear also, that the reverse operation cannot, in
+this case, be carried out; the gas cannot move back to its original
+volume in the same fashion as it expanded into the vacuum, so that the
+energy utilised in this way for separation cannot be directly returned.
+
+The expansion of the gas has been assumed above to take place into a
+vacuous space, but a little consideration will show that this condition
+cannot be properly or even approximately fulfilled under ordinary
+experimental conditions. The smallest quantity of gas introduced into
+the exhausted vessel will at once completely fill the vacuous space,
+and, on this account, the whole expansion of the gas does not in reality
+take place _in vacuo_ at all. To study the action of the gas under the
+latter conditions, it is necessary to look on the operation of expansion
+in a more general way, which might be presented as follows.
+
+
+34. _Gravitational Equilibrium of Gases_
+
+Consider a planetary body, in general nature similar to the earth, but,
+unlike the earth, possessing no atmosphere whatever. The space
+surrounding such a celestial mass may then be considered as a perfect
+vacuum. Now let it be further assumed that in virtue of some change in
+the conditions, a portion of the material of the planetary mass is
+volatilised and a mass of gas thereby liberated over its surface. The
+gas is assumed to correspond in temperature to that portion of the
+planet's surface with which it is in contact. It is clear that, in the
+circumstances, the gas, in virtue of its elastic and energetic
+properties, will expand in all directions. It will completely envelop
+the planet, and it will also move radially outwards into space. In these
+respects, its expansion will correspond to that of a gas introduced
+into a vacuous space of unlimited extent.
+
+The question now arises as to the nature of the action of the gaseous
+substance in these circumstances. It is clear that the radial or outward
+movement of the gas from the planetary surface is made directly against
+the gravitative attraction of the planet on the gaseous mass. In other
+words, matter or material is being moved in the lines or field of this
+gravitative force. This movement, accordingly, will be productive of an
+energy transformation (§ 4). In its initial or surface condition each
+portion of the gaseous mass is possessed of a perfectly definite amount
+of energy indicated by and dependent on that condition. As it moves
+upwards from the surface, it does work against gravity in the raising of
+its own mass. But as the mass is thus raised, it is gaining energy of
+position (§ 20), and as it has absolutely no communication with any
+external source of energy in its ascent, the energy of position thus
+gained can only be obtained at the expense of its initial inherent heat
+and work energy. The operation is, in fact, a simple transformation of
+this inherent energy into energy of position, a transformation in which
+gravity is the incepting agency. The external evidence of transformation
+will be a fall in temperature of the material. Since the action is
+exactly similar for all ascending particles, it is evident that as the
+altitude of the gaseous mass increases the temperature will
+correspondingly diminish. This diminution will proceed so long as the
+gaseous particles continue to ascend, and until an elevation is finally
+attained at which their inherent energy is entirely converted into
+energy of position. The expansion of the gas, and the associated
+transformation of energy, thus leads to the erection of a gaseous column
+in space, the temperature of which steadily diminishes from the base to
+the summit. At the latter elevation, the inherent energy of the gaseous
+particles which attain to it is completely transformed or worked out
+against gravity in the ascent; the energy possessed by the gas at this
+elevation is, therefore, entirely energy of position; the energy
+properties of heat and work have entirely vanished, and the temperature
+will, therefore, at this elevation, be absolute zero. It is important to
+note also that in the building of such a column or gaseous spherical
+envelope round the planet, the total energy of any gaseous particle of
+that column will remain unchanged throughout the process. No matter
+where the particle may be situated in the column, its total energy must
+always be expressed by its heat and work energy properties together with
+its energy of position. This sum is always a constant quantity. For if
+the particle descends from a higher to a lower altitude, its total
+energy is still unchanged, because a definite transformation of its
+energy of position takes place corresponding to its fall, and this
+transformed energy duly appears in its original form of heat and work
+energy in accordance with the decreased altitude of the particle. Since
+the temperature of the column remains unchanged at the base surface and
+only decreases in the ascent, it is clear that the entire heat and work
+energy of the originally liberated gaseous mass is not expended in the
+movement against gravity. Every gaseous particle--excepting those on the
+absolute outer surface of the gaseous envelope--has still the property
+of temperature. It is evident, therefore, that in the constitution of
+the column, only a portion of the total original heat and work energy of
+the gaseous substance is transformed into energy of position.
+
+The space into which the gas expands has been referred to as unlimited
+in extent. But although in one sense it may be correctly described thus,
+yet in another, and perhaps in a truer sense, the space is very strictly
+limited. It is true there is no enclosing vessel or bounding surface,
+but nevertheless the expansion of the gas is restrained in two ways or
+limited by two factors. The position of the bounding surface of the
+spherical gaseous envelope depends, in the first place, on the original
+energy of the gas as deduced from its initial temperature and its other
+physical properties, and secondly on the value of the gravitative
+attraction exerted on the gas by the planetary body. Looking at the
+first factor, it is obvious that since the gaseous mass initially
+possesses only a limited amount of energy, and since only a certain
+portion of this energy is really available for the transformation, the
+whole process is thereby limited in extent. The complete transformation
+and disappearance of that available portion of the gaseous energy in the
+process of erection of the atmospheric column will correspond to a
+definite and limited increase of energy of position of gaseous material.
+Since the energy of position is thus restricted in its totality, and the
+mass of material for elevation is constant, the height of the column or
+the boundary of expansion of the gas is likewise rigidly defined. In
+this fashion, the energy properties of the gaseous material limit the
+expansive process.
+
+Looking at the operation from another standpoint, it is clear that the
+maximum height of the spherical gaseous envelope must also be dependent
+on the resistance against which the upward movement of the gas is
+carried out, that is, on the value of the gravitative attraction. The
+expenditure of energy in the ascent varies directly as the opposing
+force; if this force be increased the ultimate height must decrease, and
+vice versa. Each particle might be regarded as moving in the ascent
+against the action of an invisible spring, stretching it so that with
+increase of altitude more and more of the energy of the particle is
+transformed or stored in the spring in the extension. When the particle
+descends to its original position, the operation is reversed; the
+spring is now contracting, and yielding up the stored energy to the
+particle in the contraction. The action of the spring would here be
+merely that of an apparatus for the storage and return of energy. In the
+case of the gaseous mass, we conceive the action of gravitation to be
+exactly analogous to that of a spring offering an approximately constant
+resistance to extension. (The value of gravity is assumed approximately
+constant, and independent of the particle's displacement.) The energy
+stored or transformed in the ascension against gravity is returned on
+the descent in a precisely similar fashion. The operation is a
+completely reversible one. The range of motion of the gaseous mass or
+the ultimate height of the gaseous column will thus depend on the value
+of the opposing attractive force controlling the motion or, in other
+words, on the value of gravity. This value is of course defined by the
+relative mass of the planet (§ 20).
+
+It is evident that the spherical envelope which would thus enwrap the
+planetary mass possesses certain peculiar properties which are not
+associated with gaseous masses under ordinary experimental conditions.
+It by no means corresponds to any ordinary body of gaseous material,
+having a homogeneous constitution and a precise and determinate pressure
+and temperature throughout. On the contrary, its properties are somewhat
+complex. Throughout the gaseous envelope the physical condition of the
+substance is continually changing with change of altitude. The extremes
+are found at the inner and outer bounding surfaces. At any given level,
+the gaseous pressure is simply the result of the attractive action of
+gravitation on the mass of gaseous material above that level--or, more
+simply, to the weight of material above that level. There is, of course,
+a certain decrease in the value of the gravitative attraction with
+increase of altitude, but within the limits of atmospheric height
+obtained by ordinary gaseous substances (§ 36) this decrease may be
+neglected, and the weight of unit mass of the material assumed constant
+at different levels. Increase of atmospheric altitude is thus
+accompanied by decrease in atmospheric pressure. But decrease in
+pressure must be accompanied by a corresponding decrease in density of
+the gas, so that, if uniform temperature were for the time being
+assumed, it would be necessary at the higher levels to rise through a
+greater distance to experience the same decrease in pressure than at the
+lower levels. In fact, given uniform conditions of temperature, if
+different altitudes were taken in arithmetical progression the
+respective pressures and densities would diminish in geometrical
+progression. But we have seen that the energy conditions absolutely
+preclude the condition of uniformity of temperature, and accordingly,
+the decreasing pressure and density must be counteracted to some extent
+at least by the decreasing temperature. The conditions are somewhat
+complex; but the general effect of the decreasing temperature factor
+would seem to be by increasing the density to cause the available
+gaseous energy to be completely worked down at a somewhat lower level
+than otherwise, and thus to lessen to some degree the height of the
+gaseous envelope.
+
+It is to be noted that a gaseous column or atmosphere of this nature
+would be in a state of complete equilibrium under the action of the
+gravitative attraction--provided there were no external disturbing
+influences. The peculiar feature of such a column is that the total
+energy of unit mass of its material, wherever that mass may be situated,
+is a constant quantity. In virtue of this property, the equilibrium of
+the column might be termed neutral or statical equilibrium. The gas may
+then be described as in the neutral or statical condition. This statical
+condition of equilibrium of a gas is of course a purely hypothetical
+one. It has been described in order to introduce certain ideas which are
+essential to the discussion of energy changes and reactions of gases in
+the lines of gravitational forces. These reactions will now be dealt
+with.
+
+
+35. _Total Energy of Gaseous Substances_
+
+Since the maximum height of a planetary atmosphere is dependent on the
+total energy of the gaseous substance or substances of which it is
+composed, it becomes necessary, in determining this height, to estimate
+this total energy. This, however, is a matter of some difficulty. By the
+total energy is here meant the entire energy possessed by the substance,
+that energy which it would yield up in cooling from its given condition
+down to absolute zero of temperature. On examination of the recorded
+properties of the various gaseous substances familiar to us, it will be
+found that in no single instance are the particulars available for
+anything more than an exceedingly rough estimate of this total energy.
+Each substance, in proceeding from the gaseous condition towards
+absolute zero, passes through many physical phases. In most cases, there
+is a lack of experimental phenomena or data of any kind relating to
+certain of these phases; the necessary information on certain points,
+such as the values and variations of latent and specific heats and other
+physical quantities, is, in the meantime, not accessible. Experimental
+research in regions of low temperature may be said to be in its infancy,
+and the properties of matter in these regions are accordingly more or
+less unknown. The researches of Mendeleef and others tend to show, also,
+that the comparatively simple laws successfully applied to gases under
+normal conditions are entirely departed from at very low temperatures.
+In view of these facts, it is necessary, in attempting to estimate, by
+ordinary methods, the total energy of any substance, to bear in mind
+that the quantity finally obtained may only be a rough approximation to
+the true value. These approximations, however, although of little value
+as precise measurements, may be of very great importance for certain
+general comparative purposes.
+
+Keeping in view these general considerations, it is now proposed to
+estimate, under ordinary terrestrial atmospheric conditions, the total
+energy properties of the three gaseous substances, oxygen, nitrogen, and
+aqueous vapour. The information relative to the energy calculation which
+is in the meantime available is shown below in tabular form. As far as
+possible all the heat and other energy properties of each substance as
+it cools to absolute zero have been taken into account.
+
+_Table of Properties_
+
+  +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+
+  |   I    |    II   |    III   |    IV    |      V      |  VI   |   VII   |
+  +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+
+  |        |Specific |     Evaporation     |             |       |         |
+  |        | Heat at |Temperature of Liquid| Approximate | Latent|  Vapour |
+  |  Gas   | Constant|    at Atmospheric   | Latent Heat |Heat of|Pressure.|
+  |        |Pressure.|      Pressure.      |of Gas 50° F.|Liquid.|  50° F. |
+  |        |         |    °F.    °F. (Abs.)|             |       |         |
+  +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+
+  |Oxygen  | 0·2175  |   -296   |    164   |     100     |  ...  |   ...   |
+  +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+
+  |Nitrogen| 0·2438  |   -320   |    141   |     100     |  ...  |   ...   |
+  +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+
+  |Aqueous |         |          |          |             |       |         |
+  |Vapour  | 0·4     |    212   |    673   |    1080     |  144  |  0·176  |
+  +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+
+
+Since no reliable data can be obtained with regard to the values and
+variations of specific heats at extremely low temperatures, they are
+assumed for the purpose of our calculation to be in each case that of
+the gas, and to be constant under all conditions. Latent heats are
+utilised in every case when available.
+
+With these reservations, the total energy, referred to absolute zero, of
+one pound of oxygen gas at normal temperature of 50° F. or 511° F.
+(Abs.) will be approximately
+
+     (511 × 0·2175) + 100 = 211 Thermal Units Fahrenheit.
+
+This in work units is roughly equivalent to
+
+     211 × 778 = 164,000 ft. lbs.
+
+Adopting the same method with nitrogen gas, its energy at the same
+initial temperature will be, per unit mass,
+
+     174,600 ft. lbs.
+
+There is thus a somewhat close resemblance, not only in the general
+temperature conditions but also in the energy conditions, of the two
+gases oxygen and nitrogen.
+
+It will be readily seen, however, that under the same conditions the
+energy state of aqueous vapour differs very considerably from either,
+for by the same method as before the energy per pound of aqueous vapour
+is equal to
+
+     {(511 × 0·4) + 1080 + 144} × 778 = 1,111,000 ft. lbs.
+
+Under ordinary terrestrial atmospheric conditions, the energy of aqueous
+vapour per unit mass is thus nearly seven times as great as that of
+either oxygen or nitrogen gas. It is to be observed, also, that
+three-fourths of this energy of the vapour under the given conditions is
+present in the form of latent energy of the gas, or what we have already
+termed work energy.
+
+The values of the various temperatures and other physical features,
+which we have included in the Table of Properties above, and which will
+be utilised throughout this discussion, are merely those in everyday use
+in scientific work. They form simply the accessible information on the
+respective materials. They are the records of phenomena, and on these
+phenomena are based our energy calculations. Further research may reveal
+the true values of other factors which up to the present we have been
+forced to assume, and so lead to more accurate computation of the energy
+in each case. Such investigation, however, is unlikely to affect in any
+way the general object of this part of the work, which is simply to
+portray in an approximate manner the relative energy properties of the
+three gaseous substances under certain assumed conditions.
+
+
+36. _Comparative Altitudes of Planetary Atmospheres_
+
+The total energy of equal masses of the gases oxygen, nitrogen, and
+aqueous vapour, as estimated by the method above, are respectively in
+the ratios
+
+     1 : 1·06 : 6·8
+
+Referring back once more to the phenomena described with reference to
+the gravitational equilibrium of a gas, let it be assumed that the
+gaseous substance liberated on the surface of the planetary body is
+oxygen, and that the planetary body itself is of approximately the same
+constitution and dimensions as the earth. The oxygen gas thus liberated
+will expand against gravity, and envelop the planet in the manner
+already described (§ 34). Now the total energy of a mass of one pound of
+oxygen has been estimated under certain assumptions (§ 35) to be 164,000
+ft. lbs. The value of the gravitative attraction of the planet on this
+mass is the same as under ordinary terrestrial conditions, so that if
+the entire energy of one pound of the gas were utilised in raising
+itself against gravity, the height through which this mass would be
+raised, and at which the material would attain the level of absolute
+zero of temperature, assuming gravity constant with increasing altitude,
+would be simply 164,000 ft. or approximately 31 miles. The whole energy
+would not, of course, be expended in the expansive movement; only the
+outermost surface material of the planetary gaseous envelope attains to
+absolute zero of temperature. In estimating the altitude of this
+surface, however, the precise mass of gaseous substance assumed for the
+purpose of calculation is of little or no importance. Whatever may be
+the value of the mass assumed, its total energy and the gravitative
+attraction of the planetary body on it are both alike entirely and
+directly dependent on that mass value. It is therefore clear that no
+matter how the mass under consideration be diminished, the height at
+which its energy would be completely worked down, and at which its
+temperature would be absolute zero, is the same, namely 31 miles. At the
+planet's surface, the total energy of an infinitesimally small portion
+of the gaseous mass is proportional to that mass. This amount of energy
+is, however, all that is available for transformation against
+gravitation in the ascent. But at the same time, the gravitative force
+on the particle, that force which resists its upward movement, is
+proportionately small corresponding to the small mass, so that the
+particle will in reality require to rise to the same altitude of 31
+miles in order to completely transform its energy and attain absolute
+zero of temperature. When the expansive process is completed, the outer
+surface of the spherical gaseous envelope surrounding the planet is then
+formed of matter in this condition of absolute zero; this height of 31
+miles is then the altitude or depth of the statical atmospheric column
+at a point on the planetary surface where the temperature is 50° F.
+
+It is to be particularly noted that this height is entirely dependent
+on the gravitation, temperature, and energy conditions assumed.
+
+With respect, also, to the assumption made above, of constant
+gravitation with increasing altitude, the variation in the value of
+gravity within the height limits in which the gas operates is so slight,
+that the energy of the expanding substance is completely worked down
+long before the variation appreciably affects the estimated altitude of
+absolute zero. In any case, bearing in mind the approximate nature of
+the estimate of the energy of the gases themselves, the variation of
+gravity is evidently a factor of little moment in our scheme of
+comparison.
+
+Knowing the maximum height to be 31 miles, a uniform temperature
+gradient from the planetary surface to the outermost surface of the
+atmospheric material may be readily calculated. In the case of oxygen,
+the decrease of temperature with altitude will be at the rate of 16° F.
+per mile, or 1° F. per 330 ft.
+
+If the planetary atmosphere were composed of nitrogen instead of oxygen,
+the height of the statical atmospheric column under the given conditions
+would then be approximately
+
+     31 × 1·06 = 33 miles,
+
+and the gradient of temperature 15·5° F. per mile.
+
+In the case of aqueous vapour, which is possessed of much more powerful
+energy properties than either oxygen or nitrogen, the height of the
+statical column, to correspond to the energy of the material, is no less
+than 210 miles and the temperature gradient only 2·4° F. per mile.
+
+Each of the gases, then, if separately associated with the planetary
+body, would form an atmosphere around it depending in height on the
+peculiar energy properties of the gas. A point to be observed is that
+the actual or total mass of any gas thus liberated at the planet's
+surface has no bearing on the ultimate height of the atmosphere which it
+would constitute. When the expansive motion is completed, the density
+properties of the atmosphere would of course depend on the initial mass
+of gas liberated, but for any given value of gravity it is the energy
+properties of the gas per unit mass, or what might be termed its
+specific energy properties, which really determine the height of its
+atmosphere.
+
+
+37. _Reactions of Composite Atmosphere_
+
+It is now possible to deal with the case in which not only one gas but
+several gases are initially liberated on the planetary surface. Since
+the gases are different, then at the given surface temperature of the
+planet they possess different amounts of heat energy, and for each gas
+considered statically, the temperature-altitude gradient will be
+different from any of the others. The limiting height of the gaseous
+column for each gas, considered separately, will also depend on the
+total energy of that gas per unit mass, at the surface temperature. But
+it is evident that in a composite atmosphere, the separate statical
+conditions of several gases could not be maintained. In such a mixture,
+separate temperature-altitude gradients would be impossible. Absolute
+zero of temperature could clearly not be attained at more than one
+altitude, and it is evident that the temperature-altitude gradient of
+the mixture must, in some way, settle down to a definite value, and
+absolute zero of temperature must occur at some determinate height. This
+can only be brought about by energy exchanges and reactions between the
+atmospheric constituents. When these reactions have taken place, the
+atmosphere as a whole will have attained a condition analogous to that
+of statical equilibrium (§ 34). Each of its constituents, however, will
+have decidedly departed from this latter condition. In the course of the
+mutual energy reactions, some will lose a portion of their energy.
+Others will gain at their expense. All are in equilibrium as
+constituents of the composite atmosphere, but none approach the
+condition of statical equilibrium peculiar to an atmosphere composed of
+one gas only (§ 35). The precise energy operations which would thus take
+place in any composite atmosphere would of course depend in nature and
+extent on the physical properties of the reacting constituents. If the
+latter were closely alike in general properties, the energy changes are
+likely to be small. A strong divergence in energy properties will give
+rise to more powerful reactions. A concrete instance will perhaps make
+this more clear. Let it be assumed in the first place that the planetary
+atmosphere is composed of the two gases oxygen and nitrogen. From
+previous considerations, it will be clear that the natural decrease of
+temperature of nitrogen gas with increase of altitude is, in virtue of
+its slightly superior energy qualities, correspondingly slower than that
+of oxygen. The approximate rates are 15·5° F. and 16° F. per mile
+respectively. The tendency of the nitrogen is therefore to transmit a
+portion of its energy to the oxygen. Such a transmission, however, would
+increase the height of the oxygen column and correspondingly decrease
+the height of the nitrogen. When the balance is finally obtained, the
+height of the atmospheric column does not correspond to the energy
+properties of either gas, but to those of the combination. In the case
+of these two materials, oxygen and nitrogen, the energy reactions
+necessary to produce the condition of equilibrium are comparatively
+small in magnitude on account of the somewhat close resemblance in the
+energy properties of the two substances. On this account, therefore, the
+two gases might readily be assumed to behave as one gas composing the
+planetary atmosphere.
+
+But what, then, will be the effect of introducing a quantity of aqueous
+vapour into an atmosphere this nature? The general phenomena will be of
+the same order as before, but of much greater magnitude. From the
+approximate figures obtained (§§ 35, 36), the inherent energy of aqueous
+vapour per unit mass is seen to be, under the same conditions,
+enormously greater than that of the other two gases. In statical
+equilibrium (§ 34), the altitude of the gaseous column formed by aqueous
+vapour is almost seven times as great as that of the oxygen or nitrogen
+with which, in the composite atmosphere, it would be intermixed. In the
+given circumstances, then, aqueous vapour would be forced by these
+conditions to give up a very large portion of its energy to the other
+atmospheric constituents. The latter would thus be still further
+expanded against gravity; the aqueous vapour itself would suffer a loss
+of energy equivalent to the work transmitted from it. It is therefore
+clear that in a composite atmosphere formed in the manner described, any
+gas possessed of energy properties superior to the other constituents is
+forced of necessity to transmit energy to these constituents. This
+phenomenon is merely a consequence of the natural disposition of the
+atmospheric gaseous substances towards a condition of equilibrium with
+more or less uniform temperature gradation. The greater the inherent
+energy qualities of any one constituent relative to the others, the
+greater will be the quantity of energy transmitted from it in this way.
+
+
+38. _Description of Terrestrial Case_
+
+Bearing in mind the general considerations which have been advanced
+above with respect to planetary atmospheres, it is now possible to place
+before the reader a general descriptive outline of the circumstances and
+operation of an atmospheric machine in actual working. The machine to be
+described is that associated with the earth.
+
+In the earth is found an example of a planetary body of spheroidal form
+pursuing a clearly defined orbit in space and at the same time rotating
+with absolutely uniform velocity about a central axis within itself. The
+structural details of its surface and the general distribution of
+material thereon will be more or less familiar to the reader, and it is
+not, therefore, proposed to dwell on these features here. Attention may
+be drawn, however, to the fact that a very large proportion of the
+surface of the earth is a liquid surface. Of all the material familiar
+to us from terrestrial experience there is none which enters into the
+composition of the earth's crust in so large a proportion as water. In
+the free state, or in combination with other material, water is found
+everywhere. In the liquid condition it is widely distributed. Although
+the liquid or sea surface of the planet extends over a large part of
+the whole, the real water surface, that is, the _wetted_ surface, if we
+except perhaps a few desert regions, may be said to comprise practically
+the entire surface area of the planet. And water is found not only on
+the earth's crust but throughout the gaseous atmospheric envelope. The
+researches of modern chemistry have revealed the fact that the
+atmosphere by which the earth is surrounded is not only a mixture of
+gases, but an exceedingly complex mixture. The relative proportions of
+the rarer gases present are, however, exceedingly small, and their
+properties correspondingly obscure. Taken broadly, the atmosphere may be
+said to be composed of air and water (in the form of aqueous vapour) in
+varying proportion. The former constituent exists as a mixture of oxygen
+and nitrogen gases of fairly constant proportion over the entire surface
+of the globe. The latter is present in varying amount at different
+points according to local conditions. This mixture of gaseous
+substances, forming the terrestrial atmosphere, resides on the surface
+of the planet and forms, as already described (§ 34), a column or
+envelope completely surrounding it; the quantity of gaseous material
+thus heaped up on the planetary surface is such that it exerts almost
+uniformly over that surface the ordinary atmospheric pressure of
+approximately 14·7 lb. per sq. inch. It is advisable, also, at this
+stage to point out and emphasise the fact that the planetary atmosphere
+must be regarded as essentially a material portion of the planet itself.
+Although the atmosphere forms a movable shell or envelope, and is
+composed of purely gaseous material, it will still partake of the same
+complete orbital and rotatory axial motion as the solid core, and will
+also be subjected to the same external and internal influences of
+gravitation. Such are the general planetary conditions. Let us now turn
+to the particular phenomena of axial revolution.
+
+In virtue of the unvarying rotatory movement of the planetary mass in
+the lines of the various incepting fields of its primary the sun,
+transformations of the axial or mechanical energy of the planet will be
+in continuous operation (§§ 17-19). Although the gaseous atmospheric
+envelope of the planet partakes of this general rotatory motion under
+the influence of the incepting fields, the latter have apparently no
+action upon it. The sun's influence penetrates, as it were, the
+atmospheric veil, and operating on the solid and liquid material below,
+provokes the numerous and varied transformations of planetary energy
+which constitute planetary phenomena. At the equatorial band, where the
+velocity or axial energy properties of the surface material is greatest,
+these effects of transformation will naturally be most pronounced. In
+the polar regions of low velocity they will be less evident. One of the
+most important of these transforming effects may be termed the heating
+action of the primary on the planet--a process which takes place in
+greater or less degree over the entire planetary surface, and which is
+the result of the direct transformation of axial energy into the form of
+heat (§ 18). In virtue of this heat transformation, or heating effect of
+the sun, the temperature of material on the earth's surface is
+maintained in varying values from regions of high velocity to those of
+low--from equator to poles--according to latitude or according to the
+displacement of that material, in rotation, from the central axis. Owing
+to the irregular distribution of matter on the earth's surface, and
+other causes to be referred to later, this variation in temperature is
+not necessarily uniform with the latitude. This heating effect of the
+sun on the earth will provoke on the terrestrial surface all the
+familiar secondary processes (§ 9) associated with the heating of
+material. Most of these processes, in combination with the operations of
+radiation and conduction, will lead either directly or indirectly to the
+communication of energy to the atmospheric masses (§ 27).
+
+Closely associated with the heat transformation, there is also in
+operation another energy process of great importance. This process is
+one of evaporative transformation. Reference has already been made to
+the vast extent of the liquid or wetted surface of the earth. This
+surface forms the seat of evaporation, and the action of the sun's
+incepting influence on the liquid of this surface is to induce a direct
+transformation of the earth's axial or mechanical energy into the
+elastic energy of a gas, or in other words into the form of work energy.
+By this process, therefore, water is converted into aqueous vapour.
+Immediately the substance attains the latter or gaseous state it becomes
+unaffected by, or transparent to, the incepting influence of the sun (§
+18). And the action of evaporation is not restricted in locality to the
+earth's surface only. It may proceed throughout the atmosphere. Wherever
+condensation of aqueous vapour takes place and water particles are
+thereby suspended in the atmosphere, these particles are immediately
+susceptible to the sun's incepting field, and if the conditions are
+otherwise favourable, re-evaporation will at once ensue. Like the
+ordinary heating action also, that of transformation will take place
+with greater intensity in equatorial than in polar regions. These two
+planetary secondary processes, of heating and evaporation, are of vital
+importance to the working of the atmospheric machine. But, as already
+pointed out elsewhere (§§ 10, 32), every secondary operation is in some
+fashion linked to that machine. Other incepting influences, such as
+light, are in action on the planet, and produce transformations peculiar
+to themselves. These, in the meantime, will not be considered except to
+point out that in every case the energy active in them is the axial
+energy of the earth itself operating under the direct incepting
+influence of the sun. The general conditions of planetary revolution and
+transformation are thus intimately associated with the operation of the
+atmospheric machine. In this machine is embodied a huge energy process,
+in the working of which the axial energy of the earth passes through a
+series of energy changes which, in combination, form a complete cyclical
+operation. In their perhaps most natural sequence these processes are as
+follows:--
+
+1. The direct transformation of terrestrial axial energy into the work
+energy of aqueous vapour.
+
+2. The direct transmission of the work energy of aqueous vapour to the
+general atmospheric masses, and the consequent elevation of these masses
+from the earth's surface against gravity.
+
+3. The descent of the atmospheric air masses in their movement towards
+regions of low velocity, and the return in the descent of the initially
+transformed axial energy to its original form.
+
+The first of these processes is carried out through the medium of the
+aqueous material of the earth. It is simply the evaporative
+transformation referred to above. By that evaporative process a portion
+of the energy of motion or axial energy of the earth is directly
+communicated or passed into the aqueous material. Its form, in that
+material, is that of work energy, or the elastic energy of aqueous
+vapour, and, as already pointed out, this process of evaporative
+transformation reaches its greatest intensity in equatorial or regions
+of highest velocity. In these regions also, in virtue of the working of
+the heat process already referred to above, the temperature conditions
+are eminently favourable to the presence of large quantities of aqueous
+vapour. The tension or pressure of the vapour, which really depends on
+the quantity of gaseous material present, is directly proportional to
+the temperature, so that in equatorial regions not only is the general
+action of transformation in the aqueous material most intense, but the
+surrounding temperature conditions in these regions are such as to
+favour the continuous presence of large quantities of the aqueous vapour
+which is the direct product of the action of transformation. The
+equatorial regions of the earth, or the regions of high velocity, are
+thus eminently adapted, by the natural conditions, to be the seat of the
+most powerful transformations of axial energy. As already pointed out,
+however, these same transformations take place over the entire
+terrestrial surface in varying degree and intensity according to the
+locality and the temperature or other conditions which may prevail. Now
+this transformation of axial energy which takes place through the medium
+of the evaporative process is a continuous operation. The energy
+involved, which passes into the aqueous vapour, augmented by the energy
+of other secondary processes (§ 32), is the energy which is applied to
+the atmospheric air masses in the second stage of the working of the
+atmospheric machine. Before proceeding to the description of this stage,
+however, it is absolutely necessary to point out certain very important
+facts with reference to the energy condition of the atmospheric
+constituents in the peculiar circumstances of their normal working.
+
+
+39. _Relative Physical Conditions of Atmospheric Constituents_
+
+It will be evident that no matter where the evaporation of the aqueous
+material takes place, it must be carried out at the temperature
+corresponding to that location, and since the aqueous vapour itself is
+not superheated in any way (being transparent to the sun's influence),
+the axial energy transformed and the work energy stored in the material
+per unit mass, will be simply equivalent to the latent heat of aqueous
+vapour under the temperature conditions which prevail. In virtue of the
+relatively high value of this latent heat under ordinary conditions, the
+gas may be regarded as comparatively a very highly energised substance.
+It is clear, however, that since the gas is working at its precise
+temperature of evaporation, the maximum amount of energy which it can
+possibly yield up at that temperature is simply this latent heat of
+evaporation, and if this energy be by any means withdrawn, either in
+whole or in part, then condensation corresponding to the energy
+withdrawal will at once ensue. The condition of the aqueous vapour is in
+fact that of a true vapour, or of a gaseous substance operating exactly
+at its evaporation temperature, and unable to sustain even the slightest
+abstraction of energy without an equivalent condensation. No matter in
+what manner the abstraction is carried out, whether by the direct
+transmission of heat from the substance or by the expansion of the gas
+against gravity, the result is the same; part of the gaseous material
+returns to the liquid form.
+
+In the case of the more stable or permanent constituents of the
+atmosphere, namely oxygen and nitrogen, their physical conditions are
+entirely different from that of the aqueous vapour. Examination of the
+Table of Properties (p. 133) shows that the evaporation temperatures of
+these two substances under ordinary conditions of atmospheric pressure
+are as low as -296° F. and -320° F. respectively. At an ordinary
+atmospheric temperature of say 50° F. these two gases are therefore so
+far above their evaporation temperature that they are in the condition
+of what might be termed true gaseous substances. Although only at a
+temperature of 50° F., they may be truly described as highly superheated
+gases, and it is evident that they may be readily cooled from 50° F.
+through wide ranges of temperature, without any danger of their
+condensation or liquefaction. Oxygen and nitrogen gases thus present in
+their physical condition and qualities a strong contrast to aqueous
+vapour, and it is this difference in properties, particularly the
+difference in evaporation temperatures, which is of vital importance in
+the working of the atmospheric machine. The two gases oxygen and
+nitrogen are, however, so closely alike in their general energy
+properties that, in the meantime, the atmospheric mixture of the two can
+be conveniently assumed to act simply as one gas--atmospheric air.
+
+From these considerations of the ordinary atmospheric physical
+properties of air and aqueous vapour it may be readily seen how each is
+eminently adapted to its function in the atmospheric process. The
+peculiar duty of the aqueous vapour is the absorption and transmission
+of energy. Its relatively enormous capacity for energy, the high value
+of its latent heat at all ordinary atmospheric temperatures, and the
+fact that it must always operate precisely at its evaporation
+temperature makes it admirably suited for both functions. Thus, in
+virtue of its peculiar physical properties, it forms an admirable agent
+for the storage of energy and for its transmission to the surrounding
+air masses. The low temperature of evaporation of these air masses
+ensures their permanency in the gaseous state. They are thus perfectly
+adapted for expansive and other movements, for the conversion of their
+energy against gravity into energy of position, or for any other
+reactions involving temperature change without condensation.
+
+
+40. _Transmission of Energy from Aqueous Vapour to Air Masses_
+
+The working of the second or transmission stage of the atmospheric
+machine involves certain energy operations in which gravitation is the
+incepting factor or agency. Let it be assumed that a mass of aqueous
+vapour liberated at its surface of evaporation by the transformation of
+axial energy, expands upwards against the gravitative attraction of the
+earth (§§ 34, 38). As the gaseous particles ascend and thus gain energy
+of position, they do work against gravity. This work is done at the
+expense of their latent energy. Since the aqueous material is always
+working precisely at its evaporation temperature, this gain in energy of
+position and consequent loss of latent energy will be accompanied by an
+equivalent condensation and conversion of the rising vapour into the
+liquid form. This condensation will thus be the direct evidence and
+measure of work done by the aqueous material against the gravitational
+forces, and the energy expended or worked down in this way may now,
+accordingly, be regarded as stored in the condensed material or liquid
+particles in virtue of their new and exalted position above the earth's
+surface. It is this energy which is finally transmitted to the
+atmospheric air masses. The transmission process is carried out in the
+downward movement of the liquid particles. The latter, in their exalted
+positions, are at a low temperature corresponding to that position--that
+is, corresponding to the work done--and provided no energy were
+transmitted from them to the surrounding air masses, their temperature
+would gradually rise during the descent by the transformation of this
+energy of position. In fact the phenomena of descent, supposing no
+transmission of energy from the aqueous material, would simply be the
+reverse of the phenomena of ascent. Since, however, the energy of
+position which the liquid particles possess is transmitted from them to
+the atmospheric masses, then it follows that this natural increase in
+their temperature would not occur in the descent. A new order of
+phenomena would now appear. Since the evaporative process is a
+continuous one, the liquid particles in their downward movement must be
+in intimate contact with rising gaseous material, and these liquid
+particles will, accordingly, at each stage of the descent, absorb from
+this rising material the whole energy necessary to raise their
+temperature to the values corresponding to their decreasing elevation.
+In virtue of this absorption of energy then, from the rising material,
+these liquid particles are enabled to reach the level of evaporation at
+the precise temperature of that level.
+
+Now, considering the process as a whole, it will be readily seen that
+for any given mass of aqueous material thus elevated from and returned
+to a surface of evaporation, there must be a definite expenditure of
+energy (axial energy) at that surface. Since the material always regains
+the surface at the precise temperature of evaporation, this expenditure
+is obviously, in total, equal to the latent heat of aqueous vapour at
+the surface temperature. It may be divided into two parts. One portion
+of the axial energy--the transmitted portion--is utilised in the
+elevation of the material against gravity; the remainder is expended, as
+explained above, in the heating of the returning material. The whole
+operation takes place between two precise temperatures, a higher
+temperature, which is that of the surface of evaporation, and a lower
+temperature, corresponding to the work done, and so related to the
+higher that the whole of the energy expended by the working aqueous
+substance--in heating the returning material and in transmitted work--is
+exactly equivalent to the latent heat of aqueous vapour at the high or
+surface temperature. But, as will be demonstrated later, the whole
+energy transmitted from the aqueous material to the air masses is
+finally returned in its entirety as axial energy, and is thus once more
+made available in the evaporative transformation process. The energy
+expended in raising the temperature of the working material returning to
+the surface of evaporation is obviously returned with that material.
+Both portions of the original expenditure are thus returned to the
+source in different ways. The whole operation is, in fact, completely
+cyclical in nature; we are in reality describing "Nature's Perfect
+Engine," which is completely reversible and which has the highest
+possible efficiency.[1] Although the higher temperature at the
+evaporation surface may vary with different locations of that surface,
+in every case the lower temperature is so related to it as to make the
+total expenditure precisely equal to the latent heat at that evaporation
+temperature.[2] It must be borne in mind also, that all the condensed
+material in the upper strata of the atmosphere must not of necessity
+return to the planetary liquid surface. On the contrary, immediately
+condensation of the aqueous vapour takes place and the material leaves
+the gaseous state, no matter where that material is situated, it is once
+more susceptible to the incepting influences of the sun. Re-evaporation
+may thus readily take place even at high altitudes, and complete
+cyclical operations may be carried out there. These operations will,
+however, be carried out in every case between precise temperature limits
+as explained above.
+
+    [1] The conception of "Nature's Perfect Engine" was originally
+    arrived at by the author from consideration of the phenomena of the
+    steam-engine. The following extract from the "Review" of his work
+    (1895) illustrates the various stages which finally lead to that
+    conclusion:--
+
+    "My first steps in the right direction came about thus. I had always
+    been working with a cylinder and piston, and could make no progress,
+    till at length it struck me to make my cylinder high enough to do
+    without a piston--that is, to leave the steam to itself and observe
+    its behaviour when left to work against gravity. The first thing I
+    had to settle was the height of my cylinder. And I found, by
+    calculation from Regnault's experiments that it would require to be
+    very high, and that the exact height would depend on the temperature
+    of the water in the boiler which was the bottom of this ideal
+    cylinder. Now, at any ordinary temperature the height was so great
+    that it was impossible to get known material to support its own
+    weight, and I did not wish to use a hypothetical substance in the
+    construction of this engine. Finally, the only course left me was to
+    abolish the cylinder as I had done the piston. I then discovered
+    that the engine I had been trying to evolve--the perfect engine--was
+    not the ideal thing I had been groping after but an actual reality,
+    in full working order, its operations taking place every day before
+    my eyes.
+
+    "Every natural phenomenon fitted in exactly; it had its function to
+    perform, and the performance of its function constituted the
+    phenomenon. Let me trace the analogy in a few of its details. The
+    sea corresponds to the boiler; its cylinder surrounds the earth; it
+    has for its fuel the axial energy of the earth; it has no condenser
+    because it has no exhaust; the work it performs is all expended in
+    producing the fuel. Every operation in the cycle is but an energy
+    transformation, and these various transformations constitute the
+    visible life of the world."
+
+    [2] For definite numerical examples see the author's _Terrestrial
+    Energy_ (Chap. 1.).
+
+It will be evident, from a general consideration of this process of
+transmission of energy from the aqueous vapour, that relatively large
+quantities of that vapour are not required in the atmosphere for the
+working of the gaseous machine. The peculiar property of ready
+condensation of the aqueous vapour makes the evaporative process a
+continuous one, and the highly energised aqueous material, although only
+present in comparatively small amount, contributes a continuous flow of
+energy, and is thus able to steadily convey a very large quantity to
+the atmospheric masses. For the same reason, the greater part of the
+energy transmission from the aqueous vapour to the air will take place
+at comparatively low altitudes and between reasonably high temperatures.
+The working of any evaporative cycle may also be spread over very large
+terrestrial areas by the free movement of the acting material. Aqueous
+vapour rising in equatorial regions may finally return to the earth in
+the form of ice-crystals at the poles. In every complete cycle, however,
+the total expenditure per unit mass of material initially evaporated is
+always the latent heat at the higher or evaporation temperature; in the
+final or return stages of the cycle, any energy not transmitted to the
+air masses is devoted to the heating of returning aqueous material.
+
+Referring again to the transmitted energy, and speaking in the broadest
+fashion, the function of the aqueous vapour in the atmosphere may be
+likened to that of the steam in the cylinder of a steam-engine. In both
+cases the aqueous material works in a definite machine for energy
+transmission. In the case of the steam-engine work energy is transmitted
+(§ 31) from the steam through the medium of the moving piston and
+rotating shaft, and thence may be further diverted to useful purposes.
+In the planetary atmospheric machine the work energy of aqueous vapour
+is likewise transmitted by the agency of the moving air masses, not to
+any external agent, but back once more to its original source, which is
+the planetary axial energy. In neither case are we able to explain the
+precise nature of the transmission process in its ultimate details. We
+cannot say _how_ the steam transmits its work energy by the moving
+piston, nor yet by what agency the elevated particles of aqueous
+material transmit their energy to the air masses. Our knowledge is
+confined entirely to the phenomena, and, fortunately, these are in some
+degree accessible. Nature presents direct evidence that such
+transmissions actually take place. This evidence is to be found, in both
+cases, in the condensation of the aqueous material which sustains the
+loss of its work energy. In the engine cylinder condensation takes place
+due to work being transmitted from the steam; in the atmosphere the
+visible phenomena of condensation are likewise the ever present evidence
+of the transmission of work energy from the aqueous vapour to the air
+masses. In virtue of this accession of energy these masses will,
+accordingly, be expanded upwards against the gravitational attractive
+forces. This upward movement, being made entirely at the expense of
+energy communicated from the aqueous vapour, is not accompanied by the
+normal fall of temperature due to the expansion of the air. Planetary
+axial energy, originally absorbed by the aqueous vapour, in the work
+form, has been transferred to the air masses in the same form, and is
+now, after the expansive movement, resident in these masses in the form
+of energy of position. It is the function of the atmospheric machine in
+its final stage to return this energy in the original axial form.
+
+
+41. _Terrestrial Energy Return_
+
+Let it be assumed that an atmospheric mass has been raised, by the
+transmission of work energy, to a high altitude in the equatorial
+regions of the earth. The assumption of locality is made merely for
+illustrative purposes; it will be evident to the reader that the
+transmission of work energy to the atmospheric masses and their
+consequent elevation will be continuously proceeding, more or less, over
+the whole planetary surface. To replace the gaseous material thus
+raised, a corresponding mass of air will move at a lower level, towards
+the equator from the more temperate zones adjoining. A circulatory
+motion will thus be set up in the atmosphere. In the upper regions the
+elevated and energised air masses move towards the poles; at lower
+levels the replacing masses move towards the equator, and in their
+passage may be operated on by the aqueous vapour which they encounter,
+energised, and raised to higher levels. The movement will be continuous.
+In their transference from equatorial towards polar regions, the
+atmospheric masses are leaving the surfaces or regions of high linear
+velocity for those of low, and must in consequence lose or return in
+the passage a portion of that natural energy of motion which they
+possess in virtue of their high linear velocity at the equator. But on
+the other hand, the replacing air masses, which are travelling in the
+opposite direction from poles to equator, must gain or absorb a
+corresponding amount of energy. The one operation thus balances the
+other, and the planetary equilibrium is in no way disturbed. But the
+atmospheric masses which are moving from the equator in the polar
+direction will possess, in addition, that energy of position which has
+been communicated to them through the medium of the aqueous vapour and
+by the working of the second stage of the atmospheric machine. These
+masses, in the circulatory polar movements, move downwards towards the
+planetary surface. In this downward motion (as in the downward motion of
+a pendulum mass vibrating under the action of gravitation) the energy of
+position of the air mass is converted once more into energy of
+motion--that is, into its original form of axial energy of rotation. In
+equatorial regions the really important energy property of the
+atmospheric mass was indicated by its elevation or its energy of
+position. In the descent this energy is thus entirely transformed, and
+reverts once more to its original form of energy of rotation.
+
+The continual transformation of axial energy by the aqueous vapour, and
+the conversion of that energy by the upward movement of the air masses
+into energy of position, naturally tends to produce a retardative effect
+on the motion of revolution of the earth. But this retardative effect is
+in turn completely neutralised or balanced by the corresponding
+accelerative effect due to the equally continuous return as the energy
+of the air masses reverts in the continuous polar movement to its
+original axial form. Speaking generally, the equatorial regions, or the
+regions of high velocity, are the location of the most powerful
+transformation or abstraction of axial energy by the aqueous vapour.
+Conversely, the polar or regions of low velocity are the location of the
+greatest return of energy by the air. As no energy return is possible
+unless by the transference of the atmospheric material from regions of
+high to regions of low velocity, the configuration of the planet in
+rotation must conform to this condition. The spheroidal form of the
+earth is thus exquisitely adapted to the working of the atmospheric
+machine. As already pointed out, however, the energising and raising of
+atmospheric masses is by no means confined to equatorial regions, but
+takes place more or less over the whole planetary surface. The same
+applies to the energy return. The complete cycle may be carried out in
+temperate zones; gaseous masses, also, leaving equatorial regions at
+high altitudes do not necessarily reach the polar regions, but may
+attain their lowest levels at intermediate points. Neither do such
+masses necessarily proceed to the regions of low velocity by purely
+linear paths. On the contrary, they may and do move both towards the
+poles and downwards by circuitous and even vortical paths. In fact, as
+will be readily apparent, their precise path is of absolutely no moment
+in the consideration of energy return.
+
+It might naturally be expected that such movements of the atmospheric
+air masses as have been described above would give rise to great
+atmospheric disturbance over the earth's surface, and that the transfer
+of gaseous material from pole to equator and vice versa would be
+productive of violent storms of wind. Such storms, however, are
+phenomena of somewhat rare occurrence; the atmosphere, on the whole,
+appears to be in a state of comparative tranquillity. This serenity of
+the atmosphere is, however, confined to the lower strata, and may be
+ascribed to an inherent stability possessed by the air mass as a whole
+in virtue of the accession of energy to it at high levels. As already
+explained, the transfer of energy from the vapour to the air masses is
+accomplished at comparatively low altitudes, and when this reaction is
+taking place the whole tendency of the energised material is to move
+upwards. In so moving it tends to leave behind it the condensed aqueous
+vapour, and would, therefore, rise to the higher altitudes in a
+comparatively dry condition. This dryness is accentuated by the further
+loss of aqueous vapour by condensation as the air moves toward regions
+of low velocity. That air which actually attains to the poles will be
+practically dry, and having also returned, in its entirety, the surplus
+energy obtained from the aqueous vapour, it will be in this region
+practically in the condition of statical equilibrium of a gas against
+gravity (§ 34). But the general state of the atmosphere in other regions
+where a transference of energy from the aqueous vapour has taken or is
+taking place is very different from this condition of natural statical
+equilibrium which is approached at the poles. In the lower strata of the
+atmosphere the condition in some cases may approximate to the latter,
+but in the upper strata it is possessed of energy qualities quite
+abnormal to statical equilibrium. Its condition is rather one of the
+nature of stable equilibrium. It is in a condition similar to that of a
+liquid heated in its upper layers; there is absolutely no tendency to a
+direct or vertical downward circulation. In statical equilibrium, any
+downward movement of an air mass would simply be accompanied by the
+natural rise in temperature corresponding to the transformation of its
+energy of position, but in this condition of stable equilibrium any
+motion downwards must involve, not only this natural temperature rise,
+but also a return, either in whole or in part, of the energy absorbed
+from the aqueous vapour. The natural conditions are therefore against
+any direct vertical return. These conditions, however, favour in every
+respect the circulatory motion of the highly energised upper air masses
+towards regions of low velocity. All circumstances combine, in fact, to
+confine the more powerfully energised and highly mobile air masses to
+high altitudes. In the lower atmosphere, owing to the continuous action
+of the aqueous vapour on the air masses moving from regions of low to
+those of high velocity, the circulation tends largely to be a vertical
+one, so that this locality is on the whole preserved in comparative
+tranquillity. It may happen, however, that owing to changes in the
+distribution of aqueous vapour, or other causes, this natural stability
+of the atmosphere may be disturbed over certain regions of the earth's
+surface. The circumstances will then favour a direct or more or less
+vertical return of the energy of the air masses in the neighbourhood of
+these regions. This return will then take the form of violent storms of
+wind, usually of a cyclonic nature, and affording direct evidence of the
+tendency of the air masses to pursue vortical paths in their movement
+towards lower levels.
+
+Under normal conditions, however, the operation of the atmospheric
+machine is smooth and continuous. The earth's axial energy, under the
+sun's incepting influence, steadily flows at all parts of the earth's
+surface through the aqueous vapour into the atmospheric masses, and the
+latter, rising from the terrestrial surface, with a motion somewhat like
+that of a column of smoke, spread out and speed towards regions of lower
+velocity, and travelling by devious and lengthened paths towards the
+surface, steadily return the abstracted energy in its original form.
+Every operation is exactly balanced; energy expenditure and energy
+return are complementary; the terrestrial atmospheric machine as a whole
+works without jar or discontinuity, and the earth's motion of rotation
+is maintained with absolute uniformity.
+
+Like every other energy machine, the atmospheric machine has
+clearly-defined energy limits. The total quantity of energy in operation
+is strictly limited by the mass of the acting materials. It is well,
+also, to note the purely mechanical nature of the machine. Every
+operation is in reality the operation of mechanical energy, and involves
+the movement of matter in some way or other relative to the earth's
+surface and under the incepting action of the earth's gravitation (§§
+16, 20). The moving gaseous masses have as real an existence as masses
+of lead or other solid material, and require as real an expenditure of
+energy to move them relative to the terrestrial surface (§ 18). This
+aspect of the planetary machine will be more fully treated later.
+
+Throughout this description we have constantly assumed the atmospheric
+mixture of oxygen and nitrogen to act as one gas, and at ordinary
+temperatures the respective energy properties of the two substances (§
+35) make this assumption justifiable. Both gases are then working far
+above their respective evaporation temperatures. But, in the higher
+regions of the atmosphere, where very low temperatures prevail, a point
+or altitude will be reached where the temperature corresponds to the
+evaporation or condensation temperature of one of the gases. Since
+oxygen appears to have the highest temperature of evaporation (see Table
+of Properties, p. 133), it would naturally be the first to condense in
+the ascent. But immediately condensation takes place, the material will
+become susceptible to the incepting influence of the sun, and working as
+it does at its temperature of evaporation it will convey its energy to
+the surrounding nitrogen in precisely the same fashion as the aqueous
+vapour conveys the energy to the aerial mixture in the lower atmosphere.
+The whole action is made possible simply by the difference existing in
+the respective evaporation temperatures of the two gases. It will give
+rise to another cyclical atmospheric energy process exactly as already
+described for lower altitudes. Axial energy of rotation will be
+communicated to the nitrogen by the working material, which is now the
+oxygen, and by the movement of the nitrogen masses towards regions of
+low velocity, this transmitted energy will be finally returned to its
+original axial form.
+
+It has been already explained (§§ 10, 32) how all terrestrial energy
+processes, also, great or small, are sooner or later linked to the
+general atmospheric machine. The latter, therefore, presents in every
+phase of its working completely closed energy circuits. In no aspect of
+its operation can we find any evidence of, or indeed any necessity for,
+an energy transmission either to or from any external body or agent such
+as the sun. Every phenomenon of Nature is, in fact, a direct denial of
+such transmission.
+
+The student of terrestrial phenomena will readily find continuous and
+ample evidence in Nature of the working of the atmospheric machine. In
+the rising vapour and the falling rain he will recognise the visible
+signs of the operation of that great secondary process of transmission
+by which the inherent axial energy of the earth is communicated to the
+air masses. The movements of bodies, animate and inanimate, on the
+earth's surface, the phenomena of growth and decay, and in fact almost
+every experience of everyday life, will reveal to him the persistent
+tendency of the energy of secondary processes to revert to the
+atmospheric machine. And in the winds that traverse the face of the
+globe he will also witness the mechanism of that energy return which
+completes the atmospheric cyclical process. It may be pointed out here
+also that the terrestrial cyclical energy processes are not necessarily
+all embodied in the atmosphere. The author has reason to believe, and
+phenomenal evidence is not awanting to show, that the circulatory
+motions of the atmosphere are in some degree reproduced in the sea. The
+reader will readily perceive that as regards stability the water
+composing the sea is in precisely the same condition as the atmosphere,
+namely, that of a liquid heated in its upper strata, and any circulatory
+motion of the water must therefore be accompanied by corresponding
+transformations of energy. That such a circulatory motion takes place is
+undoubted, and in the moving mass of sea-water we have therefore a
+perfectly reversible energy machine of the same general nature as the
+atmospheric machine, but working at a very much slower rate. It is not
+beyond the limits of legitimate scientific deduction to trace also the
+working of a similar machine in the solid material of the earth. The
+latter is, after all, but an agglomeration of loose material bound by
+the force of gravitation into coherent form. By the action of various
+erosive agencies a movement of solid material is continually taking
+place over the earth's surface. The material thus transported, it may
+be, from mountain chains, and deposited on the sea-bed, causes a
+disturbance of that gravitational equilibrium which defines the exact
+form of the earth. The forces tending to maintain this equilibrium are
+so enormous compared with the cohesive forces of the material forming
+the earth that readjustment continuously takes place, as evidenced by
+the tremors observed in the earth's crust. Where the structure of the
+latter is of such a nature as to offer great resistance to the
+gravitational forces, the readjustment may take the form of an
+earthquake. Geological evidence, as a whole, strongly points to a
+continuous kneading and flow of terrestrial material. The structure of
+igneous rocks, also, is exactly that which would be produced from
+alluvial deposits subjected during these cyclical movements to the
+enormous pressure and consequent heating caused by superimposed
+material. The occurrence of coal in polar regions, and of glacial
+residue in the tropics, may be regarded as further corroborative
+evidence. From this point of view also, it becomes unnecessary to
+postulate a genesis for the earth, as every known geological formation
+is shown to be capable of production under present conditions in Nature,
+and in fact to be in actual process of production at all times.
+
+
+42. _Experimental Analogy and Demonstration of the General Mechanism of
+      Energy Transformation and Return in the Atmospheric Cycle_
+
+In the preceding articles, the atmospheric machine has been regarded
+more or less from the purely physical point of view. The purpose of this
+demonstration is now to place before the reader what might be termed
+the mechanical aspects of the machine; to give an outline, using simple
+experimental analogies, of its nature and operation when considered
+purely and simply as a mechanism for the transformation and return of
+mechanical energy.
+
+Familiar apparatus is used in illustration. In all cases, it is merely
+some adaptation of the simple pendulum (§ 21). Its minute structural
+details are really of slight importance in the discussion, and have
+accordingly been ignored, but the apparatus generally, and the energy
+operations embodied therein, are so familiar to physicists and engineers
+that the experimental results illustrated can be readily verified by
+everyday experience. It is of great importance, also, in considering
+these results, to bear in mind the principles already enunciated (§§ 13,
+20) with reference to the operation of mechanical energy on the various
+forms of matter. The general working conditions of energy systems with
+respect to energy limits, stability, and reversibility (§ 23) should
+also be kept in view.
+
+As an introductory step we shall review first a simple system of
+rotating pendulums. Two simple pendulums CM and DM{1} (Fig. 9) are
+mounted by means of a circular collar CD upon a vertical spindle AB,
+which is supported at A and B and free to rotate. When the central
+spindle AB is at rest the pendulums hang vertically; when energy is
+applied to the system, and AB is thereby caused to rotate, the
+spherical masses M and M{1} will rise by circular paths about C and D.
+This upward movement, considered apart from the centrifugal influence
+producing it, corresponds in itself to the upward movement of the simple
+pendulum (§ 21) against gravity. It is representative of a definite
+transformation, namely, the transformation of the work energy originally
+applied to the system and manifested in its rotary motion, into energy
+of position. The movements of the rotating pendulums will also be
+accompanied by other energy operations associated with bearing friction
+and windage (§§ 23, 29), but these operations being part of a separate
+and complete cyclical energy process (§ 32), they will in this case be
+neglected.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9]
+
+It will be readily seen, however, that the working of this rotating
+pendulum machine, when considered as a whole, is of a nature somewhat
+different from that of the simple pendulum machine in that the energy of
+position of the former (as measured by the vertical displacement of M
+and M{1} in rotation) and its energy of rotation must increase
+concurrently, and also in that the absolute maximum value of this energy
+of position will be attained when the pendulum masses reach merely the
+horizontal level HL in rotation. The machines are alike, however, in
+this respect, that the transformation of energy of motion into energy of
+position is in each case a completely reversible process. In the working
+of the rotating pendulums the limiting amount of energy which can
+operate in this reversible process is dependent on and rigidly defined
+by the maximum length of the pendulum arms; the longer the arms, the
+greater is the possible height through which the masses at their
+extremities must rise to attain the horizontal position in rotation. It
+will be clear also that it is not possible for the whole energy of the
+rotating system to work in the reversible process as in the case of the
+simple pendulum. As the pendulum masses rise, the ratio of the limiting
+energy for reversibility to the total energy of the system becomes in
+fact smaller and smaller, until at the horizontal or position of maximum
+energy it reaches a minimum value. This is merely an aspect of the
+experimental fact that, as the pendulum masses approach the ultimate
+horizontal position, a much greater increment of energy to the system is
+necessary for their elevation through a given vertical distance than at
+the lower levels. A larger proportion of the applied energy is, in fact,
+stored in the material of the system in the form of energy of strain or
+distortion.
+
+The two points which this system is designed to illustrate, and which
+it is desirable to emphasise, are thus as follows. Firstly, as the whole
+system rotates, the movement of the pendulum masses M and M{1} from the
+lower to the higher levels, or from the regions of low to those of
+higher velocity, is productive of a transformation of the rotatory
+energy of the system into energy of position--a transformation of the
+same nature as in the case of the simple pendulum system. Neglecting the
+minor transformations (§§ 24, 29), this energy process is a reversible
+one, and consequently, the return of the masses from the higher to the
+lower positions will be accompanied by the complete return of the
+transformed energy in its original form of energy of rotation. Secondly,
+the maximum amount of energy which can work in this reversible process
+is always less than the total energy of the system. The latter,
+therefore, conforms to the general condition of stability (§ 25).
+
+But this arrangement of rotating pendulums may be extended so as to
+include other features. To eliminate or in a manner replace the
+influence of gravitation, and to preserve the energy of position of the
+system--relative to the earth's surface--at a constant value, the
+pendulum arms may be assumed to be duplicated or extended to the points
+K and R (Fig. 10) respectively, where pendulum masses equal to M and
+M{1} are attached.
+
+The arms MK and M{1}R are thus continuous. Each arm is assumed to be
+pivoted at its middle point about a horizontal axis through N, and as
+the lower masses M and M{1} rise in the course of the rotatory movement
+about AB the upper masses K and R will fall by corresponding amounts.
+The total energy of position of the system--referred to the earth's
+surface--thus remains constant whatever may be the position of the
+masses in the system. The restraining influence on the movement of the
+masses, formerly exercised by gravitation, is now furnished by means of
+a central spring F. A collar CD, connected as shown to the pendulum
+arms, slides on the spindle AB and compresses this spring as the masses
+move towards the horizontal level HL. As the masses return towards A and
+B the spring is released.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10]
+
+If energy be applied to the system, so that it is caused to rotate about
+the central axis AB, the pendulum masses will tend to move outwards from
+that axis. Their movement may be said to be carried out over the surface
+of an imaginary sphere with centre on AB at N. The motion of the masses,
+as the velocity of rotation increases, is from the region of lower
+peripheral velocity, in the vicinity of the axis AB, to the regions of
+higher velocity, in the neighbourhood of H and L. This outward movement
+from the central axis towards H and L is representative of a
+transformation of energy of an exactly similar nature to that described
+above in the simple case. Part of the original energy of rotation of the
+system is now stored in the pendulum masses in virtue of their new
+position of displacement. But in this case, the movement is made, not
+against gravity, but against the central spring F. The energy, then,
+which in the former case might be said to be stored against gravitation
+(acting as an invisible spring) is in this case stored in the form of
+energy of strain or cohesion (§ 15) in the central spring, which thus as
+it were takes the place of gravitation in the system. As in the previous
+case also, the operation is a reversible energy process. If the pendulum
+masses move in the opposite direction from the regions of higher
+velocity to those of lower velocity, the energy stored in the spring
+will be returned to the system in its original form of energy of motion.
+A vibratory motion of the pendulums to and from the central axis would
+thus be productive of an alternate storage and return of energy. It is
+obvious also, that due to the action of centrifugal force, the pendulum
+masses would tend to move radially outwards on the arms as they move
+towards the regions of highest velocity. Let this radial movement be
+carried out against the action of four radial springs S{1}, S{2},
+S{3}, S{4}, as shown (Fig. 11). In virtue of the radial movement of
+the masses, these springs will be compressed and energy stored in them
+in the form of energy of strain or cohesion (§ 15). The radial movement
+implies also that the masses will be elevated from the surface of the
+imaginary sphere over which they are assumed to move. The elevation from
+this surface will be greatest in the regions of high velocity in the
+neighbourhood of H and L, and least at A and B. As the masses move,
+therefore, from H and L towards the axis AB, they will also move inwards
+on the pendulum arms, relieving the springs, so that the energy stored
+in them is free to be returned to the system in its original form of
+energy of rotation. Every movement of the masses from the central axis
+outwards against the springs is thus made at the expense of the original
+energy of motion, and every movement inwards provokes a corresponding
+return of that energy to the system. Every movement also against the
+springs forms part of a reversible operation. The sum total of the
+energy which works in these reversible operations is always less than
+the complete energy of the rotatory system, and the latter is always
+stable (§ 25), with respect to its energy properties. Let it now be
+assumed that the complete system as described is possessed of a precise
+and limited amount of energy of rotation, and that with the pendulum
+masses in an intermediate position as shown (Fig. 11) it is rotating
+with uniform angular velocity. The condition of the rotatory system
+might now be described as that of equilibrium. A definite amount of its
+original rotatory energy is now stored in the central spring and also in
+the radial springs. If now, without alteration in the intrinsic rotatory
+energy of the system, the pendulum masses were to execute a vibratory or
+pendulum motion about the position of equilibrium so that they move
+alternately to and from the central axis, then as they move inwards
+towards that axis the energy stored in the springs would be returned to
+the system in the original form of energy of rotation. This inward
+motion would, accordingly, produce acceleration. But, in the outward
+movement from the position of equilibrium, retardation would ensue on
+account of energy of motion being withdrawn from the system and stored
+in the springs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11]
+
+Under the given conditions, then, any vibratory motion of the pendulum
+masses to and from the central axis would be accompanied by alternate
+retardation and acceleration of the moving system. The storage of energy
+in the springs (central and radial) produces retardation, the
+restoration of this energy gives rise to a corresponding acceleration.
+The angular velocity of the system would rise and fall accordingly.
+These are the natural conditions of working of the system. As already
+pointed out, the motion of the pendulum masses may be regarded as
+executed over the surface of an imaginary sphere. Their motion against
+the radial springs would therefore correspond to a displacement outwards
+or upwards from the spherical surface. A definite part of the effect of
+retardation is, of course, due to this outward or radial displacement of
+the masses.
+
+Assuming still the property of constancy of energy of rotation, let it
+now be supposed that in such a vibratory movement of the pendulum masses
+as described above, the energy required merely for the displacement of
+the masses _against the radial springs_ is not withdrawn from and
+obtained at the expense of the original rotatory energy of the system,
+but is obtained from some energy agency, completely external to the
+system, and to which energy cannot be returned. The retardation,
+normally due to the outward displacement of the masses against the
+radial springs, would not then take place. But the energy is,
+nevertheless, stored in the springs. It now, therefore, forms part of
+the energy of the system, and consequently, on the returning or inward
+movement of vibration of the masses towards the central axis, this
+energy, received from the external source, would pass directly from the
+springs to the rotational energy of the system. It is clear, then, that
+while the introduction of energy in this fashion from an external source
+has in part eliminated the effect of retardation, the accelerating
+effect must still operate as before. Each vibratory movement of the
+pendulum system, under the given conditions, will lead to a definite
+increase in its energy of rotation by the amount stored in the radial
+springs. If the vibratory movement is continuous, the rotatory velocity
+of the system will steadily increase in value. Energy once stored in the
+radial springs can only be released by the return movement of the masses
+and _in the form of energy of rotation_; the nature of the mechanical
+machine is, in fact, such that if any incremental energy is applied to
+the displacement of the masses against the radial springs, it can only
+be returned in this form of energy of motion.
+
+These features of this experimental system are of vital importance to
+the author's scheme. They may be illustrated more completely, however,
+and in a form more suitable for their most general application, by the
+hypothetical system now to be described. This system is, of course,
+devised for purely illustrative purposes, but the general principles of
+working of pendulum systems and of energy return, as demonstrated above,
+will be assumed.
+
+
+43. _Application of Pendulum Principles_
+
+The movements of the pendulum masses described in the previous article
+have been regarded as carried out over the surface of an imaginary
+sphere. Let us now proceed to consider the phenomena of a similar
+movement of material over the surface of an actual spherical mass. The
+precise dimensions of the sphere are of little moment in the discussion,
+but for the purpose of illustration, its mass and general outline may be
+assumed to correspond to that of the earth or other planetary body. This
+spherical mass A (Fig. 12) rotates with uniform angular velocity about
+an axis NS through its centre. Associated with the rotating sphere are
+four auxiliary spherical masses, M{1}, M{2}, M{3}, M{4}, also of
+solid material, which are assumed to be placed symmetrically round its
+circumference as shown. These masses form an inherent part of the
+spherical system; they are assumed to be united to the main body of
+material by the attractive force of gravitation in precisely the same
+fashion as the atmosphere or other surface material of a planet is
+united to its inner core (§ 34); they will therefore partake completely
+of the rotatory motion of the sphere about its axis NS, moving in paths
+similar to those of the rotating pendulum masses already described (§
+42). The restraining action of the pendulum arms is, however, replaced
+in this celestial case by the action of gravitation, which is the
+central force or influence of the system. Opposite masses are thus only
+united through the attractive influence of the material of the sphere.
+The place of the springs, both central and radial, in our pendulum
+system is now taken by this centripetal force of gravitative attraction,
+which therefore forms the restraining influence or determining factor in
+all the associated energy processes. While the auxiliary masses M{1}
+M{2}, &c., partake of the general motion of revolution of the main
+spherical mass about NS, they may also be assumed to revolve
+simultaneously about the axis WE, perpendicular to NS, and also passing
+through the centre of the sphere. Each of these masses will thus have a
+peculiar motion, a definite velocity over the surface of the sphere from
+pole to pole--about the axis WE--combined with a velocity of rotation
+about the central axis NS. The value of the latter velocity is, at any
+instant, directly proportional to the radius of the circle of latitude
+of the point on the surface of the sphere where the mass happens to be
+situated at that instant in its rotatory motion from pole to pole; this
+velocity accordingly diminishes as the mass withdraws from the equator,
+and becomes zero when it actually reaches the poles of rotation at N and
+S; and the energy of each mass in motion, since its linear velocity is
+thus constantly varying, will be itself a continuously varying quantity,
+increasing or diminishing accordingly as the mass is moving to or from
+the equatorial regions, attaining its maximum value at the equator and
+its minimum value at the poles. Now, since the masses thus moving are
+assumed to be a material and inherent portion of the spherical system,
+the source of the energy which is thus alternately supplied to and
+returned by them is the original energy of motion of the system; this
+original energy being assumed strictly limited in amount, the increase
+of the energy of each mass as it moves towards the equator will,
+therefore, be productive of a retardative effect on the revolution of
+the system as a whole. But, in a precisely similar manner, the energy
+thus gained by the mass would be fully returned on its movement towards
+the pole, and an accelerative effect would be produced corresponding to
+the original retardation. In the arrangement shown (Fig. 12), the moving
+masses are assumed to be situated at the extremities of diameters at
+right angles. With this symmetrical distribution, the transformation
+and return of energy would take place concurrently. Retardation is
+continually balanced by acceleration, and the motion of the sphere
+would, therefore, be approximately uniform about the central axis of
+rotation. It will be clear that the movements thus described of the
+masses will be very similar in nature to those of the pendulum masses in
+the experimental system previously discussed. The fact that the motion
+of the auxiliary masses over the surface of the sphere is assumed to be
+completely circular and not vibratory, as in the pendulum case, has no
+bearing on the general energy phenomena. These are readily seen to be
+identical in nature with those of the simpler system. In each case every
+movement of the masses implies either an expenditure of energy or a
+return, accordingly as the direction of that movement is to or from the
+regions of high velocity.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12]
+
+The paths of the moving auxiliary masses have been considered, so far,
+only as parallel to the surface of the sphere, but the general energy
+conditions are in no way altered if they are assumed to have in addition
+some motion normal to that surface; if, for example, they are repelled
+from the surface as they approach the equatorial regions, and return
+towards it once more as they approach the poles. Such a movement of the
+masses normal to the spherical surface really corresponds to the
+movement against the radial springs in the pendulum system; it would
+now be made against the attractive or restraining influence of
+gravitation, and a definite expenditure of energy would thus necessarily
+be required to produce the displacement. Energy, formerly stored in the
+springs, corresponds now to energy stored as energy of position (§ 20)
+against gravitation. If this energy is obtained at the expense of the
+inherent rotatory energy of the sphere, then its conversion in this
+fashion into energy of position will again be productive of a definite
+retardative effect on the revolution of the system. It is clear,
+however, that if each mass descends to the surface level once more in
+moving towards the poles, then in this operation its energy of position,
+originally obtained at the expense of the rotatory energy of the sphere,
+will be gradually but completely returned to that source. In a balanced
+system, such as we have assumed above, the descent of one mass in
+rotation would be accompanied by the elevation of another at a different
+point; the abstraction and return of the energy of rotation would then
+be equivalent, and would not affect the primary condition of uniformity
+of rotation of the system. In the circumstances assumed, the whole
+energy process which takes place in the movement of the masses from
+poles to equator and normal to the spherical surface would obviously be
+of a cyclical nature and completely reversible. It would be the working
+of mechanical energy in a definite material machine, and in accordance
+with the principles already outlined (§ 20) the maximum amount of
+energy which can operate in this machine is strictly limited by the mass
+of the material involved in the movement. The energy machine has thus a
+definite capacity, and as the maximum energy operating in the reversible
+cycle is assumed to be within this limit, the machine would be
+completely stable in nature (§ 25). The movements of the auxiliary
+masses have hitherto also been considered as taking place over somewhat
+restricted paths, but this convention is one which can readily be
+dispensed with. The general direction of motion of the masses must of
+course be from equator to pole or vice versa; but it is quite obvious
+that the exact paths pursued by the masses in this general motion is of
+no moment in the consideration of energy return, nor yet the precise
+region in which they may happen to be restored once more to the surface
+level. Whatever may be its position at any instant, each mass is
+possessed of a definite amount of energy corresponding to that position;
+this amount will always be equal to the total energy abstracted by that
+mass, less the energy returned. The nature of the energy system is,
+however, such that the various energy phases of the different masses
+will be completely co-ordinated. Since the essential feature of the
+system is its property of uniformity of rotation, any return of energy
+in the rotational form at any part of the system--due to the descent of
+material--produces a definite accelerating effect on the system, which
+effect is, however, at once neutralised or absorbed by a corresponding
+retardative effect due to that energy which must be extracted from the
+system in equivalent amount and devoted to the upraising of material at
+a different point. For simplicity in illustration only four masses have
+been considered in motion over the surface of the sphere, but it will be
+clear that the number which may so operate is really limited only by the
+dimensions of the system. The spherical surface might be completely
+covered with moving material, not necessarily of spherical form, not
+necessarily even material in the solid form (§ 13), which would rise and
+fall relative to the surface and flow to and from the poles exactly in
+the fashion already illustrated by the moving masses. The capacity of
+the reversible energy machine--which depends on the mass--would be
+altered in this case, but not the general nature of the machine itself.
+If the system were energised to the requisite degree, every energy
+operation could be carried out as before.
+
+As already pointed out, the dominating feature of a spherical system
+such as we have just described would be essentially its property of
+energy conservation manifested by its uniformity of rotation. All its
+operations could be carried out independently of the direct action of
+any external energy influences. For if it be assumed that the energy
+gained by the auxiliary moving surface material _in virtue of its
+displacement normal to the spherical surface_ be derived, not from the
+inherent rotational energy of the sphere itself, but by an influx of
+energy from some source completely external to the system, then since
+there has been no energy abstraction there will be no retardative effect
+on the revolution due to the upraising of this material. But the influx
+of energy thus stored in the material must of necessity work through the
+energy machine. In the movement towards the poles this energy would
+therefore be applied to the system in the form of energy of rotation,
+and would produce a definite accelerative effect. If the influx of
+energy were continuous, and no means were existent for a corresponding
+efflux, the rotatory velocity of the system would steadily increase. The
+phenomena would be of precisely the same nature as those already alluded
+to in the case of the system of rotating pendulums (§ 42). Acceleration
+would take place without corresponding retardation. A direct
+contribution would be continuously made to the rotatory energy of the
+system, and would under the given conditions be manifested by an
+increase in its velocity of revolution.
+
+
+44. _Extension of Pendulum Principles to Terrestrial Phenomena_
+
+The energy phenomena illustrated by the experimental devices above are
+to be observed, in their aspects of greatest perfection, in the natural
+world. In the earth, united to its encircling atmosphere by the
+invisible bond of gravitation, we find the prototype of the hypothetical
+system just described. Its uniformity of rotation is an established fact
+of centuries, and over its spheroidal surface we have, corresponding to
+the motion of our illustrative spherical masses, the movement of
+enormous quantities of atmospheric air in the general directions from
+equatorial to polar regions and vice versa. This circulatory movement,
+and the internal energy reactions which it involves, have been already
+fully dealt with (§ 88); we have now to consider it in a somewhat more
+comprehensive fashion, in the light of the pendulum systems described
+above. As already explained (§ 13), the operation of mechanical energy
+is not confined to solid and liquid masses only, but may likewise be
+manifested by the movements of gaseous masses. The terrestrial
+atmospheric machine provides an outstanding example. In its working
+conditions, and in the general nature of the energy operations involved,
+the terrestrial atmospheric machine is very clearly represented by the
+rotating pendulum system (§ 42). The analogy is still closer in the case
+of the hypothetical system just described. The actual terrestrial energy
+machine differs from both only in that the energy processes, which they
+illustrate by the movements of solid material, are carried out in the
+course of its working by the motion of gaseous masses. It is obvious,
+however, that this in no way affects the inherent nature of the energy
+processes themselves. They are carried out quite as completely and
+efficiently--in fact, more completely and more efficiently--by the
+motions of gaseous as by the motions of solid material.
+
+The atmospheric circulation, then, may be readily regarded as the
+movement, over the terrestrial surface, of gaseous masses which absorb
+and return energy in regions of high and low velocity exactly in the
+fashion explained above for solid material. In their movement from polar
+towards equatorial regions these masses, by the action of the aqueous
+vapour (§ 38), absorb energy (axial energy) and expand upwards against
+gravity. Here we have an energy operation identical in nature with that
+embodied in the movements of a pendulum mass simultaneously over a
+spherical surface and against radial springs as in the system of
+rotating pendulums, or identical with the equatorial and radial movement
+of the auxiliary masses in the hypothetical system. The return movement
+of the aerial masses over the terrestrial surface in the opposite
+direction from equatorial to polar regions provides also exactly the
+same phenomena of energy return as the return movement of the masses in
+our illustrative systems. These systems, in fact, portray the general
+operation of mechanical energy precisely as it occurs in the terrestrial
+atmospheric machine. But obviously they cannot illustrate the natural
+conditions in their entirety. The passage or flow of the atmospheric air
+masses over the earth's surface is a movement of an exceedingly complex
+nature, impossible to illustrate by experimental apparatus. And indeed,
+such illustration is quite unnecessary. As already pointed out (§ 38),
+no matter what may be the precise path of an aerial mass in its movement
+towards the planetary surface the final energy return is the same.
+Sooner or later its energy of position is restored in the original axial
+form.
+
+The terrestrial atmospheric machine will be thus readily recognised as
+essentially a material mechanical machine corresponding in general
+nature to the illustrative examples described above. The combination of
+its various energy processes is embodied in a complete cyclical and
+reversible operation. Its energy capacity, as in the simpler cases, is
+strictly limited by the total mass of the operating material. The active
+or working energy is well within the limit for reversibility (§ 23), and
+the machine is therefore essentially stable in nature. The continuous
+abstraction of axial energy by the aqueous vapour is balanced by an
+equally continuous return from the air masses, and the system, so far as
+its energy properties are concerned, is absolutely conservative. Energy
+transmission from or to any external source is neither admissible nor
+necessary for its working.
+
+
+45. _Concluding Review of Terrestrial Conditions--Effects of Influx of
+      Energy_
+
+The aspect of the earth as a separate mass in space, and its energy
+relationship to its primary the sun and to the associated planetary
+masses of the solar system have been broadly presented in the General
+Statement (§§ 1-12). In that statement, based entirely on the
+universally accepted properties of matter and energy, an order of
+phenomena is described which is in strict accordance with observed
+natural conditions, and which portrays the earth and the other planetary
+bodies, so far as their material or energy properties are concerned, as
+absolutely isolated masses in space. The scientific verification of this
+position must of necessity be founded on the terrestrial observation of
+phenomena. So far as the orbital movements of the planet are concerned
+these are admittedly orderly; each planetary mass wheels its flight
+through space with unvarying regularity; the energy processes, also,
+associated with the variations of planetary orbital path, and which
+attain limiting conditions at perihelion and aphelion, are readily
+acknowledged to be reversible and cyclical in nature. In fact, even a
+slight observation of the movements of celestial masses inevitably leads
+to the conviction that the great energy processes of the solar system
+are inherently cyclical in nature, that every movement of its material
+and every manifestation of its energy is part of some complete
+operation. The whole appears to be but the natural or material
+embodiment of the great principle of energy conservation. It has been
+one of the objects of this work to show that the cyclical nature of the
+energy operations of the solar system is not confined only to the more
+prominent energy phenomena, but that it penetrates and is exhibited in
+the working of even the most insignificant planetary processes. Each one
+of the latter in reality forms part of an unbroken series or chain of
+energy phenomena. Each planet forms in itself a complete, perfect, and
+self-contained energy system. Every manifestation of planetary energy,
+great or small, whether associated with animate or inanimate matter, is
+but one phase or aspect of that energy as it pursues its cyclical path.
+
+It is a somewhat remarkable fact that in this age of scientific reason
+the observation of the strictly orderly arrangement of phenomena in the
+solar system as a whole should not have led to some idea in the minds of
+philosophical workers of a similar order of phenomena in its separate
+parts, but the explanation lies generally in the continual attempts to
+bring natural phenomena into line with certain preconceived hypotheses,
+and more particularly to the almost universal acceptance of the doctrine
+of the direct transmission of energy from the sun to the earth and the
+final rejection or radiation of this energy into space. There is no
+denying the eminent plausibility of this doctrine. The evidence of
+Nature _prima facie_ may even appear to completely substantiate it. But
+we would submit that the general circumstances in which this doctrine is
+now so readily accepted are very similar to those which prevailed in
+more ancient times, when the revolution of the sun and stars round the
+earth was the universal tenet of natural philosophy. This conception,
+allied to the belief that the sole function of the celestial bodies was
+to provide light and heat to the terrestrial mass, appeared to be in
+strict accordance with observed phenomena, and held undisturbed
+possession of the minds of men for centuries, until it was finally
+demolished by Copernicus as the result of simple and accurate
+observation of and deduction from natural phenomena. At the present
+time, the somewhat venerable belief in the transmission of energy in
+various forms from the sun to the earth appears at first sight to be
+supported by actual facts. But a more rigid scrutiny of the evidence and
+of the mental processes must inevitably lead the unbiassed mind to the
+conclusion that this belief has no real foundation on truly scientific
+observation, but is entirely unsupported by natural phenomena. Every
+operation of Nature, in fact, when considered in its true relationships
+is an absolute denial of the whole conception. Like its predecessor
+relating to the motion of the sun and stars round the earth, the
+doctrine of energy transmission between separate masses in space such as
+the sun and the earth cannot be sustained in the face of scientific
+observation. This doctrine is found on investigation to be supported not
+by phenomena but by the conception of an elastic ethereal medium, of
+whose existence there is absolutely no evidential proof, and the
+necessity for which disappears along with the hypothesis it supports. It
+is, however, not proposed to discuss in any detail either the supposed
+transmission of energy from the sun to the planets or the arbitrary
+properties of the transmitting medium, but rather to adopt a more
+positive method of criticism by summarising briefly the evidential
+phenomena which show the cyclical nature of the whole terrestrial energy
+process, and which remove the basis of belief in such a transmission.
+
+To recapitulate the more general conditions, we find the earth, alike
+with other planetary masses, pursuing a defined orbital path, and
+rotating with uniform angular velocity in the lines or under the
+influence of the gravitation, thermal, luminous, and other incepting
+fields (§§ 17, 18, 19) which originate in the sun. Its axial rotation,
+in these circumstances, gives rise to all the secondary transformations
+(§ 9) of terrestrial axial energy, which in their operation provide the
+varied panorama of terrestrial phenomena. Terrestrial axial energy is
+thus diverted into terrestrial secondary processes. Each of these
+processes is found to be united to or embodied in a definite material
+machine (§§ 27-30), and is, accordingly, limited in nature and extent by
+the physical properties and incepting factors associated with the
+materials of which the machine is composed. By ordinary methods of
+transmission, energy may pass from one material to another, that is to
+say from one machine to another, and by this means definite chains of
+energy processes are constituted, through which, therefore, passes the
+axial energy originally transformed by the action of the sun. These
+series or chains of energy processes are also found to be one and all
+linked at some stage of their progress to the general atmospheric
+machine (§ 29). The energy operating in them is, in every case, after
+many or few vicissitudes according to the nature of the intermediate
+operations, communicated to the gaseous atmospheric material. By the
+movement of this material in the working of the atmospheric machine (§
+38) the energy is finally returned in its original form of axial energy
+of rotation. The sun's action is thus in a manner to force the inherent
+rotatory energy of the planet into the cyclical secondary operations,
+all of which converge alike towards the general atmospheric mechanism of
+return. The passage of the energy through the complete secondary
+operations, and its re-conversion into its original axial form, may be
+rapid or slow according to circumstances. In equatorial regions, where
+the influence of the sun's incepting fields is most intense, we find
+that the inherent planetary axial energy is communicated with great
+rapidity through the medium of the aqueous vapour to the air masses. By
+the movement of the latter it may be just as rapidly returned, and the
+whole operation completed in a comparatively short interval of time. In
+the same equatorial regions, the transformations of axial energy which
+are manifested in plant life attain their greatest perfection and
+vigour. But in this case the complete return of the operating energy may
+be very slow. The stored energy of tropical vegetation may still in
+great part remain in the bosom of the earth, awaiting an appropriate
+stimulus to be communicated to more active material for the concluding
+stages of that cyclical process which had its commencement in the
+absorption of axial energy into plant tissue. The duration of the
+complete secondary operation has, however, absolutely no bearing on the
+conservative energy properties of the planet. In this respect, the
+system is perfectly balanced. Every transformation or absorption of
+rotatory energy, great or small, for long or short periods of time, is
+counteracted by a corresponding return. Absolute uniformity of planetary
+axial rotation is thus steadily maintained.
+
+It is scarcely necessary at this stage to point out that the
+verification of this description of natural operations lies simply and
+entirely in the observation of Nature's working at first hand. The
+description is based on no theory and obscured by no preconceived ideas,
+it is founded entirely on direct experimental evidence. The field of
+study and of verification is not restricted, but comprises the whole
+realm of natural phenomena. In a lifetime of observation the author has
+failed to discern a single contradictory phenomenon; every natural
+operation is in reality a direct confirmation.
+
+The conception of energy, working only through the medium of definite
+material machines with their incepting and limiting agencies, is one
+which is of great value not only in natural philosophy but also in
+practical life. By its means it is possible in many cases to co-ordinate
+phenomena, apparently antagonistic, but in reality only different phases
+of energy machines. It aids materially also in the obtaining of a true
+grasp of the inexorable principle of energy conservation and its
+application to natural conditions, and it emphasises the indefensible
+nature of such ideas as the radiation of energy into _space_.
+
+It will be evident that in a planetary system such as described above
+there is no room for any transmission of energy to the system from an
+external source. The nature of the system is, in fact, such that a
+transmission of this kind is entirely unnecessary. As already
+demonstrated, every phenomenon and every energy operation can be
+carried out independently of any such transmission. For the purpose of
+illustration, however, it may be assumed that such a communication of
+energy does take place; that according to the accepted doctrines of
+modern science the sun pours energy in a continuous stream into the
+terrestrial system. Now, no matter in what form this energy is
+communicated, it is clear that once it is associated with or attached to
+the various planetary materials it is, as it were, incorporated or
+embodied in the planetary energy machines, and must of necessity work
+through the secondary energy operations. But these operations have been
+shown to be naturally and irresistibly connected to the general
+atmospheric machine. Into this machine, then, the incremental energy
+must be carried, and it will be there directly converted into the form
+of axial energy of rotation. Once the incremental energy is actually in
+the planet, once it is actually communicated to planetary material, the
+nature of the system absolutely forbids its escape. The effect of a
+direct and continuous influx such as we have assumed would inevitably be
+an increase in the angular velocity of the system. This effect has
+already been verified from an experimental point of view by
+consideration of the phenomena of a rotating pendulum system (§§ 42,
+43). Whilst the influx of energy proceeds, then in virtue of the
+increasing velocity of the planetary material in the lines of the
+various incepting fields of the sun, all terrestrial phenomena involving
+the transformation of rotary or axial energy would be increased in
+magnitude and intensified in degree. The planet would thus rapidly
+attain an unstable condition; its material would soon become energised
+beyond its normal capacity, and the natural stability (§ 25) of its
+constituent energy machines would be destroyed; the system as a whole
+would steadily proceed towards disruption.
+
+But, happily, Nature presents no evidence of such a course of events.
+The earth spins on its axis with quiet and persistent regularity; the
+unvarying uniformity of its motion of axial rotation has been verified
+by the observations of generations of philosophers. Its temperature
+gradations show no evidence of change or decay in its essential heat
+qualities, and the recurrence of natural phenomena is maintained without
+visible sign of increase either in their intensity or multiplicity. The
+finger of Nature ever points to closed energy circuits, to the earth as
+a complete and conservative system in which energy, mutable to the
+highest degree with respect to its plurality of form, attains to the
+perfection of permanence in its essential character and amount.
+
+
+
+
+Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & CO.
+
+Edinburgh & London
+
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+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE:
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+within {} brackets, such as: M{1}.
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Energy System of Matter, by James Weir
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Energy System of Matter
+       A Deduction from Terrestrial Energy Phenomena
+
+Author: James Weir
+
+Release Date: December 20, 2011 [EBook #38348]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Garcia, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Cathy
+Maxam and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
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+
+
+<h1>THE ENERGY SYSTEM<br />
+OF MATTER</h1>
+
+
+
+<p class="center bigger pb">A DEDUCTION FROM TERRESTRIAL<br />
+ENERGY PHENOMENA</p>
+
+<p class="center small pt">BY</p>
+<p class="center big pb">JAMES WEIR</p>
+
+<p class="center pspace"><i>WITH 12 DIAGRAMS</i></p>
+
+<p class="center pt"><span class="big">LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO.</span><br />
+39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON<br />
+NEW YORK&nbsp; BOMBAY,&nbsp; AND&nbsp; CALCUTTA<br />
+1912</p>
+
+<p class="center smaller pspace">All rights reserved
+</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>An intimate study of natural phenomena and a
+lengthened experience in physical research have
+resulted in the formation of certain generalisations
+and deductions which I now present in this
+volume. I have reached the conclusion that every
+physical phenomenon is due to the operation of
+energy transformations or energy transmissions
+embodied in material, and takes place under the
+action or influence of incepting energy fields. In
+any instance the precise nature of the phenomena
+is dependent on the peculiar form of energy actively
+engaged, on the nature of the material to which
+this energy is applied, and on the nature of the
+incepting field which influences the process. In
+the course of the work several concrete cases are
+discussed, in which these features of energy are
+illustrated and explained by the use of simple experimental
+apparatus. It is hoped that, by this means,
+the distinctive differences which exist in the manifestations
+of energy, in its transformation, in its
+transmission, and in its incepting forms will be
+rendered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span>
+clear to the reader. I have to express
+my indebtedness to Mr. James Affleck, B.Sc.,
+for his assistance in the preparation of this work
+for publication.</p>
+
+<p class="attr">
+JAMES WEIR.</p>
+
+<p class="small"><span class="ind1 smcap">Over Courance,</span><br />
+<span class="ind smcap">Lockerbie, Scotland.</span>
+
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center bigger">CONTENTS</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<table cellpadding="4" summary="contents">
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdr">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><span class="smcap"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">Introduction</a></span></td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="center big">PART I</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="center big"><a href="#PART_I">GENERAL STATEMENT</a></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">1.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_1"><span class="smcap">Advantages of General View of Natural Operations</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">2.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_2"><span class="smcap">Separate Mass in Space</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">3.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_3"><span class="smcap">Advent of Energy</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Distortional Effects</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">4.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_4"><span class="smcap">The Gravitation Field</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">5.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_5"><span class="smcap">Limits of Rotational Energy</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Disruptional
+  Phenomena</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">6.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_6"><span class="smcap">Passive Function and General Nature of Gravitation
+  Field</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">7.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_7"><span class="smcap">Limit of Gravitation Transformation</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">8.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_8"><span class="smcap">Interactions of two Planetary Bodies</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Equilibrium
+  Phenomena</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">9.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_9"><span class="smcap">Axial Energy</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Secondary Processes</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">10.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_10"><span class="smcap">Mechanism of Energy Return</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">11.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_11"><span class="smcap">Review of Cosmical System</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">General Function of
+  Energy</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">12.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_12"><span class="smcap">Review of Cosmical System</span>&mdash;
+<span class="smcap">Natural Conditions</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="center big">PART II</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="center big"><a href="#PART_II">PRINCIPLES OF INCEPTION</a></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">13. </td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_13"><span class="smcap">Illustrative Secondary Processes</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">34</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">14.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_14"><span class="smcap">Incepting Energy Influences</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">40</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">15.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_15"><span class="smcap">Cohesion as an Incepting Influence</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">45</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">16.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_16"><span class="smcap">Terrestrial Gravitation as an Incepting Influence</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">48<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">17.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_17"><span class="smcap">The Gravitation Field</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">51</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">18.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_18"><span class="smcap">The Thermal Field</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">54</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">19.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_19"><span class="smcap">The Luminous Field</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">58</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">20.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_20"><span class="smcap">Transformations</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Upward Movement of a Mass
+  against Gravity</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">62</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">21.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_21"><span class="smcap">Transformations</span>&mdash;
+<span class="smcap">The Simple Pendulum</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">67</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">22.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_22"><span class="smcap">Statical Energy Conditions</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">68</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">23.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_23"><span class="smcap">Transformations of the Moving
+Pendulum</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Energy
+  of Motion to Energy of Position and Vice
+  Versa</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">72</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">24.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_24"><span class="smcap">Transformations of the Moving Pendulum</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Frictional
+  Transformation at the Bearing Surfaces</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">77</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">25.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_25"><span class="smcap">Stability of Energy Systems</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">79</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">26.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_26"><span class="smcap">The Pendulum as a Conservative System</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">81</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">27.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_27"><span class="smcap">Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Transmission
+  of Heat Energy by Solid Material</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">84</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">28.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_28"><span class="smcap">Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Transmission
+  by Flexible Band or Cord</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">89</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">29.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_29"><span class="smcap">Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Transmission
+  of Energy to Air Masses</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">92</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">30.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_30"><span class="smcap">Energy Machines and Energy Transmission</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">95</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">31.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_31"><span class="smcap">Identification of Forms of Energy</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">107</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">32.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_32"><span class="smcap">Complete Secondary Cyclical Operation</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">114</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="center big">PART III</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="center big"><a href="#PART_III">TERRESTRIAL CONDITIONS</a></td>
+<td class="tdr"></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">33.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_33"><span class="smcap">Gaseous Expansion</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">118</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">34.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_34"><span class="smcap">Gravitational Equilibrium of Gases</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">124</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">35.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_35"><span class="smcap">Total Energy of Gaseous Substances</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">131</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">36.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_36"><span class="smcap">Comparative Altitudes of Planetary Atmospheres</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">135</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">37.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_37"><span class="smcap">Reactions of Composite Atmosphere</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">139</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">38.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_38"><span class="smcap">Description of Terrestrial Case</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">143</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">39.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_39"><span class="smcap">Relative Physical Conditions of Atmospheric
+  Constituents</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">150<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">40.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_40"><span class="smcap">Transmission of Energy from Aqueous Vapour to
+  Air Masses</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">153</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">41.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_41"><span class="smcap">Terrestrial Energy Return</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">160</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">42.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_42"><span class="smcap">Experimental Analogy and Demonstration of the
+  General Mechanism of Energy Transformation
+  and Return in the Atmospheric Cycle</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">170</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">43.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_43"><span class="smcap">Application of Pendulum Principles</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">181</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">44.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_44"><span class="smcap">Extension of Pendulum Principles to Terrestrial
+  Phenomena</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">188</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrp">45.</td>
+<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_45"><span class="smcap">Concluding Review of Terrestrial Conditions</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Effects
+  of Influx of Energy</span></a></td>
+<td class="tdr">192</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+
+
+<p>The main principles on which the present work is
+founded were broadly outlined in the author's <i>Terrestrial
+Energy</i> in 1883, and also in a later paper in 1892.</p>
+
+<p>The views then expressed have since been amply
+verified by the course of events. In the march of
+progress, the forward strides of science have been
+of gigantic proportions. Its triumphs, however, have
+been in the realm, not of speculation or faith, but
+of experiment and fact. While, on the one hand,
+the careful and systematic examination and co-ordination
+of experimental facts has ever been leading
+to results of real practical value, on the other, the
+task of the theorists, in their efforts to explain
+phenomena on speculative grounds, has become
+increasingly severe, and the results obtained have
+been decreasingly satisfactory. Day by day it
+becomes more evident that not one of the many
+existing theories is adequate to the explanation of
+the known phenomena: but, in spite of this obvious
+fact, attempts are still constantly being made, even
+by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>
+most eminent men, to rule the results of experimental
+science into line with this or that accepted
+theory. The contradictions are many and glaring,
+but speculative methods are still rampant. They have
+become the fashion, or rather the fetish, of modern
+science. It would seem that no experimental
+result can be of any value until it is deductively
+accommodated to some preconceived hypothesis,
+until it is embodied and under the sway of what
+is practically scientific dogma. These methods have
+permeated all branches of science more or less,
+but in no sphere has the tendency to indulge in
+speculation been more pronounced than in that
+which deals with energetics. In no sphere, also,
+have the consequences of such indulgence been more
+disastrous. For the most part, the current conceptions
+of energy processes are crude, fanciful, and
+inconsistent with Nature. They require for their
+support&mdash;in fact, for their very existence&mdash;the acceptance
+of equally fantastic conceptions of mythical
+substances or ethereal media of whose real existence
+there is absolutely no experimental evidence. On
+the assumed properties or motions of such media
+are based the many inconsistent and useless attempts
+to explain phenomena. But, as already pointed out,
+Nature has unmistakably indicated the true path of
+progress to be that of experimental investigation.
+In the use of this method only phenomena can be
+employed, and any hypothesis which may be formulated
+as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>
+the result of research on these lines is of
+scientific value only in so far as it is the correct expression
+of the actual facts observed. By this method
+of holding close to Nature reliable working hypotheses
+can, if necessary, be formed, and real progress made.
+It is undeniably the method of true science.</p>
+
+<p>In recent years much attention has been devoted
+to certain speculative theories with respect to the
+origin and ultimate nature of matter and energy.
+Such hypotheses, emanating as they do from prominent
+workers, and fostered by the inherent imaginative
+tendency of the human mind, have gained
+considerable standing. But it is surely unnecessary
+to point out that all questions relating to origins
+are essentially outside the pale of true science. Any
+hypotheses which may be thus formulated have not
+the support of experimental facts in their conclusions;
+they belong rather to the realm of speculative philosophy
+than to that of science. In the total absence
+of confirmatory phenomena, such theories can, at
+best, only be regarded as plausible speculations, to
+be accepted, it may be, without argument, and
+ranking in interest in the order of their plausibility.</p>
+
+<p>Of modern research into the ultimate constitution
+of matter little requires to be said. It is largely
+founded on certain radio-active and electrical phenomena
+which, in themselves, contribute little information.
+But aided by speculative methods and the
+use of preconceived ethereal hypotheses, various
+elaborate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
+theories have been formulated, explaining
+matter and its properties entirely in terms of
+ethereal motions. Such conceptions in their proper
+sphere&mdash;namely, that of metaphysics&mdash;would be
+no doubt of interest, but when advanced as a
+scientific proposition or solution they border on
+the ridiculous. In the absence of phenomena bearing
+on the subject, it would seem that the last resort
+of the modern scientist lies in terminology. To
+the average seeker after truth, however, the term
+"matter," as applied to the material world, will still
+convey as much meaning as the more elaborate
+scientific definitions.</p>
+
+<p>It is not the purpose of this work to add
+another thread to the already tangled skein of
+scientific theory. It is written, rather, with the
+conviction, that it is impossible ever to get really
+behind or beyond phenomena; in the belief that
+the complete description of any natural process
+is simply the complete description of the associated
+phenomena, which may always be observed
+and co-ordinated but never ultimately explained.
+Phenomena must ever be accepted simply as
+phenomena&mdash;as the inscrutable manifestations of
+Nature. By induction from phenomena it is indeed
+possible to rise to working hypotheses, and thence,
+it may be, to general conceptions of Nature's order,
+and as already pointed out, it is to this method, of
+accepting phenomena, and of reasoning only from
+experimental<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>
+facts, that all the advances of modern
+science are due. On the other hand, it is the
+neglect of this method&mdash;the departure, as it were,
+from Nature&mdash;which has led to the introduction
+into the scientific thought of the day of the various
+ethereal media with their extreme and contradictory
+properties. The use of such devices really amounts
+to an admission of direct ignorance of phenomena.
+They are, in reality, an attempt to explain natural
+operations by a highly artificial method, and, having
+no basis in fact, their whole tendency is to proceed, in
+ever-increasing degree, from one absurdity to another.</p>
+
+<p>It is quite possible to gain a perfectly true and
+an absolutely reliable knowledge of the properties of
+matter and energy, and the part which each plays,
+without resorting to speculative aids. All that is required
+is simply accurate and complete observation at
+first hand. The field of research is wide; all Nature
+forms the laboratory. By this method every result
+achieved may be tested and verified, not by its concurrence
+with any approved theory, however plausible,
+but by direct reference to phenomena. The verdict
+of Nature will be the final judgment on every scheme.</p>
+
+<p>It is on these principles, allied with the great
+generalisations with respect to the conservation of
+matter and energy, that this work is founded. As
+the result of a long, varied, and intimate acquaintance
+with Nature, and much experimental research in
+many spheres, the author has reached the conclusion,
+already<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
+foreshadowed in <i>Terrestrial Energy</i>, that
+the great principle of energy conservation is true,
+not only in the universal and generally accepted
+sense, but also in a particular sense with respect to
+all really separate bodies, such as planetary masses
+in space. Each of these bodies, therefore, forms
+within itself a completely conservative energy
+system. This conclusion obviously involves the complete
+denial of the transmission of energy in any
+form across interplanetary space, and the author, in
+this volume, now seeks to verify the conclusion by the
+direct experimental evidence of terrestrial phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>Under present-day conditions in science, the
+acceptance of the ordinary doctrine of transmission
+across space involves likewise the acceptance of the
+existence of an ethereal substance which pervades
+all space and forms the medium by which such
+transmission is carried out. The properties of this
+medium are, of course, precisely adapted to its assumed
+function of transmission. These properties it
+is not necessary to discuss, for when the existence of
+the transmission itself has been finally disproved, the
+necessity for the transmitting medium clearly vanishes.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="PART_I" id="PART_I"></a>PART I</h2>
+
+<p class="center big">GENERAL STATEMENT</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_1" id="sec_1"></a>1. <i>Advantages of General View of Natural
+Operations</i></h3>
+
+<p>The object of this statement is to outline and
+illustrate, in simple fashion, a broad and general
+conception of the operation and interaction of matter
+and energy in natural phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>Such a conception may be of value to the
+student of Nature, in several ways. In modern
+times the general tendency of scientific work is
+ever towards specialisation, with its corresponding
+narrowness of view. A broad outlook on Nature
+is thus eminently desirable. It enables the observer
+to perceive to some extent the links uniting the
+apparently most insignificant of natural processes
+to those of seemingly greater magnitude and importance.
+In this way a valuable idea of the natural
+world as a whole may be gained, which will, in turn,
+tend generally to clarify the aspect of particular
+operations. A broad general view of Nature also
+leads to the appreciation of the full significance of
+the great doctrines of the conservation of matter
+and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>
+energy. By its means the complete verification
+of these doctrines, which appears to be beyond
+human experiment, may be traced on the face of
+Nature throughout the endless chain of natural processes.
+Such a view also leads to a firm grasp of
+the essential nature and qualities of energy itself
+so far as they are revealed by its general function
+in phenomena.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_2" id="sec_2"></a>2. <i>Separate Mass in Space</i></h3>
+
+<p>In the scheme now to be outlined, matter and
+energy are postulated at the commencement without
+reference to their ultimate origin or inherent nature.
+They are accepted, in their diverse forms, precisely
+as they are familiar from ordinary terrestrial experience
+and phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>For the purpose of general illustration the reader
+is asked to conceive a mass of heterogeneous matter,
+concentrated round a given point in space, forming
+a single body. This mass is assumed to be assembled
+and to obtain its coherent form in virtue of that
+universal and inherent property of matter, namely,
+gravitative or central attraction. This property is
+independent of precise energy conditions, its outward
+manifestation being found simply in the persistent
+tendency of matter on all occasions to press
+or force itself into the least possible space. In
+the absence of all disturbing influences, therefore,
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
+configuration of this mass of matter, assumed
+assembled round the given point, would naturally,
+under the influence of this gravitative tendency,
+resolve itself into that of a perfect sphere. The
+precise magnitude or dimensions of the spherical
+body thus constituted are of little moment in the
+discussion, but, for illustrative purposes, it may,
+in the meantime, be assumed that in mass it is
+equivalent to our known solar system. It is also
+assumed to be completely devoid of energy, and
+as a mass to be under the influence of no external
+constraint. Under these conditions, the spherical
+body may obviously be assumed as stationary in
+space, or otherwise as moving with perfectly uniform
+velocity along a precisely linear path. Either
+conception is justifiable. The body has no relative
+motion, and since it is absolutely unconstrained
+no force could be applied to it and no
+energy expenditure would be required for its linear
+movement.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_3" id="sec_3"></a>3. <i>Advent of Energy&mdash;Distortional Effects</i></h3>
+
+<p>Nature, however, does not furnish us with any
+celestial or other body fulfilling such conditions.
+Absolutely linear motion is unknown, and matter
+is never found divorced from energy. To complete
+the system, therefore, the latter factor is
+required, and, with the advent of energy to the
+mass,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+its prototype may be found in the natural
+world.</p>
+
+<p>This energy is assumed to be communicated in
+that form which we shall term "work" energy
+(§§ <a href="#sec_13">13,</a> <a href="#sec_31">31</a>) and which, as a form of energy, will
+be fully dealt with later. This "work" energy is
+assumed to be manifested, in the first place, as
+energy of motion. As already pointed out, no expenditure
+of energy can be associated with a linear
+motion of the mass, since that motion is under
+no restraint, but in virtue of the initial central
+attraction or gravitative strain, the form of energy
+first communicated may be that of kinetic energy
+of rotation. Its transmission to the mass will cause
+the latter to revolve about some axis of symmetry
+within itself. Each particle of the mass thus pursues
+a circular path with reference to that axis,
+and has a velocity directly proportional to its radial
+displacement from it.</p>
+
+<p>This energised rotating spherical mass is thus
+the primal conception of the energy scheme now
+to be outlined. It will be readily seen that, as
+a primal conception, it is essentially and entirely
+natural; so much so, indeed, that any one familiar
+with rotatory motion might readily predict from
+ordinary experience the resulting phenomena on
+which the scheme is, more or less, based.</p>
+
+<p>When energy is applied to the mass, the first
+phenomenon of note will be that, as the mass
+rotates,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
+it departs from its originally spherical shape.
+By the action of what is usually termed centrifugal
+force, the rotating body will be distorted; it will
+be flattened at the polar or regions of lowest
+velocity situated at the extremities of the axis of
+rotation, and it will be correspondingly distended
+at the equatorial or regions of highest velocity.
+The spherical body will, in fact, assume a more or
+less discoidal form according to the amount of
+energy applied to it; there will be a redistribution
+of the original spherical matter; certain portions
+of the mass will be forced into new positions more
+remote from the central axis of rotation.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_4" id="sec_4"></a>4. <i>The Gravitation Field</i></h3>
+
+<p>These phenomena of motion are the outward
+evidence of certain energy processes. The distortional
+movement of the material is carried out
+against the action and within the field of certain
+forces which exist in the mass of material in virtue
+of its gravitative or cohesive qualities. It is carried
+out also in virtue of the application of energy to
+the sphere, which energy has been, as it were,
+transformed or worked down, in the distortional
+movement, against the restraining action of this
+gravitation field or influence. The outward displacement
+of the material from the central axis
+is thus coincident with a gain of energy to the
+mass,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
+this gain of energy being, of course, at the
+expense of, and by the direct transformation of,
+the originally applied energy. It is stored in the
+distorted material as energy of position, potential
+energy, or energy of displacement relative to the
+central axis. But, in the distortive movement, the
+mass will also gain energy in other forms. The
+movement of one portion of its material relative
+to another will give rise (since it is carried out
+under the gravitational influence) to a fractional
+process in which, as we know from terrestrial experience,
+heat and electrical energy will make their
+appearance. These forms of energy will give rise, in
+their turn, to all the phenomena usually attendant on
+their application to material. As already pointed out
+also, the whole mass gains, in varying degree, energy
+of motion or kinetic energy. It would appear, then,
+that although energy was nominally applied to the
+mass in one form only, yet by its characteristic property
+of transformation it has in reality manifested itself
+in several entirely different forms. It is important to
+note the part played in these transformation processes
+by the gravitation field or influence. Its action really
+reveals one of the vital working principles of energetics.
+This principle may be generally stated thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Every Transformation of Energy is carried
+out by the Action of Energised Matter in the
+Lines or Field of an Incepting Energy Influence.</span></p>
+
+<p>In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
+the particular case we have just considered,
+the incepting field is simply the inherent gravitative
+property of the energised mass. This property is
+manifested as an attractive force between portions
+of matter. This, however, is not of necessity the
+only aspect of an incepting influence. In the course
+of this work various instances of transformation
+will be presented in which the incepting influence
+functions in a guise entirely different. It is important
+to note that the incepting influence itself
+is in no way changed, altered, or transformed during
+the process of transformation which it influences.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_5" id="sec_5"></a>5. <i>Limits of Rotational Energy. Disruptional
+Phenomena</i></h3>
+
+<p>It is clear that the material at different parts
+of the rotating spheroid will be energised to varying
+degrees. Since the linear velocity of the material
+in the equatorial regions of the spheroid is greater
+than that of the material about the poles, the
+energy of motion of the former will exceed that of
+the latter, the difference becoming greater as the
+mass is increasingly energised and assumes more and
+more the discoidal form.</p>
+
+<p>The question now arises as to how far this process
+of energising the material mass may be carried.
+What are its limits? The capacity of the rotating
+body for energy clearly depends on the amount
+of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+work which may be spent on its material in
+distorting it against the influence of the gravitative
+attraction. The amount is again dependent on the
+strength of this attraction. But the value of the
+gravitative attraction or gravitation field is, by
+the law of gravitation, in direct proportion to the
+quantity of material or matter present, and hence the
+capacity of the body for energy depends on its mass
+or on the quantity of matter which composes it.</p>
+
+<p>Now if energy be impressed on this mass beyond
+its capacity a new order of phenomena appears.
+Distortion will be followed by disruption and disintegration.
+By the action of the disruptive forces
+a portion of the primary material will be projected
+into space as a planetary body. The manner of
+formation of such a secondary body is perhaps best
+illustrated by reference to the commonplace yet beautiful
+and suggestive phenomenon of the separation
+of a drop of water or other viscous fluid under the
+action of gravitation. In this process, during the
+first downward movement of the drop, it is united
+to its source by a portion of attenuated material
+which is finally ruptured, one part moving downwards
+and being embodied in the drop whilst the
+remainder springs upwards towards the source. In
+the process of formation of the planetary body we
+are confronted with an order of phenomena of
+somewhat the same nature. The planetary orb
+which is hurled into space is formed in a manner
+similar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
+to the drop of viscous fluid, and under the
+action of forces of the same general nature. One
+of these forces is the bond of gravitative attraction
+between planet and primary which is never severed,
+and when complete separation of the two masses
+finally occurs, the incessant combination of this
+force with the tangential force of disruption acting
+on the planet will compel it into a fixed orbit, which
+it will pursue around the central axis. When all
+material links have thus been severed, the two bodies
+will then be absolutely separate masses in space. The
+term "separate" is here used in its most rigid and
+absolute sense. No material connection of any kind
+whatever exists, either directly or indirectly, between
+the two masses. Each one is completely isolated
+from the other by interplanetary space, and in
+reality, so far as material connection is concerned,
+each one might be the sole occupant of that space.
+This conception of separate masses in space is of
+great importance to the author's scheme, but, at
+the same time, the condition is one which cannot be
+illustrated by any terrestrial experimental contrivance.
+It will be obvious that such a device, as
+might naturally be conceived, of isolating two
+bodies by placing them in an exhausted vessel or
+vacuous space, by no means complies with the full
+conditions of true separation portrayed above, because
+some material connection must always exist
+between the enclosed bodies and the containing
+vessel.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
+This aspect is more fully treated later
+(§ <a href="#sec_30">30</a>). The condition of truly separate masses is,
+in fact, purely a celestial one. No means whatever
+are existent whereby such a condition may be
+faithfully reproduced in a terrestrial environment.</p>
+
+<p>In their separate condition the primary and planetary
+mass will each possess a definite and unvarying
+amount of energy. It is to be noted also, that since
+the original mass of the primary body has been
+diminished by the mass of the planet cast off, the
+capacity for energy of the primary will now be
+diminished in a corresponding degree. Any further
+increment of energy to the primary in any form has
+now, however, no direct influence on the energy of
+the planet, which must maintain its position of complete
+isolation in its orbit. But although thus
+separate and distinct from the primal mass in every
+material respect, the planet is ever linked to it by
+the invisible bond of gravitation, and every movement
+made by the planet in approaching or receding
+from the primary is made in the field or influence of
+this attraction. In accordance, therefore, with the
+general principle already enunciated (§ <a href="#sec_4">4</a>), these
+actions or movements of the energised planetary
+mass, being made in the field of the incepting gravitative
+influence, will be accompanied by transformations,
+and thus the energy of the planet, although
+unvarying in its totality, may vary in its form or
+distribution with the inward or outward movement
+of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
+the planet in its orbital path. As the planet
+recedes from the primary it gains energy of position,
+but this gain is obtained solely at the expense, and by
+the direct transformation of its own orbital energy of
+motion. Its velocity in its orbit must, therefore,
+decrease as it recedes from the central axis of the
+system, and increase as it approaches that axis.
+Thus from energy considerations alone it is clear
+that, if the planetary orbit is not precisely circular,
+the velocity of the planet must vary at different
+points of its path.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_6" id="sec_6"></a>6. <i>Passive Function and General Nature of
+Gravitation Field</i></h3>
+
+<p>From the phenomena described above, it will be
+observed that, in the energy processes of transformation
+occurring in both primary and planet, the
+function of the gravitation field or influence is entirely
+passive in nature. The field is, in truth, the persistent
+moving or directing power behind the energy
+processes, the incepting energy influence or agency
+which determines the nature of the transformation
+in each case without being, in any way, actively
+engaged in it. In accelerating or retarding the
+transformation process it has thus absolutely no
+effect. These features are controlled by other
+factors. Neither does this incepting agency affect,
+in any way, the limits of the transformation process,
+these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
+limits being prescribed by the physical or
+energy qualities of the acting materials. In general
+nature the gravitation field appears to be simply
+an energy influence&mdash;a peculiar manifestation of
+certain passive qualities of energy. This aspect will,
+however, become clearer to the reader when the
+properties of gravitation are studied in conjunction
+with those of other incepting energy influences
+(§§ <a href="#sec_17">17,</a> <a href="#sec_18">18,</a> <a href="#sec_19">19</a>).</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_7" id="sec_7"></a>7. <i>Limit of Gravitation Transformation</i></h3>
+
+<p>In the case of a planetary body, there is a real
+limit to the extent of the transformation of its orbital
+energy of motion under the influence of the gravitation
+field. As the orbit of the planet widens, and its
+mean distance from the primary becomes greater, its
+velocity in its orbital path must correspondingly
+decrease. As already pointed out (§ <a href="#sec_5">5</a>), this decrease
+is simply the result of the orbital energy of
+motion being transformed or worked down into
+energy of position. But since this orbital energy is
+strictly limited in amount, a point must ultimately
+be reached where it would be transformed in its
+entirety into energy of position. When this limiting
+condition is attained, the planet clearly could
+have no orbital motion; it would be instantaneously
+at rest in somewhat the same way as a projectile
+from the earth's surface is at rest at the summit of
+its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
+flight in virtue of the complete transformation of
+its energy of motion into energy of position. In this
+limiting condition, also, the energy of position of the
+planet would be the maximum possible, and its
+orbital energy zero. The scope of the planetary
+orbital path is thus rigidly determined by the planetary
+energy properties. Assuming the reduction of
+gravity with distance to follow the usual law of
+inverse squares, the value of the displacement of the
+planet from the central axis when in this stationary
+or limiting position may be readily calculated if the
+various constants are known. In any given case it is
+obvious that this limiting displacement must be a
+finite quantity, since the planetary orbital energy
+which is being worked down is itself finite in amount.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_8" id="sec_8"></a>8. <i>Interactions of Two Planetary Bodies&mdash;Equilibrium
+Phenomena</i></h3>
+
+<p>Up to the present point, the cosmical system has
+been assumed to be composed of one planetary body
+only in addition to the primary mass. It is clear,
+however, that by repetition of the process already
+described, the system could readily evolve more than
+one planet; it might, in fact, have several planetary
+masses originating in the same primary, each endowed
+with a definite modicum of energy, and each
+pursuing a persistent orbit round the central axis of
+the system. Since the mass of the primary decreases
+as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+each successive planet is cast off, its gravitative
+attractive powers will also decrease, and with every
+such decline in the central restraining force the orbits
+of the previously constituted planets will naturally
+widen. By the formation in this way of a series of
+planetary masses, the material of the original primary
+body would be as it were distributed over a larger area
+or space, and this separation would be accompanied
+by a corresponding decrease in the gravitative attraction
+between the several masses. If the distributive
+or disruptive process were carried to its limit
+by the continuous application of rotatory energy to
+each separate unit of the system, this limit would be
+dependent on the capacity of the system for energy.
+As is shown later (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>), this capacity would be
+determined by the mass of the system.</p>
+
+<p>For simplicity, let us consider the case in which
+there are two planetary bodies only in the system in
+addition to the primary. In virtue of the gravitative
+attraction or gravitation field between the two, they
+will mutually attract one another in their motion, and
+each will, in consequence, be deflected more or less
+out of that orbital path which it would normally
+pursue in the absence of the other. This attraction
+will naturally be greatest when the planets are in the
+closest proximity; the planet having the widest
+orbit will then be drawn inwards towards the central
+axis, the other will be drawn outwards. The distance
+moved in this way by each will depend on its
+mass,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+and on the forces brought to bear on it by the
+combined action of the two remaining masses of the
+system. Moving thus in different directions, the
+motion of each planet is carried out in the lines of
+the gravitation field between the two. One planet,
+therefore, gains and the other loses energy of position
+with respect to the central axis of the system. The
+one planet can thus influence, to some extent, the
+energy properties of the other, although there is
+absolutely no direct energy communication between
+the two; as shown hereafter, the whole action and
+the energy change will be due simply to the motion
+carried out in the field of the incepting gravitation
+influence.</p>
+
+<p>It is clear, however, that this influence is exerted
+on the distribution of the energy, on the form in
+which it is manifested, and in no way affects the
+energy totality of either planet. Each, as before,
+remains a separate system with conservative energy
+properties. That planet which loses energy of position
+gains energy of motion, and is correspondingly
+accelerated in its orbital path; the other, in gaining
+energy of position, does so at the expense of its own
+energy of motion, and is retarded accordingly. The
+action is really very simple in nature when viewed
+from a purely energy standpoint. It has been
+dealt with in some detail in order to emphasise the
+fact that there is absolutely nothing in the nature of
+a transmission of energy between one planet and the
+other.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+Taking a superficial view of the operation, it
+might be inferred that, as the planets approach one
+another, energy of motion (or energy of position) is
+transmitted from one to the other, causing one to
+retard and the other to accelerate its movement, but
+a real knowledge of the energy conditions shows that
+the phenomenon is rather one of a simple restoration
+of equilibrium, a redistribution or transformation of
+the intrinsic energy of each to suit these altering conditions.
+Each planet is, in the truest sense, a separate
+mass in space.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_9" id="sec_9"></a>9. <i>Axial Energy&mdash;Secondary Processes</i></h3>
+
+<p>Passing now to another aspect of the energy condition
+of a planetary body, let the planet be assumed
+to be endowed with axial energy or energy of rotation,
+so that, while pursuing its orbital path in space, it
+also rotates with uniform angular velocity about an
+axis within itself. What will be the effect of the
+primary mass on the planet under these new energy
+conditions? We conceive that the effect is again
+purely one of transformation. In this process the
+primary mass functions once more as an entirely
+passive or incepting agent, which, while exerting a
+continuous transforming influence on the planet, does
+not affect in any way the inherent energy properties of
+the latter. Up to the present point we have only dealt
+with one incepting influence in transformation processes,
+namely, that of gravitation, which has always
+been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+manifested as an attractive force. It is not to
+be supposed, however, that this is the only aspect
+in which incepting influences may be presented.
+Although attractive force is certainly an aspect of
+some incepting influences, it is not a distinctive feature
+of incepting influences generally. In many cases, the
+aspect of force, in the sense of attraction or repulsion,
+is entirely awanting. In the new order of transformations
+which come into play in virtue of the
+rotatory motion of a planetary mass in the field of
+its primary, we shall find other incepting influences
+in action entirely different in nature from the gravitation
+influence, but, nevertheless, arising from the
+same primary mass in a similar way. Now the application
+of energy to the planet, causing it to rotate
+in the lines or under the influence of these incepting
+fields of the primary, brings into existence on the
+planet an entirely new order of phenomena. So
+long as the planet had no axial motion of rotation,
+some of the incepting influences of the primary were
+compelled, as it were, to inaction; but with the
+advent of axial energy the conditions are at once
+favourable to their action, and to the detection of
+their transforming effects. In accordance with the
+general principle already enunciated (§ <a href="#sec_4">4</a>), the action
+of the planetary energised material in the lines of
+the various incepting fields of the primary is productive
+of energy transformations. The active
+energy of these transformations is the axial or
+energy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+rotatory
+of the planet itself, and, in virtue
+of these transformations, certain other forms of
+energy will be manifested on the planet and associated
+with the various forms of planetary material.
+These manifestations of energy, in fact, constitute
+planetary phenomena. Since the action or movement
+of the rotating material of the planet through
+the incepting fields of the primary is most pronounced
+in the equatorial or regions of highest
+linear velocity, and least in the regions of low
+velocity adjoining the poles of rotation, the transforming
+effect may naturally be expected to decrease
+in intensity from equator to poles. Planetary
+energy phenomena will thus vary according to the
+location of the acting material. It will be clear,
+also, that each incepting agency or influence associated
+with the primary mass will give rise to its own
+peculiar transformations of axial energy on the
+planetary surface. These leading or primary transformations
+of axial energy, in which the incepting
+influence is associated with the primary mass only,
+we term primary processes. But it is evident that
+the various forms of energy thus set free on the
+planet as a result of the primary processes will be
+communicated to, and will operate on, the different
+forms of planetary material, and will give rise to
+further or secondary transformations of energy, in
+which the incepting agency is embodied in or associated
+with planetary material only. The exact
+nature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
+of these secondary transformations will vary
+according to the circumstances in which they take
+place. Each of them, however, as indicated above,
+will be, in itself, carried out in virtue of some action
+of the energised planetary material in the lines or
+field of what we might term a secondary incepting
+influence. The latter, however, must not be confused
+with the influences of the primary. It is
+essentially a planetary phenomenon, an aspect of
+planetary energy; it is associated with the physical
+or material machine by means of which the secondary
+process of transformation is carried out. The nature
+of this secondary influence will determine the nature
+of the secondary transformation in each case. Its
+precise extent may be limited by other considerations
+(§ <a href="#sec_15">15</a>).</p>
+
+<p>As an example, assume a portion of the axial
+energy to be primarily transformed into heat in
+virtue of the planet's rotation in the field of an independent
+thermal incepting influence exerted by the
+primary. To the action of this agency, which we
+might term the thermal field, we assume are due all
+primary heating phenomena of planetary material.
+Now the secondary transformations will take place
+when the heat energy thus manifested is applied to
+some form of matter. It is obvious, however, that
+this application might be carried out in various ways.
+Heat may be devoted to the expansion of a solid
+against its cohesive forces. It may be expended
+against<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+the elastic forces of a gas, or it may be worked
+down against chemical or electrical forces. In every
+case a transformation of energy will result, varying
+in nature according to the peculiar conditions under
+which it is carried out. In this or a similar fashion
+each primary incepting influence may give rise to a
+series of secondary actions more or less complex in
+nature. These secondary transformation processes,
+allied with other processes of transmission, will, in
+fact, constitute the visible phenomena of the planet,
+and in their variety will exactly correspond to these
+phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the gravitation field, its general
+influence on the rotating mass may be readily predicted.
+The material on that part of the planetary
+surface which is nearest to or happens to face the
+primary in rotation is, during the short time it
+occupies that position, subjected to a greater attractive
+influence than the remainder which is more remote
+from the primary. It will, in consequence, tend to
+be more or less distorted or elevated above its normal
+position on the planetary surface. This distorting
+effect will vary in degree according to the nature
+of the material, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, but
+the general effect of the distortional movement,
+combined with the rotatory motion of the planet,
+will be to produce a tidal action or a periodical rise
+and fall of the more fluid material distributed over
+the planetary surface. The distortion will, of course,
+be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
+accompanied by energy processes in which axial
+energy will be transformed into heat and other forms,
+which will finally operate in the secondary processes
+exactly as in previous cases.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_10" id="sec_10"></a>10. <i>Mechanism of Energy Return</i></h3>
+
+<p>But the question now arises, as to how this continuous
+transformation of the axial energy can be consistent
+with that condition of uniformity of rotation of
+the planet which was originally assumed. If the total
+energy of the planetary mass is limited, and if it can
+receive no increment of energy from any external
+source, it is clear that the axial energy transformed
+must, by some process, be continuously returned to
+its original form. Some process or mechanism is
+evidently necessary to carry out this operation.
+This mechanism we conceive to be provided by
+certain portions of the material of the planet, principally
+the gaseous matter which resides on its
+surface, completely enveloping it, and extending
+outwards into space (§ <a href="#sec_38">38</a>). In other words, the
+atmosphere of the planet forms the machine or
+material agency by which this return of the
+transformed axial energy is carried out. It has
+already been pointed out (§ <a href="#sec_9">9</a>) how the working
+energy of every secondary transformation is derived
+from the original axial energy of the planet itself.
+Each of these secondary transformations, however,
+forms<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
+but one link of one cyclical chain of secondary
+transformations, in which a definite quantity of
+energy, initially in the axial form, passes, in these
+secondary operations, through various other forms,
+by different processes and through the medium of
+different material machines, until it is eventually
+absorbed into the atmosphere of the planet. These
+complete series of cyclical operations, by which the
+various portions of axial energy are carried to the
+atmosphere, may in some cases be of a very simple
+nature, and may be continuously repeated over very
+short intervals of time; in other cases, the cycle
+may seem obscure and complicated, and its complete
+operation spread over very long periods, but in all
+cases the final result is the same. The axial energy
+abstracted, sooner or later, recurs to the atmospheric
+machine. By its action in this machine, great masses
+of gaseous material are elevated from the surface
+of the planet against the attractive force of gravitation;
+the energy will thus now appear in the form
+of potential energy or energy of position. By a
+subsequent movement of these gaseous masses over
+the surface of the planet from the regions of high
+velocity towards the poles, combined with a movement
+of descent to lower levels, the energy of
+position with which they were endowed is returned
+once more in the original axial form.</p>
+
+<p>This, roughly, constitutes the working of the
+planetary atmospheric machine, which, while in itself
+completely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
+reversible and self-contained, forms also
+at the same time the source and the sink of all the
+energy working in the secondary transformations.
+In the ceaseless rounds of these transformations
+which form planetary phenomena it links together
+the initial and concluding stages of each series by
+a reversible process. Energy is thus stored and restored
+continuously. The planet thus neither gains
+nor loses energy of axial motion; so far as its
+energy properties are concerned, it is entirely independent
+of every external influence. Its uniformity
+of rotation is absolutely maintained. Each
+planet of the system will, in the same way, be an
+independent and conservative unit.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_11" id="sec_11"></a>11. <i>Review of Cosmical System&mdash;General Function
+of Energy</i></h3>
+
+<p>Reviewing the system as a whole, the important
+part played by energy in its constitution is readily
+perceived. The source of the energy which operates
+in all parts of the system is found in that energy
+originally applied (§ <a href="#sec_3">3</a>). When the system is finally
+constituted, this energy is found distributed amongst
+the planets, each of which has received its share, and
+each of which is thereby linked to the primary by
+its influence. It is part of this same energy which
+undergoes transformation in virtue of the orbital
+movements of the planets in the field of the gravitative
+influence.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+Again, it is found in the form
+of planetary axial energy, and thence, under the
+influence of various incepting agencies, it passes in
+various forms through the whole gamut of planetary
+phenomena, and finally functions in the atmospheric
+machine. Every phenomenon of the system, great
+or small, is, in fact, but the external evidence either
+of the transformation or of the transmission of this
+energy&mdash;the outward manifestation of its changed
+or changing forms. Its presence, which always implies
+its transformation (§ <a href="#sec_4">4</a>), is the simple primary
+condition attached to every operation. The primal
+mass originally responded to the application of
+energy by the presentation of phenomena. Every
+material portion of the system will similarly respond
+according to circumstances. Energy is, in fact, the
+working spirit of the whole cosmical scheme. It
+is the influence linking every operation of the system
+to the original transformations at the central axis,
+so that all may be combined into one complete and
+consistent whole. It is to be noted, however, that
+although they have a common origin the orbital
+energy of each planetary mass is entirely distinct
+from its energy of axial rotation, and is not interchangeable
+therewith. The transformation of the
+one form of energy in no way affects the totality
+of the other.</p>
+
+<p>The disruption of the primary mass furnishes a
+view of what is virtually the birth of gravitation
+as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
+it is conceived to exist between separate bodies.
+It may now be pointed out that the attractive influence
+of gravitation is, in reality, but one of the
+many manifestations of energy of the system. It
+is not, however, an active manifestation of the working
+energy, but rather an aspect of energy as it is
+related to the properties of matter. We have absolutely
+no experimental experience of matter devoid
+of energy. Gravitation might readily be termed an
+energy property of matter, entirely passive in nature,
+and requiring the advent of some other form in
+order that it may exercise its function as an incepting
+agency.</p>
+
+<p>From a general consideration of the features of
+this system, in which every phenomenon is an
+energy phenomenon, it seems feasible to conclude
+also that every property of matter is likewise an
+energy property. It is certain, indeed, that no
+reasonable or natural concept of either matter or
+energy is possible if the two be dissociated. The
+system also presents a direct and clear illustration
+of the principles of conservation in the working of
+the whole, and also in each planetary unit.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_12" id="sec_12"></a>12. <i>Natural Conditions</i></h3>
+
+<p>It will be noted that, up to the present point,
+the cosmical system has been discussed from a
+purely abstract point of view. This method has
+been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+adopted for a definite reason. Although able,
+at all points, to bring more or less direct evidence
+from Nature, the author has no desire that his
+scheme should be regarded in any way as an attempt
+to originate or describe a system of creation. The
+object has been, by general reasoning from already
+accepted properties of matter and energy, to arrive
+at a true conception of a possible natural order of
+phenomena. It is obvious, however, that the solar
+system forms the prototype of the system described
+above. The motion of the earth and other planets is
+continuously occurring under the influence of gravitation,
+thermal, luminous, and other incepting fields
+which link them to the central mass, the sun. As a
+result of the action of such fields, energy transformations
+arise which form the visible phenomena
+of the system in all its parts, each transformation,
+whether associated with animate or inanimate matter,
+being carried out through the medium of some
+arrangement of matter hereafter referred to as a
+material machine. The conditions are precisely as
+laid down above. The system is dominated, in
+its separate units, and as a whole, by the great
+principle of the conservation of energy. Each
+planetary mass, as it revolves in space, is, so far
+as its energy properties are concerned, an absolutely
+conservative unit of that system. At the
+same time, however, each planetary mass remains
+absolutely dependent on the primary for those great
+controlling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
+or incepting influences which determine
+the transformation of its inherent energy.</p>
+
+<p>In the special case of the earth, which will be
+dealt with in some detail, it is the object of this
+work to show that its property of complete energy
+conservation is amply verified by terrestrial phenomena.
+The extension of the principle from the
+earth to the whole planetary system has been made
+on precisely the same grounds as Newton extended
+the observed phenomena to his famous generalisation
+with respect to gravitation.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="PART_II" id="PART_II"></a>PART II</h2>
+
+<p class="center big">PRINCIPLES OF INCEPTION</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_13" id="sec_13"></a>13. <i>Illustrative Secondary Processes</i></h3>
+
+<p>In this part of the work, an attempt will be made to
+place before the reader some of the purely terrestrial
+and other evidential phenomena on which the conclusions
+of the preceding General Statement are
+founded. The complete and absolute verification of
+that Statement is obviously beyond experimental
+device. Bound, as we are, within the confines of
+one planet, and unable to communicate with the
+others, we can have no direct experimental acquaintance
+with really separate bodies (§ <a href="#sec_5">5</a>) in space.
+But, if from purely terrestrial experience we can
+have no direct proofs on such matters, we have strong
+evidential conclusions which cannot be gainsayed.
+If the same kind of energy operates throughout
+the solar system, the experimental knowledge of its
+properties gained in one field of research is valuable,
+and may be readily utilised in another. The phenomena
+which are available to us for study are, of course,
+simply the ordinary energy processes of the earth&mdash;those
+operations which in the foregoing Statement
+have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
+been described as secondary energy processes.
+Their variety is infinite, and the author has
+accordingly selected merely a few typical examples
+to illustrate the salient points of the scheme. The
+energy acting in these secondary processes is, in
+every case, derived, either directly or indirectly, from
+the energy of rotation or axial energy of the earth.
+In themselves, the processes may be either energy
+transformations or energy transmissions or a combination
+of both these operations. When the action
+involves the bodily movement of material mass in
+space, the dynamical energy thus manifested, and
+which may be transmitted by the movement of this
+material, is termed mechanical or "work" energy
+(§ <a href="#sec_31">31</a>); when the energy active in the process is
+manifested as heat, chemical, or electrical energy,
+we apply to it the term "molecular" energy. The
+significance of these terms is readily seen. The
+operation of mechanical or "work" energy on a mass
+of material may readily proceed without any permanent
+alteration in the internal arrangement or
+general structure of that mass. Mechanical or
+"work" energy is dissociated from any molecular
+action. On the other hand, the application of such
+forms of energy as heat or electrical energy to
+material leads to distinctly molecular or internal
+effects, in which some alteration in the constitution
+of the body affected may ensue. Hence the use of
+the terms, which of course is completely arbitrary.</p>
+
+<p>The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
+principal object of this part of the work is
+to illustrate clearly the general nature, the working,
+and the limits of secondary processes. For this
+purpose, the author has found it best to refer to
+certain more or less mechanical contrivances. The
+apparatus made use of is merely that utilised in
+everyday work for experimental or other useful
+purposes. It is essentially of a very simple nature;
+no originality is claimed for it, and no apology is
+offered for the apparent simplicity of the particular
+energy operations chosen for discussion. In fact,
+this feature has rather led to their selection. In
+scientific circles to-day, familiarity with the more
+common instances of energy operations is apt to
+engender the belief that these processes are completely
+understood. There is no greater fallacy.
+In many cases, no doubt, the superficial phenomena
+are well known, but in even the simplest instances
+the mechanism or ultimate nature of the process
+remains unknown. A free and somewhat loose
+method of applying scientific terms is frequently
+the cloak which hides the ignorance of the observer.
+No attempt will here be made to go beyond the
+simple phenomena. The object in view is simply
+to describe such phenomena, to emphasise and explain
+certain aspects of already well-known facts,
+which, up to the present, have been neglected.</p>
+
+<p>In some of the operations now to be described,
+mechanical or "work" energy is the active agent,
+and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+material masses are thereby caused to execute
+various movements in the lines or field of restraining
+influences. For ordinary experimental convenience,
+the material thus moved must of necessity
+be matter in the solid form. The illustrative value
+of our experimental devices, however, will be very
+distinctly improved if it be borne in mind that the
+operations of mechanical energy are not restricted
+to solids only, but that the various processes of
+transformation and transmission here illustrated by
+the motions of solid bodies may, in other circumstances,
+be carried out in a precisely similar fashion
+by the movements of liquids or even of gases. The
+restrictions imposed in the method of illustration
+are simply those due to the limitations of human
+experimental contrivance. Natural operations exhibit
+apparatus of a different type. By the movements
+of solid materials a convenient means of
+illustration is provided, but it is to be emphasised
+that, so far as the operations of mechanical energy
+are concerned, the precise form or nature of the
+material moved, whether it be solid, liquid, or
+gaseous, is of no consequence. To raise one pound
+of lead through a given distance against the gravitative
+attraction of the earth requires no greater
+expenditure of energy than to raise one pound of
+hydrogen gas through the same distance. The
+same principle holds in all operations involving
+mechanical energy.</p>
+
+<p>Another<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+point of some importance which will be
+revealed by the study of secondary operations is
+that every energy process has in some manner
+definite energy limits imposed upon it. In the
+workings of mechanical or "work" energy it is the
+mass value of the moving material which, in this
+respect, is important. The mass, in fact, is the real
+governing factor of the whole process (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>).
+It determines the maximum amount of energy
+which can be applied to the material, and thus
+controls the extent of the energy operation.</p>
+
+<p>But in actions involving the molecular energies,
+the operation may be limited by other considerations
+altogether. For example, the application of
+heat to a solid body gives rise to certain energy
+processes (§ <a href="#sec_27">27</a>). These processes may proceed
+to a certain degree with increase of temperature,
+but a point will finally be attained where change
+of state of the heated material takes place. This
+is the limiting point of this particular operation.
+When change of state occurs, the phenomena will
+assume an entirely different aspect. The first set
+of energy processes will now be replaced by a set
+of operations absolutely different in nature, themselves
+limited in extent, but by entirely different
+causes. The first operation must thus terminate
+when the new order appears. In this manner each
+process in which the applied energy is worked will
+be confined within certain limiting boundaries. In
+any<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
+chain of energy operations each link will thus
+have, as it were, a definite length. In chemical
+reactions, the limits may be imposed in various
+ways according to the precise nature of the action.
+Chemical combination, and chemical disruption, must
+be looked on as operations which involve not only
+the transformation of energy but also the transformation
+of matter. In most cases, chemical reactions
+result in the appearance of matter in an
+entirely new form&mdash;in the appearance, in fact, of
+actually different material, with physical and energy
+properties absolutely distinct from those of the
+reacting constituents. This appearance of matter
+in the new form is usually the evidence of the
+termination, not only of the particular chemical
+process, but also of the energy process associated
+with it. Transformation of energy may thus be
+limited by transformation of matter.</p>
+
+<p>Examples of the limiting features of energy
+operations could readily be multiplied. Even a
+cursory examination of most natural operations will
+reveal the existence of such limits. In no case do
+we find in Nature any body, or any energy system,
+to which energy may be applied in unlimited amount,
+but in every case, rigid energy limits are imposed,
+and, if these limits are exceeded, the whole energy
+character of the body or system is completely
+changed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="sec_14" id="sec_14"></a>14. <i>Incepting Energy Influences</i></h3>
+
+<p>In experimental and in physical work generally,
+it has been customary, in describing any simple
+process of energy transformation, to take account
+only of those energies or those forms of energy
+which play an active part in the process&mdash;the energy
+in its initial or applied form and the energy in its
+transformed or final form. This method, however,
+requires enlarging so as to include another feature
+of energy transformation, a feature hitherto completely
+overlooked, namely, that of incepting energy.
+Now, this conception of incepting energy, or of
+energy as an incepting influence, is of such vital
+importance to the author's scheme, that it is necessary
+here, at the very outset, to deal with it in some
+detail. To obtain some idea of the general nature of
+these influences, it will be necessary to describe and
+review a few simple instances of energy transformation.
+One of the most illuminating for this purpose
+is perhaps the familiar process of dynamo-electric
+transformation.</p>
+
+<p>A spherical mass A (<a href="#i051">Fig. 1</a>) of copper is caused
+to rotate about its central axis in the magnetic field
+in the neighbourhood of a long and powerful
+electro-magnet. In such circumstances, certain well-known
+transformations of energy will take place.
+The energy transformed is that dynamical or
+"work"<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
+energy which is being applied to the
+spherical mass by the external prime mover causing
+it to rotate. As a result of this motion in the
+magnetic field, an electrical action takes place; eddy
+currents are generated in the spherical mass, and the
+energy originally applied is, through the medium
+of the electrical process, finally converted into heat
+and other energy forms. The external evidence of
+the process will be the rise
+in temperature and corresponding
+expansion of the
+rotating mass.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="figright"><a id="i051" name="i051"></a>
+<img src="images/i051.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Such is the energy transformation.
+Let us now
+review the conditions under
+which it takes place. Passing
+over the features of the
+"work" energy applied and
+the energy produced in the transformation, it is
+evident that the primary and essential condition
+of the whole process is the presence of the
+magnetic field. In the absence of this influence,
+every other condition of this particular energy operation
+might have been fulfilled without result. The
+magnetic field is, in reality, the determining agency
+of the process. But this field of magnetic force is
+itself an energy influence. Its existence implies the
+presence of energy; it is the external manifestation
+of that energy (usually described as stored in the
+field)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
+which is returned, as shown by the spark, when
+the exciting circuit of the electro-magnet is broken.
+The transformation of the dynamical or "work"
+energy (§ <a href="#sec_31">31</a>) applied to the rotating sphere is thus
+carried out by the direct agency, under the power,
+or within the field of this magnetic energy influence,
+to which, accordingly, we apply the expression,
+incepting energy influence, or incepting energy.</p>
+
+<p>There are several points to be noted with regard
+to these phenomena of inception. In the first place,
+it is clear that the energy which thus constitutes the
+magnetic field plays no active part in the main
+process of transformation: during the operation it
+neither varies in value nor in nature: it is entirely a
+passive agent. Neither is any continuous expenditure
+of energy required for the maintenance of this
+incepting influence. It is true that the magnetic
+field is primarily due to a circulatory current in the
+coils or winding of the electro-magnet, but after the
+initial expenditure of energy in establishing that field
+is incurred, the continuous expenditure of energy
+during the flow of the current is devoted to simply
+heating the coils. A continuous heat transformation
+is thus in progress. The magnetic energy influence,
+although closely associated with this heat transformation,
+yet represents in itself a distinct and
+separate energy feature. This last point is, perhaps,
+made more clear if it be assumed that, without
+altering the system in any way, the electro-magnet
+is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
+replaced by a permanent magnet of precisely the
+same dimensions and magnetic power. There would
+then be no energy expenditure whatever for excitation,
+but nevertheless, the main transformation would
+take place in precisely the same manner and to
+exactly the same degree as before. The incepting
+energy influence is found in the residual magnetism.</p>
+
+<p>If an iron ball or sphere were substituted, in the
+experiment, for the copper one, the phenomena
+observed on its rotation would be of an exactly
+similar nature to those described above. There is,
+however, one point of difference. Since the iron is
+magnetic, the magnet pole will now exert an attractive
+force on the iron mass, and if the latter were in
+close proximity to the pole (<a href="#i051">Fig. 1</a>), a considerable
+expenditure of energy might be required to separate
+the two. It is evident, then, that in the case of iron
+and the magnetic metals, this magnetic influence is
+such that an expenditure of energy is required, not
+only to cause these materials to move in rotation so
+as to cut the lines of the field of the magnetic influence,
+but also to cause them to move outwards from
+the seat of the influence <i>along</i> the lines of the field.
+The movements, indeed, involve transformations of
+energy totally different in nature. Assuming the
+energy to be obtained, in both cases, from the same
+external source, it is, in the first instance, converted
+by rotatory motion in the field into electrical and heat
+energy, whereas, in the second case, by the outward
+motion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
+of displacement from the pole, it is transformed
+and associated with the mass in the form of
+energy of position or energy of displacement relative
+to the pole. Since the attractive force between the
+iron mass and the pole may be assumed to diminish
+according to a well-known law, the energy transformation
+per unit displacement will also diminish at
+the same rate. The precise nature and extent of the
+influence of the incepting agent thus depend on the
+essential qualities of the energised material under its
+power. In this case, the magnetic metals, such as
+iron, provide phenomena of attraction which are
+notably absent in the case of the dia-magnetic metals
+such as copper. Other substances, such as wood,
+appear to be absolutely unaffected by any movement
+in the magnetic field. The precise energy
+condition of the materials in the field of the incepting
+influence is also an important point. The
+incepting energy might be regarded as acting, not
+on the material itself, but rather on the energy
+associated with that material. From the phenomena
+already considered, it is clear that before the incepting
+influence of magnetism can act on the copper
+ball, the latter must be endowed with energy of
+rotation. It is on this energy, then, that the incepting
+influence exerts its transforming power. It would
+be useless to energise the copper ball, say by raising
+it to a high temperature, and then place it at rest
+in the magnetic field; the magnetic energy influence
+would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
+not operate on the heat energy, and consequently,
+no transformation would ensue.</p>
+
+<p>It is easy to conceive, also, that in the course
+of an energy transformation, the material may
+attain an energy condition in which the incepting
+influence no longer affects it. Take once
+more the case of the iron ball. It is well known
+that, at a high temperature, iron becomes non-magnetic.
+It would follow, then, that if the
+rotational transformation in the magnetic field could
+be carried out to the requisite degree, so that,
+by the continuous application of that heat energy
+which is the final product of the process, the ball had
+attained this temperature, then the other transformation
+consequent on the displacement of the ball from
+the attracting pole could not take place. No change
+has really occurred in the incepting energy conditions.
+They are still continuous and persistent,
+but the energy changes in the material itself have
+carried it, to a certain degree, beyond the influence
+of these conditions.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_15" id="sec_15"></a>15. <i>Cohesion as an Incepting Influence</i></h3>
+
+<p>Other aspects of incepting energy may be derived
+from the examples cited above. Returning to the
+case of the rotating copper sphere, let it be assumed
+that in consequence of its rotation in the magnetic
+field it is raised from a low to a high temperature.
+Due<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>
+to the heating effect alone, the mass will expand
+or increase in volume. This increase is the
+evidence of a definite energy process by which
+certain particles or portions of the mass have in distortion
+gained energy of position&mdash;energy of separation&mdash;or
+potential energy relative to the centre of
+the sphere. In fact, if the mass were allowed to cool
+back to its normal condition, this energy might by a
+suitable arrangement be made available for some
+form of external work. It is obvious, however, that
+this new energy of position or separation which has
+accrued to the mass in its heated condition has in
+reality been obtained by the transformation of the
+"work" energy originally applied. The abnormal
+displacement of certain particles or portions of the
+mass from the centre of the sphere is simply the
+external evidence of their increased energy. Now
+this displacement, or strain, due to the heat expansion,
+is carried out against the action of certain
+cohesive forces or stresses existing between the
+particles throughout the mass. These cohesive
+forces are, in fact, the agency which determines this
+transformation of heat into energy of position.
+Their existence is essential to the process. But
+these cohesive forces are simply the external manifestation
+of that energy by virtue of which the
+mass tends to maintain its coherent form. They
+are the symbol of that energy which might be
+termed the cohesion energy of the mass&mdash;they
+are,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
+in fact, the symbol of the incepting energy
+influence of the transformation. This incepting
+energy influence of cohesion is one which holds
+sway throughout all solid material. It is, therefore,
+found in action in every movement involving
+the internal displacement or distortion of
+matter. It is a property of matter, and accordingly
+it is found to vary not only with the material, but
+also with the precise physical condition or the energy
+state of the material with which it is associated. In
+this respect, it differs entirely from the preceding
+magnetic influence. The latter, we have seen, has
+no direct association with the copper ball, or with
+the material which is the actual venue of the transformation.
+As an energy influence, it is itself persistent,
+and unaffected by the energy state of that
+material. On the other hand, the cohesion energy,
+being purely a property of the material which is the
+habitat of the energy process, is directly affected by
+its energy state. This point will be clearer by
+reference to the actual phenomena of the heat transformation.
+As the process proceeds, the temperature
+of the mass as the expansion increases will rise higher
+and higher, until, at a certain point, the solid material
+is so energised that change of state ensues. At this,
+the melting-point of the material, liquefaction takes
+place, and its cohesive properties almost vanish. In
+this fashion, then, a limit is clearly imposed on the
+process of heat transformation in the solid body&mdash;a
+limit<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
+defined by the cohesive or physical properties
+of the particular material. In this limiting power
+lies the difference between cohesion and magnetism
+as incepting influences. Looking at the whole
+dynamo-electric transformation in a general way, it
+will be clear that the magnetic influence in no way
+limits or affects the amount of dynamical or "work"
+energy which may be applied to the rotating sphere.
+This amount is limited simply by the cohesive
+properties of the material mass in rotation. The
+magnetic influence might, in fact, be regarded as the
+primary or inducing factor in the system, and the
+cohesion influence as the secondary or limiting
+factor.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_16" id="sec_16"></a>16. <i>Terrestrial Gravitation as an Incepting
+Influence</i></h3>
+
+<p>The attractive influence of gravitation appears
+as an incepting agency in terrestrial as well as in
+celestial phenomena. In fact, of all the agencies
+which incept energy transformations on the earth,
+gravitation, in one form or another, is the most
+universal and the most important. Gravitation
+being a property of all matter, no mundane body,
+animate or inanimate, is exempt from its all-pervading
+influence, and every movement of energised
+matter within the field of that influence leads inevitably
+to energy transformation.</p>
+
+<p>Let us take a concrete illustration. A block
+of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
+solid material is supported on a horizontal table.
+By means of a cord attached, energy is applied to
+the block from an external source, so that it slides
+over the surface of the table. As a result of this
+motion and the associated frictional process, heat
+energy will make its appearance at the sliding surfaces
+of contact. This heat energy is obviously
+obtained by the transformation of that energy
+originally applied to the block from the external
+source. What is the incepting influence in this
+process of transformation? The incepting influence
+is clearly the gravitative attraction of the earth
+operating between the moving block and the table.
+The frictional process, it is well known, is dependent
+in extent or degree on the pressure between the
+surfaces in contact. This pressure is, of course, due
+to the gravitative attraction of the earth on the
+mass of the block. If it be removed, say by supporting
+the block from above, the heat-transformation
+process at the surfaces at once terminates.
+Gravity, then, is the primary incepting influence of
+the process. The effect of gravitation in transformation
+has apparently been eliminated by supporting
+the block from above and removing the
+pressure between block and table. It is not really
+so, however, because the pressure due to the gravitative
+attraction of the earth on the block has in
+reality only been transferred to this new point
+of support, and if a movement of the block is
+carried<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
+out it will be found that the heat transformation
+has been also transferred to that point.
+But there are also other influences at work in the
+process. The extent of the heat transformation
+depends, not only on the pressure, but also on the
+nature of the surfaces in contact. It is evident,
+that in the sliding movement the materials in the
+neighbourhood of the surfaces in contact will be
+more or less strained or distorted. This distortion
+is carried out in the lines of the cohesive forces of
+the materials, and is the real mechanism of the
+transformation of the applied work energy into
+heat. It is obvious that the nature of the surfaces
+in contact must influence the degree of distortion,
+that is, whether they are rough or smooth; the
+cohesive qualities of the materials in contact will
+depend also on the nature of these materials, and
+the extent of the heat transformation will be limited
+by these cohesive properties in precisely the same
+way as described for other examples (§ <a href="#sec_15">15</a>). The
+function of gravitation in this transformation is,
+obviously, again quite passive in nature, and is in
+no way influenced by the extent of the process.
+Gravitation is, as it were, only the agency whereby
+the acting energy is brought into communication
+with the cohesive forces of the sliding materials.</p>
+
+<p>A little reflection will convey to the reader the
+vast extent of this influence of gravitation in frictional
+phenomena, and the important place occupied
+by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+such phenomena in the economy of Nature.
+From the leaf which falls from the tree to the
+mighty tidal motions of air, earth, and sea due to
+the gravitative effects of the sun and moon, all
+movements of terrestrial material are alike subject
+to the influence of terrestrial gravitation, and will
+give rise to corresponding heat processes. These
+heat processes are continually in evidence in natural
+phenomena; the effect of their action is seen alike
+on the earth's surface and in its interior (internal
+heating). Of the energy operating in them we do
+not propose to say anything further at this stage,
+except that it is largely communicated to the
+atmospheric air masses.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_17" id="sec_17"></a>17. <i>The Gravitation Field</i></h3>
+
+<p>The foregoing examples of transformation serve
+to place before the reader some idea of the general
+nature and function of an incepting energy influence.
+But for the broadest aspects of the latter agencies
+it is necessary to revert once more to celestial
+phenomena. As already indicated in the General
+Statement, the primary transformations of planetary
+axial energy are stimulated by certain agencies inherent
+to, and arising from, the central mass of
+the system. These energy agencies or effects operate
+through space, and are entirely passive in nature.
+They are in no way associated with energy transmission;
+they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
+are merely the determining causes of
+the energy-transforming processes which they induce,
+and do not in the least affect the conservative
+energy properties of the planetary masses over which
+their influence is cast. Of the precise number and
+nature of such influences thus exerted by the primary
+mass we can say nothing. The energy transformations
+which are the direct result of their action are
+so extensive and so varied in character that we
+would hesitate to place any limit on the number
+of the influences at work. Some of these influences,
+however, being associated with the phenomena of
+everyday experience, are more readily detected in
+action than others and more accessible to study.
+It is to these that we naturally turn in order to
+gain general ideas for application to more obscure
+cases.</p>
+
+<p>Of the many incepting influences, therefore, which
+may emanate from the primary mass there are three
+only which will be dealt with here. Each exerts
+a profound action on the planetary system, and each
+may be readily studied and its working verified by
+the observation of common phenomena. These
+influences are respectively the gravitation, the thermal,
+and the luminous fields.</p>
+
+<p>The general nature and properties of the gravitation
+field have to some extent been already foreshadowed
+(§§ <a href="#sec_4">4,</a> <a href="#sec_6">6,</a> <a href="#sec_16">16</a>). Other examples will be dealt
+with later, and it is unnecessary to go into further
+detail<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+here. The different aspects, however, in which
+the influence has been presented may be pointed
+out. Firstly, in the separate body in space, as an
+inherent property of matter (§ <a href="#sec_2">2</a>); secondly, as
+an attractive influence exerted across space between
+primary and planet, both absolutely separate bodies
+(§ <a href="#sec_5">5</a>); and thirdly, as a purely planetary or secondary
+incepting influence (§ <a href="#sec_16">16</a>). In every case alike
+we find its function to be of an entirely passive
+nature. Its most powerful effect on planetary
+material is perhaps manifested in the tidal actions
+(§ <a href="#sec_9">9</a>). With respect to these movements, it may
+be pointed out that the planetary material periodically
+raised from the surface is itself elevated against
+the inherent planetary gravitative forces, and also,
+to a certain extent, against the cohesive forces of
+planetary material. Each of these resisting influences
+functions as an incepting agency, and thus
+the elevation of the mass involves a transformation of
+energy (§ <a href="#sec_4">4</a>). The source of the energy thus transformed
+is the axial energy of the planet, and the new
+forms in which it is manifested are energy of position
+or potential energy relative to the planetary surface,
+and heat energy. On the return of the material to
+its normal position, its energy of position, due to
+its elevation, will be returned in its original form
+of axial energy. In the case of the heat transformation,
+however, it is to be noted that this process
+will take place both as the material is elevated and
+also <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+as it sinks once more to its normal position.
+The heat transformation thus operates continuously
+throughout the entire movement. The upraising
+of the material in the tidal action is brought about
+entirely at the expense of inherent planetary axial
+energy. The gravitative and cohesive properties
+of the planetary material make such a transformation
+process possible. It is in virtue of these properties
+that energy may be applied to or expended
+on the material in this way. The tidal action on
+the planetary surface is, in fact, simply a huge
+secondary process in which axial energy is converted
+into heat. The primary incepting power is
+clearly gravitation.</p>
+
+<p>Of the aspect of gravitation as a purely planetary
+influence (§ <a href="#sec_16">16</a>) little requires to be said. The
+phenomena are so prominent and familiar that the
+reader may be left to multiply instances for himself.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_18" id="sec_18"></a>18. <i>The Thermal Field</i></h3>
+
+<p>The thermal field which is induced by and
+emanates from the primary mass differs from the
+gravitation field in that, so far as we know, it
+is unaccompanied by any manifestation of force,
+attractive or otherwise. Its action on the rotating
+planetary mass may be compared to that of the
+electro-magnet on the rotating copper sphere (§ <a href="#sec_14">14</a>);
+the electro-magnet exerts no force on the sphere,
+but an energy expenditure is, nevertheless, required
+to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>
+rotate the latter through the field of the magnetic
+influence.</p>
+
+<p>To this thermal field, then, in which the planets
+rotate, we ascribe all primary planetary heating
+phenomena. The mode of action of the thermal
+field appears to be similar to that of other incepting
+influences. By its agency the energy of axial
+rotation of planetary material is directly converted
+into the heat form. As already shown (§ <a href="#sec_17">17</a>),
+heat energy may be developed in planetary material
+as a result of the action of other incepting agencies,
+such as gravitation. These processes are, however,
+more or less indirect in nature. But the operation
+due to the thermal field is a direct one. The heat
+energy is derived from the direct transformation
+of planetary axial energy of rotation without passing
+through any intermediate forms. In common
+parlance, the thermal field is the agency whereby
+the primary mass heats the planetary system. No
+idea of transmission, however, is here implied in
+such phraseology; the heating effect produced on
+any planetary mass is entirely the result of the
+transformation of its own energy; the thermal field
+is purely and simply the incepting influence of
+the process. Now, in virtue of the configuration
+of the rotating planetary masses, their material in
+equatorial regions is much more highly energised
+than the material in the neighbourhood of the poles,
+and will, accordingly, move with much greater linear
+velocity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+through the thermal field. The heat transformation
+will vary accordingly. It will be much
+more pronounced at the equator than at the poles,
+and a wide difference in temperature will be maintained
+between the two regions. The thermal field,
+also, does not necessarily produce the same heating
+effect on all planetary material alike. Some materials
+appear to be peculiarly susceptible&mdash;others much
+less so. This we may verify from terrestrial experience.
+Investigation shows the opaque substances
+to be generally most susceptible, and the transparent
+materials, such as glass, rock-salt, tourmaline, &amp;c.
+almost insusceptible, to the heating effect of the
+sun. The influence of the thermal field can, in
+fact, operate through the latter materials. A still
+more striking and important phenomenon may be
+observed in the varying action of the thermal field
+on matter in its different forms. It has been already
+pointed out that, in the course of transformation
+in the field of an incepting influence, a material
+may attain a certain energy state in which it is
+no longer susceptible to that influence. This has
+been exemplified in the case of the iron ball (§ <a href="#sec_14">14</a>)
+and a phenomenon of the same general nature is
+revealed in the celestial transformation. A piece
+of solid material of low melting-point is brought
+from the polar regions of the earth to the equator.
+Due to the more rapid movement across the sun's
+thermal field, and the consequent increased action
+of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+that field, a transformation of the axial energy
+of rotation of the body takes place, whereby it is
+heated and finally liquefied. In the liquid state
+the material is still susceptible to the thermal
+field, and the transformation process accordingly
+proceeds until the material finally assumes the
+gaseous form. At this point, however, it is found
+that the operation is suspended; the material,
+in assuming the gaseous state, has now attained
+a condition (§ <a href="#sec_15">15</a>) in which the thermal field has no
+further incepting or transforming influence upon
+it. No transformation of its axial energy into
+the heat form is now possible by this means;
+indeed, so far as the <i>direct</i> heating effect of the
+sun is concerned, the free gaseous material on the
+planetary surface is entirely unaffected. All the
+evidence of Nature points to the conclusion that
+all gaseous material is absolutely transparent to
+the <i>direct</i> thermal influence of the sun. Matter
+in the gaseous form reaches, as it were, an ultimate
+or limiting condition in this respect. This fact,
+that energised material in the gaseous form is not
+susceptible to the thermal field, is of very great
+importance in the general economy of Nature. It
+is, in reality, the means whereby the great primary
+process of the transformation of the axial energy
+of the earth into the heat form is limited in extent.
+As will be explained later, it is the device whereby
+the planetary energy stability is conserved. It will
+be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
+apparent, of course, that heat energy may be
+readily applied to gaseous masses by other means,
+such as conduction or radiation from purely terrestrial
+sources. The point which we wish here to emphasise
+is, simply, that gaseous material endowed with axial
+energy on the planetary surface cannot have this
+axial energy directly transformed into heat through
+the instrumentality of the thermal field of the
+primary.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_19" id="sec_19"></a>19. <i>The Luminous Field</i></h3>
+
+<p>The planetary bodies are indebted to the
+primary mass not only for heat phenomena, but
+also for the phenomena of light. These light phenomena
+are due to a separate and distinct energy
+influence (or influences) which we term the luminous
+field.</p>
+
+<p>The mode of action of the luminous field is
+similar to that of other incepting influences. It
+operates from the primary, and is entirely passive
+in nature. Like the thermal field, it does not appear
+to be accompanied by any manifestation of physical
+stress or force, except, indeed, the experimental
+demonstrations of the "pressure of light" can be
+regarded as such. In any case, this in no way affects
+the general action of light as an incepting agency.
+Its action on energised planetary material gives rise
+to certain transformations of energy, transformations
+exclusive and peculiar to its own influence.
+We<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
+will refer to terrestrial phenomena for illustrations
+of its working.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the commonest example of transformation
+in which the luminous field appears as the
+incepting agency is seen in the growth of plant life
+on the surface of the earth. The growth and
+development of vegetation and plants generally is
+the outward evidence of certain energy transformations.
+The processes of growth, however, are of
+such a complex nature that it is impossible to state
+the governing energy conditions in their entirety,
+but, considering them merely in general fashion, it
+may be said that energy in various forms (potential,
+chemical, &amp;c.) is stored in the tissues of the growing
+material. Now the source of this energy is the
+axial energy of the earth, and, as stated above, the
+luminous field is an incepting factor (there may be
+others) in the process of transformation, a factor
+whereby this axial energy is converted into certain
+new forms. It is well known that, amongst the
+factors which influence the growth of vegetation, one
+of the most potent is that of light. The presence
+of sunlight is one of the essential conditions for
+the successful working of certain transformations of
+plant life, and these transformations vary not only in
+degree but in nature, according to the variation of
+the imposed light in intensity and quality. Some of
+the processes of growth are no doubt chemical in
+nature. Here, again, light may be readily conceived
+to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+have a direct determining influence upon them,
+exactly as in the cases of its well-known action in
+chemical phenomena&mdash;for instance, as in photography.
+Other examples will readily occur to the reader.
+One of the most interesting is the action of light on
+the eye itself. It may be pointed out indeed that
+light is, first and foremost, a phenomenon of vision.
+Whatever may be its intrinsic nature, it is primarily
+an influence affecting the eye. But the action of seeing,
+like all other forms of human activity, involves
+a certain expenditure of bodily energy. This energy
+is, of course, primarily derived from the axial energy
+of the earth through the medium of plant and
+animal life and the physico-chemical processes of the
+body itself. Its presence in one form or another is,
+in fact, essential to all the phenomena of life. The
+action of seeing accordingly involves the transformation
+of a certain modicum of this energy, and the
+influence which incepts this transformation is the
+luminous field which originates in and emanates
+from the central mass of the system, the sun. In a
+similar way, planetary material under certain conditions
+may become the source of an incepting
+luminous field. It is this light influence or luminous
+field which, in common parlance, is said to
+enter the eye. In that organ, then, is found
+the mechanism or machine (§ <a href="#sec_30">30</a>), a complicated
+one, no doubt, whereby this process of transformation
+is carried out which makes the light
+influence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
+perceptible to the senses. Of the precise
+nature of the action little can be said. The theme
+is rather one for a treatise on physiology. It
+may be pointed out, however, with regard to the
+process of transformation, that Dewar has already
+demonstrated the fact that when light falls on the
+retina of the eye, an electric current is set up in
+the optic nerve. The energy associated with this
+current is, of course, obtained at the expense of the
+bodily energy of the observer, and this energy, after
+passing, it may be, through a large number of transformation
+processes, will finally be returned to the
+source from which it was originally derived, namely,
+the axial energy of the earth. The luminous field,
+also, like the thermal field, has no transforming effect
+whatever on the energy of certain substances. It
+may pass completely through some and be reflected
+by others without any sign of energy transformation.
+Its properties are, in fact, simply the properties of
+light, and must be accepted simply as phenomena.
+Now, it is very important, in studying matters of
+this kind, to realise that it is impossible ever to get
+beyond or behind phenomena. It may be pointed
+out that in no sphere of physics has the influence
+of so-called explanatory mechanical hypotheses been
+stronger than in that dealing with the properties of
+light. New theories are being expounded almost
+daily in attempts to explain or dissect simple
+phenomena. But it may be asked, In what does our
+really<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+useful knowledge of light consist? Simply in
+our knowledge of phenomena. Beyond this, one
+cannot go. We may attempt to explain phenomena,
+but to create for this purpose elastic ethereal media
+or substances without direct evidential phenomena
+in support is not to advance real knowledge. There
+are certain properties peculiar to the luminous as to
+all other incepting fields, certain conditions under
+which each respectively will act, and the true
+method of gaining real insight into these agencies
+is by the study of these actual properties (or phenomena)
+and conditions, and not by attempts to ultimately
+explain them. It will be evident that in
+most cases of natural energy operations there is
+more than one energy influence in action. As a rule
+there are several. In a growing plant, for example,
+we have the thermal, luminous, gravitation, and
+cohesive influences all in operation at the same time,
+each performing its peculiar function in transformation,
+each contributing its own peculiar energy
+phenomena to the whole. This feature adds somewhat
+to the complexity of natural operations and to
+the difficulties in the precise description of the
+various phenomena with which they are associated.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_20" id="sec_20"></a>20. <i>Transformations&mdash;Upward Movement of a
+Mass against Gravity</i></h3>
+
+<p>When the significance of energy inception and
+the characteristic properties of the various agencies
+have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
+been grasped, it becomes much easier to deal
+with certain other aspects of energy processes. To
+illustrate these aspects it is, therefore, now proposed
+to discuss a few simple secondary operations embodied
+in experimental apparatus. A few examples
+of the operations of transformation and transmission
+of energy will be considered. The object in view
+is to show the general nature of these processes,
+and more especially the limits imposed upon them
+by the various factors or properties of the material
+machines in which they are of necessity embodied.
+The reader is asked to bear in mind also the observations
+already made (§ <a href="#sec_13">13</a>) with respect to
+experimental apparatus generally.</p>
+
+<p>The first operation for discussion is that of the
+upward movement of a mass of material against the
+gravitative attraction of the earth. This movement
+involves one of the most simple and at the same
+time one of the most important of secondary
+energy processes. As a concrete illustration, consider
+the case of a body projected vertically upwards
+with great velocity from the surface of the
+earth. The phenomena of its motion will be somewhat
+as follows:&mdash;As the body recedes from the
+earth's surface in its upward flight, its velocity
+suffers a continuous decrease, and an altitude is
+finally attained where this velocity becomes zero.
+The projectile, at this point, is instantaneously at rest.
+Its motion then changes; it commences to fall, and
+to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+proceed once more towards the starting-point
+with continuously increasing velocity. Neglecting
+the effect of the air (§ <a href="#sec_29">29</a>) and the rotational
+movement of the earth, it may be assumed that the
+retardation of the projectile in its upward flight is
+numerically equal to its acceleration in its downward
+flight, and that it finally returns to the starting-point
+with velocity numerically equal to the initial
+velocity of projection. The process then obviously
+involves a complete transformation and return of
+energy. At the earth's surface, where its flight
+commences and terminates, the body is possessed of
+energy of motion to a very high degree. At the
+highest point of flight, this form of energy has
+entirely vanished; the body is at rest. Its energy
+properties are then represented by its position of
+displacement from the earth's surface; its energy of
+motion in disappearing has assumed this form of
+energy of position, energy of separation, or potential
+energy. The moving body has thus been the
+mechanism of an energy transformation. At each
+stage of its upward progress, a definite modicum of
+its original energy of motion is converted into energy
+of position. Between the extreme points of its
+flight, the energy of the body is compounded of
+these two forms, one of which is increasing at the
+expense of the other. When the summit of flight
+is reached the conversion into energy of position is
+complete. In the downward motion, the action is
+completely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+reversed, and when the body reaches the
+starting-point its energy of position has again been
+completely transformed into energy of motion. It
+might be well to draw attention here to the fact,
+often overlooked, that this energy of position gained
+by the rising mass is, in reality, a form of energy,
+separate and distinct, brought into existence by the
+transformation and disappearance of the energy of
+the moving mass. Energy of position is as truly a
+form of energy as heat or kinetic energy.</p>
+
+<p>The transformation here depicted is clearly a
+simple process, yet we know absolutely nothing of
+its ultimate nature, of the why or wherefore of the
+operation. Our knowledge is confined to the circumstances
+and conditions under which it takes
+place. Let us now, therefore, deal with these conditions.
+The transformation is clearly carried out
+in virtue of the movement of the body in the lines
+or field of an incepting influence. This influence
+is that of gravitation, which links the body continually
+to the earth. Now the function of gravitation
+in this process, as in others already described,
+is that of a completely passive incepting agent.
+The active energy which suffers change in the
+process is clearly the original work energy (§ <a href="#sec_31">31</a>)
+communicated to the projected body. The whole
+process is, in fact, a purely mechanical operation,
+and as in the case of other processes involving
+mechanical energy, it is limited by the mass value
+of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
+the moving material. It is clear that the
+greater the amount of energy communicated to
+the projectile at the starting-point, the greater
+will be the altitude it will attain in its flight.
+The amount of energy, however, which can thus
+be communicated is dependent on the maximum
+force which can be applied to the projectile. But
+the maximum force which can be applied to any
+body depends entirely on the resistance offered by
+that body, and in this case the resisting force is the
+gravitative attraction of the earth on the projectile,
+which attraction is again a direct function of its
+mass. The greater the mass, the greater the gravitative
+force, and the greater the possibility of transformation.
+The ultimate limit of the process would
+be reached if the projected mass were so great as
+to equal half the mass of the earth. In such circumstances,
+the earth being assumed to be divided
+into two equal masses, the maximum limiting value
+of the gravitative attraction would clearly be attained.
+Any increase of the one mass over the
+other would again lead, however, to a diminution
+in the attractive force and a corresponding decrease
+in the energy limit for transformation. The precise
+manner in which the operations of mechanical energy
+are limited by the mass will now be clear. The
+principle is quite general, and applicable to all
+moving bodies. Mass is ever a direct measure of
+energy capacity. A graphical method of representing
+energy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
+transformations of this kind, by a system
+of co-ordinates, would enable the reader to appreciate
+more fully the quantitative relations of the forms
+of energy involved and also their various limits.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_21" id="sec_21"></a>21. <i>The Simple Pendulum</i></h3>
+
+<p>The remaining operations of transformation for
+discussion are embodied in the following simple
+apparatus. A spherical metallic mass M (<a href="#i077">Fig. 2</a>) is
+supported by a rod P which is rigidly connected to
+a horizontal spindle HS as shown.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i077" name="i077"></a>
+<img src="images/i077.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The spindle is supported and free to revolve in
+the bearings B<sub>1</sub> and B<sub>2</sub> which form part of the
+supporting framework V resting on the ground; the
+bearing surfaces at B<sub>1</sub> and B<sub>2</sub> are lubricated, and
+the mass M is free to perform, in a vertical plane,
+complete revolutions about the axis through the
+centre of the spindle. In carrying out this motion
+its path will be circular, as shown at DCFE;
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
+whole arrangement is merely an adaptation
+of the simple pendulum. As constituted, the
+apparatus may form the seat of certain energy
+operations. Some of these will only take place with
+the application of energy of motion to the pendulum
+from an external source, thereby causing it to vibrate
+or to rotate: others, again, might be said to be
+inherent to the apparatus, since they arise naturally
+from its construction and configuration. We shall
+deal with the latter first.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_22" id="sec_22"></a>22. <i>Statical Energy Conditions</i></h3>
+
+<p>The pendulum with its spindle has a definite mass
+value, and, assuming it to be at rest in the bearings
+B<sub>1</sub> and B<sub>2</sub>, it is acted upon by gravitation, or in
+other words, it is under the influence or within the
+field of the gravitative attraction of the earth's mass
+upon it. The effect of this field is directly proportional
+to the mass of the pendulum and spindle,
+and to its action is due that bearing pressure which
+is transmitted through the lubricant to the bearing
+surfaces and thence to the supporting arms N<sub>1</sub> and
+N<sub>2</sub> of the framework. Bearings and columns alike
+are thus subjected to a downward thrust or pressure.
+Being of elastic material, they will be more or less
+distorted. This distortion will proceed until the
+downward forces are balanced by the upward or reactive
+forces called into play in virtue of the cohesive
+properties<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
+of the strained material. Corresponding
+to a slight downward movement of the pendulum
+and spindle in thus straining or compressing them,
+the supporting columns will be decreased in length.
+This downward movement is the external evidence
+of certain energy operations. In virtue of their
+elevation above the earth's surface, the pendulum
+and spindle possess, to a certain degree, energy of
+position, and any free downward movement would
+lead to the transformation of this energy into energy
+of motion (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>). But the downward motion of
+pendulum and spindle is not free. It is made against
+the resistance of the material of the supporting
+columns, and the energy of position, instead of assuming
+the form of energy of motion, is simply worked
+down or transformed against the opposing cohesive
+forces of the supporting materials. This energy,
+therefore, now resides in these materials in the form
+of energy of strain or distortion. In general nature,
+this strain energy is akin to energy of position (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>).
+Certain portions of the material of the columns have
+been forced into new positions against the internal
+forces of cohesion which are ever tending to preserve
+the original configuration of the columns. This
+movement of material in the field of the cohesive
+influence involves the transformation of energy (§ <a href="#sec_4">4</a>),
+and the external evidence of the energy process is
+simply the strained or distorted condition of the
+material. If the latter be released, and allowed to
+resume<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
+its natural form once more, this stored energy
+of strain would be entirely given up. In reality, the
+material can be said to play the part of a machine
+or mechanism for the energy process of storage and
+restoration. No energy process, in fact, ever takes
+place unless associated with matter in some form.
+The supporting arms, in this case, form the material
+factor or agency in the energy operation. All such
+energy machines, also, are limited in the extent of
+their operation, by the qualities of the material factors.
+In this particular case, the energy compass of the
+machine is restricted by certain physical properties
+of the material, by the maximum value of these
+cohesive or elastic forces called into play in distortion.
+These forces are themselves the evidence of energy,
+of that energy by virtue of which the material
+possesses and maintains its coherent form. In this
+case this energy is also the factor controlling the
+transformation, and appears as a separate and distinct
+incepting agency. If the process is to be a reversible
+one, so that the energy originally stored in the material
+as strain energy or energy of distortion may be completely
+returned, the material must not be stressed
+beyond a certain point. Only a limited amount of
+work can be applied to it, only a limited amount of
+energy can be stored in it. Too much energy applied&mdash;too
+great a weight on the supporting columns&mdash;gives
+rise to permanent distortion or crushing, and
+an entirely new order of phenomena. This energy
+limit<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
+for reversibility is then imposed by the cohesive
+properties of the material or by its elastic limits.
+Up to this point energy stored in the material may be
+returned&mdash;the process is reversible in nature&mdash;but
+above this elastic limit any energy applied must
+operate in an entirely different manner.</p>
+
+<p>A little consideration will show also, that the
+state of distortion, or energy strain, is not confined
+to the material of the supporting columns alone.
+Action and reaction are equal. The same stresses
+are applied to the spindle through the medium of
+bearings and lubricant. In fact, every material substance
+of which the pendulum machine is built up
+is thus, more or less, strained against internal forces;
+all possess, more or less, cohesion or strain energy.
+It will be evident, also, that this condition is not
+peculiar to this or any other form of apparatus. It
+is the energy state or condition of every structure,
+either natural or artificial, which is built up of ordinary
+material, and which, on the earth's surface, is
+subjected to the influence of the gravitation field.
+This cohesion or strain energy is one of the forms
+in which energy is most widely distributed throughout
+material.</p>
+
+<p>In reviewing the statical condition of the above
+apparatus, the pendulum itself has been assumed
+to be hanging vertically at rest under the influence of
+gravitation. If energy be now applied to the system
+from some external source so that the pendulum
+is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
+caused to vibrate, or to rotate about the axis of
+suspension, a new set of energy processes make their
+appearance. The movement of the pendulum mass,
+in its circular path around the central axis, is productive
+of certain energy reactions, as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>a.</i> A transformation of energy of motion into
+energy of position and vice versa.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> A frictional transformation at the bearing
+surfaces.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>These processes will each be in continuous operation
+so long as the motion of the pendulum is maintained.
+Their general nature is quite independent
+of the extent of that motion, whether it be merely
+vibratory through a small arc, or completely rotatory
+about the central axis. In the articles which immediately
+follow, the processes will be treated separately.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="left hang3"><a name="sec_23" id="sec_23"></a>23.
+<i>Transformations of the Moving Pendulum</i>&mdash;<br />
+<i>a. Energy of Motion to Energy of Position
+and Vice Versa</i></h3>
+
+<p>In this simple transformation the motion of the
+pendulum about the axis of suspension may be either
+vibratory or circular, according to the amount of
+energy externally applied. In each case, every
+periodic movement of the apparatus illustrates the
+whole energy operation. The general conditions of
+the process are almost identical with those in the
+case of the upward movement of a mass against
+gravity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
+(§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>). Gravitation is the incepting energy
+influence of the operation. If the pendulum simply
+vibrates through a small arc, then, at the highest
+points of its flight, it is instantaneously at rest. Its
+energy of motion is here, therefore, zero; its energy
+of position is a maximum. At the lowest point of
+its flight, the conditions are exactly reversed. Here
+its energy of motion is a maximum, while its energy
+of position passes through a minimum value. The
+same general conditions hold when the pendulum
+performs complete revolutions about the central axis.
+If the energy of motion applied is just sufficient to
+raise it to the highest point E (<a href="#i077">Fig. 2</a>), the mass
+will there again be instantaneously at rest with
+maximum energy of position. As the mass falls
+downwards in completing the circular movement,
+its energy of position once more assumes the kinetic
+form, and reaches its maximum value at C (<a href="#i077">Fig. 2</a>),
+the lowest position. The moving pendulum mass,
+so far as its energy properties are concerned, behaves
+in precisely the same manner as a body vertically
+projected in the field of the gravitative attraction
+(§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>). This simple energy operation of the pendulum
+is perhaps one of the most familiar of
+energy processes. By its means, however, it is
+possible to illustrate certain general features of
+energy reactions of great importance to the author's
+scheme.</p>
+
+<p>The energy processes of the pendulum system
+are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+carried out through the medium of the material
+pendulum machine, and are limited, both in nature
+and degree, by the properties of that machine. As
+the pendulum vibrates, the transformation of energy
+of motion to energy of position or vice versa is an
+example of a reversible energy operation. The
+energy active in this operation continually alternates
+between two forms of energy: transformation is
+continually followed by a corresponding return.
+Neglecting in the meantime all frictional and other
+effects, we will assume complete reversibility, or that
+the energy of motion of the pendulum, after passing
+completely into the form of energy of position at the
+highest point, is again completely returned, in its
+original form, in the descent. Now, for any given
+pendulum, the amount of energy which can thus
+operate in the system depends on two factors, namely,
+the mass of the pendulum and the vertical height
+through which it rises in vibration. If the mass
+is fixed, then the maximum amount of energy will
+be operating in the reversible cycle when the pendulum
+is performing complete revolutions round its
+axis of suspension. The maximum height through
+which the pendulum can rise, or the maximum
+amount of energy of position which the system can
+acquire, is thus dependent on the length of the
+pendulum arm. These two factors, then, the mass
+and the length of the pendulum arm, are simply
+properties of this pendulum machine, properties by
+which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
+its energy compass is restricted. Let us now
+examine these limiting factors more minutely.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious that energy could readily be
+applied to the pendulum system in such a degree
+as to cause it to rotate with considerable angular
+velocity about the axis of suspension. Now the
+motion of the pendulum mass in the lines of the
+gravitation field, although productive of the same
+transformation process, differs from that of a body
+moving vertically upward in that, while the latter
+has a linear movement, the former is constrained
+into a circular path. This restraint is imposed in
+virtue of the cohesive properties of the material of
+the pendulum arm, and it is the presence of this
+restraining influence that really distinguishes the
+pendulum machine from the machine in which the
+moving mass is constrained by gravity alone (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>).
+It has been shown that the energy capacity of a
+body projected vertically against gravity is limited
+by its mass only; the energy capacity of the
+pendulum machine may be likewise limited by its
+mass, but the additional restraining factor of cohesion
+also imposes another limit. In the course of
+rotation, energy is stored in the material of the
+pendulum against the internal forces of cohesion.
+The action is simply that of what is usually termed
+centrifugal force. As the velocity increases, the
+pendulum arm lengthens correspondingly until the
+elastic limit of the material in tension is reached.
+At<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>
+this point, the pendulum may be said to have
+reached the maximum length at which it can
+operate in that reversible process of transformation
+in which energy of motion is converted into energy
+of position. The amount of energy which would
+now be working in that process may be termed the
+limiting energy for reversibility. This limiting
+energy is the absolute maximum amount of energy
+which can operate in the reversible cycle. It is
+coincident with the maximum length of the pendulum
+arm in distortion. When the stress in the
+material of that arm reaches the elastic limit, it
+is clear that the transformation against cohesion
+will also have attained its limiting value for reversibility.
+This transformation, if the velocity of
+the pendulum is constant, is of the nature of a
+storage of energy. So long as the velocity is constant
+the energy stored is constant. If the elastic
+limiting stress of the material has not been exceeded,
+this energy&mdash;neglecting certain minor processes
+(§§ <a href="#sec_15">15,</a> <a href="#sec_29">29</a>)&mdash;will be returned in its original form
+as the velocity decreases. If, however, the material
+be stressed beyond its elastic powers, the excess
+energy applied will simply lead to permanent distortion
+or disruption of the pendulum arm, and to a
+complete breakdown and change in the character of
+the machine and the associated energy processes (§ <a href="#sec_5">5</a>).
+The physical properties of the material thus limit
+the energy capacity of the machine. This limiting
+feature,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+as already indicated, is not peculiar to the
+pendulum machine alone. Every energy process
+embodied in a material machine is limited in a
+similar fashion by the peculiar properties of the
+acting materials. Every reversible process is carried
+out within limits thus clearly defined. Nature
+presents no exception to this rule, no example of a
+reversible energy system on which energy may be
+impressed in unlimited amount. On the contrary,
+all the evidence points to limitation of the strictest
+order in such processes.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="left hang3"><a name="sec_24" id="sec_24"></a>24. <i>Transformations of the Moving Pendulum</i>&mdash;<br />
+<i>b. Frictional Transformation at the Bearing
+Surfaces</i></h3>
+
+<p>The motion of the pendulum, whether it be
+completely rotatory or merely vibratory in nature,
+invariably gives rise to heating at the bearings or
+supporting points. Since the heating effect is only evident
+when motion is taking place, and since the heat
+can only make its appearance as the result of some
+energy process, it would appear that this persistent
+heat phenomenon is the result of a transformation
+of the original energy of motion of the pendulum.</p>
+
+<p>The general energy conditions of the apparatus
+already adverted to (§ <a href="#sec_21">21</a>) still hold, and the
+lubricating oil employed in the apparatus being
+assumed to have sufficient capillarity or adhesive
+power<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+to separate the metallic surfaces of bearings
+and journals at all velocities, then every action of
+the spindle on the bearings must be transmitted
+through the lubricant. The latter is, therefore,
+strained or distorted against the internal cohesive
+or viscous forces of its material. The general effect
+of the rotatory motion of the spindle will be to
+produce a motion of the material of the lubricant
+in the field of these incepting forces. To this
+motion the heat transformation is primarily due.
+Other conditions being the same, the extent of the
+transformation taking place, in any given case, is
+dependent on the physical properties of the lubricant,
+such as its viscosity, its cohesive or capillary
+power, always provided that the metallic surfaces
+are separated, so that the action is really carried
+out in the lines or field of the internal cohesive
+forces of the lubricant. In itself, this transformation
+is not a reversible process; no mechanism
+appears by which this heat energy evolved at the
+bearing surfaces could be returned once more to its
+original form of energy of motion. It may be, in fact,
+communicated by conduction to the metallic masses
+of the bearings, and thence, by conduction and
+radiation, to the air masses surrounding the apparatus.
+Its action in these masses is dealt with
+below (§ <a href="#sec_29">29</a>). The operation of bearing friction,
+though in itself not a reversible process, really forms
+one link of a complete chain (§ <a href="#sec_9">9</a>) of secondary
+operations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
+(transmissions and transformations) which
+together form a comprehensive and complete cyclical
+energy process (§ <a href="#sec_32">32</a>).</p>
+
+<p>When no lubricant is used in the apparatus, so
+that the metallic surfaces of bearings and journals
+are in contact, the heat process is of a precisely
+similar nature to that described above (see also § <a href="#sec_16">16</a>).
+Distortion of the metals in contact takes place in the
+surface regions, so that the material is strained against
+its internal cohesive forces. The transformation will
+thus depend on the physical properties of these
+metals, and will be limited by these properties.
+Different metallic or other combinations will consequently
+give rise to quite different results with
+respect to the amounts of heat energy evolved.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_25" id="sec_25"></a>25. <i>Stability of Energy Systems</i></h3>
+
+<p>The ratio of the maximum or limiting energy for
+reversibility to the total energy of the system may
+vary in value. If the pendulum vibrates only
+through a very small arc, then, neglecting the minor
+processes (§§ <a href="#sec_24">24,</a> <a href="#sec_29">29</a>), practically the whole energy of
+the system operates in the reversible transformation.
+This condition is maintained as the length of the arc
+of vibration increases, until the pendulum is just
+performing complete revolutions about the central
+axis. After this, the ratio will alter in value, because
+the greater part of any further increment of energy
+does<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
+not enter into the reversible cyclical process,
+but merely goes to increase the velocity of rotation
+and the total energy of the system. The small
+amount of energy which thus enters the reversible
+cycle as the velocity increases, does so in virtue of
+the increasing length of the pendulum arm in distortion.
+To produce even a slight distortion of the arm,
+a large amount of energy will require to be applied to
+and stored in the system, and thus, at high velocities
+of rotation, the energy which operates in the reversible
+cycle, even at its limiting value, may form only
+a very small proportion of the total energy of the
+system. At low velocities or low values of the total
+energy, say when the pendulum is not performing
+complete rotations, practically the whole energy of
+the system is working in the reversible cycle; but, in
+these circumstances, it is clear that the total energy
+of the system, which, in this case, is all working in
+the reversible process, is much less than the maximum
+or limiting amount of energy which might so work
+in that process. Under these conditions, when the
+total energy of the system is less than the limiting
+value for reversibility, so that this total energy in its
+entirety is free to take part in the reversible process,
+then the energy system may be termed stable with
+respect to that process. Stability, in an energy
+system, thus implies that the operation considered
+is not being, as it were, carried out at full energy
+capacity, but within certain reversible energy limits.</p>
+
+<p>We<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
+have emphasised this point in order to draw
+attention to the fact that the great reversible processes
+which are presented to our notice in natural
+phenomena are all eminently stable in character.
+Perhaps the most striking example of a natural
+reversible process is found in the working of the
+terrestrial atmospheric machine (§§ <a href="#sec_10">10</a>, <a href="#sec_38">38</a>). The
+energy in this case is limited by the mass, but in
+actual operation its amount is well within the maximum
+limiting value. The machine, in fact, is stable
+in nature. Other natural operations, such as the
+orbital movements of planetary masses, (§ <a href="#sec_8">8</a>) illustrate
+the same conditions. Nature, although apparently
+prodigal of energy in its totality, yet rigidly defines
+the bounding limits of her active operations.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_26" id="sec_26"></a>26. <i>The Pendulum as a Conservative System</i></h3>
+
+<p>Under certain conditions the reversible energy
+cycle produces an important effect on the rotatory
+motion of the pendulum. For the purpose of illustration,
+let it be assumed that the pendulum is an
+isolated and conservative system endowed with a
+definite amount of rotatory energy. In its circular
+movement, the upward motion of the pendulum
+mass is accompanied by a gain in its energy of
+position. This gain is, in the given circumstances,
+obtained solely at the expense of its inherent rotatory
+energy, which, accordingly, suffers a corresponding
+decrease.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
+The manifestation of this decrease
+will be simply a retardation of the pendulum's rotatory
+motion. Its angular velocity will, therefore,
+decrease until the highest altitude E (<a href="#i077">Fig. 2</a>) is
+attained. After this, on the downward path, the
+process will be reversed. Acceleration will take
+place from the highest to the lowest point of flight,
+and the energy stored as energy of position will
+be completely returned in its original form of energy
+of motion. The effect of the working of the reversible
+cycle, then, on the rotatory system, under the
+given conditions, is simply to produce alternately a
+retardation and a corresponding acceleration. Now,
+it is to be particularly noted that these changes in
+the velocity of the system are produced, not by any
+abstraction from or return of energy to the system,
+which is itself conservative, but simply in consequence
+of the transformation and re-transformation
+of a certain portion of its inherent rotatory energy
+in the working of a reversible process embodied in
+the system. The same features may be observed
+in other systems where the conditions are somewhat
+similar.</p>
+
+<p>In the natural world, we find processes of the
+same general nature in constant operation. When
+any mass of material is elevated from the surface of
+a rotating planetary body against the gravitative
+attraction, it thereby gains energy of position (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>).
+This energy, on the body's return to the surface in
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
+course of its cycle, reappears in the form of
+energy of motion. Now the material mass, in rising
+from the planetary surface, is not, in reality, separated
+from the planet. The atmosphere of the planet
+forms an integral portion of its material, partakes of
+its rotatory motion, and is bound to the solid core
+by the mutual gravitative forces. Any mass, then,
+on the solid surface of a planet is, in reality, in the
+planetary interior, and the rising of such a mass from
+that surface does not imply any actual separative
+process, but simply the radial movement, or displacement
+of a portion of the planetary material from the
+central axis. If the energy expended in the upraisal
+of the mass is derived at the expense of the inherent
+rotatory energy of the planet, as it would be if the
+latter were a strictly conservative energy system,
+then the raising of this portion of planetary material
+from the surface would have a retarding effect on
+the planetary motion of rotation. But if, on the
+other hand, the energy of such a mass as it fell
+towards the planetary surface were converted once
+more into its original form of energy of axial motion,
+exactly equivalent in amount to its energy of position,
+it is evident that the process would be productive
+of an accelerating effect on the planetary
+motion of rotation, which would in magnitude
+exactly balance the previous retardation. In such a
+process it is evident that energy neither enters nor
+leaves the planet. It simply works in an energy
+machine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
+embodied in planetary material. This
+point will be more fully illustrated later. The
+reader will readily see the resemblance of a system
+of this nature to that which has already been illustrated
+by the rotating pendulum.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime, it may be pointed out that
+matter displaced from the planetary surface need
+not necessarily be matter in the solid form. All
+the operations mentioned above could be quite
+readily&mdash;in fact, more readily&mdash;carried out by the
+movements of gaseous material, which is admirably
+adapted for every kind of rising, falling, or flowing
+motion relative to the planetary surface (§ <a href="#sec_13">13</a>).</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_27" id="sec_27"></a>27. <i>Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes&mdash;Transmission
+of Heat Energy by Solid Material</i></h3>
+
+<p>The pendulum machine described above furnishes
+certain outstanding examples of the operation of
+energy transformation. It will be noted, however,
+that it also portrays certain processes of energy
+transmission. In this respect it is not peculiar.
+Most of the material machines in which energy
+operates will furnish examples of both energy transmissions
+and energy transformations. In some instances,
+the predominant operation seems to be
+transformation, in others, transmission; and the
+machines may be classified accordingly. It is,
+however, largely a matter of terminology, since
+both<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
+operations are usually found closely associated
+in one and the same machine. The apparatus now
+to be considered is designed primarily to illustrate
+the operative features of certain energy transmissions,
+but the description of the machines with their allied
+phenomena will show that energy transformations
+also play a very important part in their constitution
+and working.</p>
+
+<p>A cylindrical metallic bar about twelve inches
+long, say, and one inch in diameter, is placed with
+its ends immersed
+in water in two
+separate vessels, A
+and B, somewhat
+as shown.</p>
+
+<div class="figright"><a id="i095" name="i095"></a>
+<img src="images/i095.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>By the application
+of heat energy, the temperature of the
+water in the vessel A is raised to a point say
+100° F. above that of B, and steadily maintained
+at that point. It is assumed that B is
+also kept at the constant lower temperature. In
+these circumstances, a transmission of heat energy
+takes place from A to B through the metallic
+bar. When the steady temperature condition is
+reached, the transmission will be continuous and
+uniform; the rate at which it is carried out will
+be determined by the length of the bar, by the
+material of which it is composed, and by the
+temperature difference maintained between its ends.
+Now<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
+what has really happened is that by a combination
+of phenomena the bar has been converted
+into a machine for the transmission of heat energy.
+A full description of these phenomena is, in reality,
+the description of this machine, and vice versa. Let
+us, therefore, now try to outline some of these
+phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>The first feature of note is the gradient of
+temperature which exists between the ends of the
+bar. Further research is necessary regarding the
+real nature of this gradient&mdash;it appears to differ
+greatly in different materials&mdash;but the existence of
+such a gradient is one of the main features of the
+energy machine, one of the essential conditions of
+the transmission process.</p>
+
+<p>Another feature is that of the expansive motion
+of the bar itself. The expansion of the bar due
+to the heating varies in value along its length,
+from a maximum at the hot end to a minimum
+at the cool end. The expansion, also, is the evidence
+of a transformation of energy. The bar has
+been constrained into its new form against the action
+of the internal molecular or cohesive forces of its
+material (§ <a href="#sec_16">16</a>). The energy employed and transformed
+in producing the expansion is a part of
+the original heat energy applied to the bar, and
+before any transmission of this heat energy takes
+place between its extreme ends, a definite modicum
+of the applied energy has to be completely transformed
+for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
+the sole purpose of producing this
+distortive movement or expansion against cohesion.
+This preliminary straining of the bar is, in
+fact, a part of the process of building up or constituting
+the energy transmission machine, and must
+be completely carried out before any transmission
+can take place. It is clear, then, that concurrent
+with the gradient of temperature, there also exists,
+along the bar, what might be termed a gradient
+of energy stored against cohesion, and that both
+are characteristic and essential features of this particular
+energy machine. A point of some importance
+to note is the permanency of these features.
+Once the machine has been constituted with a
+constant temperature difference, the transmission
+of energy will take place continuously and at a
+uniform rate. But no further transformation against
+cohesion takes place; no further expenditure of
+energy against the internal forces of the material
+is necessary. Neglecting certain losses due to possible
+external conditions, the whole energy applied
+to the machine at the one end is transmitted in
+its entirety to the other, without influencing in any
+way either the temperature or the energy gradient.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the general constitution of this machine
+for energy transmission. Its material foundation is,
+indeed, the metallic bar, but the temperature and
+energy gradients may be termed the true determining
+factors of its operation. As already indicated, the
+magnitude<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+of the transformation is dependent on the
+temperature difference between the ends of the bar.
+But this applies only within certain limits. With
+respect to the cool end, the temperature may be as
+low as we please&mdash;so far as we know, the limit is
+absolute zero of temperature; but with the hot end,
+the case is entirely different, because here the limit is
+very strictly imposed by the melting-point of the
+material of the bar. When this melting temperature
+is attained, the melting of the bar indicates, simply,
+that the heat energy stored or transformed against
+the cohesive forces of the material has reached its
+limiting value; change of state of the material is
+taking place, and the machine is thereby being
+destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident, then, that the energy which is actually
+being transmitted has itself no effect whatever
+in restricting the action or scope of the transmission
+machine. It is, in reality, the residual energy stored
+against the cohesive forces which imposes the limits
+on the working. It is the maximum energy which
+can be transformed in the field of the cohesive forces
+of the material which determines the power of that
+material as a transmitting agent. This maximum
+will, of course, be different for different materials
+according to their physical constitution. It is attained
+in this machine in each case when melting of
+the bar takes place.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="sec_28" id="sec_28"></a>28. <i>Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes&mdash;Transmission
+by Flexible Band or Cord</i></h3>
+
+<p>This method is often adopted when energy of
+motion, or mechanical energy, is required to be transmitted
+from one point to another. For illustration,
+consider the case of two parallel spindles or shafts, A
+and B (<a href="#i099">Fig. 4</a>), each having a pulley securely keyed
+upon it. Spindle A is connected to a source of
+of mechanical energy,
+and it is desired to
+transmit this energy
+across the intervening
+space to spindle B.</p>
+
+<div class="figright"><a id="i099" name="i099"></a>
+<img src="images/i099.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>This, of course, might be accomplished in various
+ways, but one of the most simple, and, at the same
+time, one of the most efficient, is the direct drive by
+means of a flexible band or cord. The band is placed
+tightly round, and adheres closely to both pulleys;
+the coefficient of friction between band and pulleys
+may, in the first instance, be assumed to be sufficiently
+great to prevent slipping of the band up to
+the highest stress which it is capable of sustaining in
+normal working. Connected in this fashion, the
+spindles will rotate in unison, and mechanical energy,
+if applied at A, may be directly transmitted to B.
+The material operator in the transmission is the
+connecting flexible band, and associated with this
+material<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+are certain energy processes which are also
+essential features of the energy machine. When
+transmission of energy is taking place, a definite
+tension or stress exists in the connecting band, and
+neglecting certain inevitable losses due to bearing
+friction (§ <a href="#sec_24">24</a>) and windage (§ <a href="#sec_29">29</a>), practically the
+whole of the mechanical or work energy communicated
+to the one spindle is transmitted to the other.
+Now the true method of studying this or any energy
+process is simply to describe the constitution and
+principal features of the machine by which it is
+carried out. These are found in the phenomena of
+transmission. One of the most important is the
+peculiar state of strain or tension existing in the
+connecting band. This, as already indicated, is an
+absolutely essential condition of the whole operation.
+No transmission is possible without some stress or
+pull in the band. This pull is exerted against the
+cohesive forces of the material of the band, so that
+before transmission takes place it is distorted and
+a definite amount of the originally applied work
+energy is expended in straining it against these
+forces. This energy is accordingly stored in the
+form of strain energy or energy of separation (§ <a href="#sec_22">22</a>),
+and, if the velocity is uniform, the magnitude of the
+transmission is proportional to this pull in the band,
+or to the quantity of energy thus stored against the
+internal forces of its material. But, in every case, a
+limit to this amount of energy is clearly imposed by
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
+strength of the band. The latter must not be
+strained beyond its limiting elastic stress. So long
+as energy is being transmitted, a certain transformation
+and return of energy of strain or separation is
+taking place in virtue of the differing values of the
+tensions in the two sides of the band; and if the
+latter were stressed beyond the elastic limit, permanent
+distortion or disruption of the material would
+take place. Under such conditions, the reversible
+energy process, involving storage and restoration
+of strain energy as the band passes round the
+pulleys, would be impossible, and the energy transmission
+machine would be completely disorganised.
+The magnitude of the energy operation is thus
+limited by the physical properties of the connecting
+band.</p>
+
+<p>Another important feature of this energy transmission
+machine is the velocity, or rather the kinetic
+energy, of the band. The magnitude of the transmission
+process is directly proportional to this velocity,
+and is, therefore, also a function of the kinetic
+energy. At any given rate of transmission, this
+kinetic energy, like the energy stored against the
+cohesive influence, will be constant in amount, and
+like that energy also, will have been obtained at the
+expense of the originally applied energy. This
+kinetic energy is an important feature in the constitution
+of the transmission machine. As in the
+case of the strain energy, its maximum value is
+strictly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
+limited, and thus imposes a limit on the
+general operation of the machine. For, at very
+high velocities, owing to the action of centrifugal
+force, it is not possible to keep the band in close
+contact with the surface of the pulleys. When
+the speed rises above a certain limit, although the
+energy actually being transmitted may not have
+attained the maximum value possible at lower speeds
+with greater tension in the band, the latter will,
+in virtue of the strain imposed by centrifugal action,
+be forced radially outwards from the pulley. The
+coefficient of friction will be thereby reduced; slipping
+will ensue, and the transmission may cease either
+in whole or in part. In this way the velocity or
+kinetic energy limit is imposed. The machine for
+energy transmission may thus be limited in its
+operation by two different factors. The precise way in
+which the limit will be applied in any given case will,
+of course, depend on the circumstances of working.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_29" id="sec_29"></a>29. <i>Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes&mdash;Transmission
+of Energy to Air Masses</i></h3>
+
+<p>The movement of the pendulum (§ <a href="#sec_23">23</a>) is accompanied
+by a certain transmission of energy to the
+surrounding medium. When this medium is a
+gaseous one such as air, the amount of energy thus
+transmitted is relatively small. The process, however,
+has a real existence. To illustrate its general
+nature,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
+let it be assumed that the motion of the
+pendulum is carried out, not in air, but in a highly
+viscous fluid, say a heavy oil. Obviously, a pendulum
+falling from its highest position to its lowest, in
+such a medium would transmit its energy almost
+in its entirety to the medium, and would reach
+its lowest position almost devoid of energy of
+motion. The energy of position with which it was
+originally endowed would thus be transformed and
+transmitted to the surrounding medium. The agent
+by which the transmission is carried out is the
+moving material of the pendulum, which, as it passes
+through the fluid, distorts that fluid in the lines
+or field of its internal cohesive or viscous forces
+which offer a continuous resistance to the motion.
+As the pendulum passes down through the liquid,
+the succeeding layers of the latter are thus
+alternately distorted and released. The distortive
+movement takes place in virtue of the communication
+of energy from the moving pendulum
+to the liquid, and during the movement energy
+is stored in the fluid as energy of strain and as
+kinetic energy. At the same time, a transformation
+of the applied energy into heat takes place
+in the distorted material. The release of this
+material from strain, and its movement back towards
+its original state, is also accompanied by a
+similar transformation, in which the stored strain
+energy is, in turn, converted into the heat form.
+The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
+whole operation is similar in nature to that
+frictional process already described (§ <a href="#sec_16">16</a>) in the
+case of a body moving on a rough horizontal
+table. The final action of the heat energy thus
+communicated to the fluid is to expand the latter
+against the internal cohesive or viscous forces of
+its material, and also against the gravitative attraction
+of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>Now when the pendulum moves in air, the
+action taking place is of the same nature, and
+the final result is the same as in oil. It differs
+merely in degree. Compared with the oil, the air
+masses offer only a slight resistance to the motion,
+and thus only an exceedingly small part of the
+pendulum's energy is transmitted to them. The
+pendulum, however, does set the surrounding air
+masses in motion, and by a process similar in
+nature to that in the oil, a modicum of the
+energy of the falling pendulum is converted into
+heat, and thence by the expansion of the air into
+energy of position. In the downward motion from
+rest, the first stage of the process is a transformation
+peculiar to the pendulum itself, namely, energy of
+position into energy of motion. The transmission
+to the fluid is a necessary secondary result. It is
+important to note that this transmission is carried
+out in virtue of the actual movement of the material
+of the pendulum, and that the energy transmitted
+is in reality mechanical or work energy (§ <a href="#sec_31">31</a>). This
+mechanical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
+or work energy, then actually leaves or
+is transmitted from the pendulum system, and is
+finally absorbed by the surrounding air masses in
+the form of energy of position.</p>
+
+<p>Considered as a whole, there is evidently no
+aspect of reversibility about the operation, but it will
+be shown later (§ <a href="#sec_32">32</a>) that with the introduction of
+other factors, it really forms part of a comprehensive
+cyclical process. It is itself a process of direct transmission.
+It is carried out by means of a definite
+material machine which embodies certain energy
+transformations, and which is strictly limited in the
+extent of its operations by certain physical factors.
+These factors are the cohesive properties of the
+moving pendulum mass and the fluid with which it
+is in contact (§ <a href="#sec_16">16</a>). It is clear, also, that in an apparatus
+in which the motion is carried out in oil, any
+heat energy communicated to the oil would inevitably
+find its way to the surrounding air masses by
+conduction and radiation. The final result of the
+pendulum's motion would therefore be the same in
+this case as in air; the heat energy would, when
+communicated to the surrounding air masses, cause
+an expansive movement against gravity.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_30" id="sec_30"></a>30. <i>Energy Machines and Energy Transmission</i></h3>
+
+<div class="figright"><a id="i107" name="i107"></a>
+<img src="images/i107.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The various examples of energy transformation
+and transmission which have been discussed above
+(§§ <a href="#sec_13">13-27</a>)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
+will suffice to show the essential differences
+which exist in the general nature of these operations.
+But they will also serve another purpose in portraying
+one striking and important aspect in which these
+processes are alike. From the descriptions given
+above, it will be amply evident that each of these
+processes, whether transformation or transmission,
+requires as an essential condition of its existence, the
+presence of a certain arrangement of matter; each
+process is of necessity associated with and embodied
+in a definite physical and material machine. This
+material machine is simply the contrivance provided
+by Nature to carry out the energy operation. It
+differs in construction and in character for different
+processes, but in every case there must be in its
+constitution some material substance, perceptible to
+the senses, with which the acting energy is intimately
+associated. This fact is but another aspect of the
+principle that energy is never found dissociated from
+matter (§ <a href="#sec_11">11</a>). In every energy machine, the
+material substance or operator forms the real foundation
+or basis of the energy operation, but besides this
+there are also always other phenomena of a secondary
+nature, totally different, it may be, from the main
+energy operation, which combine with that operation
+to constitute the whole. These subsidiary energy
+phenomena are the incepting factors, and are most
+important characteristics. Their presence is just as
+essential in energy transmission as it is in energy
+transformation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
+As demonstrated above, they are
+usually associated with the physical peculiarities of
+the basis or acting material of the energy machine,
+and their peculiar function is to conserve or limit the
+extent of its action. A complete description of
+these phenomena, in any given case, would not only
+be equivalent to a complete description of the
+machine, but would also serve as a complete description
+of the main energy operation embodied in that
+machine. Sometimes, however, the description of
+the machine is
+a matter of extreme
+difficulty,
+and may be, in
+fact, impossible
+owing to the lack
+of a full knowledge of the intimate phenomena concerned.
+An illustrative example of this is provided
+by the familiar phenomenon of heat radiation. Take
+the case of two isolated solid bodies A and B (<a href="#i107">Fig. 5</a>)
+in close proximity on the earth's surface. If the
+body A at a high temperature be sufficiently near
+to B at a lower temperature, a transmission of energy
+takes place from A to B. This transmission is
+usually attributed to "radiation," but, after all, the
+use of the term "radiation" is merely a descriptive
+device which hides our ignorance of the operation.
+It is known that a transmission takes place, but the
+intimate phenomena are not known, and, accordingly,
+it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+is impossible to describe the machine or mechanism
+by which it is carried out. From general considerations,
+however, it appears that the material basis
+of this machine is to be found in the air medium
+which surrounds the two bodies. Experiment shows,
+indeed, that if this intervening material medium of
+air be even partially withdrawn or removed, the
+transmission is immensely reduced in amount. In
+fact, this latter phenomenon is largely taken advantage
+of in the so-called vacuum flasks or other
+devices to maintain bodies at a temperature either
+above or below that of the external surrounding
+bodies. The device adopted is, simply, as far as
+practicable to withdraw all material connection
+between the body which it is desired to isolate
+thermally and its surroundings. But it is clearly impossible
+to isolate completely any terrestrial body in
+this way. There must be some material connection
+remaining. As already pointed out (§ <a href="#sec_5">5</a>), we have no
+experimental experience of really separate bodies or
+of an absolute vacuum. It is to be noted that any
+vacuous space which we can experimentally arrange
+does not even approximately reproduce the conditions
+of true separation prevailing in interplanetary
+space. Any arrangement of separate bodies which
+might thus be contrived is necessarily entirely
+surrounded or enclosed by terrestrial material which,
+in virtue of its stressed condition, constitutes an
+energy machine of the same nature as those already
+described<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
+(§ <a href="#sec_21">21</a>). Even although the air could be
+absolutely exhausted from a vessel, it is still quite
+impossible to enclose any body permanently within
+that vessel without some material connection between
+the body and the enclosing
+walls. If for example, as
+shown in <a href="#i109a">Fig. 6</a>, CC represents
+a spherical vessel, completely
+exhausted, and having two bodies,
+A and B at different temperatures,
+in its interior, it is obvious
+that if these bodies are to
+maintain continuously their relative positions of
+separation, each must be united by some material
+connection to the containing vessel. But when
+such a connection is made, say as shown at D
+and E (<a href="#i109b">Fig. 7</a>), it is clear
+that A and B are no longer
+separate bodies in the fullest
+sense of the word, but are
+now in direct communication
+with one another through
+the supports at D and E
+and the enclosing sides of
+the vessel CC. The practicable conditions are thus
+far from those of separate bodies in a complete
+vacuum. It would seem, indeed, to be beyond
+human experimental contrivance to reproduce such
+conditions in their entirety. So far as these conditions
+can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>
+be achieved, however, and judging
+solely by the experimental results already attained
+with respect to the effect of exhaustion on radiation,
+it may be quite justly averred that, if the conditions
+portrayed in <a href="#i109a">Fig. 6</a> could be realised, no
+transmission of energy would take place between
+two bodies, such as A and B, completely isolated
+from one another in a vacuous space. It appears,
+in fact, to be a quite reasonable and logical
+deduction from the experimental evidence that the
+energy operation of transmission of heat from one
+body to another by radiation is dependent on
+the existence between these bodies of a real and
+material substance which forms in some way (at
+present unknown) the transmitting medium or
+machine. The difficulty which arises in the description
+of this machine is due, as already explained
+above, simply to lack of knowledge of the intimate
+phenomena of its working. Many other energy
+processes will, no doubt, occur to the reader in which
+the same difficulty presents itself, due to the same
+cause.</p>
+
+<div class="figright"><a id="i109a" name="i109a"></a>
+<img src="images/i109a.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<p>In dealing with terrestrial operations generally,
+and particularly when transmission processes are
+under consideration, it is important to recognise
+clearly the precise nature of these operations and
+the peculiar conditions under which they work. It
+must ever be borne in mind that the terrestrial
+atmosphere is a real and material portion of the
+earth's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
+mass, extending from the surface for a
+limited distance into space (§ <a href="#sec_34">34</a>), and whatever its
+condition of gaseous tenuity, completely occupying
+that space in the manner peculiar to a gaseous
+substance. When the whole mass of the planet,
+including the atmosphere, is taken into consideration,
+it is readily seen that all energy operations
+embodied in or associated with material on what
+is usually termed the surface of the earth take
+place at the bottom of this atmospheric ocean,
+or, in reality, in the interior of the earth. The
+operations themselves are the manifestations of
+purely terrestrial energy, which, by its working
+in various devices or arrangements of material
+is being transformed and transmitted from one
+form of matter to another. As will be fully
+demonstrated later (<a href="#PART_III">Part III.</a>), the nature of the
+terrestrial energy system makes it impossible for
+this energy ever to escape beyond the confines of
+the planetary atmospheric envelope. These are
+briefly the general conditions under which the study
+of terrestrial or secondary energy operations is of
+necessity conducted, and it is specially important to
+notice these conditions when it is sought to apply
+the results of experimental work to the discussion
+of celestial phenomena. It must ever be borne in
+mind that even the direct observation of the latter
+must always be carried out through the encircling
+planetary atmospheric material.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><a id="i109b" name="i109b"></a>
+<img src="images/i109b.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>
+this portion of the work it is proposed to
+investigate in the light of known phenomena the
+possibility of energy transmission between separate
+masses. As explained above, the term separate
+is here meant to convey the idea of perfect
+isolation, and the only masses in Nature which
+truly satisfy this condition are the celestial and
+planetary bodies, separated as they are from one
+another by interplanetary space and in virtue of
+their energised condition (§ <a href="#sec_5">5</a>). Since this state of
+separation cannot be experimentally realised under
+terrestrial conditions, it is obvious, therefore, that no
+purely terrestrial energy process can be advanced
+either as direct verification or direct disproof of a
+transmission of energy between such truly separate
+masses as the celestial bodies. But as we are unable
+to experiment directly on these bodies themselves
+or across interplanetary space, we are forced
+of necessity to rely, for experimental facts and conclusions,
+on the terrestrial energy phenomena to which
+access is possible. As already indicated in the
+General Statement (§ <a href="#sec_11">11</a>), the same energy is bestowed
+on all parts of the cosmical system, and by
+the close observation of the phenomena of its action
+in familiar operations the truest guidance may be
+obtained as to its general nature and working. In
+such investigations, however, only the actual phenomena
+of the operation are of scientific or informative
+value. There is no gain to real knowledge in assuming,
+say<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
+in the examination of the phenomena
+of magnetic attraction between two bodies, that the
+one is urged towards the other by stresses in an
+intervening ethereal medium, when absolutely no
+phenomenal evidence of the existence of such a
+medium is available. It may be urged that the conception
+of an ethereal medium is adapted to the
+explanation of phenomena, and appears in many instances
+to fulfil this function. But as already
+pointed out (see Introduction), it is absolutely impossible
+to explain phenomena. So-called explanations
+must ever resolve themselves simply into
+revelations of further phenomena. While the value
+of true working hypotheses cannot be denied, it is
+surely evident that such hypotheses, unless they embody
+and are under the limitation of controlling
+facts, are not only useless, but, from the misleading
+ideas they are apt to convey, may even be dangerous
+factors in the search for truth. Now, if all speculative
+ideas or hypotheses are banished from the mind,
+and reliance is placed solely on the evidential phenomena
+of Nature, the study of terrestrial energy
+operations leads inevitably to certain conclusions on
+the question of energy transmission. In the first
+place, it must lead to the denial of what has been
+virtually the great primary assumption of modern
+science, namely, that a mass of material at a high
+temperature isolated in interplanetary space would
+radiate heat in all directions through that space.
+Such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>
+a conception is unsupported by our experimental
+or real knowledge of radiation. The fact
+that heat radiation takes place from a hot to a
+cold body in whatever direction the latter is placed
+relatively to the former, does not justify the assumption
+that such radiation takes place in all directions
+in the absence of a cold body. And since there is
+absolutely no manifestation of any real material
+medium occupying interplanetary space, no sign of
+the material agency or machine which the results of
+direct experiment have led us to conclude is a
+necessity for the transmission process of heat radiation,
+the whole conception must be regarded as at
+least doubtful. Even with our limited knowledge
+of radiation, the doctrine of heat radiation through
+space stands controverted by ordinary experimental
+experience. With this doctrine must fall also the
+allied conception of the transmission of heat energy
+by radiation from the sun to the earth. It is to
+be noted, however, that only the actual transmission
+of heat energy from the sun to the earth is inadmissible;
+the <i>heating effect</i> of the sun on the earth,
+which leads to the manifestation of terrestrial energy
+in the heat form, is a continuous operation readily
+explained in the light of the general principle of
+energy transformation already enunciated (§ <a href="#sec_4">4</a>).
+With respect to other possible processes of energy
+transmission between the sun and the earth or across
+interplanetary space, the same general methods of
+experimental<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
+investigation must be adopted. The
+transmission of energy under terrestrial conditions
+is carried out in many different forms and by the
+working of a large variety of machines. In every
+case, no matter in what form the energy is transmitted,
+that energy must be associated with a
+definite arrangement of terrestrial material constituting
+the transmission machine. Each energy process
+of transmission has its own peculiar conditions of
+operation which must be completely satisfied. By
+the study of these conditions and the allied phenomena
+it is possible to gain a real knowledge of
+the precise circumstances in which the process can
+be carried out. Now let us apply the knowledge of
+transmission processes thus gained to the general
+celestial case, to the question of energy transmission
+between truly separate bodies, and particularly to
+the case of the sun and the earth. Do we find in
+this case any evidence of the presence of a machine
+for energy transmission? It is impossible, within
+the limits of this work, to deal with all the forms
+in which energy may be transmitted, but let the
+reader review any instance of the transmission of
+energy under terrestrial conditions, or any energy-transmission
+machine with which he is familiar,
+noting particularly the essential phenomena and
+material arrangements, and let him ask himself if
+there is any evidence of the existence of a machine
+of this kind in operation between the sun and the
+earth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>
+or across interplanetary space. We venture
+to assert that the answer must be in the negative.
+The real knowledge of terrestrial processes of energy
+transmission at command, on which all our deductions
+must be based, does not warrant in the slightest
+degree the assumption of transmission between the
+sun and the earth. The most plausible of such assumptions
+is undoubtedly that which attributes
+transmission to heat radiation, but this has already
+been shown to be at variance with well-known facts.
+The question of light transmission will offer no
+difficulty if it be borne in mind that light is not
+in itself a form of energy, but merely a manifestation
+of energy as an incepting influence, which like other
+incepting influences of a similar nature, can readily
+operate across either vacuous or interplanetary
+space (§ <a href="#sec_19">19</a>).</p>
+
+<p>On these general considerations, deduced from
+the observation of terrestrial phenomena, allied with
+the conception of energy machines and separate
+masses in space, the author bases one aspect of
+the denial of energy transmission between celestial
+masses. The doctrine of transmission cannot be
+sustained in the face of legitimate scientific deduction
+from natural phenomena. In the later parts
+of this work, and from a more positive point of view,
+the denial is completely justified.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="sec_31" id="sec_31"></a>31. <i>Identification of Forms of Energy</i></h3>
+
+<p>Before leaving the question of energy transmission,
+there are still one or two interesting features
+to be considered. Although energy, as already
+pointed out, is ever found associated with matter,
+this association does not, in itself, always furnish
+phenomena sufficient to distinguish the precise
+phase in which the energy may be manifested. Some
+means must, as a rule, be adopted to isolate and
+identify the various forms.</p>
+
+<p>Now one of the most interesting and important
+features of the process of energy transmission is that
+it usually provides the direct means for the identification
+of the acting energy. Energy, as it were, in
+movement, in the process of transmission, is capable
+of being detected in its different phases and recognised
+in each. The phenomena of transmission
+usually serve, either directly or indirectly, to portray
+the precise nature of the energy taking part in the
+operation. One of the most direct instances of this
+is provided by the transmission of heat energy. For
+illustrative purposes, let it be assumed that a body A,
+possessed of heat energy to an exceedingly high
+degree, is isolated within a spherical glass vessel
+CC, somewhat as already shown (<a href="#i109a">Fig. 6</a>). If it be
+assumed that the space within CC is a perfect vacuum,
+and that no material connection exists between the
+walls<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
+of the vessel and the body A, the latter is completely
+isolated, and no means whatever are available
+for the detection of its heat qualities (§ <a href="#sec_30">30</a>). It may
+seem that, if the temperature of the body A were
+sufficiently high, its energy state might be detected,
+and in a manner estimated, by its effect on the eye
+or by its luminous properties, but we take this
+opportunity of pointing out that luminosity is not
+invariably associated with high temperature. On
+the contrary, many bodies are found in Nature, both
+animate and inanimate, which are luminous and
+affect the eye at comparatively low temperatures.
+How then is the energy condition of the body to be
+definitely ascertained? The only means whereby it
+is possible to identify the energy of the body is by
+transmitting a portion of that energy to some other
+body and observing the resultant phenomena. Suppose,
+then, another body, such as B (<a href="#i109a">Fig. 6</a>), at a lower
+temperature than A, is brought into contact with A,
+so that a transmission of heat energy ensues between
+the two. The phenomena which would result in
+such circumstances will be exactly as already described
+in the case of the transmission of energy
+through a solid (§ <a href="#sec_27">27</a>). Amongst other manifestations
+it would be noticeable that the material of B
+was expanded against its inherent cohesive forces.
+Now if, instead of a spherical body such as B, a
+mercurial thermometer were utilised, the phenomena
+would be of precisely the same nature. A definite
+portion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>
+of the heat energy would be transmitted to
+the thermometer, and would produce expansion of
+the contained fluid. By the amount of this expansion
+it becomes possible to estimate the energy condition
+and properties of the body A, relative to
+its surroundings or to certain generally accepted
+standard conditions. Thermometric measurement
+is, in fact, merely the employment of a process of
+energy transmission for the purpose of identifying
+and estimating the heat-energy properties of material
+substances.</p>
+
+<p>In everyday life, rough ideas of heat energy are
+constantly being obtained by the aid of the senses.
+This method is, however, only another aspect of
+transmission, for it will be clear that the sensations
+of heat and cold are, in themselves, but the evidence
+of the transformation of heat energy to or from the
+body.</p>
+
+<p>The process of energy transmission by a flexible
+band or cord (§ <a href="#sec_28">28</a>) also provides evidence leading
+to the identification of the peculiar form of energy
+which is being transmitted. At first sight, it would
+appear as if this energy were simply energy of motion
+or kinetic energy. A little reflection, however, on
+the general conditions of the process must dispel
+this idea, for it is clear that the precise nature of
+the energy transmitted has no real connection with
+the kinetic properties of the system. The latter,
+truly, influence the rate of transmission and impose
+certain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
+limits, but evidently, if the pull in the band
+increases without any increase in its velocity, the
+actual amount of energy transmitted by the system
+would increase without altering in any respect the
+kinetic properties. It becomes necessary, then, to
+distinguish clearly the energy inherent to, or as it
+were, latent in the system, from the energy actually
+transmitted by the system, to recognise the difference
+between the energy transmitted by moving material
+and the energy of that material. In this special
+instance, to identify the form of energy transmitted
+it must of necessity be associated with the peculiar
+phenomena of transmission. Now the energy is
+evidently transmitted by the movement of the connecting
+belt or band. Before any transmission can
+take place, however, a certain amount of energy
+must be stored in the moving system, partly as
+cohesion or strain energy and partly as energy of
+motion or kinetic energy. It is this preliminary
+storage of energy which, in reality, constitutes
+the transmission machine, and for a given rate of
+transmission, the energy thus stored will be constant
+in value. It is obtained at the expense of the
+applied energy, and, neglecting certain minor processes,
+will be returned (or transmitted) in its entirety
+when the moving system once more comes to
+rest. This stored energy, in fact, works in a reversible
+process. But when the transmission machine
+is once constituted, the energy transmitted is then
+that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
+energy which is being continually applied at
+the spindle A (<a href="#i099">Fig. 4</a>) and as continually withdrawn
+at the spindle B. It must be emphasised that the
+energy thus transmitted is absolutely different from
+the kinetic or other energy associated with the moving
+material of the system. It is the function of this
+energised material of the band to transmit the
+energy from A to B, but this is the only relationship
+which the transmitted energy bears to the material.
+The energy thus transmitted by the moving material
+we term mechanical or work energy. We may
+thus define mechanical or work energy as "<i>that form
+of energy transmitted by matter in motion</i>."</p>
+
+<p>The idea of work is usually associated with that
+of a force acting through a certain distance. The
+form of energy referred to above as work energy
+is, in the same way, always associated with the idea
+of a thrust or of a pressure of some kind acting on
+moving material. Work energy thus bears two
+aspects, which really correspond to the familiar
+product of pressure and volume. Both aspects are
+manifested in transmission. Since work energy
+is invariably transmitted by matter in motion, every
+machine for its transmission must possess energy of
+motion as one of its essential features. As shown
+above (see also § <a href="#sec_28">28</a>), this energy of motion is really
+obtained at the expense of the originally applied work
+energy, and as it remains unaltered in value during the
+progress of a uniform transmission, it may be regarded
+as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
+simply transformed work energy, stored or latent in
+the system, which will be returned in its entirety and
+in its original form at the termination of the operation.
+The energy stored against cohesion or other forces
+may be regarded in the same way. It is really the
+manifestation of the pressure or thrust aspect of
+the work energy, just as the kinetic energy is the
+manifestation of the translational or velocity aspect.</p>
+
+<p>Our definition of work energy given above
+enables us to recognise its operation in many familiar
+processes. Take the case of a gas at high pressure
+confined in a cylinder behind a movable piston.
+We can at once say that the energy of the gas is
+work energy because this energy may quite clearly
+be transmitted from the gas by the movement of
+the piston. If the latter form part of a steam-engine
+mechanism of rods and crank, the energy may, by
+the motion of this mechanism, be transmitted to
+the crank shaft, and there utilised. This is eminently
+a case in which energy is <i>transmitted</i> by matter
+in motion. The moving material comprises the
+piston, piston-rod, and connecting-rod, which are,
+one and all, endowed with both cohesive and kinetic
+energy qualities, and form together the transmission
+machine. So long as the piston is at rest only one
+aspect of the work energy of the gas is apparent,
+namely, the pressure aspect, but immediately motion
+and transmission take place, both aspects are presented.
+The work energy of the gas, obtained in the
+boiler<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>
+by a <i>transformation</i> of heat energy is thus, by
+matter in motion, transmitted and made available
+at the crank shaft. The shaft itself is also commonly
+utilised for the further transmission of the work
+energy applied. By the application of the energy
+at the crank, it is thrown into a state of strain, and
+at the same time is endowed with kinetic energy of
+rotation. It thus forms a machine for transmission,
+and the work energy applied at one point of the
+shaft may be withdrawn at another point more
+remote. The transmission is, in reality, effected by
+the movement of the material of the shaft. So long
+as the shaft is stationary, it is clear that no actual
+transmission can be carried out, no matter how great
+may be the strain imposed. If our engine mechanism
+were, by a change in design, adapted to the use of
+a liquid substance as the working material instead
+of a gas, it is clear that no change would be effected
+in the general conditions. The energy of a liquid
+under pressure is again simply work energy, and
+it would be transmitted by the moving mechanism
+in precisely the same manner.</p>
+
+<p>From the foregoing, it will now be evident to
+the reader that the energy originally applied to the
+primary mass (§ <a href="#sec_3">3</a>) of our cosmical system must be
+work energy. It is this form of energy also which
+is inherent to each unit of the planetary system
+associated with the primary. In this system it is
+of course presented outwardly in the two phases of
+kinetic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
+energy and energy of strain or distortion.
+It is apparent, also, that work energy could be
+transmitted from the primary mass to the separate
+planets on one condition only, that is, by the movement
+of some material substance connecting each
+planet to the primary. Since no such material connection
+is admitted, the transmission of work energy
+is clearly impossible.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_32" id="sec_32"></a>32. <i>Complete Secondary Cyclical Operation</i></h3>
+
+<p>A general outline of the conditions of working
+and the relationships of secondary processes has
+already been given in the General Statement (§ <a href="#sec_9">9</a>),
+but it still remains to indicate, in a broad way, the
+general methods whereby these operations are linked
+to the atmospheric machine. In the example of the
+simple pendulum, it has been pointed out that the
+energy processes giving rise to heating at the bearing
+surfaces and transmission of energy to the air masses
+are not directly reversible processes, but really form
+part of a more extensive cyclical operation, in itself,
+however, complete and self-contained. This cyclical
+operation may be regarded as a typical illustration of
+the manner in which separate processes of energy
+transmission or transformation, such as already
+described, are combined or united in a continuous
+chain forming a complete whole.</p>
+
+<p>It has been assumed, in all the experiments with
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>
+pendulum, that the operating energy is initially
+communicated from an outside source, say the hand
+of the observer. This energy is, therefore, the acting
+energy which must be traced through all its various
+phases from its origin to its final destination. At
+the outset, it may be pointed out that this energy,
+applied by hand, is obtained from the original rotational
+energy of the earth by certain definite energy
+processes. Due to the influences of various incepting
+fields which emanate from the sun (§§ <a href="#sec_17">17-19</a>), a
+portion of the earth's rotational energy is transformed
+into that form of plant energy which is stored in
+plant tissue, and which, by the physico-chemical
+processes of digestion, is in turn converted into heat
+and the various other forms of energy associated with
+the human frame. This, then, is the origin of the
+energy communicated to the pendulum. Its progress
+through that machine has already been described in
+detail (§§ <a href="#sec_21">21-26</a>). The transformation of energy of
+motion to energy of position which takes place is
+in itself a reversible process and may in the meantime
+be neglected. But the final result of the
+operations, at the bearing surfaces and in the air
+masses surrounding the moving pendulum, was
+shown to be, in each case, that heat energy was
+communicated to these air masses. The effect of
+the heat energy thus impressed, is to cause the
+expansion of the air and its elevation from the
+surface of the earth in the lines or field of the
+gravitative<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
+attraction, so that this heat energy is
+transformed, and resides in the air masses as energy
+of position. The energy then, originally drawn from
+the rotational energy of the earth, has thus worked
+through the pendulum machine, and is now stored in
+the air masses in this form of energy of position.
+To make the process complete and cyclical this
+energy must now, therefore, be returned once more
+to the earth in its original rotational form. This
+final step is carried out in the atmospheric machine
+(§ <a href="#sec_41">41</a>). In this machine, therefore, the energy
+of position possessed by the air masses is, in their
+descent to their original positions at lower levels,
+transformed once more into axial or rotational
+energy. In this fashion this series of secondary
+processes, involving both transformations and transmissions,
+is linked to the great atmospheric process.
+The amount of energy which operates through the
+particular chain of processes we have described is,
+of course, exceedingly small, but in this or a similar
+manner all secondary operations, great or small, are
+associated with the atmospheric machine. Instances
+could readily be multiplied, but a little reflection will
+show how almost every energy operation, no matter
+what may be its nature, whether physical, chemical,
+or electrical, leads inevitably to the communication
+of energy to the atmospheric air masses and to their
+consequent upraisal.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to note the infallible tendency of
+energy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
+to revert to its original form of axial energy,
+or energy of rotation, by means of the air machine.
+All Nature bears witness to this tendency, and
+although the path of energy through the maze of
+terrestrial transformation often appears tortuous
+and uncertain, its final destination is always sure.
+The secondary operations are thus interlinked into
+one great whole by their association in the terrestrial
+energy cycle. Many of these secondary operations
+are of short duration; others extend over long periods
+of time. Energy, in some cases, appears to slumber,
+as in the coal seams of the earth, until an appropriate
+stimulus is applied, when it enters into active
+operation once more. The cyclical operations are
+thus long or short according to the duration of their
+constituent secondary energy processes. But the
+balance of Nature is ever preserved. Axial energy,
+transformed by the working of one cyclical process,
+is being as continuously returned by the simultaneous
+operation of others.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="PART_III" id="PART_III"></a>PART III</h2>
+
+
+<p class="center big">TERRESTRIAL CONDITIONS</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_33" id="sec_33"></a>33. <i>Gaseous Expansion</i></h3>
+
+
+
+<p>Before proceeding to the general description of
+the atmospheric machine (§ <a href="#sec_10">10</a>), it is desirable to
+consider one or two features of gaseous reaction
+which have a somewhat important bearing on its
+working. Let it be assumed
+that a mass of gaseous material
+is confined within the
+lower portion of a narrow
+tube ABCD (<a href="#i128">Fig. 8</a>) assumed
+to be thermally non-conducting;
+the upper portion
+of the tube is in free communication
+with the atmosphere.
+The gas within the
+tube is assumed to be isolated
+from the atmosphere by a movable piston EF,
+free to move vertically in the tube, and for the purpose
+of illustration, assumed also frictionless and weightless.
+With these assumptions, the pressure on the
+confined gas will simply be that due to the atmosphere.
+If<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
+heat energy be now applied to the gas,
+its temperature will rise and expansion will ensue.
+This expansion will be carried out at constant
+atmospheric pressure; the gaseous material, as it
+expands, must lift with it the whole of the superimposed
+atmospheric column against the downward
+attractive force of the earth's gravitation on that
+column. Work is thus done by the expanding gas,
+and in consequence of this work done, a definite
+quantity of atmospheric material gains energy of
+position or potential energy relative to the earth's
+surface. At the same time, the rise of temperature
+of the gas will indicate an accession of heat energy
+to its mass. These familiar phenomena of expansion
+under constant pressure serve to illustrate the
+important fact that, when heat energy is applied to
+a gaseous mass, it really manifests itself therein in
+two aspects, namely, heat energy and work energy.
+The increment of heat energy is indicated by the
+increase in temperature, the increment of work
+energy by the increase in pressure. In the example
+just quoted, however, there is no increase in
+pressure, because the work energy, as rapidly as it is
+applied to the gas, is transformed or worked down in
+displacing the atmospheric column resting on the
+upper side of the moving piston. The energy
+applied, in the form of heat from the outside source,
+has in reality been introduced into a definite energy
+machine, a machine in this case adapted for the
+complete<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
+transformation of work energy into energy
+of position. As already indicated, when the expansive
+movement is completed, the volume and temperature
+of the gaseous mass are both increased but
+the pressure remains unaltered. While the increase
+in temperature is the measure and index of a definite
+increase in the heat energy of the gas, it is important
+to note that, so far as its work energy is concerned,
+the gas is finally in precisely the same condition
+as at the commencement of the operation. Work
+energy has been, by the working of this energy
+machine, as it were passed through the gaseous mass
+into the surrounding atmosphere. The pressure of
+the gas is the true index of its work energy properties.
+So long as the pressure remains unaltered,
+the inherent work energy of the material remains
+absolutely unaffected. A brief consideration of
+the nature of work energy as already portrayed
+(§ <a href="#sec_31">31</a>) will make this clear. Work energy has been
+defined as "<i>that form of energy transmitted by matter
+in motion</i>," and it is clear that pressure is the
+essential factor in any transmission of this nature.
+Temperature has no direct bearing on it whatever.
+It is common knowledge, however, that in the
+application of heat energy to a gaseous substance,
+the two aspects of pressure and temperature cannot
+be really dissociated. They are mutually dependent.
+Any increment of heat energy to the gas is accompanied
+by an increment of work energy, and vice
+versa.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
+The precise mode of action of the work
+energy will, of course, depend on the general circumstances
+of the energy machine in which it operates.
+In the case just considered the work energy does
+not finally reside in the gaseous mass itself, but, by
+the working of the machine, is communicated to
+the atmosphere. If, on the other hand, heat energy
+were applied in the same fashion to a mass of gas
+in a completely enclosed vessel, that is to say at
+constant volume instead of at constant pressure, the
+general phenomena are merely altered in degree
+according to the change in the precise nature of the
+energy machine. In the former case, the nature of
+the energy machine was such that the work energy
+communicated was expended in its entirety against
+gravitation. Under what is usually termed constant
+volume conditions, only a portion of the total work
+energy communicated is transformed, and the transformation
+of this portion is carried out, not against
+gravitation, but against the cohesive forces of the
+material of the enclosing vessel which restrains the
+expansion. No matter how great may be the elastic
+properties of this material, it will be distorted, more or
+less, by the application of work energy. This distortional
+movement is the external evidence of the energy
+process of transformation. Energy is stored in the
+material against the forces of cohesion (§ <a href="#sec_15">15</a>). But
+the energy thus stored is only a small proportion of
+the total work energy which accrues to the gas in
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
+heating process. The remainder is stored in the
+gas itself, and the evidence of such storage is found
+simply in the increase of pressure. Different energy
+machines thus offer different facilities for the transformation
+or the storage of the applied energy. In
+every case where the work energy applied has no
+opportunity of expending itself, its presence will be
+indicated by an increase in the pressure or work
+function of the gas.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><a id="i128" name="i128"></a>
+<img src="images/i128.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The principles which underlie the above phenomena
+can readily be applied to other cases of
+gaseous expansion. It is a matter of common experience
+that if a given mass of gaseous material be
+introduced into a vessel which has been exhausted by
+an air-pump or other device for the production of a
+vacuum, the whole space within the vessel is instantly
+permeated by the gas, which will expand until its
+volume is precisely that of the containing vessel.
+Further phenomena of the operation are that the
+expanding gas suffers a decrease in temperature and
+pressure corresponding to the degree or ratio of the
+expansion. Before the expansive process took place
+the gaseous mass, as indicated by its initial temperature
+and pressure, is endowed with a definite quantity
+of energy in the form of heat and work energy.
+After expansion, these quantities are diminished, as
+indicated by its final and lower temperature and
+pressure. The operation of expansion has thus involved
+an expenditure of energy. This expenditure
+takes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
+place in virtue of the movement of the gaseous
+material (§ <a href="#sec_4">4</a>). It is obvious that if the volume of the
+whole is to be increased, each portion of the expanding
+gas requires to move relatively to the remainder.
+This movement is carried out in the lines
+of the earth's gravitative attraction, and to a certain
+extent over the surface of the containing vessel. In
+some respects, it thus corresponds simply to the
+movement of a body over the earth's surface (§ <a href="#sec_16">16</a>).
+It is also carried out against the viscous or frictional
+forces existing throughout the gaseous material itself
+(§ <a href="#sec_29">29</a>). Assuming no influx of energy from without,
+the energy expended in the movement of the
+gaseous material must be obtained at the expense
+of the inherent heat and work energy of the
+gas, and these two functions will decrease simultaneously.
+The heat and work energy of the gas or
+its inherent energy is thus taken to provide the
+energy necessary for the expansive movement. This
+energy, however, does not leave the gas, but still
+resides therein in a form akin to that of energy of
+position or separation. It will be clear also, that the
+reverse operation cannot, in this case, be carried out;
+the gas cannot move back to its original volume in
+the same fashion as it expanded into the vacuum, so
+that the energy utilised in this way for separation
+cannot be directly returned.</p>
+
+<p>The expansion of the gas has been assumed above
+to take place into a vacuous space, but a little consideration
+will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
+show that this condition cannot be
+properly or even approximately fulfilled under
+ordinary experimental conditions. The smallest
+quantity of gas introduced into the exhausted vessel
+will at once completely fill the vacuous space, and,
+on this account, the whole expansion of the gas does
+not in reality take place <i>in vacuo</i> at all. To study
+the action of the gas under the latter conditions, it
+is necessary to look on the operation of expansion
+in a more general way, which might be presented
+as follows.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_34" id="sec_34"></a>34. <i>Gravitational Equilibrium of Gases</i></h3>
+
+<p>Consider a planetary body, in general nature similar
+to the earth, but, unlike the earth, possessing no
+atmosphere whatever. The space surrounding such
+a celestial mass may then be considered as a perfect
+vacuum. Now let it be further assumed that in
+virtue of some change in the conditions, a portion of
+the material of the planetary mass is volatilised and
+a mass of gas thereby liberated over its surface. The
+gas is assumed to correspond in temperature to that
+portion of the planet's surface with which it is in
+contact. It is clear that, in the circumstances, the
+gas, in virtue of its elastic and energetic properties,
+will expand in all directions. It will completely
+envelop the planet, and it will also move radially
+outwards into space. In these respects, its expansion
+will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>
+correspond to that of a gas introduced into a
+vacuous space of unlimited extent.</p>
+
+<p>The question now arises as to the nature of the
+action of the gaseous substance in these circumstances.
+It is clear that the radial or outward movement
+of the gas from the planetary surface is made
+directly against the gravitative attraction of the
+planet on the gaseous mass. In other words,
+matter or material is being moved in the lines or
+field of this gravitative force. This movement,
+accordingly, will be productive of an energy transformation
+(§ <a href="#sec_4">4</a>). In its initial or surface condition
+each portion of the gaseous mass is possessed of a
+perfectly definite amount of energy indicated by and
+dependent on that condition. As it moves upwards
+from the surface, it does work against gravity in the
+raising of its own mass. But as the mass is thus
+raised, it is gaining energy of position (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>), and as it
+has absolutely no communication with any external
+source of energy in its ascent, the energy of position
+thus gained can only be obtained at the expense of
+its initial inherent heat and work energy. The
+operation is, in fact, a simple transformation of this
+inherent energy into energy of position, a transformation
+in which gravity is the incepting agency. The
+external evidence of transformation will be a fall in
+temperature of the material. Since the action is
+exactly similar for all ascending particles, it is evident
+that as the altitude of the gaseous mass increases the
+temperature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
+will correspondingly diminish. This
+diminution will proceed so long as the gaseous
+particles continue to ascend, and until an elevation
+is finally attained at which their inherent energy is
+entirely converted into energy of position. The expansion
+of the gas, and the associated transformation
+of energy, thus leads to the erection of a gaseous
+column in space, the temperature of which steadily
+diminishes from the base to the summit. At the
+latter elevation, the inherent energy of the gaseous
+particles which attain to it is completely transformed
+or worked out against gravity in the ascent; the energy
+possessed by the gas at this elevation is, therefore,
+entirely energy of position; the energy properties of
+heat and work have entirely vanished, and the temperature
+will, therefore, at this elevation, be absolute
+zero. It is important to note also that in the building
+of such a column or gaseous spherical envelope
+round the planet, the total energy of any gaseous
+particle of that column will remain unchanged
+throughout the process. No matter where the
+particle may be situated in the column, its total
+energy must always be expressed by its heat and
+work energy properties together with its energy of
+position. This sum is always a constant quantity.
+For if the particle descends from a higher to a lower
+altitude, its total energy is still unchanged, because a
+definite transformation of its energy of position takes
+place corresponding to its fall, and this transformed
+energy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
+duly appears in its original form of heat and
+work energy in accordance with the decreased altitude
+of the particle. Since the temperature of the column
+remains unchanged at the base surface and only
+decreases in the ascent, it is clear that the entire heat
+and work energy of the originally liberated gaseous
+mass is not expended in the movement against gravity.
+Every gaseous particle&mdash;excepting those on the
+absolute outer surface of the gaseous envelope&mdash;has
+still the property of temperature. It is evident,
+therefore, that in the constitution of the column, only
+a portion of the total original heat and work energy
+of the gaseous substance is transformed into energy
+of position.</p>
+
+<p>The space into which the gas expands has been
+referred to as unlimited in extent. But although in
+one sense it may be correctly described thus, yet in
+another, and perhaps in a truer sense, the space is
+very strictly limited. It is true there is no enclosing
+vessel or bounding surface, but nevertheless the
+expansion of the gas is restrained in two ways or
+limited by two factors. The position of the bounding
+surface of the spherical gaseous envelope depends,
+in the first place, on the original energy of the gas
+as deduced from its initial temperature and its other
+physical properties, and secondly on the value of the
+gravitative attraction exerted on the gas by the
+planetary body. Looking at the first factor, it is
+obvious that since the gaseous mass initially possesses
+only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
+a limited amount of energy, and since only a
+certain portion of this energy is really available for
+the transformation, the whole process is thereby
+limited in extent. The complete transformation and
+disappearance of that available portion of the gaseous
+energy in the process of erection of the atmospheric
+column will correspond to a definite and limited
+increase of energy of position of gaseous material.
+Since the energy of position is thus restricted in its
+totality, and the mass of material for elevation is
+constant, the height of the column or the boundary
+of expansion of the gas is likewise rigidly defined.
+In this fashion, the energy properties of the gaseous
+material limit the expansive process.</p>
+
+<p>Looking at the operation from another standpoint,
+it is clear that the maximum height of the
+spherical gaseous envelope must also be dependent on
+the resistance against which the upward movement
+of the gas is carried out, that is, on the value of the
+gravitative attraction. The expenditure of energy in
+the ascent varies directly as the opposing force; if
+this force be increased the ultimate height must
+decrease, and vice versa. Each particle might be
+regarded as moving in the ascent against the action
+of an invisible spring, stretching it so that with
+increase of altitude more and more of the energy of
+the particle is transformed or stored in the spring in
+the extension. When the particle descends to its
+original position, the operation is reversed; the spring
+is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
+now contracting, and yielding up the stored energy
+to the particle in the contraction. The action of the
+spring would here be merely that of an apparatus
+for the storage and return of energy. In the
+case of the gaseous mass, we conceive the action of
+gravitation to be exactly analogous to that of a
+spring offering an approximately constant resistance
+to extension. (The value of gravity is assumed
+approximately constant, and independent of the
+particle's displacement.) The energy stored or transformed
+in the ascension against gravity is returned
+on the descent in a precisely similar fashion. The
+operation is a completely reversible one. The range
+of motion of the gaseous mass or the ultimate height
+of the gaseous column will thus depend on the value
+of the opposing attractive force controlling the
+motion or, in other words, on the value of gravity.
+This value is of course defined by the relative mass
+of the planet (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>).</p>
+
+<p>It is evident that the spherical envelope which
+would thus enwrap the planetary mass possesses
+certain peculiar properties which are not associated
+with gaseous masses under ordinary experimental
+conditions. It by no means corresponds to any
+ordinary body of gaseous material, having a homogeneous
+constitution and a precise and determinate
+pressure and temperature throughout. On the contrary,
+its properties are somewhat complex. Throughout
+the gaseous envelope the physical condition of
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
+substance is continually changing with change
+of altitude. The extremes are found at the inner
+and outer bounding surfaces. At any given level,
+the gaseous pressure is simply the result of the attractive
+action of gravitation on the mass of gaseous
+material above that level&mdash;or, more simply, to the
+weight of material above that level. There is, of
+course, a certain decrease in the value of the gravitative
+attraction with increase of altitude, but within
+the limits of atmospheric height obtained by ordinary
+gaseous substances (§ <a href="#sec_36">36</a>) this decrease may be
+neglected, and the weight of unit mass of the material
+assumed constant at different levels. Increase of
+atmospheric altitude is thus accompanied by decrease
+in atmospheric pressure. But decrease in pressure
+must be accompanied by a corresponding decrease in
+density of the gas, so that, if uniform temperature were
+for the time being assumed, it would be necessary at
+the higher levels to rise through a greater distance to
+experience the same decrease in pressure than at the
+lower levels. In fact, given uniform conditions of
+temperature, if different altitudes were taken in
+arithmetical progression the respective pressures and
+densities would diminish in geometrical progression.
+But we have seen that the energy conditions absolutely
+preclude the condition of uniformity of temperature,
+and accordingly, the decreasing pressure and
+density must be counteracted to some extent at least
+by the decreasing temperature. The conditions are
+somewhat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>
+complex; but the general effect of the
+decreasing temperature factor would seem to be by
+increasing the density to cause the available gaseous
+energy to be completely worked down at a somewhat
+lower level than otherwise, and thus to lessen to
+some degree the height of the gaseous envelope.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be noted that a gaseous column or
+atmosphere of this nature would be in a state of
+complete equilibrium under the action of the gravitative
+attraction&mdash;provided there were no external
+disturbing influences. The peculiar feature of such
+a column is that the total energy of unit mass of its
+material, wherever that mass may be situated, is
+a constant quantity. In virtue of this property,
+the equilibrium of the column might be termed
+neutral or statical equilibrium. The gas may then
+be described as in the neutral or statical condition.
+This statical condition of equilibrium of a gas is
+of course a purely hypothetical one. It has been
+described in order to introduce certain ideas which
+are essential to the discussion of energy changes
+and reactions of gases in the lines of gravitational
+forces. These reactions will now be dealt with.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_35" id="sec_35"></a>35. <i>Total Energy of Gaseous Substances</i></h3>
+
+<p>Since the maximum height of a planetary atmosphere
+is dependent on the total energy of the
+gaseous substance or substances of which it is
+composed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
+it becomes necessary, in determining
+this height, to estimate this total energy. This,
+however, is a matter of some difficulty. By
+the total energy is here meant the entire energy
+possessed by the substance, that energy which
+it would yield up in cooling from its given
+condition down to absolute zero of temperature.
+On examination of the recorded properties of the
+various gaseous substances familiar to us, it will be
+found that in no single instance are the particulars
+available for anything more than an exceedingly
+rough estimate of this total energy. Each substance,
+in proceeding from the gaseous condition towards
+absolute zero, passes through many physical phases.
+In most cases, there is a lack of experimental
+phenomena or data of any kind relating to certain
+of these phases; the necessary information on certain
+points, such as the values and variations of latent
+and specific heats and other physical quantities, is,
+in the meantime, not accessible. Experimental research
+in regions of low temperature may be said
+to be in its infancy, and the properties of matter
+in these regions are accordingly more or less unknown.
+The researches of Mendeleef and others
+tend to show, also, that the comparatively simple
+laws successfully applied to gases under normal
+conditions are entirely departed from at very low
+temperatures. In view of these facts, it is necessary,
+in attempting to estimate, by ordinary methods, the
+total<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
+energy of any substance, to bear in mind
+that the quantity finally obtained may only
+be a rough approximation to the true value.
+These approximations, however, although of little
+value as precise measurements, may be of very
+great importance for certain general comparative
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p>Keeping in view these general considerations,
+it is now proposed to estimate, under ordinary
+terrestrial atmospheric conditions, the total energy
+properties of the three gaseous substances, oxygen,
+nitrogen, and aqueous vapour. The information
+relative to the energy calculation which is in the
+meantime available is shown below in tabular form.
+As far as possible all the heat and other energy
+properties of each substance as it cools to absolute
+zero have been taken into account.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt"><a name="Table_of_Properties" id="Table_of_Properties"></a><i>Table of Properties</i></p>
+
+<table border="1" cellpadding="10"
+style="margin-left: -5%; margin-right: 5%; width: 110%" summary="properties">
+
+
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">I</td>
+<td class="center">II</td>
+<td class="center">III</td>
+<td class="center">IV</td>
+<td class="center">V</td>
+<td class="center">VI </td>
+<td class="center">VII  </td>
+</tr>
+
+
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">Gas</td>
+
+<td class="center">Specific<br />
+Heat at<br />
+Constant<br />
+Pressure.</td>
+
+<td class="center" colspan="2">Evaporation<br />
+Temperature<br />
+of Liquid<br />
+at Atmospheric<br />
+Pressure.<br />
+</td>
+
+
+<td class="center">Approximate<br />
+Latent Heat<br />
+of Gas 50° F.</td>
+
+<td class="center">Latent<br />
+Heat of<br />
+Liquid.</td>
+
+<td class="center">Vapour<br />
+Pressure<br />
+ 50° F.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="center">°F.</td>
+<td class="center">°F. (Abs.)</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+
+
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">Oxygen</td>
+<td class="tdl">0·2175</td>
+<td class="center">-296</td>
+<td class="center">164</td>
+<td class="center">100</td>
+<td class="center"> ...</td>
+<td class="center"> ...</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">Nitrogen</td>
+<td class="tdl">0·2438</td>
+<td class="center">-320</td>
+<td class="center">141</td>
+<td class="center">100</td>
+<td class="center">...</td>
+<td class="center">...</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">Aqueous<br />
+Vapour</td>
+<td class="tdl">0·4</td>
+<td class="center">212</td>
+<td class="center">673</td>
+<td class="center">1080</td>
+<td class="center">144</td>
+<td class="center">0·176</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt">Since<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>
+no reliable data can be obtained with
+regard to the values and variations of specific heats at
+extremely low temperatures, they are assumed for the
+purpose of our calculation to be in each case that
+of the gas, and to be constant under all conditions.
+Latent heats are utilised in every case when available.</p>
+
+<p>With these reservations, the total energy, referred
+to absolute zero, of one pound of oxygen gas at
+normal temperature of 50° F. or 511° F. (Abs.) will
+be approximately</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+(511 × 0·2175) + 100 = 211 Thermal Units Fahrenheit.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>This in work units is roughly equivalent to</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+211 × 778 = 164,000 ft. lbs.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Adopting the same method with nitrogen gas,
+its energy at the same initial temperature will be,
+per unit mass,</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+174,600 ft. lbs.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>There is thus a somewhat close resemblance,
+not only in the general temperature conditions but
+also in the energy conditions, of the two gases
+oxygen and nitrogen.</p>
+
+<p>It will be readily seen, however, that under the
+same conditions the energy state of aqueous vapour
+differs very considerably from either, for by the
+same method as before the energy per pound of
+aqueous vapour is equal to</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+{(511 × 0·4) + 1080 + 144} × 778 = 1,111,000 ft. lbs.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
+ordinary terrestrial atmospheric conditions,
+the energy of aqueous vapour per unit mass is
+thus nearly seven times as great as that of either
+oxygen or nitrogen gas. It is to be observed, also,
+that three-fourths of this energy of the vapour
+under the given conditions is present in the form
+of latent energy of the gas, or what we have already
+termed work energy.</p>
+
+<p>The values of the various temperatures and other
+physical features, which we have included in the
+Table of Properties above, and which will be utilised
+throughout this discussion, are merely those in everyday
+use in scientific work. They form simply the
+accessible information on the respective materials.
+They are the records of phenomena, and on these
+phenomena are based our energy calculations.
+Further research may reveal the true values of
+other factors which up to the present we have
+been forced to assume, and so lead to more accurate
+computation of the energy in each case. Such
+investigation, however, is unlikely to affect in any
+way the general object of this part of the work,
+which is simply to portray in an approximate manner
+the relative energy properties of the three gaseous
+substances under certain assumed conditions.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_36" id="sec_36"></a>36. <i>Comparative Altitudes of Planetary Atmospheres</i></h3>
+
+<p>The total energy of equal masses of the gases
+oxygen, nitrogen, and aqueous vapour, as estimated
+by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>
+the method above, are respectively in
+the ratios</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+1 : 1·06 : 6·8<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Referring back once more to the phenomena
+described with reference to the gravitational equilibrium
+of a gas, let it be assumed that the
+gaseous substance liberated on the surface of the
+planetary body is oxygen, and that the planetary
+body itself is of approximately the same constitution
+and dimensions as the earth. The oxygen gas thus
+liberated will expand against gravity, and envelop
+the planet in the manner already described (§ <a href="#sec_34">34</a>).
+Now the total energy of a mass of one pound of
+oxygen has been estimated under certain assumptions
+(§ <a href="#sec_35">35</a>) to be 164,000 ft. lbs. The value of the
+gravitative attraction of the planet on this mass is
+the same as under ordinary terrestrial conditions,
+so that if the entire energy of one pound of the gas
+were utilised in raising itself against gravity, the
+height through which this mass would be raised, and
+at which the material would attain the level of
+absolute zero of temperature, assuming gravity constant
+with increasing altitude, would be simply
+164,000 ft. or approximately 31 miles. The whole
+energy would not, of course, be expended in the
+expansive movement; only the outermost surface
+material of the planetary gaseous envelope attains
+to absolute zero of temperature. In estimating the
+altitude of this surface, however, the precise mass
+of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
+gaseous substance assumed for the purpose of
+calculation is of little or no importance. Whatever
+may be the value of the mass assumed, its total
+energy and the gravitative attraction of the planetary
+body on it are both alike entirely and directly
+dependent on that mass value. It is therefore clear
+that no matter how the mass under consideration
+be diminished, the height at which its energy
+would be completely worked down, and at which its
+temperature would be absolute zero, is the same,
+namely 31 miles. At the planet's surface, the total
+energy of an infinitesimally small portion of the
+gaseous mass is proportional to that mass. This
+amount of energy is, however, all that is available
+for transformation against gravitation in the ascent.
+But at the same time, the gravitative force on the
+particle, that force which resists its upward movement,
+is proportionately small corresponding to the
+small mass, so that the particle will in reality require
+to rise to the same altitude of 31 miles in
+order to completely transform its energy and attain
+absolute zero of temperature. When the expansive
+process is completed, the outer surface of the spherical
+gaseous envelope surrounding the planet is then
+formed of matter in this condition of absolute zero;
+this height of 31 miles is then the altitude or depth
+of the statical atmospheric column at a point on the
+planetary surface where the temperature is 50° F.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be particularly noted that this height is
+entirely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
+dependent on the gravitation, temperature,
+and energy conditions assumed.</p>
+
+<p>With respect, also, to the assumption made
+above, of constant gravitation with increasing altitude,
+the variation in the value of gravity within
+the height limits in which the gas operates is so
+slight, that the energy of the expanding substance
+is completely worked down long before the variation
+appreciably affects the estimated altitude of
+absolute zero. In any case, bearing in mind the
+approximate nature of the estimate of the energy
+of the gases themselves, the variation of gravity is
+evidently a factor of little moment in our scheme
+of comparison.</p>
+
+<p>Knowing the maximum height to be 31 miles,
+a uniform temperature gradient from the planetary
+surface to the outermost surface of the atmospheric
+material may be readily calculated. In the case of
+oxygen, the decrease of temperature with altitude
+will be at the rate of 16° F. per mile, or 1° F.
+per 330 ft.</p>
+
+<p>If the planetary atmosphere were composed of
+nitrogen instead of oxygen, the height of the statical
+atmospheric column under the given conditions
+would then be approximately</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+31 × 1·06 = 33 miles,<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>and the gradient of temperature 15·5° F. per mile.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of aqueous vapour, which is possessed
+of much more powerful energy properties than
+either<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>
+oxygen or nitrogen, the height of the statical
+column, to correspond to the energy of the material,
+is no less than 210 miles and the temperature
+gradient only 2·4° F. per mile.</p>
+
+<p>Each of the gases, then, if separately associated
+with the planetary body, would form an atmosphere
+around it depending in height on the peculiar
+energy properties of the gas. A point to be observed
+is that the actual or total mass of any gas
+thus liberated at the planet's surface has no bearing
+on the ultimate height of the atmosphere which it
+would constitute. When the expansive motion is
+completed, the density properties of the atmosphere
+would of course depend on the initial mass of gas
+liberated, but for any given value of gravity it is
+the energy properties of the gas per unit mass, or
+what might be termed its specific energy properties,
+which really determine the height of its atmosphere.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_37" id="sec_37"></a>37. <i>Reactions of Composite Atmosphere</i></h3>
+
+<p>It is now possible to deal with the case in which
+not only one gas but several gases are initially
+liberated on the planetary surface. Since the gases
+are different, then at the given surface temperature
+of the planet they possess different amounts of heat
+energy, and for each gas considered statically, the
+temperature-altitude gradient will be different from
+any of the others. The limiting height of the
+gaseous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
+column for each gas, considered separately,
+will also depend on the total energy of that gas
+per unit mass, at the surface temperature. But it is
+evident that in a composite atmosphere, the separate
+statical conditions of several gases could not be maintained.
+In such a mixture, separate temperature-altitude
+gradients would be impossible. Absolute
+zero of temperature could clearly not be attained
+at more than one altitude, and it is evident that
+the temperature-altitude gradient of the mixture
+must, in some way, settle down to a definite
+value, and absolute zero of temperature must
+occur at some determinate height. This can
+only be brought about by energy exchanges and
+reactions between the atmospheric constituents.
+When these reactions have taken place, the atmosphere
+as a whole will have attained a condition
+analogous to that of statical equilibrium (§ <a href="#sec_34">34</a>).
+Each of its constituents, however, will have decidedly
+departed from this latter condition. In the
+course of the mutual energy reactions, some will
+lose a portion of their energy. Others will gain at
+their expense. All are in equilibrium as constituents
+of the composite atmosphere, but none approach
+the condition of statical equilibrium peculiar to an
+atmosphere composed of one gas only (§ <a href="#sec_35">35</a>). The
+precise energy operations which would thus take
+place in any composite atmosphere would of course
+depend in nature and extent on the physical properties
+of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>
+the reacting constituents. If the latter
+were closely alike in general properties, the energy
+changes are likely to be small. A strong divergence
+in energy properties will give rise to more powerful
+reactions. A concrete instance will perhaps make
+this more clear. Let it be assumed in the first place
+that the planetary atmosphere is composed of the
+two gases oxygen and nitrogen. From previous
+considerations, it will be clear that the natural decrease
+of temperature of nitrogen gas with increase
+of altitude is, in virtue of its slightly superior energy
+qualities, correspondingly slower than that of oxygen.
+The approximate rates are 15·5° F. and 16° F. per
+mile respectively. The tendency of the nitrogen is
+therefore to transmit a portion of its energy to the
+oxygen. Such a transmission, however, would
+increase the height of the oxygen column and correspondingly
+decrease the height of the nitrogen.
+When the balance is finally obtained, the height
+of the atmospheric column does not correspond to
+the energy properties of either gas, but to those of
+the combination. In the case of these two materials,
+oxygen and nitrogen, the energy reactions necessary
+to produce the condition of equilibrium are comparatively
+small in magnitude on account of the
+somewhat close resemblance in the energy properties
+of the two substances. On this account, therefore,
+the two gases might readily be assumed to behave
+as one gas composing the planetary atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>But<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>
+what, then, will be the effect of introducing
+a quantity of aqueous vapour into an atmosphere
+this nature? The general phenomena will be of
+the same order as before, but of much greater
+magnitude. From the approximate figures obtained
+(§§ <a href="#sec_35">35,</a> <a href="#sec_36">36</a>), the inherent energy of aqueous vapour per
+unit mass is seen to be, under the same conditions,
+enormously greater than that of the other two
+gases. In statical equilibrium (§ <a href="#sec_34">34</a>), the altitude
+of the gaseous column formed by aqueous vapour
+is almost seven times as great as that of the oxygen
+or nitrogen with which, in the composite atmosphere,
+it would be intermixed. In the given circumstances,
+then, aqueous vapour would be forced by these conditions
+to give up a very large portion of its energy
+to the other atmospheric constituents. The latter
+would thus be still further expanded against gravity;
+the aqueous vapour itself would suffer a loss of
+energy equivalent to the work transmitted from
+it. It is therefore clear that in a composite atmosphere
+formed in the manner described, any gas
+possessed of energy properties superior to the other
+constituents is forced of necessity to transmit energy
+to these constituents. This phenomenon is merely
+a consequence of the natural disposition of the
+atmospheric gaseous substances towards a condition
+of equilibrium with more or less uniform temperature
+gradation. The greater the inherent energy qualities
+of any one constituent relative to the others, the
+greater<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
+will be the quantity of energy transmitted
+from it in this way.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_38" id="sec_38"></a>38. <i>Description of Terrestrial Case</i></h3>
+
+<p>Bearing in mind the general considerations which
+have been advanced above with respect to planetary
+atmospheres, it is now possible to place before the
+reader a general descriptive outline of the circumstances
+and operation of an atmospheric machine in
+actual working. The machine to be described is
+that associated with the earth.</p>
+
+<p>In the earth is found an example of a planetary
+body of spheroidal form pursuing a clearly defined
+orbit in space and at the same time rotating with
+absolutely uniform velocity about a central axis
+within itself. The structural details of its surface
+and the general distribution of material thereon will
+be more or less familiar to the reader, and it is
+not, therefore, proposed to dwell on these features
+here. Attention may be drawn, however, to the
+fact that a very large proportion of the surface of
+the earth is a liquid surface. Of all the material
+familiar to us from terrestrial experience there is
+none which enters into the composition of the
+earth's crust in so large a proportion as water. In
+the free state, or in combination with other material,
+water is found everywhere. In the liquid condition
+it is widely distributed. Although the liquid or
+sea<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
+surface of the planet extends over a large part
+of the whole, the real water surface, that is, the
+<i>wetted</i> surface, if we except perhaps a few desert
+regions, may be said to comprise practically the
+entire surface area of the planet. And water is
+found not only on the earth's crust but throughout
+the gaseous atmospheric envelope. The researches
+of modern chemistry have revealed the fact that
+the atmosphere by which the earth is surrounded
+is not only a mixture of gases, but an exceedingly
+complex mixture. The relative proportions of the
+rarer gases present are, however, exceedingly small,
+and their properties correspondingly obscure. Taken
+broadly, the atmosphere may be said to be composed
+of air and water (in the form of aqueous
+vapour) in varying proportion. The former constituent
+exists as a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen
+gases of fairly constant proportion over the entire
+surface of the globe. The latter is present in
+varying amount at different points according to
+local conditions. This mixture of gaseous substances,
+forming the terrestrial atmosphere, resides
+on the surface of the planet and forms, as already
+described (§ <a href="#sec_34">34</a>), a column or envelope completely
+surrounding it; the quantity of gaseous material
+thus heaped up on the planetary surface is such
+that it exerts almost uniformly over that surface
+the ordinary atmospheric pressure of approximately
+14·7 lb. per sq. inch. It is advisable,
+also,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>
+at this stage to point out and emphasise the
+fact that the planetary atmosphere must be regarded
+as essentially a material portion of the planet itself.
+Although the atmosphere forms a movable shell or
+envelope, and is composed of purely gaseous material,
+it will still partake of the same complete orbital and
+rotatory axial motion as the solid core, and will also
+be subjected to the same external and internal influences
+of gravitation. Such are the general
+planetary conditions. Let us now turn to the
+particular phenomena of axial revolution.</p>
+
+<p>In virtue of the unvarying rotatory movement
+of the planetary mass in the lines of the various
+incepting fields of its primary the sun, transformations
+of the axial or mechanical energy of the planet
+will be in continuous operation (§§ <a href="#sec_17">17-19</a>). Although
+the gaseous atmospheric envelope of the planet
+partakes of this general rotatory motion under the
+influence of the incepting fields, the latter have
+apparently no action upon it. The sun's influence
+penetrates, as it were, the atmospheric veil, and
+operating on the solid and liquid material below,
+provokes the numerous and varied transformations
+of planetary energy which constitute planetary
+phenomena. At the equatorial band, where the
+velocity or axial energy properties of the surface
+material is greatest, these effects of transformation
+will naturally be most pronounced. In the polar
+regions of low velocity they will be less evident.
+One<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
+of the most important of these transforming
+effects may be termed the heating action of the
+primary on the planet&mdash;a process which takes place
+in greater or less degree over the entire planetary
+surface, and which is the result of the direct transformation
+of axial energy into the form of heat
+(§ <a href="#sec_18">18</a>). In virtue of this heat transformation, or
+heating effect of the sun, the temperature of material
+on the earth's surface is maintained in varying values
+from regions of high velocity to those of low&mdash;from
+equator to poles&mdash;according to latitude or according
+to the displacement of that material, in rotation,
+from the central axis. Owing to the irregular distribution
+of matter on the earth's surface, and other
+causes to be referred to later, this variation in
+temperature is not necessarily uniform with the
+latitude. This heating effect of the sun on the
+earth will provoke on the terrestrial surface all
+the familiar secondary processes (§ <a href="#sec_9">9</a>) associated
+with the heating of material. Most of these processes,
+in combination with the operations of radiation
+and conduction, will lead either directly or
+indirectly to the communication of energy to the
+atmospheric masses (§ <a href="#sec_27">27</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Closely associated with the heat transformation,
+there is also in operation another energy process of
+great importance. This process is one of evaporative
+transformation. Reference has already been made
+to the vast extent of the liquid or wetted surface of
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>
+earth. This surface forms the seat of evaporation,
+and the action of the sun's incepting influence on
+the liquid of this surface is to induce a direct transformation
+of the earth's axial or mechanical energy
+into the elastic energy of a gas, or in other words into
+the form of work energy. By this process, therefore,
+water is converted into aqueous vapour. Immediately
+the substance attains the latter or gaseous state
+it becomes unaffected by, or transparent to, the incepting
+influence of the sun (§ <a href="#sec_18">18</a>). And the action of
+evaporation is not restricted in locality to the earth's
+surface only. It may proceed throughout the atmosphere.
+Wherever condensation of aqueous vapour
+takes place and water particles are thereby suspended
+in the atmosphere, these particles are immediately
+susceptible to the sun's incepting field, and if the
+conditions are otherwise favourable, re-evaporation
+will at once ensue. Like the ordinary heating action
+also, that of transformation will take place with
+greater intensity in equatorial than in polar regions.
+These two planetary secondary processes, of heating
+and evaporation, are of vital importance to the
+working of the atmospheric machine. But, as already
+pointed out elsewhere (§§ <a href="#sec_10">10,</a> <a href="#sec_32">32</a>), every secondary
+operation is in some fashion linked to that machine.
+Other incepting influences, such as light, are in action
+on the planet, and produce transformations peculiar
+to themselves. These, in the meantime, will not be
+considered except to point out that in every case the
+energy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
+active in them is the axial energy of the earth
+itself operating under the direct incepting influence
+of the sun. The general conditions of planetary
+revolution and transformation are thus intimately
+associated with the operation of the atmospheric
+machine. In this machine is embodied a huge energy
+process, in the working of which the axial energy of
+the earth passes through a series of energy changes
+which, in combination, form a complete cyclical
+operation. In their perhaps most natural sequence
+these processes are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The direct transformation of terrestrial axial
+energy into the work energy of aqueous vapour.</p>
+
+<p>2. The direct transmission of the work energy
+of aqueous vapour to the general atmospheric masses,
+and the consequent elevation of these masses from
+the earth's surface against gravity.</p>
+
+<p>3. The descent of the atmospheric air masses in
+their movement towards regions of low velocity, and
+the return in the descent of the initially transformed
+axial energy to its original form.</p>
+
+<p>The first of these processes is carried out through
+the medium of the aqueous material of the earth.
+It is simply the evaporative transformation referred
+to above. By that evaporative process a portion of
+the energy of motion or axial energy of the earth is
+directly communicated or passed into the aqueous
+material. Its form, in that material, is that of
+work energy, or the elastic energy of aqueous
+vapour,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>
+and, as already pointed out, this process of
+evaporative transformation reaches its greatest intensity
+in equatorial or regions of highest velocity. In
+these regions also, in virtue of the working of the
+heat process already referred to above, the temperature
+conditions are eminently favourable to the
+presence of large quantities of aqueous vapour. The
+tension or pressure of the vapour, which really
+depends on the quantity of gaseous material present,
+is directly proportional to the temperature, so that in
+equatorial regions not only is the general action of
+transformation in the aqueous material most intense,
+but the surrounding temperature conditions in these
+regions are such as to favour the continuous presence
+of large quantities of the aqueous vapour which is
+the direct product of the action of transformation.
+The equatorial regions of the earth, or the regions of
+high velocity, are thus eminently adapted, by the
+natural conditions, to be the seat of the most powerful
+transformations of axial energy. As already
+pointed out, however, these same transformations
+take place over the entire terrestrial surface in varying
+degree and intensity according to the locality and
+the temperature or other conditions which may
+prevail. Now this transformation of axial energy
+which takes place through the medium of the evaporative
+process is a continuous operation. The energy
+involved, which passes into the aqueous vapour,
+augmented by the energy of other secondary processes
+(§ <a href="#sec_32">32</a>),<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>
+is the energy which is applied to the atmospheric
+air masses in the second stage of the working
+of the atmospheric machine. Before proceeding to
+the description of this stage, however, it is absolutely
+necessary to point out certain very important facts
+with reference to the energy condition of the atmospheric
+constituents in the peculiar circumstances of
+their normal working.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_39" id="sec_39"></a>39. <i>Relative Physical Conditions of Atmospheric
+Constituents</i></h3>
+
+<p>It will be evident that no matter where the
+evaporation of the aqueous material takes place,
+it must be carried out at the temperature corresponding
+to that location, and since the aqueous vapour
+itself is not superheated in any way (being transparent
+to the sun's influence), the axial energy transformed
+and the work energy stored in the material
+per unit mass, will be simply equivalent to the latent
+heat of aqueous vapour under the temperature conditions
+which prevail. In virtue of the relatively
+high value of this latent heat under ordinary conditions,
+the gas may be regarded as comparatively a
+very highly energised substance. It is clear, however,
+that since the gas is working at its precise temperature
+of evaporation, the maximum amount of energy
+which it can possibly yield up at that temperature is
+simply this latent heat of evaporation, and if this
+energy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>
+be by any means withdrawn, either in whole
+or in part, then condensation corresponding to the
+energy withdrawal will at once ensue. The condition
+of the aqueous vapour is in fact that of a true vapour,
+or of a gaseous substance operating exactly at its evaporation
+temperature, and unable to sustain even the
+slightest abstraction of energy without an equivalent
+condensation. No matter in what manner the
+abstraction is carried out, whether by the direct
+transmission of heat from the substance or by the
+expansion of the gas against gravity, the result is
+the same; part of the gaseous material returns to
+the liquid form.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of the more stable or permanent
+constituents of the atmosphere, namely oxygen and
+nitrogen, their physical conditions are entirely different
+from that of the aqueous vapour. Examination
+of the Table of Properties (p. 133) shows that the
+evaporation temperatures of these two substances
+under ordinary conditions of atmospheric pressure
+are as low as -296° F. and -320° F. respectively.
+At an ordinary atmospheric temperature of say
+50° F. these two gases are therefore so far
+above their evaporation temperature that they are
+in the condition of what might be termed true
+gaseous substances. Although only at a temperature
+of 50° F., they may be truly described as highly
+superheated gases, and it is evident that they may
+be readily cooled from 50° F. through wide ranges
+of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>
+temperature, without any danger of their condensation
+or liquefaction. Oxygen and nitrogen
+gases thus present in their physical condition and
+qualities a strong contrast to aqueous vapour, and
+it is this difference in properties, particularly the
+difference in evaporation temperatures, which is of
+vital importance in the working of the atmospheric
+machine. The two gases oxygen and nitrogen are,
+however, so closely alike in their general energy
+properties that, in the meantime, the atmospheric
+mixture of the two can be conveniently assumed
+to act simply as one gas&mdash;atmospheric air.</p>
+
+<p>From these considerations of the ordinary atmospheric
+physical properties of air and aqueous vapour
+it may be readily seen how each is eminently
+adapted to its function in the atmospheric process.
+The peculiar duty of the aqueous vapour is the absorption
+and transmission of energy. Its relatively
+enormous capacity for energy, the high value of its
+latent heat at all ordinary atmospheric temperatures,
+and the fact that it must always operate precisely
+at its evaporation temperature makes it admirably
+suited for both functions. Thus, in virtue of its
+peculiar physical properties, it forms an admirable
+agent for the storage of energy and for its transmission
+to the surrounding air masses. The low temperature
+of evaporation of these air masses ensures
+their permanency in the gaseous state. They
+are thus perfectly adapted for expansive and other
+movements,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
+for the conversion of their energy
+against gravity into energy of position, or for any
+other reactions involving temperature change without
+condensation.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_40" id="sec_40"></a>40. <i>Transmission of Energy from Aqueous Vapour
+to Air Masses</i></h3>
+
+<p>The working of the second or transmission stage
+of the atmospheric machine involves certain energy
+operations in which gravitation is the incepting factor
+or agency. Let it be assumed that a mass of
+aqueous vapour liberated at its surface of evaporation
+by the transformation of axial energy, expands upwards
+against the gravitative attraction of the earth
+(§§ <a href="#sec_34">34,</a> <a href="#sec_38">38</a>). As the gaseous particles ascend and thus
+gain energy of position, they do work against
+gravity. This work is done at the expense of
+their latent energy. Since the aqueous material
+is always working precisely at its evaporation temperature,
+this gain in energy of position and consequent
+loss of latent energy will be accompanied
+by an equivalent condensation and conversion of the
+rising vapour into the liquid form. This condensation
+will thus be the direct evidence and measure
+of work done by the aqueous material against the
+gravitational forces, and the energy expended or
+worked down in this way may now, accordingly, be
+regarded as stored in the condensed material or
+liquid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>
+particles in virtue of their new and exalted
+position above the earth's surface. It is this energy
+which is finally transmitted to the atmospheric air
+masses. The transmission process is carried out in
+the downward movement of the liquid particles.
+The latter, in their exalted positions, are at a low
+temperature corresponding to that position&mdash;that is,
+corresponding to the work done&mdash;and provided no
+energy were transmitted from them to the surrounding
+air masses, their temperature would gradually
+rise during the descent by the transformation of this
+energy of position. In fact the phenomena of descent,
+supposing no transmission of energy from the
+aqueous material, would simply be the reverse of the
+phenomena of ascent. Since, however, the energy of
+position which the liquid particles possess is transmitted
+from them to the atmospheric masses, then
+it follows that this natural increase in their temperature
+would not occur in the descent. A new order
+of phenomena would now appear. Since the evaporative
+process is a continuous one, the liquid particles
+in their downward movement must be in intimate
+contact with rising gaseous material, and these
+liquid particles will, accordingly, at each stage of the
+descent, absorb from this rising material the whole
+energy necessary to raise their temperature to the
+values corresponding to their decreasing elevation.
+In virtue of this absorption of energy then, from the
+rising material, these liquid particles are enabled to
+reach<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>
+the level of evaporation at the precise temperature
+of that level.</p>
+
+<p>Now, considering the process as a whole, it will
+be readily seen that for any given mass of aqueous
+material thus elevated from and returned to a
+surface of evaporation, there must be a definite
+expenditure of energy (axial energy) at that surface.
+Since the material always regains the surface at the
+precise temperature of evaporation, this expenditure
+is obviously, in total, equal to the latent heat of
+aqueous vapour at the surface temperature. It may
+be divided into two parts. One portion of the axial
+energy&mdash;the transmitted portion&mdash;is utilised in the
+elevation of the material against gravity; the remainder
+is expended, as explained above, in the
+heating of the returning material. The whole operation
+takes place between two precise temperatures,
+a higher temperature, which is that of the surface
+of evaporation, and a lower temperature, corresponding
+to the work done, and so related to the higher
+that the whole of the energy expended by the working
+aqueous substance&mdash;in heating the returning material
+and in transmitted work&mdash;is exactly equivalent to
+the latent heat of aqueous vapour at the high or
+surface temperature. But, as will be demonstrated
+later, the whole energy transmitted from the aqueous
+material to the air masses is finally returned in its
+entirety as axial energy, and is thus once more made
+available in the evaporative transformation process.
+The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>
+energy expended in raising the temperature of
+the working material returning to the surface of
+evaporation is obviously returned with that material.
+Both portions of the original expenditure are thus
+returned to the source in different ways. The whole
+operation is, in fact, completely cyclical in nature;
+we are in reality describing "Nature's Perfect
+Engine," which is completely reversible and which
+has the highest possible efficiency.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Although the
+higher temperature at the evaporation surface may
+vary with different locations of that surface, in every
+case<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>
+the lower temperature is so related to it as to
+make the total expenditure precisely equal to the
+latent heat at that evaporation temperature.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> It
+must be borne in mind also, that all the condensed
+material in the upper strata of the atmosphere must
+not of necessity return to the planetary liquid surface.
+On the contrary, immediately condensation of
+the aqueous vapour takes place and the material
+leaves the gaseous state, no matter where that
+material is situated, it is once more susceptible to the
+incepting influences of the sun. Re-evaporation
+may thus readily take place even at high altitudes,
+and complete cyclical operations may be carried out
+there. These operations will, however, be carried
+out in every case between precise temperature limits
+as explained above.</p>
+
+
+<p>It will be evident, from a general consideration
+of this process of transmission of energy from the
+aqueous vapour, that relatively large quantities of
+that vapour are not required in the atmosphere for
+the working of the gaseous machine. The peculiar
+property of ready condensation of the aqueous
+vapour makes the evaporative process a continuous
+one, and the highly energised aqueous material,
+although only present in comparatively small amount,
+contributes a continuous flow of energy, and is thus
+able to steadily convey a very large quantity to the
+atmospheric<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>
+masses. For the same reason, the
+greater part of the energy transmission from the
+aqueous vapour to the air will take place at comparatively
+low altitudes and between reasonably
+high temperatures. The working of any evaporative
+cycle may also be spread over very large terrestrial
+areas by the free movement of the acting material.
+Aqueous vapour rising in equatorial regions may
+finally return to the earth in the form of ice-crystals
+at the poles. In every complete cycle, however, the
+total expenditure per unit mass of material initially
+evaporated is always the latent heat at the higher or
+evaporation temperature; in the final or return
+stages of the cycle, any energy not transmitted to
+the air masses is devoted to the heating of returning
+aqueous material.</p>
+
+<p>Referring again to the transmitted energy, and
+speaking in the broadest fashion, the function of the
+aqueous vapour in the atmosphere may be likened to
+that of the steam in the cylinder of a steam-engine.
+In both cases the aqueous material works in a
+definite machine for energy transmission. In the
+case of the steam-engine work energy is transmitted
+(§ <a href="#sec_31">31</a>) from the steam through the medium
+of the moving piston and rotating shaft, and thence
+may be further diverted to useful purposes. In the
+planetary atmospheric machine the work energy
+of aqueous vapour is likewise transmitted by the
+agency of the moving air masses, not to any external
+agent,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>
+but back once more to its original source,
+which is the planetary axial energy. In neither
+case are we able to explain the precise nature of the
+transmission process in its ultimate details. We
+cannot say <i>how</i> the steam transmits its work
+energy by the moving piston, nor yet by what agency
+the elevated particles of aqueous material transmit
+their energy to the air masses. Our knowledge is
+confined entirely to the phenomena, and, fortunately,
+these are in some degree accessible. Nature presents
+direct evidence that such transmissions actually take
+place. This evidence is to be found, in both cases,
+in the condensation of the aqueous material which
+sustains the loss of its work energy. In the
+engine cylinder condensation takes place due to
+work being transmitted from the steam; in the atmosphere
+the visible phenomena of condensation are
+likewise the ever present evidence of the transmission
+of work energy from the aqueous vapour to the air
+masses. In virtue of this accession of energy these
+masses will, accordingly, be expanded upwards against
+the gravitational attractive forces. This upward
+movement, being made entirely at the expense of
+energy communicated from the aqueous vapour, is not
+accompanied by the normal fall of temperature due
+to the expansion of the air. Planetary axial energy,
+originally absorbed by the aqueous vapour, in the
+work form, has been transferred to the air masses
+in the same form, and is now, after the expansive
+movement,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>
+resident in these masses in the form of
+energy of position. It is the function of the atmospheric
+machine in its final stage to return this
+energy in the original axial form.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_41" id="sec_41"></a>41. <i>Terrestrial Energy Return</i></h3>
+
+<p>Let it be assumed that an atmospheric mass has
+been raised, by the transmission of work energy,
+to a high altitude in the equatorial regions of the
+earth. The assumption of locality is made merely
+for illustrative purposes; it will be evident to the
+reader that the transmission of work energy to
+the atmospheric masses and their consequent elevation
+will be continuously proceeding, more or less,
+over the whole planetary surface. To replace the
+gaseous material thus raised, a corresponding mass
+of air will move at a lower level, towards the equator
+from the more temperate zones adjoining. A circulatory
+motion will thus be set up in the atmosphere.
+In the upper regions the elevated and
+energised air masses move towards the poles; at
+lower levels the replacing masses move towards the
+equator, and in their passage may be operated on by
+the aqueous vapour which they encounter, energised,
+and raised to higher levels. The movement will be
+continuous. In their transference from equatorial
+towards polar regions, the atmospheric masses are
+leaving the surfaces or regions of high linear velocity
+for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>
+those of low, and must in consequence lose or
+return in the passage a portion of that natural energy
+of motion which they possess in virtue of their high
+linear velocity at the equator. But on the other
+hand, the replacing air masses, which are travelling
+in the opposite direction from poles to equator, must
+gain or absorb a corresponding amount of energy.
+The one operation thus balances the other, and the
+planetary equilibrium is in no way disturbed. But
+the atmospheric masses which are moving from the
+equator in the polar direction will possess, in addition,
+that energy of position which has been communicated
+to them through the medium of the
+aqueous vapour and by the working of the second
+stage of the atmospheric machine. These masses,
+in the circulatory polar movements, move downwards
+towards the planetary surface. In this downward
+motion (as in the downward motion of a
+pendulum mass vibrating under the action of gravitation)
+the energy of position of the air mass is
+converted once more into energy of motion&mdash;that
+is, into its original form of axial energy of rotation.
+In equatorial regions the really important energy
+property of the atmospheric mass was indicated by
+its elevation or its energy of position. In the
+descent this energy is thus entirely transformed, and
+reverts once more to its original form of energy of
+rotation.</p>
+
+<p>The continual transformation of axial energy by
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>
+aqueous vapour, and the conversion of that
+energy by the upward movement of the air masses
+into energy of position, naturally tends to produce a
+retardative effect on the motion of revolution of the
+earth. But this retardative effect is in turn completely
+neutralised or balanced by the corresponding
+accelerative effect due to the equally continuous
+return as the energy of the air masses reverts in the
+continuous polar movement to its original axial
+form. Speaking generally, the equatorial regions, or
+the regions of high velocity, are the location of the
+most powerful transformation or abstraction of axial
+energy by the aqueous vapour. Conversely, the
+polar or regions of low velocity are the location of
+the greatest return of energy by the air. As no
+energy return is possible unless by the transference
+of the atmospheric material from regions of high to
+regions of low velocity, the configuration of the
+planet in rotation must conform to this condition.
+The spheroidal form of the earth is thus exquisitely
+adapted to the working of the atmospheric machine.
+As already pointed out, however, the energising and
+raising of atmospheric masses is by no means confined
+to equatorial regions, but takes place more or
+less over the whole planetary surface. The same
+applies to the energy return. The complete cycle
+may be carried out in temperate zones; gaseous
+masses, also, leaving equatorial regions at high altitudes
+do not necessarily reach the polar regions, but
+may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>
+attain their lowest levels at intermediate points.
+Neither do such masses necessarily proceed to the
+regions of low velocity by purely linear paths. On
+the contrary, they may and do move both towards
+the poles and downwards by circuitous and even
+vortical paths. In fact, as will be readily apparent,
+their precise path is of absolutely no moment in the
+consideration of energy return.</p>
+
+<p>It might naturally be expected that such movements
+of the atmospheric air masses as have been
+described above would give rise to great atmospheric
+disturbance over the earth's surface, and that the
+transfer of gaseous material from pole to equator and
+vice versa would be productive of violent storms of
+wind. Such storms, however, are phenomena of
+somewhat rare occurrence; the atmosphere, on the
+whole, appears to be in a state of comparative tranquillity.
+This serenity of the atmosphere is, however,
+confined to the lower strata, and may be ascribed to
+an inherent stability possessed by the air mass as a
+whole in virtue of the accession of energy to it at
+high levels. As already explained, the transfer of
+energy from the vapour to the air masses is accomplished
+at comparatively low altitudes, and when this
+reaction is taking place the whole tendency of the
+energised material is to move upwards. In so
+moving it tends to leave behind it the condensed
+aqueous vapour, and would, therefore, rise to the
+higher altitudes in a comparatively dry condition.
+This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>
+dryness is accentuated by the further loss of
+aqueous vapour by condensation as the air moves
+toward regions of low velocity. That air which
+actually attains to the poles will be practically dry,
+and having also returned, in its entirety, the surplus
+energy obtained from the aqueous vapour, it will be
+in this region practically in the condition of statical
+equilibrium of a gas against gravity (§ <a href="#sec_34">34</a>). But
+the general state of the atmosphere in other regions
+where a transference of energy from the aqueous
+vapour has taken or is taking place is very different
+from this condition of natural statical equilibrium
+which is approached at the poles. In the lower
+strata of the atmosphere the condition in some cases
+may approximate to the latter, but in the upper
+strata it is possessed of energy qualities quite abnormal
+to statical equilibrium. Its condition is
+rather one of the nature of stable equilibrium. It is
+in a condition similar to that of a liquid heated in its
+upper layers; there is absolutely no tendency to a
+direct or vertical downward circulation. In statical
+equilibrium, any downward movement of an air mass
+would simply be accompanied by the natural rise in
+temperature corresponding to the transformation of
+its energy of position, but in this condition of stable
+equilibrium any motion downwards must involve,
+not only this natural temperature rise, but also a
+return, either in whole or in part, of the energy
+absorbed from the aqueous vapour. The natural
+conditions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>
+are therefore against any direct vertical
+return. These conditions, however, favour in every
+respect the circulatory motion of the highly energised
+upper air masses towards regions of low velocity.
+All circumstances combine, in fact, to confine the
+more powerfully energised and highly mobile air
+masses to high altitudes. In the lower atmosphere,
+owing to the continuous action of the aqueous
+vapour on the air masses moving from regions of low
+to those of high velocity, the circulation tends largely
+to be a vertical one, so that this locality is on the
+whole preserved in comparative tranquillity. It may
+happen, however, that owing to changes in the distribution
+of aqueous vapour, or other causes, this
+natural stability of the atmosphere may be disturbed
+over certain regions of the earth's surface. The
+circumstances will then favour a direct or more or
+less vertical return of the energy of the air masses in
+the neighbourhood of these regions. This return
+will then take the form of violent storms of wind,
+usually of a cyclonic nature, and affording direct
+evidence of the tendency of the air masses to pursue
+vortical paths in their movement towards lower
+levels.</p>
+
+<p>Under normal conditions, however, the operation
+of the atmospheric machine is smooth and continuous.
+The earth's axial energy, under the sun's
+incepting influence, steadily flows at all parts of the
+earth's surface through the aqueous vapour into the
+atmospheric<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>
+masses, and the latter, rising from the
+terrestrial surface, with a motion somewhat like that
+of a column of smoke, spread out and speed towards
+regions of lower velocity, and travelling by devious
+and lengthened paths towards the surface, steadily
+return the abstracted energy in its original form.
+Every operation is exactly balanced; energy expenditure
+and energy return are complementary;
+the terrestrial atmospheric machine as a whole works
+without jar or discontinuity, and the earth's motion of
+rotation is maintained with absolute uniformity.</p>
+
+<p>Like every other energy machine, the atmospheric
+machine has clearly-defined energy limits.
+The total quantity of energy in operation is strictly
+limited by the mass of the acting materials. It is
+well, also, to note the purely mechanical nature of
+the machine. Every operation is in reality the
+operation of mechanical energy, and involves the
+movement of matter in some way or other relative
+to the earth's surface and under the incepting action
+of the earth's gravitation (§§ <a href="#sec_16">16,</a> <a href="#sec_20">20</a>). The moving
+gaseous masses have as real an existence as masses of
+lead or other solid material, and require as real an
+expenditure of energy to move them relative to the
+terrestrial surface (§ <a href="#sec_18">18</a>). This aspect of the planetary
+machine will be more fully treated later.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout this description we have constantly
+assumed the atmospheric mixture of oxygen and
+nitrogen to act as one gas, and at ordinary temperatures
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>
+respective energy properties of the two
+substances (§ <a href="#sec_35">35</a>) make this assumption justifiable.
+Both gases are then working far above their respective
+evaporation temperatures. But, in the
+higher regions of the atmosphere, where very low
+temperatures prevail, a point or altitude will be
+reached where the temperature corresponds to the
+evaporation or condensation temperature of one of
+the gases. Since oxygen appears to have the highest
+temperature of evaporation (see <a href="#Table_of_Properties">Table of Properties</a>,
+p. 133), it would naturally be the first to condense in
+the ascent. But immediately condensation takes
+place, the material will become susceptible to the
+incepting influence of the sun, and working as it
+does at its temperature of evaporation it will convey
+its energy to the surrounding nitrogen in precisely
+the same fashion as the aqueous vapour conveys the
+energy to the aerial mixture in the lower atmosphere.
+The whole action is made possible simply by the
+difference existing in the respective evaporation
+temperatures of the two gases. It will give rise to
+another cyclical atmospheric energy process exactly
+as already described for lower altitudes. Axial
+energy of rotation will be communicated to the
+nitrogen by the working material, which is now the
+oxygen, and by the movement of the nitrogen
+masses towards regions of low velocity, this transmitted
+energy will be finally returned to its original
+axial form.</p>
+
+<p>It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>
+has been already explained (§§ <a href="#sec_10">10,</a> <a href="#sec_32">32</a>) how all
+terrestrial energy processes, also, great or small, are
+sooner or later linked to the general atmospheric
+machine. The latter, therefore, presents in every
+phase of its working completely closed energy
+circuits. In no aspect of its operation can we find
+any evidence of, or indeed any necessity for, an
+energy transmission either to or from any external
+body or agent such as the sun. Every phenomenon
+of Nature is, in fact, a direct denial of such transmission.</p>
+
+<p>The student of terrestrial phenomena will readily
+find continuous and ample evidence in Nature of the
+working of the atmospheric machine. In the rising
+vapour and the falling rain he will recognise the
+visible signs of the operation of that great secondary
+process of transmission by which the inherent axial
+energy of the earth is communicated to the air
+masses. The movements of bodies, animate and
+inanimate, on the earth's surface, the phenomena of
+growth and decay, and in fact almost every experience
+of everyday life, will reveal to him the persistent
+tendency of the energy of secondary processes
+to revert to the atmospheric machine. And in the
+winds that traverse the face of the globe he will also
+witness the mechanism of that energy return which
+completes the atmospheric cyclical process. It may
+be pointed out here also that the terrestrial cyclical
+energy processes are not necessarily all embodied
+in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>
+the atmosphere. The author has reason to believe,
+and phenomenal evidence is not awanting to show,
+that the circulatory motions of the atmosphere are in
+some degree reproduced in the sea. The reader will
+readily perceive that as regards stability the water
+composing the sea is in precisely the same condition
+as the atmosphere, namely, that of a liquid heated in
+its upper strata, and any circulatory motion of the
+water must therefore be accompanied by corresponding
+transformations of energy. That such a
+circulatory motion takes place is undoubted, and in
+the moving mass of sea-water we have therefore a
+perfectly reversible energy machine of the same
+general nature as the atmospheric machine, but
+working at a very much slower rate. It is not
+beyond the limits of legitimate scientific deduction
+to trace also the working of a similar machine in the
+solid material of the earth. The latter is, after all,
+but an agglomeration of loose material bound by the
+force of gravitation into coherent form. By the
+action of various erosive agencies a movement of
+solid material is continually taking place over the
+earth's surface. The material thus transported, it
+may be, from mountain chains, and deposited on
+the sea-bed, causes a disturbance of that gravitational
+equilibrium which defines the exact form of
+the earth. The forces tending to maintain this
+equilibrium are so enormous compared with the
+cohesive forces of the material forming the earth
+that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>
+readjustment continuously takes place, as
+evidenced by the tremors observed in the earth's
+crust. Where the structure of the latter is of such
+a nature as to offer great resistance to the gravitational
+forces, the readjustment may take the form
+of an earthquake. Geological evidence, as a whole,
+strongly points to a continuous kneading and flow
+of terrestrial material. The structure of igneous
+rocks, also, is exactly that which would be produced
+from alluvial deposits subjected during these
+cyclical movements to the enormous pressure and
+consequent heating caused by superimposed material.
+The occurrence of coal in polar regions, and of
+glacial residue in the tropics, may be regarded as
+further corroborative evidence. From this point
+of view also, it becomes unnecessary to postulate
+a genesis for the earth, as every known geological
+formation is shown to be capable of production
+under present conditions in Nature, and in fact to
+be in actual process of production at all times.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="left hang3"><a name="sec_42" id="sec_42"></a>42. <i>Experimental Analogy and Demonstration of the
+General Mechanism of Energy Transformation
+and Return in the Atmospheric Cycle</i></h3>
+
+<p>In the preceding articles, the atmospheric machine
+has been regarded more or less from the purely
+physical point of view. The purpose of this demonstration
+is now to place before the reader what
+might<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>
+be termed the mechanical aspects of the
+machine; to give an outline, using simple experimental
+analogies, of its nature and operation when
+considered purely and simply as a mechanism for
+the transformation and return of mechanical energy.</p>
+
+<p>Familiar apparatus is used in illustration. In all
+cases, it is merely some adaptation of the simple
+pendulum (§ <a href="#sec_21">21</a>). Its minute structural details are
+really of slight importance in the discussion, and
+have accordingly been ignored, but the apparatus
+generally, and the energy operations embodied therein,
+are so familiar to physicists and engineers that the
+experimental results illustrated can be readily verified
+by everyday experience. It is of great importance,
+also, in considering these results, to bear in mind the
+principles already enunciated (§§ <a href="#sec_13">13,</a> <a href="#sec_20">20</a>) with reference
+to the operation of mechanical energy on the
+various forms of matter. The general working conditions
+of energy systems with respect to energy
+limits, stability, and reversibility (§ <a href="#sec_23">23</a>) should also
+be kept in view.</p>
+
+<p>As an introductory step we shall review first a
+simple system of rotating pendulums. Two simple
+pendulums CM and DM<sub>1</sub> (<a href="#i182">Fig. 9</a>) are mounted by
+means of a circular collar CD upon a vertical
+spindle AB, which is supported at A and B and free
+to rotate. When the central spindle AB is at rest
+the pendulums hang vertically; when energy is
+applied to the system, and AB is thereby caused
+to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>
+rotate, the spherical masses M and M<sub>1</sub> will rise
+by circular paths about C and D. This upward
+movement, considered apart from the centrifugal
+influence producing it, corresponds in itself to the
+upward movement of the simple pendulum (§ <a href="#sec_21">21</a>)
+against gravity. It is representative of a definite
+transformation, namely, the transformation of the
+work energy originally applied to the system
+and manifested in its
+rotary motion, into
+energy of position.
+The movements of
+the rotating pendulums
+will also be accompanied
+by other
+energy operations associated
+with bearing
+friction and windage (§§ <a href="#sec_23">23,</a> <a href="#sec_29">29</a>), but these operations
+being part of a separate and complete cyclical energy
+process (§ <a href="#sec_32">32</a>), they will in this case be neglected.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><a id="i182" name="i182"></a>
+<img src="images/i182.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>It will be readily seen, however, that the working
+of this rotating pendulum machine, when considered
+as a whole, is of a nature somewhat different from
+that of the simple pendulum machine in that the
+energy of position of the former (as measured by
+the vertical displacement of M and M<sub>1</sub> in rotation)
+and its energy of rotation must increase concurrently,
+and also in that the absolute maximum value of
+this energy of position will be attained when the
+pendulum<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>
+masses reach merely the horizontal level
+HL in rotation. The machines are alike, however,
+in this respect, that the transformation of energy of
+motion into energy of position is in each case a
+completely reversible process. In the working of
+the rotating pendulums the limiting amount of
+energy which can operate in this reversible process
+is dependent on and rigidly defined by the maximum
+length of the pendulum arms; the longer the arms,
+the greater is the possible height through which the
+masses at their extremities must rise to attain the
+horizontal position in rotation. It will be clear also
+that it is not possible for the whole energy of the
+rotating system to work in the reversible process
+as in the case of the simple pendulum. As the
+pendulum masses rise, the ratio of the limiting
+energy for reversibility to the total energy of the
+system becomes in fact smaller and smaller, until at
+the horizontal or position of maximum energy it
+reaches a minimum value. This is merely an aspect
+of the experimental fact that, as the pendulum
+masses approach the ultimate horizontal position,
+a much greater increment of energy to the system
+is necessary for their elevation through a given
+vertical distance than at the lower levels. A larger
+proportion of the applied energy is, in fact, stored in
+the material of the system in the form of energy
+of strain or distortion.</p>
+
+<p>The two points which this system is designed to
+illustrate,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>
+and which it is desirable to emphasise,
+are thus as follows. Firstly, as the whole system
+rotates, the movement of the pendulum masses M
+and M<sub>1</sub> from the lower to the higher levels, or from
+the regions of low to those of higher velocity, is
+productive of a transformation of the rotatory
+energy of the system into energy of position&mdash;a
+transformation of the same nature as in the case
+of the simple pendulum system. Neglecting the
+minor transformations (§§ <a href="#sec_24">24,</a> <a href="#sec_29">29</a>), this energy process
+is a reversible one, and consequently, the return of
+the masses from the higher to the lower positions will
+be accompanied by the complete return of the transformed
+energy in its original form of energy of
+rotation. Secondly, the maximum amount of energy
+which can work in this reversible process is always
+less than the total energy of the system. The latter,
+therefore, conforms to the general condition of
+stability (§ <a href="#sec_25">25</a>).</p>
+
+<p>But this arrangement of rotating pendulums may
+be extended so as to include other features. To
+eliminate or in a manner replace the influence of
+gravitation, and to preserve the energy of position
+of the system&mdash;relative to the earth's surface&mdash;at a
+constant value, the pendulum arms may be assumed
+to be duplicated or extended to the points K and R
+(<a href="#i185">Fig. 10</a>) respectively, where pendulum masses equal
+to M and M<sub>1</sub> are attached.</p>
+
+<p>The arms MK and M<sub>1</sub>R are thus continuous.
+Each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>
+arm is assumed to be pivoted at its middle
+point about a horizontal axis through N, and as the
+lower masses M and M<sub>1</sub> rise in the course of the
+rotatory movement about AB the upper masses
+K and R will fall by corresponding amounts. The
+total energy of position of the system&mdash;referred to
+the earth's surface&mdash;thus remains constant whatever
+may be the position of the masses in the system.
+The restraining influence on the movement of the
+masses, formerly exercised
+by gravitation, is
+now furnished by means
+of a central spring F.
+A collar CD, connected
+as shown to the pendulum
+arms, slides on the
+spindle AB and compresses
+this spring as the
+masses move towards the horizontal level HL. As
+the masses return towards A and B the spring is
+released.</p>
+
+<div class="figright"><a id="i185" name="i185"></a>
+<img src="images/i185.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>If energy be applied to the system, so that
+it is caused to rotate about the central axis AB,
+the pendulum masses will tend to move outwards
+from that axis. Their movement may be said to be
+carried out over the surface of an imaginary sphere
+with centre on AB at N. The motion of the masses,
+as the velocity of rotation increases, is from the
+region of lower peripheral velocity, in the vicinity of
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>
+axis AB, to the regions of higher velocity, in the
+neighbourhood of H and L. This outward movement
+from the central axis towards H and L is
+representative of a transformation of energy of an
+exactly similar nature to that described above in the
+simple case. Part of the original energy of rotation
+of the system is now stored in the pendulum masses
+in virtue of their new position of displacement. But
+in this case, the movement is made, not against
+gravity, but against the central spring F. The
+energy, then, which in the former case might be said
+to be stored against gravitation (acting as an invisible
+spring) is in this case stored in the form of energy
+of strain or cohesion (§ <a href="#sec_15">15</a>) in the central spring,
+which thus as it were takes the place of gravitation
+in the system. As in the previous case also, the
+operation is a reversible energy process. If the
+pendulum masses move in the opposite direction
+from the regions of higher velocity to those of lower
+velocity, the energy stored in the spring will be
+returned to the system in its original form of energy
+of motion. A vibratory motion of the pendulums
+to and from the central axis would thus be productive
+of an alternate storage and return of energy.
+It is obvious also, that due to the action of centrifugal
+force, the pendulum masses would tend to
+move radially outwards on the arms as they move
+towards the regions of highest velocity. Let this
+radial movement be carried out against the action of
+four<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>
+radial springs S<sub>1</sub>, S<sub>2</sub>, S<sub>3</sub>, S<sub>4</sub>, as shown (<a href="#i187">Fig. 11</a>).
+In virtue of the radial movement of the masses,
+these springs will be compressed and energy stored in
+them in the form of energy of strain or cohesion (§ <a href="#sec_15">15</a>).
+The radial movement implies also that the masses
+will be elevated from the surface of the imaginary
+sphere over which they are assumed to move. The
+elevation from this surface will be greatest in the
+regions of high velocity in the neighbourhood
+of H and L, and least
+at A and B. As the
+masses move, therefore,
+from H and L towards
+the axis AB, they will
+also move inwards on
+the pendulum arms, relieving
+the springs, so
+that the energy stored
+in them is free to be returned to the system
+in its original form of energy of rotation. Every
+movement of the masses from the central axis outwards
+against the springs is thus made at the
+expense of the original energy of motion, and every
+movement inwards provokes a corresponding return
+of that energy to the system. Every movement also
+against the springs forms part of a reversible operation.
+The sum total of the energy which works in
+these reversible operations is always less than the
+complete energy of the rotatory system, and the
+latter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>
+is always stable (§ <a href="#sec_25">25</a>), with respect to its
+energy properties. Let it now be assumed that
+the complete system as described is possessed of a
+precise and limited amount of energy of rotation,
+and that with the pendulum masses in an intermediate
+position as shown (<a href="#i187">Fig. 11</a>) it is rotating
+with uniform angular velocity. The condition of
+the rotatory system might now be described as that
+of equilibrium. A definite amount of its original
+rotatory energy is now stored in the central spring
+and also in the radial springs. If now, without
+alteration in the intrinsic rotatory energy of the
+system, the pendulum masses were to execute a
+vibratory or pendulum motion about the position
+of equilibrium so that they move alternately to and
+from the central axis, then as they move inwards
+towards that axis the energy stored in the springs
+would be returned to the system in the original form
+of energy of rotation. This inward motion would,
+accordingly, produce acceleration. But, in the outward
+movement from the position of equilibrium,
+retardation would ensue on account of energy of
+motion being withdrawn from the system and stored
+in the springs.</p>
+
+<div class="figright"><a id="i187" name="i187"></a>
+<img src="images/i187.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Under the given conditions, then, any vibratory
+motion of the pendulum masses to and from the
+central axis would be accompanied by alternate retardation
+and acceleration of the moving system.
+The storage of energy in the springs (central and
+radial)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>
+produces retardation, the restoration of this
+energy gives rise to a corresponding acceleration.
+The angular velocity of the system would rise and
+fall accordingly. These are the natural conditions of
+working of the system. As already pointed out, the
+motion of the pendulum masses may be regarded as
+executed over the surface of an imaginary sphere.
+Their motion against the radial springs would therefore
+correspond to a displacement outwards or
+upwards from the spherical surface. A definite part
+of the effect of retardation is, of course, due to this
+outward or radial displacement of the masses.</p>
+
+<p>Assuming still the property of constancy of
+energy of rotation, let it now be supposed that in
+such a vibratory movement of the pendulum masses
+as described above, the energy required merely for
+the displacement of the masses <i>against the radial
+springs</i> is not withdrawn from and obtained at the
+expense of the original rotatory energy of the system,
+but is obtained from some energy agency, completely
+external to the system, and to which energy
+cannot be returned. The retardation, normally
+due to the outward displacement of the masses
+against the radial springs, would not then take place.
+But the energy is, nevertheless, stored in the springs.
+It now, therefore, forms part of the energy of the
+system, and consequently, on the returning or
+inward movement of vibration of the masses towards
+the central axis, this energy, received from the external
+source,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>
+would pass directly from the springs
+to the rotational energy of the system. It is clear,
+then, that while the introduction of energy in this
+fashion from an external source has in part eliminated
+the effect of retardation, the accelerating effect
+must still operate as before. Each vibratory movement
+of the pendulum system, under the given conditions,
+will lead to a definite increase in its energy
+of rotation by the amount stored in the radial springs.
+If the vibratory movement is continuous, the rotatory
+velocity of the system will steadily increase in value.
+Energy once stored in the radial springs can only be
+released by the return movement of the masses and
+<i>in the form of energy of rotation</i>; the nature of the
+mechanical machine is, in fact, such that if any
+incremental energy is applied to the displacement of
+the masses against the radial springs, it can only be
+returned in this form of energy of motion.</p>
+
+<p>These features of this experimental system are of
+vital importance to the author's scheme. They may
+be illustrated more completely, however, and in a
+form more suitable for their most general application,
+by the hypothetical system now to be described.
+This system is, of course, devised for purely illustrative
+purposes, but the general principles of working
+of pendulum systems and of energy return, as demonstrated
+above, will be assumed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="sec_43" id="sec_43"></a>43. <i>Application of Pendulum Principles</i></h3>
+
+<p>The movements of the pendulum masses described
+in the previous article have been regarded as carried
+out over the surface of an imaginary sphere. Let us
+now proceed to consider the phenomena of a similar
+movement of material over the surface of an actual
+spherical mass. The precise dimensions of the sphere
+are of little moment in the discussion, but for the
+purpose of illustration, its mass and general outline
+may be assumed to correspond to that of the earth
+or other planetary body. This spherical mass A
+(<a href="#i191">Fig. 12</a>) rotates with uniform angular velocity about
+an axis NS through its centre. Associated with the
+rotating sphere are four auxiliary spherical masses,
+M<sub>1</sub>, M<sub>2</sub>, M<sub>3</sub>, M<sub>4</sub>, also of solid material, which are
+assumed to be placed symmetrically round its circumference
+as shown. These masses form an inherent
+part of the spherical system; they are assumed to
+be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>
+united to the main body of material by the attractive
+force of gravitation in precisely the same fashion
+as the atmosphere or other surface material of a
+planet is united to its inner core (§ <a href="#sec_34">34</a>); they will
+therefore partake completely of the rotatory motion
+of the sphere about its axis NS, moving in paths
+similar to those of the rotating pendulum masses
+already described (§ <a href="#sec_42">42</a>). The restraining action of
+the pendulum arms is, however, replaced in this
+celestial case by the action of gravitation, which is
+the central force or influence of the system. Opposite
+masses are thus only united through the attractive
+influence of the material of the sphere. The place
+of the springs, both central and radial, in our pendulum
+system is now taken by this centripetal force
+of gravitative attraction, which therefore forms the
+restraining influence or determining factor in all the
+associated energy processes. While the auxiliary
+masses M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub>, &amp;c., partake of the general motion of
+revolution of the main spherical mass about NS,
+they may also be assumed to revolve simultaneously
+about the axis WE, perpendicular to NS, and also
+passing through the centre of the sphere. Each of
+these masses will thus have a peculiar motion, a
+definite velocity over the surface of the sphere from
+pole to pole&mdash;about the axis WE&mdash;combined with
+a velocity of rotation about the central axis NS.
+The value of the latter velocity is, at any instant,
+directly proportional to the radius of the circle of
+latitude<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>
+of the point on the surface of the sphere
+where the mass happens to be situated at that
+instant in its rotatory motion from pole to pole;
+this velocity accordingly diminishes as the mass withdraws
+from the equator, and becomes zero when it
+actually reaches the poles of rotation at N and S;
+and the energy of each mass in motion, since its
+linear velocity is thus constantly varying, will be
+itself a continuously varying quantity, increasing or
+diminishing accordingly as the mass is moving to
+or from the equatorial regions, attaining its maximum
+value at the equator and its minimum value at the
+poles. Now, since the masses thus moving are
+assumed to be a material and inherent portion of the
+spherical system, the source of the energy which is
+thus alternately supplied to and returned by them
+is the original energy of motion of the system;
+this original energy being assumed strictly limited
+in amount, the increase of the energy of each mass
+as it moves towards the equator will, therefore, be
+productive of a retardative effect on the revolution
+of the system as a whole. But, in a precisely similar
+manner, the energy thus gained by the mass would
+be fully returned on its movement towards the pole,
+and an accelerative effect would be produced corresponding
+to the original retardation. In the arrangement
+shown (<a href="#i191">Fig. 12</a>), the moving masses are assumed
+to be situated at the extremities of diameters at right
+angles. With this symmetrical distribution, the
+transformation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>
+and return of energy would take place
+concurrently. Retardation is continually balanced
+by acceleration, and the motion of the sphere would,
+therefore, be approximately uniform about the
+central axis of rotation. It will be clear that the
+movements thus described of the masses will be very
+similar in nature to those of the pendulum masses in
+the experimental system previously discussed. The
+fact that the motion of the auxiliary masses over
+the surface of the sphere is assumed to be completely
+circular and not vibratory, as in the pendulum case,
+has no bearing on the general energy phenomena.
+These are readily seen to be identical in nature with
+those of the simpler system. In each case every
+movement of the masses implies either an expenditure
+of energy or a return, accordingly as the direction
+of that movement is to or from the regions of high
+velocity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i191" name="i191"></a>
+<img src="images/i191.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The paths of the moving auxiliary masses have
+been considered, so far, only as parallel to the surface
+of the sphere, but the general energy conditions
+are in no way altered if they are assumed to have in
+addition some motion normal to that surface; if, for
+example, they are repelled from the surface as they
+approach the equatorial regions, and return towards
+it once more as they approach the poles. Such a
+movement of the masses normal to the spherical
+surface really corresponds to the movement against
+the radial springs in the pendulum system; it would
+now<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>
+be made against the attractive or restraining
+influence of gravitation, and a definite expenditure of
+energy would thus necessarily be required to produce
+the displacement. Energy, formerly stored in the
+springs, corresponds now to energy stored as energy
+of position (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>) against gravitation. If this energy
+is obtained at the expense of the inherent rotatory
+energy of the sphere, then its conversion in this
+fashion into energy of position will again be productive
+of a definite retardative effect on the revolution
+of the system. It is clear, however, that if each
+mass descends to the surface level once more in
+moving towards the poles, then in this operation its
+energy of position, originally obtained at the expense
+of the rotatory energy of the sphere, will be gradually
+but completely returned to that source. In a
+balanced system, such as we have assumed above, the
+descent of one mass in rotation would be accompanied
+by the elevation of another at a different
+point; the abstraction and return of the energy of
+rotation would then be equivalent, and would not
+affect the primary condition of uniformity of rotation
+of the system. In the circumstances assumed, the
+whole energy process which takes place in the movement
+of the masses from poles to equator and normal
+to the spherical surface would obviously be of a
+cyclical nature and completely reversible. It would
+be the working of mechanical energy in a definite
+material machine, and in accordance with the principles
+already<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>
+outlined (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>) the maximum amount
+of energy which can operate in this machine is strictly
+limited by the mass of the material involved in the
+movement. The energy machine has thus a definite
+capacity, and as the maximum energy operating in
+the reversible cycle is assumed to be within this
+limit, the machine would be completely stable in
+nature (§ <a href="#sec_25">25</a>). The movements of the auxiliary
+masses have hitherto also been considered as taking
+place over somewhat restricted paths, but this convention
+is one which can readily be dispensed with.
+The general direction of motion of the masses must
+of course be from equator to pole or vice versa; but
+it is quite obvious that the exact paths pursued by
+the masses in this general motion is of no moment
+in the consideration of energy return, nor yet the
+precise region in which they may happen to be restored
+once more to the surface level. Whatever
+may be its position at any instant, each mass is possessed
+of a definite amount of energy corresponding
+to that position; this amount will always be equal
+to the total energy abstracted by that mass, less the
+energy returned. The nature of the energy system
+is, however, such that the various energy phases of
+the different masses will be completely co-ordinated.
+Since the essential feature of the system is its
+property of uniformity of rotation, any return of
+energy in the rotational form at any part of the
+system&mdash;due to the descent of material&mdash;produces a
+definite<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>
+accelerating effect on the system, which
+effect is, however, at once neutralised or absorbed
+by a corresponding retardative effect due to that
+energy which must be extracted from the system in
+equivalent amount and devoted to the upraising of
+material at a different point. For simplicity in
+illustration only four masses have been considered
+in motion over the surface of the sphere, but it will
+be clear that the number which may so operate is
+really limited only by the dimensions of the system.
+The spherical surface might be completely covered
+with moving material, not necessarily of spherical
+form, not necessarily even material in the solid form
+(§ <a href="#sec_13">13</a>), which would rise and fall relative to the surface
+and flow to and from the poles exactly in the
+fashion already illustrated by the moving masses.
+The capacity of the reversible energy machine&mdash;which
+depends on the mass&mdash;would be altered in this
+case, but not the general nature of the machine itself.
+If the system were energised to the requisite degree,
+every energy operation could be carried out as before.</p>
+
+<p>As already pointed out, the dominating feature
+of a spherical system such as we have just described
+would be essentially its property of energy conservation
+manifested by its uniformity of rotation.
+All its operations could be carried out independently
+of the direct action of any external energy influences.
+For if it be assumed that the energy gained by the
+auxiliary moving surface material <i>in virtue of its
+displacement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>
+normal to the spherical surface</i> be derived,
+not from the inherent rotational energy of the sphere
+itself, but by an influx of energy from some source
+completely external to the system, then since there
+has been no energy abstraction there will be no
+retardative effect on the revolution due to the
+upraising of this material. But the influx of energy
+thus stored in the material must of necessity work
+through the energy machine. In the movement
+towards the poles this energy would therefore be
+applied to the system in the form of energy of
+rotation, and would produce a definite accelerative
+effect. If the influx of energy were continuous, and
+no means were existent for a corresponding efflux,
+the rotatory velocity of the system would steadily
+increase. The phenomena would be of precisely
+the same nature as those already alluded to in the
+case of the system of rotating pendulums (§ <a href="#sec_42">42</a>).
+Acceleration would take place without corresponding
+retardation. A direct contribution would be continuously
+made to the rotatory energy of the system,
+and would under the given conditions be manifested
+by an increase in its velocity of revolution.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="sec_44" id="sec_44"></a>44. <i>Extension of Pendulum Principles to
+Terrestrial Phenomena</i></h3>
+
+<p>The energy phenomena illustrated by the experimental
+devices above are to be observed, in their
+aspects<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>
+of greatest perfection, in the natural world.
+In the earth, united to its encircling atmosphere
+by the invisible bond of gravitation, we find the
+prototype of the hypothetical system just described.
+Its uniformity of rotation is an established
+fact of centuries, and over its spheroidal surface
+we have, corresponding to the motion of our illustrative
+spherical masses, the movement of enormous
+quantities of atmospheric air in the general directions
+from equatorial to polar regions and vice versa.
+This circulatory movement, and the internal energy
+reactions which it involves, have been already fully
+dealt with (§ <a href="#sec_38">38</a>); we have now to consider it in
+a somewhat more comprehensive fashion, in the
+light of the pendulum systems described above. As
+already explained (§ <a href="#sec_13">13</a>), the operation of mechanical
+energy is not confined to solid and liquid masses
+only, but may likewise be manifested by the movements
+of gaseous masses. The terrestrial atmospheric
+machine provides an outstanding example. In its
+working conditions, and in the general nature of the
+energy operations involved, the terrestrial atmospheric
+machine is very clearly represented by the rotating
+pendulum system (§ <a href="#sec_42">42</a>). The analogy is still closer
+in the case of the hypothetical system just described.
+The actual terrestrial energy machine differs
+from both only in that the energy processes, which
+they illustrate by the movements of solid material, are
+carried out in the course of its working by the motion
+of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>
+gaseous masses. It is obvious, however, that this
+in no way affects the inherent nature of the energy
+processes themselves. They are carried out quite as
+completely and efficiently&mdash;in fact, more completely
+and more efficiently&mdash;by the motions of gaseous as
+by the motions of solid material.</p>
+
+<p>The atmospheric circulation, then, may be
+readily regarded as the movement, over the terrestrial
+surface, of gaseous masses which absorb and
+return energy in regions of high and low velocity
+exactly in the fashion explained above for solid
+material. In their movement from polar towards
+equatorial regions these masses, by the action of the
+aqueous vapour (§ <a href="#sec_38">38</a>), absorb energy (axial energy)
+and expand upwards against gravity. Here we have
+an energy operation identical in nature with that
+embodied in the movements of a pendulum mass
+simultaneously over a spherical surface and against
+radial springs as in the system of rotating pendulums,
+or identical with the equatorial and radial movement
+of the auxiliary masses in the hypothetical system.
+The return movement of the aerial masses over the
+terrestrial surface in the opposite direction from
+equatorial to polar regions provides also exactly
+the same phenomena of energy return as the return
+movement of the masses in our illustrative systems.
+These systems, in fact, portray the general operation
+of mechanical energy precisely as it occurs in the
+terrestrial atmospheric machine. But obviously they
+cannot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>
+illustrate the natural conditions in their entirety.
+The passage or flow of the atmospheric air
+masses over the earth's surface is a movement of an
+exceedingly complex nature, impossible to illustrate
+by experimental apparatus. And indeed, such illustration
+is quite unnecessary. As already pointed
+out (§ <a href="#sec_38">38</a>), no matter what may be the precise path
+of an aerial mass in its movement towards the
+planetary surface the final energy return is the same.
+Sooner or later its energy of position is restored in
+the original axial form.</p>
+
+<p>The terrestrial atmospheric machine will be
+thus readily recognised as essentially a material
+mechanical machine corresponding in general nature
+to the illustrative examples described above. The
+combination of its various energy processes is
+embodied in a complete cyclical and reversible
+operation. Its energy capacity, as in the simpler
+cases, is strictly limited by the total mass of the
+operating material. The active or working energy
+is well within the limit for reversibility (§ <a href="#sec_23">23</a>), and
+the machine is therefore essentially stable in nature.
+The continuous abstraction of axial energy by the
+aqueous vapour is balanced by an equally continuous
+return from the air masses, and the system, so far
+as its energy properties are concerned, is absolutely
+conservative. Energy transmission from or to any
+external source is neither admissible nor necessary
+for its working.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="sec_45" id="sec_45"></a>45. <i>Concluding Review of
+Terrestrial Conditions&mdash;Effects
+of Influx of Energy</i></h3>
+
+<p>The aspect of the earth as a separate mass in
+space, and its energy relationship to its primary the
+sun and to the associated planetary masses of the
+solar system have been broadly presented in the
+General Statement (§§ <a href="#PART_I">1-12</a>). In that statement, based
+entirely on the universally accepted properties of
+matter and energy, an order of phenomena is described
+which is in strict accordance with observed
+natural conditions, and which portrays the earth
+and the other planetary bodies, so far as their
+material or energy properties are concerned, as absolutely
+isolated masses in space. The scientific
+verification of this position must of necessity be
+founded on the terrestrial observation of phenomena.
+So far as the orbital movements of the planet are
+concerned these are admittedly orderly; each planetary
+mass wheels its flight through space with unvarying
+regularity; the energy processes, also, associated
+with the variations of planetary orbital path, and
+which attain limiting conditions at perihelion and
+aphelion, are readily acknowledged to be reversible
+and cyclical in nature. In fact, even a slight observation
+of the movements of celestial masses inevitably
+leads to the conviction that the great energy
+processes of the solar system are inherently cyclical
+in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>
+nature, that every movement of its material and
+every manifestation of its energy is part of some
+complete operation. The whole appears to be but
+the natural or material embodiment of the great
+principle of energy conservation. It has been one
+of the objects of this work to show that the cyclical
+nature of the energy operations of the solar system
+is not confined only to the more prominent energy
+phenomena, but that it penetrates and is exhibited
+in the working of even the most insignificant planetary
+processes. Each one of the latter in reality
+forms part of an unbroken series or chain of energy
+phenomena. Each planet forms in itself a complete,
+perfect, and self-contained energy system. Every
+manifestation of planetary energy, great or small,
+whether associated with animate or inanimate matter,
+is but one phase or aspect of that energy as it pursues
+its cyclical path.</p>
+
+<p>It is a somewhat remarkable fact that in this age
+of scientific reason the observation of the strictly
+orderly arrangement of phenomena in the solar
+system as a whole should not have led to some idea
+in the minds of philosophical workers of a similar
+order of phenomena in its separate parts, but the
+explanation lies generally in the continual attempts
+to bring natural phenomena into line with certain
+preconceived hypotheses, and more particularly to
+the almost universal acceptance of the doctrine of
+the direct transmission of energy from the sun to
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>
+earth and the final rejection or radiation of this
+energy into space. There is no denying the eminent
+plausibility of this doctrine. The evidence of
+Nature <i>prima facie</i> may even appear to completely
+substantiate it. But we would submit that the
+general circumstances in which this doctrine is now
+so readily accepted are very similar to those which
+prevailed in more ancient times, when the revolution
+of the sun and stars round the earth was the universal
+tenet of natural philosophy. This conception,
+allied to the belief that the sole function of the
+celestial bodies was to provide light and heat to the
+terrestrial mass, appeared to be in strict accordance
+with observed phenomena, and held undisturbed
+possession of the minds of men for centuries, until
+it was finally demolished by Copernicus as the
+result of simple and accurate observation of and
+deduction from natural phenomena. At the present
+time, the somewhat venerable belief in the
+transmission of energy in various forms from the
+sun to the earth appears at first sight to be supported
+by actual facts. But a more rigid scrutiny
+of the evidence and of the mental processes
+must inevitably lead the unbiassed mind to the
+conclusion that this belief has no real foundation
+on truly scientific observation, but is entirely unsupported
+by natural phenomena. Every operation
+of Nature, in fact, when considered in its true
+relationships is an absolute denial of the whole
+conception.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>
+Like its predecessor relating to the
+motion of the sun and stars round the earth, the
+doctrine of energy transmission between separate
+masses in space such as the sun and the earth cannot
+be sustained in the face of scientific observation. This
+doctrine is found on investigation to be supported not
+by phenomena but by the conception of an elastic
+ethereal medium, of whose existence there is absolutely
+no evidential proof, and the necessity for which
+disappears along with the hypothesis it supports.
+It is, however, not proposed to discuss in any
+detail either the supposed transmission of energy
+from the sun to the planets or the arbitrary properties
+of the transmitting medium, but rather
+to adopt a more positive method of criticism
+by summarising briefly the evidential phenomena
+which show the cyclical nature of the whole terrestrial
+energy process, and which remove the basis
+of belief in such a transmission.</p>
+
+<p>To recapitulate the more general conditions, we
+find the earth, alike with other planetary masses,
+pursuing a defined orbital path, and rotating with
+uniform angular velocity in the lines or under the
+influence of the gravitation, thermal, luminous, and
+other incepting fields (§§ <a href="#sec_17">17,</a> <a href="#sec_18">18,</a> <a href="#sec_19">19</a>) which originate in
+the sun. Its axial rotation, in these circumstances,
+gives rise to all the secondary transformations (§ <a href="#sec_9">9</a>)
+of terrestrial axial energy, which in their operation
+provide the varied panorama of terrestrial phenomena.
+Terrestrial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>
+axial energy is thus diverted into terrestrial
+secondary processes. Each of these processes
+is found to be united to or embodied in a definite
+material machine (§§ <a href="#sec_27">27-30</a>), and is, accordingly,
+limited in nature and extent by the physical properties
+and incepting factors associated with the
+materials of which the machine is composed. By
+ordinary methods of transmission, energy may pass
+from one material to another, that is to say from one
+machine to another, and by this means definite chains
+of energy processes are constituted, through which,
+therefore, passes the axial energy originally transformed
+by the action of the sun. These series or
+chains of energy processes are also found to be one
+and all linked at some stage of their progress to the
+general atmospheric machine (§ <a href="#sec_29">29</a>). The energy
+operating in them is, in every case, after many or
+few vicissitudes according to the nature of the intermediate
+operations, communicated to the gaseous
+atmospheric material. By the movement of this
+material in the working of the atmospheric machine
+(§ <a href="#sec_38">38</a>) the energy is finally returned in its original
+form of axial energy of rotation. The sun's action
+is thus in a manner to force the inherent rotatory
+energy of the planet into the cyclical secondary
+operations, all of which converge alike towards the
+general atmospheric mechanism of return. The
+passage of the energy through the complete secondary
+operations, and its re-conversion into its original axial
+form,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>
+may be rapid or slow according to circumstances.
+In equatorial regions, where the influence
+of the sun's incepting fields is most intense, we find
+that the inherent planetary axial energy is communicated
+with great rapidity through the medium
+of the aqueous vapour to the air masses. By the
+movement of the latter it may be just as rapidly
+returned, and the whole operation completed in a
+comparatively short interval of time. In the same
+equatorial regions, the transformations of axial
+energy which are manifested in plant life attain their
+greatest perfection and vigour. But in this case the
+complete return of the operating energy may be very
+slow. The stored energy of tropical vegetation may
+still in great part remain in the bosom of the earth,
+awaiting an appropriate stimulus to be communicated
+to more active material for the concluding
+stages of that cyclical process which had its commencement
+in the absorption of axial energy into
+plant tissue. The duration of the complete secondary
+operation has, however, absolutely no bearing on the
+conservative energy properties of the planet. In
+this respect, the system is perfectly balanced. Every
+transformation or absorption of rotatory energy,
+great or small, for long or short periods of time, is
+counteracted by a corresponding return. Absolute
+uniformity of planetary axial rotation is thus steadily
+maintained.</p>
+
+<p>It is scarcely necessary at this stage to point out
+that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>
+the verification of this description of natural
+operations lies simply and entirely in the observation
+of Nature's working at first hand. The description is
+based on no theory and obscured by no preconceived
+ideas, it is founded entirely on direct experimental
+evidence. The field of study and of verification is
+not restricted, but comprises the whole realm of
+natural phenomena. In a lifetime of observation
+the author has failed to discern a single contradictory
+phenomenon; every natural operation is in reality
+a direct confirmation.</p>
+
+<p>The conception of energy, working only through
+the medium of definite material machines with their
+incepting and limiting agencies, is one which is of
+great value not only in natural philosophy but also
+in practical life. By its means it is possible in many
+cases to co-ordinate phenomena, apparently antagonistic,
+but in reality only different phases of energy
+machines. It aids materially also in the obtaining of
+a true grasp of the inexorable principle of energy
+conservation and its application to natural conditions,
+and it emphasises the indefensible nature of
+such ideas as the radiation of energy into <i>space</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It will be evident that in a planetary system such
+as described above there is no room for any transmission
+of energy to the system from an external
+source. The nature of the system is, in fact, such
+that a transmission of this kind is entirely unnecessary.
+As already demonstrated, every phenomenon
+and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>
+every energy operation can be carried out independently
+of any such transmission. For the
+purpose of illustration, however, it may be assumed
+that such a communication of energy does take place;
+that according to the accepted doctrines of modern
+science the sun pours energy in a continuous stream
+into the terrestrial system. Now, no matter in what
+form this energy is communicated, it is clear that
+once it is associated with or attached to the various
+planetary materials it is, as it were, incorporated or
+embodied in the planetary energy machines, and
+must of necessity work through the secondary energy
+operations. But these operations have been shown
+to be naturally and irresistibly connected to the
+general atmospheric machine. Into this machine,
+then, the incremental energy must be carried, and it
+will be there directly converted into the form of
+axial energy of rotation. Once the incremental
+energy is actually in the planet, once it is actually
+communicated to planetary material, the nature of
+the system absolutely forbids its escape. The effect
+of a direct and continuous influx such as we have
+assumed would inevitably be an increase in the
+angular velocity of the system. This effect has
+already been verified from an experimental point of
+view by consideration of the phenomena of a rotating
+pendulum system (§§ <a href="#sec_42">42,</a> <a href="#sec_43">43</a>). Whilst the influx of
+energy proceeds, then in virtue of the increasing
+velocity of the planetary material in the lines of the
+various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>
+incepting fields of the sun, all terrestrial
+phenomena involving the transformation of rotary or
+axial energy would be increased in magnitude and
+intensified in degree. The planet would thus rapidly
+attain an unstable condition; its material would soon
+become energised beyond its normal capacity, and
+the natural stability (§ <a href="#sec_25">25</a>) of its constituent energy
+machines would be destroyed; the system as a
+whole would steadily proceed towards disruption.</p>
+
+<p>But, happily, Nature presents no evidence of such
+a course of events. The earth spins on its axis with
+quiet and persistent regularity; the unvarying uniformity
+of its motion of axial rotation has been
+verified by the observations of generations of philosophers.
+Its temperature gradations show no evidence
+of change or decay in its essential heat qualities, and
+the recurrence of natural phenomena is maintained
+without visible sign of increase either in their intensity
+or multiplicity. The finger of Nature ever
+points to closed energy circuits, to the earth as a
+complete and conservative system in which energy,
+mutable to the highest degree with respect to its
+plurality of form, attains to the perfection of permanence
+in its essential character and amount.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p class="center small">Printed by <span class="smcap">Ballantyne, Hanson &amp; Co.</span><br />
+Edinburgh &amp; London</p>
+
+<div class="notes"><p class="center">FOOTNOTES:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The conception of "Nature's Perfect Engine" was originally arrived
+at by the author from consideration of the phenomena of the steam-engine.
+The following extract from the "Review" of his work (1895)
+illustrates the various stages which finally lead to that conclusion:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>"My first steps in the right direction came about thus. I had always
+been working with a cylinder and piston, and could make no progress,
+till at length it struck me to make my cylinder high enough to do
+without a piston&mdash;that is, to leave the steam to itself and observe its
+behaviour when left to work against gravity. The first thing I had to
+settle was the height of my cylinder. And I found, by calculation from
+Regnault's experiments that it would require to be very high, and that
+the exact height would depend on the temperature of the water in the
+boiler which was the bottom of this ideal cylinder. Now, at any
+ordinary temperature the height was so great that it was impossible to
+get known material to support its own weight, and I did not wish to
+use a hypothetical substance in the construction of this engine. Finally,
+the only course left me was to abolish the cylinder as I had done the
+piston. I then discovered that the engine I had been trying to evolve&mdash;the
+perfect engine&mdash;was not the ideal thing I had been groping after but
+an actual reality, in full working order, its operations taking place every
+day before my eyes.
+</p><p>
+"Every natural phenomenon fitted in exactly; it had its function to
+perform, and the performance of its function constituted the phenomenon.
+Let me trace the analogy in a few of its details. The sea corresponds to
+the boiler; its cylinder surrounds the earth; it has for its fuel the axial
+energy of the earth; it has no condenser because it has no exhaust;
+the work it performs is all expended in producing the fuel. Every
+operation in the cycle is but an energy transformation, and these various
+transformations constitute the visible life of the world."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> For definite numerical examples see the author's <i>Terrestrial
+Energy</i> (Chap. 1.).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="notes"><p>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE:</p>
+
+<p>Obvious typographical errors from the original printed version of this
+book have been corrected without comment.</p>
+
+<p>Footnotes in the html version have been placed at the end of the
+book.</p>
+
+<p>Illustrations have been moved to the nearest paragraph break.</p></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Energy System of Matter, by James Weir
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Energy System of Matter, by James Weir
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Energy System of Matter
+       A Deduction from Terrestrial Energy Phenomena
+
+Author: James Weir
+
+Release Date: December 20, 2011 [EBook #38348]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Garcia, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Cathy
+Maxam and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from scanned
+images of public domain material from the Google Print
+project.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER
+
+
+
+
+  THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER
+
+  A DEDUCTION FROM TERRESTRIAL
+  ENERGY PHENOMENA
+
+  BY
+  JAMES WEIR
+
+  _WITH 12 DIAGRAMS_
+
+  LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO.
+  39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
+  NEW YORK BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA
+  1912
+
+  All rights reserved
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+An intimate study of natural phenomena and a lengthened experience in
+physical research have resulted in the formation of certain
+generalisations and deductions which I now present in this volume. I
+have reached the conclusion that every physical phenomenon is due to the
+operation of energy transformations or energy transmissions embodied in
+material, and takes place under the action or influence of incepting
+energy fields. In any instance the precise nature of the phenomena is
+dependent on the peculiar form of energy actively engaged, on the nature
+of the material to which this energy is applied, and on the nature of
+the incepting field which influences the process. In the course of the
+work several concrete cases are discussed, in which these features of
+energy are illustrated and explained by the use of simple experimental
+apparatus. It is hoped that, by this means, the distinctive differences
+which exist in the manifestations of energy, in its transformation, in
+its transmission, and in its incepting forms will be rendered clear to
+the reader. I have to express my indebtedness to Mr. James Affleck,
+B.Sc., for his assistance in the preparation of this work for
+publication.
+
+JAMES WEIR.
+
+OVER COURANCE,
+LOCKERBIE, SCOTLAND.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                 PAGE
+
+  INTRODUCTION                                                 1
+
+
+  PART I
+
+  GENERAL STATEMENT
+
+   1. ADVANTAGES OF GENERAL VIEW OF NATURAL OPERATIONS         7
+
+   2. SEPARATE MASS IN SPACE                                   8
+
+   3. ADVENT OF ENERGY--DISTORTIONAL EFFECTS                   9
+
+   4. THE GRAVITATION FIELD                                   11
+
+   5. LIMITS OF ROTATIONAL ENERGY--DISRUPTIONAL
+      PHENOMENA                                               13
+
+   6. PASSIVE FUNCTION AND GENERAL NATURE OF GRAVITATION
+      FIELD                                                   17
+
+   7. LIMIT OF GRAVITATION TRANSFORMATION                     18
+
+   8. INTERACTIONS OF TWO PLANETARY BODIES--EQUILIBRIUM
+      PHENOMENA                                               19
+
+   9. AXIAL ENERGY--SECONDARY PROCESSES                       22
+
+  10. MECHANISM OF ENERGY RETURN                              27
+
+  11. REVIEW OF COSMICAL SYSTEM--GENERAL FUNCTION OF
+      ENERGY                                                  29
+
+  12. REVIEW OF COSMICAL SYSTEM--NATURAL CONDITIONS           31
+
+
+  PART II
+
+  PRINCIPLES OF INCEPTION
+
+  13. ILLUSTRATIVE SECONDARY PROCESSES                        34
+
+  14. INCEPTING ENERGY INFLUENCES                             40
+
+  15. COHESION AS AN INCEPTING INFLUENCE                      45
+
+  16. TERRESTRIAL GRAVITATION AS AN INCEPTING INFLUENCE       48
+
+  17. THE GRAVITATION FIELD                                   51
+
+  18. THE THERMAL FIELD                                       54
+
+  19. THE LUMINOUS FIELD                                      58
+
+  20. TRANSFORMATIONS--UPWARD MOVEMENT OF A MASS
+      AGAINST GRAVITY                                         62
+
+  21. TRANSFORMATIONS--THE SIMPLE PENDULUM                    67
+
+  22. STATICAL ENERGY CONDITIONS                              68
+
+  23. TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE MOVING PENDULUM--ENERGY
+      OF MOTION TO ENERGY OF POSITION AND VICE VERSA          72
+
+  24. TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE MOVING PENDULUM--FRICTIONAL
+      TRANSFORMATION AT THE BEARING SURFACES                  77
+
+  25. STABILITY OF ENERGY SYSTEMS                             79
+
+  26. THE PENDULUM AS A CONSERVATIVE SYSTEM                   81
+
+  27. SOME PHENOMENA OF TRANSMISSION PROCESSES--TRANSMISSION
+      OF HEAT ENERGY BY SOLID MATERIAL                        84
+
+  28. SOME PHENOMENA OF TRANSMISSION PROCESSES--TRANSMISSION
+      BY FLEXIBLE BAND OR CORD                                89
+
+  29. SOME PHENOMENA OF TRANSMISSION PROCESSES--TRANSMISSION
+      OF ENERGY TO AIR MASSES                                 92
+
+  30. ENERGY MACHINES AND ENERGY TRANSMISSION                 95
+
+  31. IDENTIFICATION OF FORMS OF ENERGY                      107
+
+  32. COMPLETE SECONDARY CYCLICAL OPERATION                  114
+
+
+  PART III
+
+  TERRESTRIAL CONDITIONS
+
+  33. GASEOUS EXPANSION                                      118
+
+  34. GRAVITATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM OF GASES                     124
+
+  35. TOTAL ENERGY OF GASEOUS SUBSTANCES                     131
+
+  36. COMPARATIVE ALTITUDES OF PLANETARY ATMOSPHERES         135
+
+  37. REACTIONS OF COMPOSITE ATMOSPHERE                      139
+
+  38. DESCRIPTION OF TERRESTRIAL CASE                        143
+
+  39. RELATIVE PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC
+      CONSTITUENTS                                           150
+
+  40. TRANSMISSION OF ENERGY FROM AQUEOUS VAPOUR TO
+      AIR MASSES                                             153
+
+  41. TERRESTRIAL ENERGY RETURN                              160
+
+  42. EXPERIMENTAL ANALOGY AND DEMONSTRATION OF THE
+      GENERAL MECHANISM OF ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
+      AND RETURN IN THE ATMOSPHERIC CYCLE                    170
+
+  43. APPLICATION OF PENDULUM PRINCIPLES                     181
+
+  44. EXTENSION OF PENDULUM PRINCIPLES TO TERRESTRIAL
+      PHENOMENA                                              188
+
+  45. CONCLUDING REVIEW OF TERRESTRIAL CONDITIONS--EFFECTS
+      OF INFLUX OF ENERGY                                    192
+
+
+
+
+THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The main principles on which the present work is founded were broadly
+outlined in the author's _Terrestrial Energy_ in 1883, and also in a
+later paper in 1892.
+
+The views then expressed have since been amply verified by the course of
+events. In the march of progress, the forward strides of science have
+been of gigantic proportions. Its triumphs, however, have been in the
+realm, not of speculation or faith, but of experiment and fact. While,
+on the one hand, the careful and systematic examination and
+co-ordination of experimental facts has ever been leading to results of
+real practical value, on the other, the task of the theorists, in their
+efforts to explain phenomena on speculative grounds, has become
+increasingly severe, and the results obtained have been decreasingly
+satisfactory. Day by day it becomes more evident that not one of the
+many existing theories is adequate to the explanation of the known
+phenomena: but, in spite of this obvious fact, attempts are still
+constantly being made, even by most eminent men, to rule the results of
+experimental science into line with this or that accepted theory. The
+contradictions are many and glaring, but speculative methods are still
+rampant. They have become the fashion, or rather the fetish, of modern
+science. It would seem that no experimental result can be of any value
+until it is deductively accommodated to some preconceived hypothesis,
+until it is embodied and under the sway of what is practically
+scientific dogma. These methods have permeated all branches of science
+more or less, but in no sphere has the tendency to indulge in
+speculation been more pronounced than in that which deals with
+energetics. In no sphere, also, have the consequences of such indulgence
+been more disastrous. For the most part, the current conceptions of
+energy processes are crude, fanciful, and inconsistent with Nature. They
+require for their support--in fact, for their very existence--the
+acceptance of equally fantastic conceptions of mythical substances or
+ethereal media of whose real existence there is absolutely no
+experimental evidence. On the assumed properties or motions of such
+media are based the many inconsistent and useless attempts to explain
+phenomena. But, as already pointed out, Nature has unmistakably
+indicated the true path of progress to be that of experimental
+investigation. In the use of this method only phenomena can be employed,
+and any hypothesis which may be formulated as the result of research on
+these lines is of scientific value only in so far as it is the correct
+expression of the actual facts observed. By this method of holding close
+to Nature reliable working hypotheses can, if necessary, be formed, and
+real progress made. It is undeniably the method of true science.
+
+In recent years much attention has been devoted to certain speculative
+theories with respect to the origin and ultimate nature of matter and
+energy. Such hypotheses, emanating as they do from prominent workers,
+and fostered by the inherent imaginative tendency of the human mind,
+have gained considerable standing. But it is surely unnecessary to point
+out that all questions relating to origins are essentially outside the
+pale of true science. Any hypotheses which may be thus formulated have
+not the support of experimental facts in their conclusions; they belong
+rather to the realm of speculative philosophy than to that of science.
+In the total absence of confirmatory phenomena, such theories can, at
+best, only be regarded as plausible speculations, to be accepted, it may
+be, without argument, and ranking in interest in the order of their
+plausibility.
+
+Of modern research into the ultimate constitution of matter little
+requires to be said. It is largely founded on certain radio-active and
+electrical phenomena which, in themselves, contribute little
+information. But aided by speculative methods and the use of
+preconceived ethereal hypotheses, various elaborate theories have been
+formulated, explaining matter and its properties entirely in terms of
+ethereal motions. Such conceptions in their proper sphere--namely, that
+of metaphysics--would be no doubt of interest, but when advanced as a
+scientific proposition or solution they border on the ridiculous. In the
+absence of phenomena bearing on the subject, it would seem that the last
+resort of the modern scientist lies in terminology. To the average
+seeker after truth, however, the term "matter," as applied to the
+material world, will still convey as much meaning as the more elaborate
+scientific definitions.
+
+It is not the purpose of this work to add another thread to the already
+tangled skein of scientific theory. It is written, rather, with the
+conviction, that it is impossible ever to get really behind or beyond
+phenomena; in the belief that the complete description of any natural
+process is simply the complete description of the associated phenomena,
+which may always be observed and co-ordinated but never ultimately
+explained. Phenomena must ever be accepted simply as phenomena--as the
+inscrutable manifestations of Nature. By induction from phenomena it is
+indeed possible to rise to working hypotheses, and thence, it may be, to
+general conceptions of Nature's order, and as already pointed out, it is
+to this method, of accepting phenomena, and of reasoning only from
+experimental facts, that all the advances of modern science are due. On
+the other hand, it is the neglect of this method--the departure, as it
+were, from Nature--which has led to the introduction into the scientific
+thought of the day of the various ethereal media with their extreme and
+contradictory properties. The use of such devices really amounts to an
+admission of direct ignorance of phenomena. They are, in reality, an
+attempt to explain natural operations by a highly artificial method,
+and, having no basis in fact, their whole tendency is to proceed, in
+ever-increasing degree, from one absurdity to another.
+
+It is quite possible to gain a perfectly true and an absolutely reliable
+knowledge of the properties of matter and energy, and the part which
+each plays, without resorting to speculative aids. All that is required
+is simply accurate and complete observation at first hand. The field of
+research is wide; all Nature forms the laboratory. By this method every
+result achieved may be tested and verified, not by its concurrence with
+any approved theory, however plausible, but by direct reference to
+phenomena. The verdict of Nature will be the final judgment on every
+scheme.
+
+It is on these principles, allied with the great generalisations with
+respect to the conservation of matter and energy, that this work is
+founded. As the result of a long, varied, and intimate acquaintance with
+Nature, and much experimental research in many spheres, the author has
+reached the conclusion, already foreshadowed in _Terrestrial Energy_,
+that the great principle of energy conservation is true, not only in the
+universal and generally accepted sense, but also in a particular sense
+with respect to all really separate bodies, such as planetary masses in
+space. Each of these bodies, therefore, forms within itself a completely
+conservative energy system. This conclusion obviously involves the
+complete denial of the transmission of energy in any form across
+interplanetary space, and the author, in this volume, now seeks to
+verify the conclusion by the direct experimental evidence of terrestrial
+phenomena.
+
+Under present-day conditions in science, the acceptance of the ordinary
+doctrine of transmission across space involves likewise the acceptance
+of the existence of an ethereal substance which pervades all space and
+forms the medium by which such transmission is carried out. The
+properties of this medium are, of course, precisely adapted to its
+assumed function of transmission. These properties it is not necessary
+to discuss, for when the existence of the transmission itself has been
+finally disproved, the necessity for the transmitting medium clearly
+vanishes.
+
+
+
+
+PART I
+
+GENERAL STATEMENT
+
+
+1. _Advantages of General View of Natural Operations_
+
+The object of this statement is to outline and illustrate, in simple
+fashion, a broad and general conception of the operation and interaction
+of matter and energy in natural phenomena.
+
+Such a conception may be of value to the student of Nature, in several
+ways. In modern times the general tendency of scientific work is ever
+towards specialisation, with its corresponding narrowness of view. A
+broad outlook on Nature is thus eminently desirable. It enables the
+observer to perceive to some extent the links uniting the apparently
+most insignificant of natural processes to those of seemingly greater
+magnitude and importance. In this way a valuable idea of the natural
+world as a whole may be gained, which will, in turn, tend generally to
+clarify the aspect of particular operations. A broad general view of
+Nature also leads to the appreciation of the full significance of the
+great doctrines of the conservation of matter and energy. By its means
+the complete verification of these doctrines, which appears to be beyond
+human experiment, may be traced on the face of Nature throughout the
+endless chain of natural processes. Such a view also leads to a firm
+grasp of the essential nature and qualities of energy itself so far as
+they are revealed by its general function in phenomena.
+
+
+2. _Separate Mass in Space_
+
+In the scheme now to be outlined, matter and energy are postulated at
+the commencement without reference to their ultimate origin or inherent
+nature. They are accepted, in their diverse forms, precisely as they are
+familiar from ordinary terrestrial experience and phenomena.
+
+For the purpose of general illustration the reader is asked to conceive
+a mass of heterogeneous matter, concentrated round a given point in
+space, forming a single body. This mass is assumed to be assembled and
+to obtain its coherent form in virtue of that universal and inherent
+property of matter, namely, gravitative or central attraction. This
+property is independent of precise energy conditions, its outward
+manifestation being found simply in the persistent tendency of matter on
+all occasions to press or force itself into the least possible space. In
+the absence of all disturbing influences, therefore, the configuration
+of this mass of matter, assumed assembled round the given point, would
+naturally, under the influence of this gravitative tendency, resolve
+itself into that of a perfect sphere. The precise magnitude or
+dimensions of the spherical body thus constituted are of little moment
+in the discussion, but, for illustrative purposes, it may, in the
+meantime, be assumed that in mass it is equivalent to our known solar
+system. It is also assumed to be completely devoid of energy, and as a
+mass to be under the influence of no external constraint. Under these
+conditions, the spherical body may obviously be assumed as stationary in
+space, or otherwise as moving with perfectly uniform velocity along a
+precisely linear path. Either conception is justifiable. The body has no
+relative motion, and since it is absolutely unconstrained no force could
+be applied to it and no energy expenditure would be required for its
+linear movement.
+
+
+3. _Advent of Energy--Distortional Effects_
+
+Nature, however, does not furnish us with any celestial or other body
+fulfilling such conditions. Absolutely linear motion is unknown, and
+matter is never found divorced from energy. To complete the system,
+therefore, the latter factor is required, and, with the advent of energy
+to the mass, its prototype may be found in the natural world.
+
+This energy is assumed to be communicated in that form which we shall
+term "work" energy (Secs. 13, 31) and which, as a form of energy, will be
+fully dealt with later. This "work" energy is assumed to be manifested,
+in the first place, as energy of motion. As already pointed out, no
+expenditure of energy can be associated with a linear motion of the
+mass, since that motion is under no restraint, but in virtue of the
+initial central attraction or gravitative strain, the form of energy
+first communicated may be that of kinetic energy of rotation. Its
+transmission to the mass will cause the latter to revolve about some
+axis of symmetry within itself. Each particle of the mass thus pursues a
+circular path with reference to that axis, and has a velocity directly
+proportional to its radial displacement from it.
+
+This energised rotating spherical mass is thus the primal conception of
+the energy scheme now to be outlined. It will be readily seen that, as a
+primal conception, it is essentially and entirely natural; so much so,
+indeed, that any one familiar with rotatory motion might readily predict
+from ordinary experience the resulting phenomena on which the scheme is,
+more or less, based.
+
+When energy is applied to the mass, the first phenomenon of note will be
+that, as the mass rotates, it departs from its originally spherical
+shape. By the action of what is usually termed centrifugal force, the
+rotating body will be distorted; it will be flattened at the polar or
+regions of lowest velocity situated at the extremities of the axis of
+rotation, and it will be correspondingly distended at the equatorial or
+regions of highest velocity. The spherical body will, in fact, assume a
+more or less discoidal form according to the amount of energy applied to
+it; there will be a redistribution of the original spherical matter;
+certain portions of the mass will be forced into new positions more
+remote from the central axis of rotation.
+
+
+4. _The Gravitation Field_
+
+These phenomena of motion are the outward evidence of certain energy
+processes. The distortional movement of the material is carried out
+against the action and within the field of certain forces which exist in
+the mass of material in virtue of its gravitative or cohesive qualities.
+It is carried out also in virtue of the application of energy to the
+sphere, which energy has been, as it were, transformed or worked down,
+in the distortional movement, against the restraining action of this
+gravitation field or influence. The outward displacement of the material
+from the central axis is thus coincident with a gain of energy to the
+mass, this gain of energy being, of course, at the expense of, and by
+the direct transformation of, the originally applied energy. It is
+stored in the distorted material as energy of position, potential
+energy, or energy of displacement relative to the central axis. But, in
+the distortive movement, the mass will also gain energy in other forms.
+The movement of one portion of its material relative to another will
+give rise (since it is carried out under the gravitational influence) to
+a fractional process in which, as we know from terrestrial experience,
+heat and electrical energy will make their appearance. These forms of
+energy will give rise, in their turn, to all the phenomena usually
+attendant on their application to material. As already pointed out also,
+the whole mass gains, in varying degree, energy of motion or kinetic
+energy. It would appear, then, that although energy was nominally
+applied to the mass in one form only, yet by its characteristic property
+of transformation it has in reality manifested itself in several
+entirely different forms. It is important to note the part played in
+these transformation processes by the gravitation field or influence.
+Its action really reveals one of the vital working principles of
+energetics. This principle may be generally stated thus:--
+
+     EVERY TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY IS CARRIED OUT BY THE ACTION OF
+     ENERGISED MATTER IN THE LINES OR FIELD OF AN INCEPTING ENERGY
+     INFLUENCE.
+
+In the particular case we have just considered, the incepting field is
+simply the inherent gravitative property of the energised mass. This
+property is manifested as an attractive force between portions of
+matter. This, however, is not of necessity the only aspect of an
+incepting influence. In the course of this work various instances of
+transformation will be presented in which the incepting influence
+functions in a guise entirely different. It is important to note that
+the incepting influence itself is in no way changed, altered, or
+transformed during the process of transformation which it influences.
+
+
+5. _Limits of Rotational Energy. Disruptional Phenomena_
+
+It is clear that the material at different parts of the rotating
+spheroid will be energised to varying degrees. Since the linear velocity
+of the material in the equatorial regions of the spheroid is greater
+than that of the material about the poles, the energy of motion of the
+former will exceed that of the latter, the difference becoming greater
+as the mass is increasingly energised and assumes more and more the
+discoidal form.
+
+The question now arises as to how far this process of energising the
+material mass may be carried. What are its limits? The capacity of the
+rotating body for energy clearly depends on the amount of work which
+may be spent on its material in distorting it against the influence of
+the gravitative attraction. The amount is again dependent on the
+strength of this attraction. But the value of the gravitative attraction
+or gravitation field is, by the law of gravitation, in direct proportion
+to the quantity of material or matter present, and hence the capacity of
+the body for energy depends on its mass or on the quantity of matter
+which composes it.
+
+Now if energy be impressed on this mass beyond its capacity a new order
+of phenomena appears. Distortion will be followed by disruption and
+disintegration. By the action of the disruptive forces a portion of the
+primary material will be projected into space as a planetary body. The
+manner of formation of such a secondary body is perhaps best illustrated
+by reference to the commonplace yet beautiful and suggestive phenomenon
+of the separation of a drop of water or other viscous fluid under the
+action of gravitation. In this process, during the first downward
+movement of the drop, it is united to its source by a portion of
+attenuated material which is finally ruptured, one part moving downwards
+and being embodied in the drop whilst the remainder springs upwards
+towards the source. In the process of formation of the planetary body we
+are confronted with an order of phenomena of somewhat the same nature.
+The planetary orb which is hurled into space is formed in a manner
+similar to the drop of viscous fluid, and under the action of forces of
+the same general nature. One of these forces is the bond of gravitative
+attraction between planet and primary which is never severed, and when
+complete separation of the two masses finally occurs, the incessant
+combination of this force with the tangential force of disruption acting
+on the planet will compel it into a fixed orbit, which it will pursue
+around the central axis. When all material links have thus been severed,
+the two bodies will then be absolutely separate masses in space. The
+term "separate" is here used in its most rigid and absolute sense. No
+material connection of any kind whatever exists, either directly or
+indirectly, between the two masses. Each one is completely isolated from
+the other by interplanetary space, and in reality, so far as material
+connection is concerned, each one might be the sole occupant of that
+space. This conception of separate masses in space is of great
+importance to the author's scheme, but, at the same time, the condition
+is one which cannot be illustrated by any terrestrial experimental
+contrivance. It will be obvious that such a device, as might naturally
+be conceived, of isolating two bodies by placing them in an exhausted
+vessel or vacuous space, by no means complies with the full conditions
+of true separation portrayed above, because some material connection
+must always exist between the enclosed bodies and the containing
+vessel. This aspect is more fully treated later (Sec. 30). The condition of
+truly separate masses is, in fact, purely a celestial one. No means
+whatever are existent whereby such a condition may be faithfully
+reproduced in a terrestrial environment.
+
+In their separate condition the primary and planetary mass will each
+possess a definite and unvarying amount of energy. It is to be noted
+also, that since the original mass of the primary body has been
+diminished by the mass of the planet cast off, the capacity for energy
+of the primary will now be diminished in a corresponding degree. Any
+further increment of energy to the primary in any form has now, however,
+no direct influence on the energy of the planet, which must maintain its
+position of complete isolation in its orbit. But although thus separate
+and distinct from the primal mass in every material respect, the planet
+is ever linked to it by the invisible bond of gravitation, and every
+movement made by the planet in approaching or receding from the primary
+is made in the field or influence of this attraction. In accordance,
+therefore, with the general principle already enunciated (Sec. 4), these
+actions or movements of the energised planetary mass, being made in the
+field of the incepting gravitative influence, will be accompanied by
+transformations, and thus the energy of the planet, although unvarying
+in its totality, may vary in its form or distribution with the inward or
+outward movement of the planet in its orbital path. As the planet
+recedes from the primary it gains energy of position, but this gain is
+obtained solely at the expense, and by the direct transformation of its
+own orbital energy of motion. Its velocity in its orbit must, therefore,
+decrease as it recedes from the central axis of the system, and increase
+as it approaches that axis. Thus from energy considerations alone it is
+clear that, if the planetary orbit is not precisely circular, the
+velocity of the planet must vary at different points of its path.
+
+
+6. _Passive Function and General Nature of Gravitation Field_
+
+From the phenomena described above, it will be observed that, in the
+energy processes of transformation occurring in both primary and planet,
+the function of the gravitation field or influence is entirely passive
+in nature. The field is, in truth, the persistent moving or directing
+power behind the energy processes, the incepting energy influence or
+agency which determines the nature of the transformation in each case
+without being, in any way, actively engaged in it. In accelerating or
+retarding the transformation process it has thus absolutely no effect.
+These features are controlled by other factors. Neither does this
+incepting agency affect, in any way, the limits of the transformation
+process, these limits being prescribed by the physical or energy
+qualities of the acting materials. In general nature the gravitation
+field appears to be simply an energy influence--a peculiar manifestation
+of certain passive qualities of energy. This aspect will, however,
+become clearer to the reader when the properties of gravitation are
+studied in conjunction with those of other incepting energy influences
+(Secs. 17, 18, 19).
+
+
+7. _Limit of Gravitation Transformation_
+
+In the case of a planetary body, there is a real limit to the extent of
+the transformation of its orbital energy of motion under the influence
+of the gravitation field. As the orbit of the planet widens, and its
+mean distance from the primary becomes greater, its velocity in its
+orbital path must correspondingly decrease. As already pointed out (Sec.
+5), this decrease is simply the result of the orbital energy of motion
+being transformed or worked down into energy of position. But since this
+orbital energy is strictly limited in amount, a point must ultimately be
+reached where it would be transformed in its entirety into energy of
+position. When this limiting condition is attained, the planet clearly
+could have no orbital motion; it would be instantaneously at rest in
+somewhat the same way as a projectile from the earth's surface is at
+rest at the summit of its flight in virtue of the complete
+transformation of its energy of motion into energy of position. In this
+limiting condition, also, the energy of position of the planet would be
+the maximum possible, and its orbital energy zero. The scope of the
+planetary orbital path is thus rigidly determined by the planetary
+energy properties. Assuming the reduction of gravity with distance to
+follow the usual law of inverse squares, the value of the displacement
+of the planet from the central axis when in this stationary or limiting
+position may be readily calculated if the various constants are known.
+In any given case it is obvious that this limiting displacement must be
+a finite quantity, since the planetary orbital energy which is being
+worked down is itself finite in amount.
+
+
+8. _Interactions of Two Planetary Bodies--Equilibrium Phenomena_
+
+Up to the present point, the cosmical system has been assumed to be
+composed of one planetary body only in addition to the primary mass. It
+is clear, however, that by repetition of the process already described,
+the system could readily evolve more than one planet; it might, in fact,
+have several planetary masses originating in the same primary, each
+endowed with a definite modicum of energy, and each pursuing a
+persistent orbit round the central axis of the system. Since the mass of
+the primary decreases as each successive planet is cast off, its
+gravitative attractive powers will also decrease, and with every such
+decline in the central restraining force the orbits of the previously
+constituted planets will naturally widen. By the formation in this way
+of a series of planetary masses, the material of the original primary
+body would be as it were distributed over a larger area or space, and
+this separation would be accompanied by a corresponding decrease in the
+gravitative attraction between the several masses. If the distributive
+or disruptive process were carried to its limit by the continuous
+application of rotatory energy to each separate unit of the system, this
+limit would be dependent on the capacity of the system for energy. As is
+shown later (Sec. 20), this capacity would be determined by the mass of the
+system.
+
+For simplicity, let us consider the case in which there are two
+planetary bodies only in the system in addition to the primary. In
+virtue of the gravitative attraction or gravitation field between the
+two, they will mutually attract one another in their motion, and each
+will, in consequence, be deflected more or less out of that orbital path
+which it would normally pursue in the absence of the other. This
+attraction will naturally be greatest when the planets are in the
+closest proximity; the planet having the widest orbit will then be drawn
+inwards towards the central axis, the other will be drawn outwards. The
+distance moved in this way by each will depend on its mass, and on the
+forces brought to bear on it by the combined action of the two remaining
+masses of the system. Moving thus in different directions, the motion of
+each planet is carried out in the lines of the gravitation field between
+the two. One planet, therefore, gains and the other loses energy of
+position with respect to the central axis of the system. The one planet
+can thus influence, to some extent, the energy properties of the other,
+although there is absolutely no direct energy communication between the
+two; as shown hereafter, the whole action and the energy change will be
+due simply to the motion carried out in the field of the incepting
+gravitation influence.
+
+It is clear, however, that this influence is exerted on the distribution
+of the energy, on the form in which it is manifested, and in no way
+affects the energy totality of either planet. Each, as before, remains a
+separate system with conservative energy properties. That planet which
+loses energy of position gains energy of motion, and is correspondingly
+accelerated in its orbital path; the other, in gaining energy of
+position, does so at the expense of its own energy of motion, and is
+retarded accordingly. The action is really very simple in nature when
+viewed from a purely energy standpoint. It has been dealt with in some
+detail in order to emphasise the fact that there is absolutely nothing
+in the nature of a transmission of energy between one planet and the
+other. Taking a superficial view of the operation, it might be inferred
+that, as the planets approach one another, energy of motion (or energy
+of position) is transmitted from one to the other, causing one to retard
+and the other to accelerate its movement, but a real knowledge of the
+energy conditions shows that the phenomenon is rather one of a simple
+restoration of equilibrium, a redistribution or transformation of the
+intrinsic energy of each to suit these altering conditions. Each planet
+is, in the truest sense, a separate mass in space.
+
+
+9. _Axial Energy--Secondary Processes_
+
+Passing now to another aspect of the energy condition of a planetary
+body, let the planet be assumed to be endowed with axial energy or
+energy of rotation, so that, while pursuing its orbital path in space,
+it also rotates with uniform angular velocity about an axis within
+itself. What will be the effect of the primary mass on the planet under
+these new energy conditions? We conceive that the effect is again purely
+one of transformation. In this process the primary mass functions once
+more as an entirely passive or incepting agent, which, while exerting a
+continuous transforming influence on the planet, does not affect in any
+way the inherent energy properties of the latter. Up to the present
+point we have only dealt with one incepting influence in transformation
+processes, namely, that of gravitation, which has always been
+manifested as an attractive force. It is not to be supposed, however,
+that this is the only aspect in which incepting influences may be
+presented. Although attractive force is certainly an aspect of some
+incepting influences, it is not a distinctive feature of incepting
+influences generally. In many cases, the aspect of force, in the sense
+of attraction or repulsion, is entirely awanting. In the new order of
+transformations which come into play in virtue of the rotatory motion of
+a planetary mass in the field of its primary, we shall find other
+incepting influences in action entirely different in nature from the
+gravitation influence, but, nevertheless, arising from the same primary
+mass in a similar way. Now the application of energy to the planet,
+causing it to rotate in the lines or under the influence of these
+incepting fields of the primary, brings into existence on the planet an
+entirely new order of phenomena. So long as the planet had no axial
+motion of rotation, some of the incepting influences of the primary were
+compelled, as it were, to inaction; but with the advent of axial energy
+the conditions are at once favourable to their action, and to the
+detection of their transforming effects. In accordance with the general
+principle already enunciated (Sec. 4), the action of the planetary
+energised material in the lines of the various incepting fields of the
+primary is productive of energy transformations. The active energy of
+these transformations is the axial or rotatory energy of the planet
+itself, and, in virtue of these transformations, certain other forms of
+energy will be manifested on the planet and associated with the various
+forms of planetary material. These manifestations of energy, in fact,
+constitute planetary phenomena. Since the action or movement of the
+rotating material of the planet through the incepting fields of the
+primary is most pronounced in the equatorial or regions of highest
+linear velocity, and least in the regions of low velocity adjoining the
+poles of rotation, the transforming effect may naturally be expected to
+decrease in intensity from equator to poles. Planetary energy phenomena
+will thus vary according to the location of the acting material. It will
+be clear, also, that each incepting agency or influence associated with
+the primary mass will give rise to its own peculiar transformations of
+axial energy on the planetary surface. These leading or primary
+transformations of axial energy, in which the incepting influence is
+associated with the primary mass only, we term primary processes. But it
+is evident that the various forms of energy thus set free on the planet
+as a result of the primary processes will be communicated to, and will
+operate on, the different forms of planetary material, and will give
+rise to further or secondary transformations of energy, in which the
+incepting agency is embodied in or associated with planetary material
+only. The exact nature of these secondary transformations will vary
+according to the circumstances in which they take place. Each of them,
+however, as indicated above, will be, in itself, carried out in virtue
+of some action of the energised planetary material in the lines or field
+of what we might term a secondary incepting influence. The latter,
+however, must not be confused with the influences of the primary. It is
+essentially a planetary phenomenon, an aspect of planetary energy; it is
+associated with the physical or material machine by means of which the
+secondary process of transformation is carried out. The nature of this
+secondary influence will determine the nature of the secondary
+transformation in each case. Its precise extent may be limited by other
+considerations (Sec. 15).
+
+As an example, assume a portion of the axial energy to be primarily
+transformed into heat in virtue of the planet's rotation in the field of
+an independent thermal incepting influence exerted by the primary. To
+the action of this agency, which we might term the thermal field, we
+assume are due all primary heating phenomena of planetary material. Now
+the secondary transformations will take place when the heat energy thus
+manifested is applied to some form of matter. It is obvious, however,
+that this application might be carried out in various ways. Heat may be
+devoted to the expansion of a solid against its cohesive forces. It may
+be expended against the elastic forces of a gas, or it may be worked
+down against chemical or electrical forces. In every case a
+transformation of energy will result, varying in nature according to the
+peculiar conditions under which it is carried out. In this or a similar
+fashion each primary incepting influence may give rise to a series of
+secondary actions more or less complex in nature. These secondary
+transformation processes, allied with other processes of transmission,
+will, in fact, constitute the visible phenomena of the planet, and in
+their variety will exactly correspond to these phenomena.
+
+With regard to the gravitation field, its general influence on the
+rotating mass may be readily predicted. The material on that part of the
+planetary surface which is nearest to or happens to face the primary in
+rotation is, during the short time it occupies that position, subjected
+to a greater attractive influence than the remainder which is more
+remote from the primary. It will, in consequence, tend to be more or
+less distorted or elevated above its normal position on the planetary
+surface. This distorting effect will vary in degree according to the
+nature of the material, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, but the
+general effect of the distortional movement, combined with the rotatory
+motion of the planet, will be to produce a tidal action or a periodical
+rise and fall of the more fluid material distributed over the planetary
+surface. The distortion will, of course, be accompanied by energy
+processes in which axial energy will be transformed into heat and other
+forms, which will finally operate in the secondary processes exactly as
+in previous cases.
+
+
+10. _Mechanism of Energy Return_
+
+But the question now arises, as to how this continuous transformation of
+the axial energy can be consistent with that condition of uniformity of
+rotation of the planet which was originally assumed. If the total energy
+of the planetary mass is limited, and if it can receive no increment of
+energy from any external source, it is clear that the axial energy
+transformed must, by some process, be continuously returned to its
+original form. Some process or mechanism is evidently necessary to carry
+out this operation. This mechanism we conceive to be provided by certain
+portions of the material of the planet, principally the gaseous matter
+which resides on its surface, completely enveloping it, and extending
+outwards into space (Sec. 38). In other words, the atmosphere of the planet
+forms the machine or material agency by which this return of the
+transformed axial energy is carried out. It has already been pointed out
+(Sec. 9) how the working energy of every secondary transformation is
+derived from the original axial energy of the planet itself. Each of
+these secondary transformations, however, forms but one link of one
+cyclical chain of secondary transformations, in which a definite
+quantity of energy, initially in the axial form, passes, in these
+secondary operations, through various other forms, by different
+processes and through the medium of different material machines, until
+it is eventually absorbed into the atmosphere of the planet. These
+complete series of cyclical operations, by which the various portions of
+axial energy are carried to the atmosphere, may in some cases be of a
+very simple nature, and may be continuously repeated over very short
+intervals of time; in other cases, the cycle may seem obscure and
+complicated, and its complete operation spread over very long periods,
+but in all cases the final result is the same. The axial energy
+abstracted, sooner or later, recurs to the atmospheric machine. By its
+action in this machine, great masses of gaseous material are elevated
+from the surface of the planet against the attractive force of
+gravitation; the energy will thus now appear in the form of potential
+energy or energy of position. By a subsequent movement of these gaseous
+masses over the surface of the planet from the regions of high velocity
+towards the poles, combined with a movement of descent to lower levels,
+the energy of position with which they were endowed is returned once
+more in the original axial form.
+
+This, roughly, constitutes the working of the planetary atmospheric
+machine, which, while in itself completely reversible and
+self-contained, forms also at the same time the source and the sink of
+all the energy working in the secondary transformations. In the
+ceaseless rounds of these transformations which form planetary phenomena
+it links together the initial and concluding stages of each series by a
+reversible process. Energy is thus stored and restored continuously. The
+planet thus neither gains nor loses energy of axial motion; so far as
+its energy properties are concerned, it is entirely independent of every
+external influence. Its uniformity of rotation is absolutely maintained.
+Each planet of the system will, in the same way, be an independent and
+conservative unit.
+
+
+11. _Review of Cosmical System--General Function of Energy_
+
+Reviewing the system as a whole, the important part played by energy in
+its constitution is readily perceived. The source of the energy which
+operates in all parts of the system is found in that energy originally
+applied (Sec. 3). When the system is finally constituted, this energy is
+found distributed amongst the planets, each of which has received its
+share, and each of which is thereby linked to the primary by its
+influence. It is part of this same energy which undergoes transformation
+in virtue of the orbital movements of the planets in the field of the
+gravitative influence. Again, it is found in the form of planetary
+axial energy, and thence, under the influence of various incepting
+agencies, it passes in various forms through the whole gamut of
+planetary phenomena, and finally functions in the atmospheric machine.
+Every phenomenon of the system, great or small, is, in fact, but the
+external evidence either of the transformation or of the transmission of
+this energy--the outward manifestation of its changed or changing forms.
+Its presence, which always implies its transformation (Sec. 4), is the
+simple primary condition attached to every operation. The primal mass
+originally responded to the application of energy by the presentation of
+phenomena. Every material portion of the system will similarly respond
+according to circumstances. Energy is, in fact, the working spirit of
+the whole cosmical scheme. It is the influence linking every operation
+of the system to the original transformations at the central axis, so
+that all may be combined into one complete and consistent whole. It is
+to be noted, however, that although they have a common origin the
+orbital energy of each planetary mass is entirely distinct from its
+energy of axial rotation, and is not interchangeable therewith. The
+transformation of the one form of energy in no way affects the totality
+of the other.
+
+The disruption of the primary mass furnishes a view of what is virtually
+the birth of gravitation as it is conceived to exist between separate
+bodies. It may now be pointed out that the attractive influence of
+gravitation is, in reality, but one of the many manifestations of energy
+of the system. It is not, however, an active manifestation of the
+working energy, but rather an aspect of energy as it is related to the
+properties of matter. We have absolutely no experimental experience of
+matter devoid of energy. Gravitation might readily be termed an energy
+property of matter, entirely passive in nature, and requiring the advent
+of some other form in order that it may exercise its function as an
+incepting agency.
+
+From a general consideration of the features of this system, in which
+every phenomenon is an energy phenomenon, it seems feasible to conclude
+also that every property of matter is likewise an energy property. It is
+certain, indeed, that no reasonable or natural concept of either matter
+or energy is possible if the two be dissociated. The system also
+presents a direct and clear illustration of the principles of
+conservation in the working of the whole, and also in each planetary
+unit.
+
+
+12. _Natural Conditions_
+
+It will be noted that, up to the present point, the cosmical system has
+been discussed from a purely abstract point of view. This method has
+been adopted for a definite reason. Although able, at all points, to
+bring more or less direct evidence from Nature, the author has no desire
+that his scheme should be regarded in any way as an attempt to originate
+or describe a system of creation. The object has been, by general
+reasoning from already accepted properties of matter and energy, to
+arrive at a true conception of a possible natural order of phenomena. It
+is obvious, however, that the solar system forms the prototype of the
+system described above. The motion of the earth and other planets is
+continuously occurring under the influence of gravitation, thermal,
+luminous, and other incepting fields which link them to the central
+mass, the sun. As a result of the action of such fields, energy
+transformations arise which form the visible phenomena of the system in
+all its parts, each transformation, whether associated with animate or
+inanimate matter, being carried out through the medium of some
+arrangement of matter hereafter referred to as a material machine. The
+conditions are precisely as laid down above. The system is dominated, in
+its separate units, and as a whole, by the great principle of the
+conservation of energy. Each planetary mass, as it revolves in space,
+is, so far as its energy properties are concerned, an absolutely
+conservative unit of that system. At the same time, however, each
+planetary mass remains absolutely dependent on the primary for those
+great controlling or incepting influences which determine the
+transformation of its inherent energy.
+
+In the special case of the earth, which will be dealt with in some
+detail, it is the object of this work to show that its property of
+complete energy conservation is amply verified by terrestrial phenomena.
+The extension of the principle from the earth to the whole planetary
+system has been made on precisely the same grounds as Newton extended
+the observed phenomena to his famous generalisation with respect to
+gravitation.
+
+
+
+
+PART II
+
+PRINCIPLES OF INCEPTION
+
+
+13. _Illustrative Secondary Processes_
+
+In this part of the work, an attempt will be made to place before the
+reader some of the purely terrestrial and other evidential phenomena on
+which the conclusions of the preceding General Statement are founded.
+The complete and absolute verification of that Statement is obviously
+beyond experimental device. Bound, as we are, within the confines of one
+planet, and unable to communicate with the others, we can have no direct
+experimental acquaintance with really separate bodies (Sec. 5) in space.
+But, if from purely terrestrial experience we can have no direct proofs
+on such matters, we have strong evidential conclusions which cannot be
+gainsayed. If the same kind of energy operates throughout the solar
+system, the experimental knowledge of its properties gained in one field
+of research is valuable, and may be readily utilised in another. The
+phenomena which are available to us for study are, of course, simply the
+ordinary energy processes of the earth--those operations which in the
+foregoing Statement have been described as secondary energy processes.
+Their variety is infinite, and the author has accordingly selected
+merely a few typical examples to illustrate the salient points of the
+scheme. The energy acting in these secondary processes is, in every
+case, derived, either directly or indirectly, from the energy of
+rotation or axial energy of the earth. In themselves, the processes may
+be either energy transformations or energy transmissions or a
+combination of both these operations. When the action involves the
+bodily movement of material mass in space, the dynamical energy thus
+manifested, and which may be transmitted by the movement of this
+material, is termed mechanical or "work" energy (Sec. 31); when the energy
+active in the process is manifested as heat, chemical, or electrical
+energy, we apply to it the term "molecular" energy. The significance of
+these terms is readily seen. The operation of mechanical or "work"
+energy on a mass of material may readily proceed without any permanent
+alteration in the internal arrangement or general structure of that
+mass. Mechanical or "work" energy is dissociated from any molecular
+action. On the other hand, the application of such forms of energy as
+heat or electrical energy to material leads to distinctly molecular or
+internal effects, in which some alteration in the constitution of the
+body affected may ensue. Hence the use of the terms, which of course is
+completely arbitrary.
+
+The principal object of this part of the work is to illustrate clearly
+the general nature, the working, and the limits of secondary processes.
+For this purpose, the author has found it best to refer to certain more
+or less mechanical contrivances. The apparatus made use of is merely
+that utilised in everyday work for experimental or other useful
+purposes. It is essentially of a very simple nature; no originality is
+claimed for it, and no apology is offered for the apparent simplicity of
+the particular energy operations chosen for discussion. In fact, this
+feature has rather led to their selection. In scientific circles to-day,
+familiarity with the more common instances of energy operations is apt
+to engender the belief that these processes are completely understood.
+There is no greater fallacy. In many cases, no doubt, the superficial
+phenomena are well known, but in even the simplest instances the
+mechanism or ultimate nature of the process remains unknown. A free and
+somewhat loose method of applying scientific terms is frequently the
+cloak which hides the ignorance of the observer. No attempt will here be
+made to go beyond the simple phenomena. The object in view is simply to
+describe such phenomena, to emphasise and explain certain aspects of
+already well-known facts, which, up to the present, have been neglected.
+
+In some of the operations now to be described, mechanical or "work"
+energy is the active agent, and material masses are thereby caused to
+execute various movements in the lines or field of restraining
+influences. For ordinary experimental convenience, the material thus
+moved must of necessity be matter in the solid form. The illustrative
+value of our experimental devices, however, will be very distinctly
+improved if it be borne in mind that the operations of mechanical energy
+are not restricted to solids only, but that the various processes of
+transformation and transmission here illustrated by the motions of solid
+bodies may, in other circumstances, be carried out in a precisely
+similar fashion by the movements of liquids or even of gases. The
+restrictions imposed in the method of illustration are simply those due
+to the limitations of human experimental contrivance. Natural operations
+exhibit apparatus of a different type. By the movements of solid
+materials a convenient means of illustration is provided, but it is to
+be emphasised that, so far as the operations of mechanical energy are
+concerned, the precise form or nature of the material moved, whether it
+be solid, liquid, or gaseous, is of no consequence. To raise one pound
+of lead through a given distance against the gravitative attraction of
+the earth requires no greater expenditure of energy than to raise one
+pound of hydrogen gas through the same distance. The same principle
+holds in all operations involving mechanical energy.
+
+Another point of some importance which will be revealed by the study of
+secondary operations is that every energy process has in some manner
+definite energy limits imposed upon it. In the workings of mechanical or
+"work" energy it is the mass value of the moving material which, in this
+respect, is important. The mass, in fact, is the real governing factor
+of the whole process (Sec. 20). It determines the maximum amount of energy
+which can be applied to the material, and thus controls the extent of
+the energy operation.
+
+But in actions involving the molecular energies, the operation may be
+limited by other considerations altogether. For example, the application
+of heat to a solid body gives rise to certain energy processes (Sec. 27).
+These processes may proceed to a certain degree with increase of
+temperature, but a point will finally be attained where change of state
+of the heated material takes place. This is the limiting point of this
+particular operation. When change of state occurs, the phenomena will
+assume an entirely different aspect. The first set of energy processes
+will now be replaced by a set of operations absolutely different in
+nature, themselves limited in extent, but by entirely different causes.
+The first operation must thus terminate when the new order appears. In
+this manner each process in which the applied energy is worked will be
+confined within certain limiting boundaries. In any chain of energy
+operations each link will thus have, as it were, a definite length. In
+chemical reactions, the limits may be imposed in various ways according
+to the precise nature of the action. Chemical combination, and chemical
+disruption, must be looked on as operations which involve not only the
+transformation of energy but also the transformation of matter. In most
+cases, chemical reactions result in the appearance of matter in an
+entirely new form--in the appearance, in fact, of actually different
+material, with physical and energy properties absolutely distinct from
+those of the reacting constituents. This appearance of matter in the new
+form is usually the evidence of the termination, not only of the
+particular chemical process, but also of the energy process associated
+with it. Transformation of energy may thus be limited by transformation
+of matter.
+
+Examples of the limiting features of energy operations could readily be
+multiplied. Even a cursory examination of most natural operations will
+reveal the existence of such limits. In no case do we find in Nature any
+body, or any energy system, to which energy may be applied in unlimited
+amount, but in every case, rigid energy limits are imposed, and, if
+these limits are exceeded, the whole energy character of the body or
+system is completely changed.
+
+
+14. _Incepting Energy Influences_
+
+In experimental and in physical work generally, it has been customary,
+in describing any simple process of energy transformation, to take
+account only of those energies or those forms of energy which play an
+active part in the process--the energy in its initial or applied form
+and the energy in its transformed or final form. This method, however,
+requires enlarging so as to include another feature of energy
+transformation, a feature hitherto completely overlooked, namely, that
+of incepting energy. Now, this conception of incepting energy, or of
+energy as an incepting influence, is of such vital importance to the
+author's scheme, that it is necessary here, at the very outset, to deal
+with it in some detail. To obtain some idea of the general nature of
+these influences, it will be necessary to describe and review a few
+simple instances of energy transformation. One of the most illuminating
+for this purpose is perhaps the familiar process of dynamo-electric
+transformation.
+
+A spherical mass A (Fig. 1) of copper is caused to rotate about its
+central axis in the magnetic field in the neighbourhood of a long and
+powerful electro-magnet. In such circumstances, certain well-known
+transformations of energy will take place. The energy transformed is
+that dynamical or "work" energy which is being applied to the spherical
+mass by the external prime mover causing it to rotate. As a result of
+this motion in the magnetic field, an electrical action takes place;
+eddy currents are generated in the spherical mass, and the energy
+originally applied is, through the medium of the electrical process,
+finally converted into heat and other energy forms. The external
+evidence of the process will be the rise in temperature and
+corresponding expansion of the rotating mass.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1]
+
+Such is the energy transformation. Let us now review the conditions
+under which it takes place. Passing over the features of the "work"
+energy applied and the energy produced in the transformation, it is
+evident that the primary and essential condition of the whole process is
+the presence of the magnetic field. In the absence of this influence,
+every other condition of this particular energy operation might have
+been fulfilled without result. The magnetic field is, in reality, the
+determining agency of the process. But this field of magnetic force is
+itself an energy influence. Its existence implies the presence of
+energy; it is the external manifestation of that energy (usually
+described as stored in the field) which is returned, as shown by the
+spark, when the exciting circuit of the electro-magnet is broken. The
+transformation of the dynamical or "work" energy (Sec. 31) applied to the
+rotating sphere is thus carried out by the direct agency, under the
+power, or within the field of this magnetic energy influence, to which,
+accordingly, we apply the expression, incepting energy influence, or
+incepting energy.
+
+There are several points to be noted with regard to these phenomena of
+inception. In the first place, it is clear that the energy which thus
+constitutes the magnetic field plays no active part in the main process
+of transformation: during the operation it neither varies in value nor
+in nature: it is entirely a passive agent. Neither is any continuous
+expenditure of energy required for the maintenance of this incepting
+influence. It is true that the magnetic field is primarily due to a
+circulatory current in the coils or winding of the electro-magnet, but
+after the initial expenditure of energy in establishing that field is
+incurred, the continuous expenditure of energy during the flow of the
+current is devoted to simply heating the coils. A continuous heat
+transformation is thus in progress. The magnetic energy influence,
+although closely associated with this heat transformation, yet
+represents in itself a distinct and separate energy feature. This last
+point is, perhaps, made more clear if it be assumed that, without
+altering the system in any way, the electro-magnet is replaced by a
+permanent magnet of precisely the same dimensions and magnetic power.
+There would then be no energy expenditure whatever for excitation, but
+nevertheless, the main transformation would take place in precisely the
+same manner and to exactly the same degree as before. The incepting
+energy influence is found in the residual magnetism.
+
+If an iron ball or sphere were substituted, in the experiment, for the
+copper one, the phenomena observed on its rotation would be of an
+exactly similar nature to those described above. There is, however, one
+point of difference. Since the iron is magnetic, the magnet pole will
+now exert an attractive force on the iron mass, and if the latter were
+in close proximity to the pole (Fig. 1), a considerable expenditure of
+energy might be required to separate the two. It is evident, then, that
+in the case of iron and the magnetic metals, this magnetic influence is
+such that an expenditure of energy is required, not only to cause these
+materials to move in rotation so as to cut the lines of the field of the
+magnetic influence, but also to cause them to move outwards from the
+seat of the influence _along_ the lines of the field. The movements,
+indeed, involve transformations of energy totally different in nature.
+Assuming the energy to be obtained, in both cases, from the same
+external source, it is, in the first instance, converted by rotatory
+motion in the field into electrical and heat energy, whereas, in the
+second case, by the outward motion of displacement from the pole, it is
+transformed and associated with the mass in the form of energy of
+position or energy of displacement relative to the pole. Since the
+attractive force between the iron mass and the pole may be assumed to
+diminish according to a well-known law, the energy transformation per
+unit displacement will also diminish at the same rate. The precise
+nature and extent of the influence of the incepting agent thus depend on
+the essential qualities of the energised material under its power. In
+this case, the magnetic metals, such as iron, provide phenomena of
+attraction which are notably absent in the case of the dia-magnetic
+metals such as copper. Other substances, such as wood, appear to be
+absolutely unaffected by any movement in the magnetic field. The precise
+energy condition of the materials in the field of the incepting
+influence is also an important point. The incepting energy might be
+regarded as acting, not on the material itself, but rather on the energy
+associated with that material. From the phenomena already considered, it
+is clear that before the incepting influence of magnetism can act on the
+copper ball, the latter must be endowed with energy of rotation. It is
+on this energy, then, that the incepting influence exerts its
+transforming power. It would be useless to energise the copper ball, say
+by raising it to a high temperature, and then place it at rest in the
+magnetic field; the magnetic energy influence would not operate on the
+heat energy, and consequently, no transformation would ensue.
+
+It is easy to conceive, also, that in the course of an energy
+transformation, the material may attain an energy condition in which the
+incepting influence no longer affects it. Take once more the case of the
+iron ball. It is well known that, at a high temperature, iron becomes
+non-magnetic. It would follow, then, that if the rotational
+transformation in the magnetic field could be carried out to the
+requisite degree, so that, by the continuous application of that heat
+energy which is the final product of the process, the ball had attained
+this temperature, then the other transformation consequent on the
+displacement of the ball from the attracting pole could not take place.
+No change has really occurred in the incepting energy conditions. They
+are still continuous and persistent, but the energy changes in the
+material itself have carried it, to a certain degree, beyond the
+influence of these conditions.
+
+
+15. _Cohesion as an Incepting Influence_
+
+Other aspects of incepting energy may be derived from the examples cited
+above. Returning to the case of the rotating copper sphere, let it be
+assumed that in consequence of its rotation in the magnetic field it is
+raised from a low to a high temperature. Due to the heating effect
+alone, the mass will expand or increase in volume. This increase is the
+evidence of a definite energy process by which certain particles or
+portions of the mass have in distortion gained energy of
+position--energy of separation--or potential energy relative to the
+centre of the sphere. In fact, if the mass were allowed to cool back to
+its normal condition, this energy might by a suitable arrangement be
+made available for some form of external work. It is obvious, however,
+that this new energy of position or separation which has accrued to the
+mass in its heated condition has in reality been obtained by the
+transformation of the "work" energy originally applied. The abnormal
+displacement of certain particles or portions of the mass from the
+centre of the sphere is simply the external evidence of their increased
+energy. Now this displacement, or strain, due to the heat expansion, is
+carried out against the action of certain cohesive forces or stresses
+existing between the particles throughout the mass. These cohesive
+forces are, in fact, the agency which determines this transformation of
+heat into energy of position. Their existence is essential to the
+process. But these cohesive forces are simply the external manifestation
+of that energy by virtue of which the mass tends to maintain its
+coherent form. They are the symbol of that energy which might be termed
+the cohesion energy of the mass--they are, in fact, the symbol of the
+incepting energy influence of the transformation. This incepting energy
+influence of cohesion is one which holds sway throughout all solid
+material. It is, therefore, found in action in every movement involving
+the internal displacement or distortion of matter. It is a property of
+matter, and accordingly it is found to vary not only with the material,
+but also with the precise physical condition or the energy state of the
+material with which it is associated. In this respect, it differs
+entirely from the preceding magnetic influence. The latter, we have
+seen, has no direct association with the copper ball, or with the
+material which is the actual venue of the transformation. As an energy
+influence, it is itself persistent, and unaffected by the energy state
+of that material. On the other hand, the cohesion energy, being purely a
+property of the material which is the habitat of the energy process, is
+directly affected by its energy state. This point will be clearer by
+reference to the actual phenomena of the heat transformation. As the
+process proceeds, the temperature of the mass as the expansion increases
+will rise higher and higher, until, at a certain point, the solid
+material is so energised that change of state ensues. At this, the
+melting-point of the material, liquefaction takes place, and its
+cohesive properties almost vanish. In this fashion, then, a limit is
+clearly imposed on the process of heat transformation in the solid
+body--a limit defined by the cohesive or physical properties of the
+particular material. In this limiting power lies the difference between
+cohesion and magnetism as incepting influences. Looking at the whole
+dynamo-electric transformation in a general way, it will be clear that
+the magnetic influence in no way limits or affects the amount of
+dynamical or "work" energy which may be applied to the rotating sphere.
+This amount is limited simply by the cohesive properties of the material
+mass in rotation. The magnetic influence might, in fact, be regarded as
+the primary or inducing factor in the system, and the cohesion influence
+as the secondary or limiting factor.
+
+
+16. _Terrestrial Gravitation as an Incepting Influence_
+
+The attractive influence of gravitation appears as an incepting agency
+in terrestrial as well as in celestial phenomena. In fact, of all the
+agencies which incept energy transformations on the earth, gravitation,
+in one form or another, is the most universal and the most important.
+Gravitation being a property of all matter, no mundane body, animate or
+inanimate, is exempt from its all-pervading influence, and every
+movement of energised matter within the field of that influence leads
+inevitably to energy transformation.
+
+Let us take a concrete illustration. A block of solid material is
+supported on a horizontal table. By means of a cord attached, energy is
+applied to the block from an external source, so that it slides over the
+surface of the table. As a result of this motion and the associated
+frictional process, heat energy will make its appearance at the sliding
+surfaces of contact. This heat energy is obviously obtained by the
+transformation of that energy originally applied to the block from the
+external source. What is the incepting influence in this process of
+transformation? The incepting influence is clearly the gravitative
+attraction of the earth operating between the moving block and the
+table. The frictional process, it is well known, is dependent in extent
+or degree on the pressure between the surfaces in contact. This pressure
+is, of course, due to the gravitative attraction of the earth on the
+mass of the block. If it be removed, say by supporting the block from
+above, the heat-transformation process at the surfaces at once
+terminates. Gravity, then, is the primary incepting influence of the
+process. The effect of gravitation in transformation has apparently been
+eliminated by supporting the block from above and removing the pressure
+between block and table. It is not really so, however, because the
+pressure due to the gravitative attraction of the earth on the block has
+in reality only been transferred to this new point of support, and if a
+movement of the block is carried out it will be found that the heat
+transformation has been also transferred to that point. But there are
+also other influences at work in the process. The extent of the heat
+transformation depends, not only on the pressure, but also on the nature
+of the surfaces in contact. It is evident, that in the sliding movement
+the materials in the neighbourhood of the surfaces in contact will be
+more or less strained or distorted. This distortion is carried out in
+the lines of the cohesive forces of the materials, and is the real
+mechanism of the transformation of the applied work energy into heat. It
+is obvious that the nature of the surfaces in contact must influence the
+degree of distortion, that is, whether they are rough or smooth; the
+cohesive qualities of the materials in contact will depend also on the
+nature of these materials, and the extent of the heat transformation
+will be limited by these cohesive properties in precisely the same way
+as described for other examples (Sec. 15). The function of gravitation in
+this transformation is, obviously, again quite passive in nature, and is
+in no way influenced by the extent of the process. Gravitation is, as it
+were, only the agency whereby the acting energy is brought into
+communication with the cohesive forces of the sliding materials.
+
+A little reflection will convey to the reader the vast extent of this
+influence of gravitation in frictional phenomena, and the important
+place occupied by such phenomena in the economy of Nature. From the
+leaf which falls from the tree to the mighty tidal motions of air,
+earth, and sea due to the gravitative effects of the sun and moon, all
+movements of terrestrial material are alike subject to the influence of
+terrestrial gravitation, and will give rise to corresponding heat
+processes. These heat processes are continually in evidence in natural
+phenomena; the effect of their action is seen alike on the earth's
+surface and in its interior (internal heating). Of the energy operating
+in them we do not propose to say anything further at this stage, except
+that it is largely communicated to the atmospheric air masses.
+
+
+17. _The Gravitation Field_
+
+The foregoing examples of transformation serve to place before the
+reader some idea of the general nature and function of an incepting
+energy influence. But for the broadest aspects of the latter agencies it
+is necessary to revert once more to celestial phenomena. As already
+indicated in the General Statement, the primary transformations of
+planetary axial energy are stimulated by certain agencies inherent to,
+and arising from, the central mass of the system. These energy agencies
+or effects operate through space, and are entirely passive in nature.
+They are in no way associated with energy transmission; they are merely
+the determining causes of the energy-transforming processes which they
+induce, and do not in the least affect the conservative energy
+properties of the planetary masses over which their influence is cast.
+Of the precise number and nature of such influences thus exerted by the
+primary mass we can say nothing. The energy transformations which are
+the direct result of their action are so extensive and so varied in
+character that we would hesitate to place any limit on the number of the
+influences at work. Some of these influences, however, being associated
+with the phenomena of everyday experience, are more readily detected in
+action than others and more accessible to study. It is to these that we
+naturally turn in order to gain general ideas for application to more
+obscure cases.
+
+Of the many incepting influences, therefore, which may emanate from the
+primary mass there are three only which will be dealt with here. Each
+exerts a profound action on the planetary system, and each may be
+readily studied and its working verified by the observation of common
+phenomena. These influences are respectively the gravitation, the
+thermal, and the luminous fields.
+
+The general nature and properties of the gravitation field have to some
+extent been already foreshadowed (Secs. 4, 6, 16). Other examples will be
+dealt with later, and it is unnecessary to go into further detail here.
+The different aspects, however, in which the influence has been
+presented may be pointed out. Firstly, in the separate body in space, as
+an inherent property of matter (Sec. 2); secondly, as an attractive
+influence exerted across space between primary and planet, both
+absolutely separate bodies (Sec. 5); and thirdly, as a purely planetary or
+secondary incepting influence (Sec. 16). In every case alike we find its
+function to be of an entirely passive nature. Its most powerful effect
+on planetary material is perhaps manifested in the tidal actions (Sec. 9).
+With respect to these movements, it may be pointed out that the
+planetary material periodically raised from the surface is itself
+elevated against the inherent planetary gravitative forces, and also, to
+a certain extent, against the cohesive forces of planetary material.
+Each of these resisting influences functions as an incepting agency, and
+thus the elevation of the mass involves a transformation of energy (Sec.
+4). The source of the energy thus transformed is the axial energy of the
+planet, and the new forms in which it is manifested are energy of
+position or potential energy relative to the planetary surface, and heat
+energy. On the return of the material to its normal position, its energy
+of position, due to its elevation, will be returned in its original form
+of axial energy. In the case of the heat transformation, however, it is
+to be noted that this process will take place both as the material is
+elevated and also as it sinks once more to its normal position. The
+heat transformation thus operates continuously throughout the entire
+movement. The upraising of the material in the tidal action is brought
+about entirely at the expense of inherent planetary axial energy. The
+gravitative and cohesive properties of the planetary material make such
+a transformation process possible. It is in virtue of these properties
+that energy may be applied to or expended on the material in this way.
+The tidal action on the planetary surface is, in fact, simply a huge
+secondary process in which axial energy is converted into heat. The
+primary incepting power is clearly gravitation.
+
+Of the aspect of gravitation as a purely planetary influence (Sec. 16)
+little requires to be said. The phenomena are so prominent and familiar
+that the reader may be left to multiply instances for himself.
+
+
+18. _The Thermal Field_
+
+The thermal field which is induced by and emanates from the primary mass
+differs from the gravitation field in that, so far as we know, it is
+unaccompanied by any manifestation of force, attractive or otherwise.
+Its action on the rotating planetary mass may be compared to that of the
+electro-magnet on the rotating copper sphere (Sec. 14); the electro-magnet
+exerts no force on the sphere, but an energy expenditure is,
+nevertheless, required to rotate the latter through the field of the
+magnetic influence.
+
+To this thermal field, then, in which the planets rotate, we ascribe all
+primary planetary heating phenomena. The mode of action of the thermal
+field appears to be similar to that of other incepting influences. By
+its agency the energy of axial rotation of planetary material is
+directly converted into the heat form. As already shown (Sec. 17), heat
+energy may be developed in planetary material as a result of the action
+of other incepting agencies, such as gravitation. These processes are,
+however, more or less indirect in nature. But the operation due to the
+thermal field is a direct one. The heat energy is derived from the
+direct transformation of planetary axial energy of rotation without
+passing through any intermediate forms. In common parlance, the thermal
+field is the agency whereby the primary mass heats the planetary system.
+No idea of transmission, however, is here implied in such phraseology;
+the heating effect produced on any planetary mass is entirely the result
+of the transformation of its own energy; the thermal field is purely and
+simply the incepting influence of the process. Now, in virtue of the
+configuration of the rotating planetary masses, their material in
+equatorial regions is much more highly energised than the material in
+the neighbourhood of the poles, and will, accordingly, move with much
+greater linear velocity through the thermal field. The heat
+transformation will vary accordingly. It will be much more pronounced at
+the equator than at the poles, and a wide difference in temperature will
+be maintained between the two regions. The thermal field, also, does not
+necessarily produce the same heating effect on all planetary material
+alike. Some materials appear to be peculiarly susceptible--others much
+less so. This we may verify from terrestrial experience. Investigation
+shows the opaque substances to be generally most susceptible, and the
+transparent materials, such as glass, rock-salt, tourmaline, &c. almost
+insusceptible, to the heating effect of the sun. The influence of the
+thermal field can, in fact, operate through the latter materials. A
+still more striking and important phenomenon may be observed in the
+varying action of the thermal field on matter in its different forms. It
+has been already pointed out that, in the course of transformation in
+the field of an incepting influence, a material may attain a certain
+energy state in which it is no longer susceptible to that influence.
+This has been exemplified in the case of the iron ball (Sec. 14) and a
+phenomenon of the same general nature is revealed in the celestial
+transformation. A piece of solid material of low melting-point is
+brought from the polar regions of the earth to the equator. Due to the
+more rapid movement across the sun's thermal field, and the consequent
+increased action of that field, a transformation of the axial energy of
+rotation of the body takes place, whereby it is heated and finally
+liquefied. In the liquid state the material is still susceptible to the
+thermal field, and the transformation process accordingly proceeds until
+the material finally assumes the gaseous form. At this point, however,
+it is found that the operation is suspended; the material, in assuming
+the gaseous state, has now attained a condition (Sec. 15) in which the
+thermal field has no further incepting or transforming influence upon
+it. No transformation of its axial energy into the heat form is now
+possible by this means; indeed, so far as the _direct_ heating effect of
+the sun is concerned, the free gaseous material on the planetary surface
+is entirely unaffected. All the evidence of Nature points to the
+conclusion that all gaseous material is absolutely transparent to the
+_direct_ thermal influence of the sun. Matter in the gaseous form
+reaches, as it were, an ultimate or limiting condition in this respect.
+This fact, that energised material in the gaseous form is not
+susceptible to the thermal field, is of very great importance in the
+general economy of Nature. It is, in reality, the means whereby the
+great primary process of the transformation of the axial energy of the
+earth into the heat form is limited in extent. As will be explained
+later, it is the device whereby the planetary energy stability is
+conserved. It will be apparent, of course, that heat energy may be
+readily applied to gaseous masses by other means, such as conduction or
+radiation from purely terrestrial sources. The point which we wish here
+to emphasise is, simply, that gaseous material endowed with axial energy
+on the planetary surface cannot have this axial energy directly
+transformed into heat through the instrumentality of the thermal field
+of the primary.
+
+
+19. _The Luminous Field_
+
+The planetary bodies are indebted to the primary mass not only for heat
+phenomena, but also for the phenomena of light. These light phenomena
+are due to a separate and distinct energy influence (or influences)
+which we term the luminous field.
+
+The mode of action of the luminous field is similar to that of other
+incepting influences. It operates from the primary, and is entirely
+passive in nature. Like the thermal field, it does not appear to be
+accompanied by any manifestation of physical stress or force, except,
+indeed, the experimental demonstrations of the "pressure of light" can
+be regarded as such. In any case, this in no way affects the general
+action of light as an incepting agency. Its action on energised
+planetary material gives rise to certain transformations of energy,
+transformations exclusive and peculiar to its own influence. We will
+refer to terrestrial phenomena for illustrations of its working.
+
+Perhaps the commonest example of transformation in which the luminous
+field appears as the incepting agency is seen in the growth of plant
+life on the surface of the earth. The growth and development of
+vegetation and plants generally is the outward evidence of certain
+energy transformations. The processes of growth, however, are of such a
+complex nature that it is impossible to state the governing energy
+conditions in their entirety, but, considering them merely in general
+fashion, it may be said that energy in various forms (potential,
+chemical, &c.) is stored in the tissues of the growing material. Now the
+source of this energy is the axial energy of the earth, and, as stated
+above, the luminous field is an incepting factor (there may be others)
+in the process of transformation, a factor whereby this axial energy is
+converted into certain new forms. It is well known that, amongst the
+factors which influence the growth of vegetation, one of the most potent
+is that of light. The presence of sunlight is one of the essential
+conditions for the successful working of certain transformations of
+plant life, and these transformations vary not only in degree but in
+nature, according to the variation of the imposed light in intensity and
+quality. Some of the processes of growth are no doubt chemical in
+nature. Here, again, light may be readily conceived to have a direct
+determining influence upon them, exactly as in the cases of its
+well-known action in chemical phenomena--for instance, as in
+photography. Other examples will readily occur to the reader. One of the
+most interesting is the action of light on the eye itself. It may be
+pointed out indeed that light is, first and foremost, a phenomenon of
+vision. Whatever may be its intrinsic nature, it is primarily an
+influence affecting the eye. But the action of seeing, like all other
+forms of human activity, involves a certain expenditure of bodily
+energy. This energy is, of course, primarily derived from the axial
+energy of the earth through the medium of plant and animal life and the
+physico-chemical processes of the body itself. Its presence in one form
+or another is, in fact, essential to all the phenomena of life. The
+action of seeing accordingly involves the transformation of a certain
+modicum of this energy, and the influence which incepts this
+transformation is the luminous field which originates in and emanates
+from the central mass of the system, the sun. In a similar way,
+planetary material under certain conditions may become the source of an
+incepting luminous field. It is this light influence or luminous field
+which, in common parlance, is said to enter the eye. In that organ,
+then, is found the mechanism or machine (Sec. 30), a complicated one, no
+doubt, whereby this process of transformation is carried out which makes
+the light influence perceptible to the senses. Of the precise nature of
+the action little can be said. The theme is rather one for a treatise on
+physiology. It may be pointed out, however, with regard to the process
+of transformation, that Dewar has already demonstrated the fact that
+when light falls on the retina of the eye, an electric current is set up
+in the optic nerve. The energy associated with this current is, of
+course, obtained at the expense of the bodily energy of the observer,
+and this energy, after passing, it may be, through a large number of
+transformation processes, will finally be returned to the source from
+which it was originally derived, namely, the axial energy of the earth.
+The luminous field, also, like the thermal field, has no transforming
+effect whatever on the energy of certain substances. It may pass
+completely through some and be reflected by others without any sign of
+energy transformation. Its properties are, in fact, simply the
+properties of light, and must be accepted simply as phenomena. Now, it
+is very important, in studying matters of this kind, to realise that it
+is impossible ever to get beyond or behind phenomena. It may be pointed
+out that in no sphere of physics has the influence of so-called
+explanatory mechanical hypotheses been stronger than in that dealing
+with the properties of light. New theories are being expounded almost
+daily in attempts to explain or dissect simple phenomena. But it may be
+asked, In what does our really useful knowledge of light consist?
+Simply in our knowledge of phenomena. Beyond this, one cannot go. We may
+attempt to explain phenomena, but to create for this purpose elastic
+ethereal media or substances without direct evidential phenomena in
+support is not to advance real knowledge. There are certain properties
+peculiar to the luminous as to all other incepting fields, certain
+conditions under which each respectively will act, and the true method
+of gaining real insight into these agencies is by the study of these
+actual properties (or phenomena) and conditions, and not by attempts to
+ultimately explain them. It will be evident that in most cases of
+natural energy operations there is more than one energy influence in
+action. As a rule there are several. In a growing plant, for example, we
+have the thermal, luminous, gravitation, and cohesive influences all in
+operation at the same time, each performing its peculiar function in
+transformation, each contributing its own peculiar energy phenomena to
+the whole. This feature adds somewhat to the complexity of natural
+operations and to the difficulties in the precise description of the
+various phenomena with which they are associated.
+
+
+20. _Transformations--Upward Movement of a Mass against Gravity_
+
+When the significance of energy inception and the characteristic
+properties of the various agencies have been grasped, it becomes much
+easier to deal with certain other aspects of energy processes. To
+illustrate these aspects it is, therefore, now proposed to discuss a few
+simple secondary operations embodied in experimental apparatus. A few
+examples of the operations of transformation and transmission of energy
+will be considered. The object in view is to show the general nature of
+these processes, and more especially the limits imposed upon them by the
+various factors or properties of the material machines in which they are
+of necessity embodied. The reader is asked to bear in mind also the
+observations already made (Sec. 13) with respect to experimental apparatus
+generally.
+
+The first operation for discussion is that of the upward movement of a
+mass of material against the gravitative attraction of the earth. This
+movement involves one of the most simple and at the same time one of the
+most important of secondary energy processes. As a concrete
+illustration, consider the case of a body projected vertically upwards
+with great velocity from the surface of the earth. The phenomena of its
+motion will be somewhat as follows:--As the body recedes from the
+earth's surface in its upward flight, its velocity suffers a continuous
+decrease, and an altitude is finally attained where this velocity
+becomes zero. The projectile, at this point, is instantaneously at rest.
+Its motion then changes; it commences to fall, and to proceed once more
+towards the starting-point with continuously increasing velocity.
+Neglecting the effect of the air (Sec. 29) and the rotational movement of
+the earth, it may be assumed that the retardation of the projectile in
+its upward flight is numerically equal to its acceleration in its
+downward flight, and that it finally returns to the starting-point with
+velocity numerically equal to the initial velocity of projection. The
+process then obviously involves a complete transformation and return of
+energy. At the earth's surface, where its flight commences and
+terminates, the body is possessed of energy of motion to a very high
+degree. At the highest point of flight, this form of energy has entirely
+vanished; the body is at rest. Its energy properties are then
+represented by its position of displacement from the earth's surface;
+its energy of motion in disappearing has assumed this form of energy of
+position, energy of separation, or potential energy. The moving body has
+thus been the mechanism of an energy transformation. At each stage of
+its upward progress, a definite modicum of its original energy of motion
+is converted into energy of position. Between the extreme points of its
+flight, the energy of the body is compounded of these two forms, one of
+which is increasing at the expense of the other. When the summit of
+flight is reached the conversion into energy of position is complete. In
+the downward motion, the action is completely reversed, and when the
+body reaches the starting-point its energy of position has again been
+completely transformed into energy of motion. It might be well to draw
+attention here to the fact, often overlooked, that this energy of
+position gained by the rising mass is, in reality, a form of energy,
+separate and distinct, brought into existence by the transformation and
+disappearance of the energy of the moving mass. Energy of position is as
+truly a form of energy as heat or kinetic energy.
+
+The transformation here depicted is clearly a simple process, yet we
+know absolutely nothing of its ultimate nature, of the why or wherefore
+of the operation. Our knowledge is confined to the circumstances and
+conditions under which it takes place. Let us now, therefore, deal with
+these conditions. The transformation is clearly carried out in virtue of
+the movement of the body in the lines or field of an incepting
+influence. This influence is that of gravitation, which links the body
+continually to the earth. Now the function of gravitation in this
+process, as in others already described, is that of a completely passive
+incepting agent. The active energy which suffers change in the process
+is clearly the original work energy (Sec. 31) communicated to the projected
+body. The whole process is, in fact, a purely mechanical operation, and
+as in the case of other processes involving mechanical energy, it is
+limited by the mass value of the moving material. It is clear that the
+greater the amount of energy communicated to the projectile at the
+starting-point, the greater will be the altitude it will attain in its
+flight. The amount of energy, however, which can thus be communicated is
+dependent on the maximum force which can be applied to the projectile.
+But the maximum force which can be applied to any body depends entirely
+on the resistance offered by that body, and in this case the resisting
+force is the gravitative attraction of the earth on the projectile,
+which attraction is again a direct function of its mass. The greater the
+mass, the greater the gravitative force, and the greater the possibility
+of transformation. The ultimate limit of the process would be reached if
+the projected mass were so great as to equal half the mass of the earth.
+In such circumstances, the earth being assumed to be divided into two
+equal masses, the maximum limiting value of the gravitative attraction
+would clearly be attained. Any increase of the one mass over the other
+would again lead, however, to a diminution in the attractive force and a
+corresponding decrease in the energy limit for transformation. The
+precise manner in which the operations of mechanical energy are limited
+by the mass will now be clear. The principle is quite general, and
+applicable to all moving bodies. Mass is ever a direct measure of energy
+capacity. A graphical method of representing energy transformations of
+this kind, by a system of co-ordinates, would enable the reader to
+appreciate more fully the quantitative relations of the forms of energy
+involved and also their various limits.
+
+
+21. _The Simple Pendulum_
+
+The remaining operations of transformation for discussion are embodied
+in the following simple apparatus. A spherical metallic mass M (Fig. 2)
+is supported by a rod P which is rigidly connected to a horizontal
+spindle HS as shown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2]
+
+The spindle is supported and free to revolve in the bearings B{1} and
+B{2} which form part of the supporting framework V resting on the
+ground; the bearing surfaces at B{1} and B{2} are lubricated, and the
+mass M is free to perform, in a vertical plane, complete revolutions
+about the axis through the centre of the spindle. In carrying out this
+motion its path will be circular, as shown at DCFE; the whole
+arrangement is merely an adaptation of the simple pendulum. As
+constituted, the apparatus may form the seat of certain energy
+operations. Some of these will only take place with the application of
+energy of motion to the pendulum from an external source, thereby
+causing it to vibrate or to rotate: others, again, might be said to be
+inherent to the apparatus, since they arise naturally from its
+construction and configuration. We shall deal with the latter first.
+
+
+22. _Statical Energy Conditions_
+
+The pendulum with its spindle has a definite mass value, and, assuming
+it to be at rest in the bearings B{1} and B{2}, it is acted upon by
+gravitation, or in other words, it is under the influence or within the
+field of the gravitative attraction of the earth's mass upon it. The
+effect of this field is directly proportional to the mass of the
+pendulum and spindle, and to its action is due that bearing pressure
+which is transmitted through the lubricant to the bearing surfaces and
+thence to the supporting arms N{1} and N{2} of the framework. Bearings
+and columns alike are thus subjected to a downward thrust or pressure.
+Being of elastic material, they will be more or less distorted. This
+distortion will proceed until the downward forces are balanced by the
+upward or reactive forces called into play in virtue of the cohesive
+properties of the strained material. Corresponding to a slight downward
+movement of the pendulum and spindle in thus straining or compressing
+them, the supporting columns will be decreased in length. This downward
+movement is the external evidence of certain energy operations. In
+virtue of their elevation above the earth's surface, the pendulum and
+spindle possess, to a certain degree, energy of position, and any free
+downward movement would lead to the transformation of this energy into
+energy of motion (Sec. 20). But the downward motion of pendulum and spindle
+is not free. It is made against the resistance of the material of the
+supporting columns, and the energy of position, instead of assuming the
+form of energy of motion, is simply worked down or transformed against
+the opposing cohesive forces of the supporting materials. This energy,
+therefore, now resides in these materials in the form of energy of
+strain or distortion. In general nature, this strain energy is akin to
+energy of position (Sec. 20). Certain portions of the material of the
+columns have been forced into new positions against the internal forces
+of cohesion which are ever tending to preserve the original
+configuration of the columns. This movement of material in the field of
+the cohesive influence involves the transformation of energy (Sec. 4), and
+the external evidence of the energy process is simply the strained or
+distorted condition of the material. If the latter be released, and
+allowed to resume its natural form once more, this stored energy of
+strain would be entirely given up. In reality, the material can be said
+to play the part of a machine or mechanism for the energy process of
+storage and restoration. No energy process, in fact, ever takes place
+unless associated with matter in some form. The supporting arms, in this
+case, form the material factor or agency in the energy operation. All
+such energy machines, also, are limited in the extent of their
+operation, by the qualities of the material factors. In this particular
+case, the energy compass of the machine is restricted by certain
+physical properties of the material, by the maximum value of these
+cohesive or elastic forces called into play in distortion. These forces
+are themselves the evidence of energy, of that energy by virtue of which
+the material possesses and maintains its coherent form. In this case
+this energy is also the factor controlling the transformation, and
+appears as a separate and distinct incepting agency. If the process is
+to be a reversible one, so that the energy originally stored in the
+material as strain energy or energy of distortion may be completely
+returned, the material must not be stressed beyond a certain point. Only
+a limited amount of work can be applied to it, only a limited amount of
+energy can be stored in it. Too much energy applied--too great a weight
+on the supporting columns--gives rise to permanent distortion or
+crushing, and an entirely new order of phenomena. This energy limit for
+reversibility is then imposed by the cohesive properties of the material
+or by its elastic limits. Up to this point energy stored in the material
+may be returned--the process is reversible in nature--but above this
+elastic limit any energy applied must operate in an entirely different
+manner.
+
+A little consideration will show also, that the state of distortion, or
+energy strain, is not confined to the material of the supporting columns
+alone. Action and reaction are equal. The same stresses are applied to
+the spindle through the medium of bearings and lubricant. In fact, every
+material substance of which the pendulum machine is built up is thus,
+more or less, strained against internal forces; all possess, more or
+less, cohesion or strain energy. It will be evident, also, that this
+condition is not peculiar to this or any other form of apparatus. It is
+the energy state or condition of every structure, either natural or
+artificial, which is built up of ordinary material, and which, on the
+earth's surface, is subjected to the influence of the gravitation field.
+This cohesion or strain energy is one of the forms in which energy is
+most widely distributed throughout material.
+
+In reviewing the statical condition of the above apparatus, the pendulum
+itself has been assumed to be hanging vertically at rest under the
+influence of gravitation. If energy be now applied to the system from
+some external source so that the pendulum is caused to vibrate, or to
+rotate about the axis of suspension, a new set of energy processes make
+their appearance. The movement of the pendulum mass, in its circular
+path around the central axis, is productive of certain energy reactions,
+as follows:--
+
+     _a._ A transformation of energy of motion into energy of position
+     and vice versa.
+
+     _b._ A frictional transformation at the bearing surfaces.
+
+These processes will each be in continuous operation so long as the
+motion of the pendulum is maintained. Their general nature is quite
+independent of the extent of that motion, whether it be merely vibratory
+through a small arc, or completely rotatory about the central axis. In
+the articles which immediately follow, the processes will be treated
+separately.
+
+
+23. _Transformations of the Moving Pendulum--a. Energy of Motion to
+      Energy of Position and Vice Versa_
+
+In this simple transformation the motion of the pendulum about the axis
+of suspension may be either vibratory or circular, according to the
+amount of energy externally applied. In each case, every periodic
+movement of the apparatus illustrates the whole energy operation. The
+general conditions of the process are almost identical with those in the
+case of the upward movement of a mass against gravity (Sec. 20).
+Gravitation is the incepting energy influence of the operation. If the
+pendulum simply vibrates through a small arc, then, at the highest
+points of its flight, it is instantaneously at rest. Its energy of
+motion is here, therefore, zero; its energy of position is a maximum. At
+the lowest point of its flight, the conditions are exactly reversed.
+Here its energy of motion is a maximum, while its energy of position
+passes through a minimum value. The same general conditions hold when
+the pendulum performs complete revolutions about the central axis. If
+the energy of motion applied is just sufficient to raise it to the
+highest point E (Fig. 2), the mass will there again be instantaneously
+at rest with maximum energy of position. As the mass falls downwards in
+completing the circular movement, its energy of position once more
+assumes the kinetic form, and reaches its maximum value at C (Fig. 2),
+the lowest position. The moving pendulum mass, so far as its energy
+properties are concerned, behaves in precisely the same manner as a body
+vertically projected in the field of the gravitative attraction (Sec. 20).
+This simple energy operation of the pendulum is perhaps one of the most
+familiar of energy processes. By its means, however, it is possible to
+illustrate certain general features of energy reactions of great
+importance to the author's scheme.
+
+The energy processes of the pendulum system are carried out through the
+medium of the material pendulum machine, and are limited, both in nature
+and degree, by the properties of that machine. As the pendulum vibrates,
+the transformation of energy of motion to energy of position or vice
+versa is an example of a reversible energy operation. The energy active
+in this operation continually alternates between two forms of energy:
+transformation is continually followed by a corresponding return.
+Neglecting in the meantime all frictional and other effects, we will
+assume complete reversibility, or that the energy of motion of the
+pendulum, after passing completely into the form of energy of position
+at the highest point, is again completely returned, in its original
+form, in the descent. Now, for any given pendulum, the amount of energy
+which can thus operate in the system depends on two factors, namely, the
+mass of the pendulum and the vertical height through which it rises in
+vibration. If the mass is fixed, then the maximum amount of energy will
+be operating in the reversible cycle when the pendulum is performing
+complete revolutions round its axis of suspension. The maximum height
+through which the pendulum can rise, or the maximum amount of energy of
+position which the system can acquire, is thus dependent on the length
+of the pendulum arm. These two factors, then, the mass and the length of
+the pendulum arm, are simply properties of this pendulum machine,
+properties by which its energy compass is restricted. Let us now
+examine these limiting factors more minutely.
+
+It is obvious that energy could readily be applied to the pendulum
+system in such a degree as to cause it to rotate with considerable
+angular velocity about the axis of suspension. Now the motion of the
+pendulum mass in the lines of the gravitation field, although productive
+of the same transformation process, differs from that of a body moving
+vertically upward in that, while the latter has a linear movement, the
+former is constrained into a circular path. This restraint is imposed in
+virtue of the cohesive properties of the material of the pendulum arm,
+and it is the presence of this restraining influence that really
+distinguishes the pendulum machine from the machine in which the moving
+mass is constrained by gravity alone (Sec. 20). It has been shown that the
+energy capacity of a body projected vertically against gravity is
+limited by its mass only; the energy capacity of the pendulum machine
+may be likewise limited by its mass, but the additional restraining
+factor of cohesion also imposes another limit. In the course of
+rotation, energy is stored in the material of the pendulum against the
+internal forces of cohesion. The action is simply that of what is
+usually termed centrifugal force. As the velocity increases, the
+pendulum arm lengthens correspondingly until the elastic limit of the
+material in tension is reached. At this point, the pendulum may be said
+to have reached the maximum length at which it can operate in that
+reversible process of transformation in which energy of motion is
+converted into energy of position. The amount of energy which would now
+be working in that process may be termed the limiting energy for
+reversibility. This limiting energy is the absolute maximum amount of
+energy which can operate in the reversible cycle. It is coincident with
+the maximum length of the pendulum arm in distortion. When the stress in
+the material of that arm reaches the elastic limit, it is clear that the
+transformation against cohesion will also have attained its limiting
+value for reversibility. This transformation, if the velocity of the
+pendulum is constant, is of the nature of a storage of energy. So long
+as the velocity is constant the energy stored is constant. If the
+elastic limiting stress of the material has not been exceeded, this
+energy--neglecting certain minor processes (Secs. 15, 29)--will be returned
+in its original form as the velocity decreases. If, however, the
+material be stressed beyond its elastic powers, the excess energy
+applied will simply lead to permanent distortion or disruption of the
+pendulum arm, and to a complete breakdown and change in the character of
+the machine and the associated energy processes (Sec. 5). The physical
+properties of the material thus limit the energy capacity of the
+machine. This limiting feature, as already indicated, is not peculiar
+to the pendulum machine alone. Every energy process embodied in a
+material machine is limited in a similar fashion by the peculiar
+properties of the acting materials. Every reversible process is carried
+out within limits thus clearly defined. Nature presents no exception to
+this rule, no example of a reversible energy system on which energy may
+be impressed in unlimited amount. On the contrary, all the evidence
+points to limitation of the strictest order in such processes.
+
+
+24. _Transformations of the Moving Pendulum--b. Frictional
+      Transformation at the Bearing Surfaces_
+
+The motion of the pendulum, whether it be completely rotatory or merely
+vibratory in nature, invariably gives rise to heating at the bearings or
+supporting points. Since the heating effect is only evident when motion
+is taking place, and since the heat can only make its appearance as the
+result of some energy process, it would appear that this persistent heat
+phenomenon is the result of a transformation of the original energy of
+motion of the pendulum.
+
+The general energy conditions of the apparatus already adverted to (Sec.
+21) still hold, and the lubricating oil employed in the apparatus being
+assumed to have sufficient capillarity or adhesive power to separate
+the metallic surfaces of bearings and journals at all velocities, then
+every action of the spindle on the bearings must be transmitted through
+the lubricant. The latter is, therefore, strained or distorted against
+the internal cohesive or viscous forces of its material. The general
+effect of the rotatory motion of the spindle will be to produce a motion
+of the material of the lubricant in the field of these incepting forces.
+To this motion the heat transformation is primarily due. Other
+conditions being the same, the extent of the transformation taking
+place, in any given case, is dependent on the physical properties of the
+lubricant, such as its viscosity, its cohesive or capillary power,
+always provided that the metallic surfaces are separated, so that the
+action is really carried out in the lines or field of the internal
+cohesive forces of the lubricant. In itself, this transformation is not
+a reversible process; no mechanism appears by which this heat energy
+evolved at the bearing surfaces could be returned once more to its
+original form of energy of motion. It may be, in fact, communicated by
+conduction to the metallic masses of the bearings, and thence, by
+conduction and radiation, to the air masses surrounding the apparatus.
+Its action in these masses is dealt with below (Sec. 29). The operation of
+bearing friction, though in itself not a reversible process, really
+forms one link of a complete chain (Sec. 9) of secondary operations
+(transmissions and transformations) which together form a comprehensive
+and complete cyclical energy process (Sec. 32).
+
+When no lubricant is used in the apparatus, so that the metallic
+surfaces of bearings and journals are in contact, the heat process is of
+a precisely similar nature to that described above (see also Sec. 16).
+Distortion of the metals in contact takes place in the surface regions,
+so that the material is strained against its internal cohesive forces.
+The transformation will thus depend on the physical properties of these
+metals, and will be limited by these properties. Different metallic or
+other combinations will consequently give rise to quite different
+results with respect to the amounts of heat energy evolved.
+
+
+25. _Stability of Energy Systems_
+
+The ratio of the maximum or limiting energy for reversibility to the
+total energy of the system may vary in value. If the pendulum vibrates
+only through a very small arc, then, neglecting the minor processes (Secs.
+24, 29), practically the whole energy of the system operates in the
+reversible transformation. This condition is maintained as the length of
+the arc of vibration increases, until the pendulum is just performing
+complete revolutions about the central axis. After this, the ratio will
+alter in value, because the greater part of any further increment of
+energy does not enter into the reversible cyclical process, but merely
+goes to increase the velocity of rotation and the total energy of the
+system. The small amount of energy which thus enters the reversible
+cycle as the velocity increases, does so in virtue of the increasing
+length of the pendulum arm in distortion. To produce even a slight
+distortion of the arm, a large amount of energy will require to be
+applied to and stored in the system, and thus, at high velocities of
+rotation, the energy which operates in the reversible cycle, even at its
+limiting value, may form only a very small proportion of the total
+energy of the system. At low velocities or low values of the total
+energy, say when the pendulum is not performing complete rotations,
+practically the whole energy of the system is working in the reversible
+cycle; but, in these circumstances, it is clear that the total energy of
+the system, which, in this case, is all working in the reversible
+process, is much less than the maximum or limiting amount of energy
+which might so work in that process. Under these conditions, when the
+total energy of the system is less than the limiting value for
+reversibility, so that this total energy in its entirety is free to take
+part in the reversible process, then the energy system may be termed
+stable with respect to that process. Stability, in an energy system,
+thus implies that the operation considered is not being, as it were,
+carried out at full energy capacity, but within certain reversible
+energy limits.
+
+We have emphasised this point in order to draw attention to the fact
+that the great reversible processes which are presented to our notice in
+natural phenomena are all eminently stable in character. Perhaps the
+most striking example of a natural reversible process is found in the
+working of the terrestrial atmospheric machine (Secs. 10, 38). The energy
+in this case is limited by the mass, but in actual operation its amount
+is well within the maximum limiting value. The machine, in fact, is
+stable in nature. Other natural operations, such as the orbital
+movements of planetary masses, (Sec. 8) illustrate the same conditions.
+Nature, although apparently prodigal of energy in its totality, yet
+rigidly defines the bounding limits of her active operations.
+
+
+26. _The Pendulum as a Conservative System_
+
+Under certain conditions the reversible energy cycle produces an
+important effect on the rotatory motion of the pendulum. For the purpose
+of illustration, let it be assumed that the pendulum is an isolated and
+conservative system endowed with a definite amount of rotatory energy.
+In its circular movement, the upward motion of the pendulum mass is
+accompanied by a gain in its energy of position. This gain is, in the
+given circumstances, obtained solely at the expense of its inherent
+rotatory energy, which, accordingly, suffers a corresponding decrease.
+The manifestation of this decrease will be simply a retardation of the
+pendulum's rotatory motion. Its angular velocity will, therefore,
+decrease until the highest altitude E (Fig. 2) is attained. After this,
+on the downward path, the process will be reversed. Acceleration will
+take place from the highest to the lowest point of flight, and the
+energy stored as energy of position will be completely returned in its
+original form of energy of motion. The effect of the working of the
+reversible cycle, then, on the rotatory system, under the given
+conditions, is simply to produce alternately a retardation and a
+corresponding acceleration. Now, it is to be particularly noted that
+these changes in the velocity of the system are produced, not by any
+abstraction from or return of energy to the system, which is itself
+conservative, but simply in consequence of the transformation and
+re-transformation of a certain portion of its inherent rotatory energy
+in the working of a reversible process embodied in the system. The same
+features may be observed in other systems where the conditions are
+somewhat similar.
+
+In the natural world, we find processes of the same general nature in
+constant operation. When any mass of material is elevated from the
+surface of a rotating planetary body against the gravitative attraction,
+it thereby gains energy of position (Sec. 20). This energy, on the body's
+return to the surface in the course of its cycle, reappears in the form
+of energy of motion. Now the material mass, in rising from the planetary
+surface, is not, in reality, separated from the planet. The atmosphere
+of the planet forms an integral portion of its material, partakes of its
+rotatory motion, and is bound to the solid core by the mutual
+gravitative forces. Any mass, then, on the solid surface of a planet is,
+in reality, in the planetary interior, and the rising of such a mass
+from that surface does not imply any actual separative process, but
+simply the radial movement, or displacement of a portion of the
+planetary material from the central axis. If the energy expended in the
+upraisal of the mass is derived at the expense of the inherent rotatory
+energy of the planet, as it would be if the latter were a strictly
+conservative energy system, then the raising of this portion of
+planetary material from the surface would have a retarding effect on the
+planetary motion of rotation. But if, on the other hand, the energy of
+such a mass as it fell towards the planetary surface were converted once
+more into its original form of energy of axial motion, exactly
+equivalent in amount to its energy of position, it is evident that the
+process would be productive of an accelerating effect on the planetary
+motion of rotation, which would in magnitude exactly balance the
+previous retardation. In such a process it is evident that energy
+neither enters nor leaves the planet. It simply works in an energy
+machine embodied in planetary material. This point will be more fully
+illustrated later. The reader will readily see the resemblance of a
+system of this nature to that which has already been illustrated by the
+rotating pendulum.
+
+In the meantime, it may be pointed out that matter displaced from the
+planetary surface need not necessarily be matter in the solid form. All
+the operations mentioned above could be quite readily--in fact, more
+readily--carried out by the movements of gaseous material, which is
+admirably adapted for every kind of rising, falling, or flowing motion
+relative to the planetary surface (Sec. 13).
+
+
+27. _Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes--Transmission of Heat
+      Energy by Solid Material_
+
+The pendulum machine described above furnishes certain outstanding
+examples of the operation of energy transformation. It will be noted,
+however, that it also portrays certain processes of energy transmission.
+In this respect it is not peculiar. Most of the material machines in
+which energy operates will furnish examples of both energy transmissions
+and energy transformations. In some instances, the predominant operation
+seems to be transformation, in others, transmission; and the machines
+may be classified accordingly. It is, however, largely a matter of
+terminology, since both operations are usually found closely associated
+in one and the same machine. The apparatus now to be considered is
+designed primarily to illustrate the operative features of certain
+energy transmissions, but the description of the machines with their
+allied phenomena will show that energy transformations also play a very
+important part in their constitution and working.
+
+A cylindrical metallic bar about twelve inches long, say, and one inch
+in diameter, is placed with its ends immersed in water in two separate
+vessels, A and B, somewhat as shown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3]
+
+By the application of heat energy, the temperature of the water in the
+vessel A is raised to a point say 100 deg. F. above that of B, and steadily
+maintained at that point. It is assumed that B is also kept at the
+constant lower temperature. In these circumstances, a transmission of
+heat energy takes place from A to B through the metallic bar. When the
+steady temperature condition is reached, the transmission will be
+continuous and uniform; the rate at which it is carried out will be
+determined by the length of the bar, by the material of which it is
+composed, and by the temperature difference maintained between its
+ends. Now what has really happened is that by a combination of
+phenomena the bar has been converted into a machine for the transmission
+of heat energy. A full description of these phenomena is, in reality,
+the description of this machine, and vice versa. Let us, therefore, now
+try to outline some of these phenomena.
+
+The first feature of note is the gradient of temperature which exists
+between the ends of the bar. Further research is necessary regarding the
+real nature of this gradient--it appears to differ greatly in different
+materials--but the existence of such a gradient is one of the main
+features of the energy machine, one of the essential conditions of the
+transmission process.
+
+Another feature is that of the expansive motion of the bar itself. The
+expansion of the bar due to the heating varies in value along its
+length, from a maximum at the hot end to a minimum at the cool end. The
+expansion, also, is the evidence of a transformation of energy. The bar
+has been constrained into its new form against the action of the
+internal molecular or cohesive forces of its material (Sec. 16). The energy
+employed and transformed in producing the expansion is a part of the
+original heat energy applied to the bar, and before any transmission of
+this heat energy takes place between its extreme ends, a definite
+modicum of the applied energy has to be completely transformed for the
+sole purpose of producing this distortive movement or expansion against
+cohesion. This preliminary straining of the bar is, in fact, a part of
+the process of building up or constituting the energy transmission
+machine, and must be completely carried out before any transmission can
+take place. It is clear, then, that concurrent with the gradient of
+temperature, there also exists, along the bar, what might be termed a
+gradient of energy stored against cohesion, and that both are
+characteristic and essential features of this particular energy machine.
+A point of some importance to note is the permanency of these features.
+Once the machine has been constituted with a constant temperature
+difference, the transmission of energy will take place continuously and
+at a uniform rate. But no further transformation against cohesion takes
+place; no further expenditure of energy against the internal forces of
+the material is necessary. Neglecting certain losses due to possible
+external conditions, the whole energy applied to the machine at the one
+end is transmitted in its entirety to the other, without influencing in
+any way either the temperature or the energy gradient.
+
+Such is the general constitution of this machine for energy
+transmission. Its material foundation is, indeed, the metallic bar, but
+the temperature and energy gradients may be termed the true determining
+factors of its operation. As already indicated, the magnitude of the
+transformation is dependent on the temperature difference between the
+ends of the bar. But this applies only within certain limits. With
+respect to the cool end, the temperature may be as low as we please--so
+far as we know, the limit is absolute zero of temperature; but with the
+hot end, the case is entirely different, because here the limit is very
+strictly imposed by the melting-point of the material of the bar. When
+this melting temperature is attained, the melting of the bar indicates,
+simply, that the heat energy stored or transformed against the cohesive
+forces of the material has reached its limiting value; change of state
+of the material is taking place, and the machine is thereby being
+destroyed.
+
+It is evident, then, that the energy which is actually being transmitted
+has itself no effect whatever in restricting the action or scope of the
+transmission machine. It is, in reality, the residual energy stored
+against the cohesive forces which imposes the limits on the working. It
+is the maximum energy which can be transformed in the field of the
+cohesive forces of the material which determines the power of that
+material as a transmitting agent. This maximum will, of course, be
+different for different materials according to their physical
+constitution. It is attained in this machine in each case when melting
+of the bar takes place.
+
+
+28. _Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes--Transmission by Flexible
+      Band or Cord_
+
+This method is often adopted when energy of motion, or mechanical
+energy, is required to be transmitted from one point to another. For
+illustration, consider the case of two parallel spindles or shafts, A
+and B (Fig. 4), each having a pulley securely keyed upon it. Spindle A
+is connected to a source of of mechanical energy, and it is desired to
+transmit this energy across the intervening space to spindle B.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4]
+
+This, of course, might be accomplished in various ways, but one of the
+most simple, and, at the same time, one of the most efficient, is the
+direct drive by means of a flexible band or cord. The band is placed
+tightly round, and adheres closely to both pulleys; the coefficient of
+friction between band and pulleys may, in the first instance, be assumed
+to be sufficiently great to prevent slipping of the band up to the
+highest stress which it is capable of sustaining in normal working.
+Connected in this fashion, the spindles will rotate in unison, and
+mechanical energy, if applied at A, may be directly transmitted to B.
+The material operator in the transmission is the connecting flexible
+band, and associated with this material are certain energy processes
+which are also essential features of the energy machine. When
+transmission of energy is taking place, a definite tension or stress
+exists in the connecting band, and neglecting certain inevitable losses
+due to bearing friction (Sec. 24) and windage (Sec. 29), practically the whole
+of the mechanical or work energy communicated to the one spindle is
+transmitted to the other. Now the true method of studying this or any
+energy process is simply to describe the constitution and principal
+features of the machine by which it is carried out. These are found in
+the phenomena of transmission. One of the most important is the peculiar
+state of strain or tension existing in the connecting band. This, as
+already indicated, is an absolutely essential condition of the whole
+operation. No transmission is possible without some stress or pull in
+the band. This pull is exerted against the cohesive forces of the
+material of the band, so that before transmission takes place it is
+distorted and a definite amount of the originally applied work energy is
+expended in straining it against these forces. This energy is
+accordingly stored in the form of strain energy or energy of separation
+(Sec. 22), and, if the velocity is uniform, the magnitude of the
+transmission is proportional to this pull in the band, or to the
+quantity of energy thus stored against the internal forces of its
+material. But, in every case, a limit to this amount of energy is
+clearly imposed by the strength of the band. The latter must not be
+strained beyond its limiting elastic stress. So long as energy is being
+transmitted, a certain transformation and return of energy of strain or
+separation is taking place in virtue of the differing values of the
+tensions in the two sides of the band; and if the latter were stressed
+beyond the elastic limit, permanent distortion or disruption of the
+material would take place. Under such conditions, the reversible energy
+process, involving storage and restoration of strain energy as the band
+passes round the pulleys, would be impossible, and the energy
+transmission machine would be completely disorganised. The magnitude of
+the energy operation is thus limited by the physical properties of the
+connecting band.
+
+Another important feature of this energy transmission machine is the
+velocity, or rather the kinetic energy, of the band. The magnitude of
+the transmission process is directly proportional to this velocity, and
+is, therefore, also a function of the kinetic energy. At any given rate
+of transmission, this kinetic energy, like the energy stored against the
+cohesive influence, will be constant in amount, and like that energy
+also, will have been obtained at the expense of the originally applied
+energy. This kinetic energy is an important feature in the constitution
+of the transmission machine. As in the case of the strain energy, its
+maximum value is strictly limited, and thus imposes a limit on the
+general operation of the machine. For, at very high velocities, owing to
+the action of centrifugal force, it is not possible to keep the band in
+close contact with the surface of the pulleys. When the speed rises
+above a certain limit, although the energy actually being transmitted
+may not have attained the maximum value possible at lower speeds with
+greater tension in the band, the latter will, in virtue of the strain
+imposed by centrifugal action, be forced radially outwards from the
+pulley. The coefficient of friction will be thereby reduced; slipping
+will ensue, and the transmission may cease either in whole or in part.
+In this way the velocity or kinetic energy limit is imposed. The machine
+for energy transmission may thus be limited in its operation by two
+different factors. The precise way in which the limit will be applied in
+any given case will, of course, depend on the circumstances of working.
+
+
+29. _Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes--Transmission of Energy to
+      Air Masses_
+
+The movement of the pendulum (Sec. 23) is accompanied by a certain
+transmission of energy to the surrounding medium. When this medium is a
+gaseous one such as air, the amount of energy thus transmitted is
+relatively small. The process, however, has a real existence. To
+illustrate its general nature, let it be assumed that the motion of the
+pendulum is carried out, not in air, but in a highly viscous fluid, say
+a heavy oil. Obviously, a pendulum falling from its highest position to
+its lowest, in such a medium would transmit its energy almost in its
+entirety to the medium, and would reach its lowest position almost
+devoid of energy of motion. The energy of position with which it was
+originally endowed would thus be transformed and transmitted to the
+surrounding medium. The agent by which the transmission is carried out
+is the moving material of the pendulum, which, as it passes through the
+fluid, distorts that fluid in the lines or field of its internal
+cohesive or viscous forces which offer a continuous resistance to the
+motion. As the pendulum passes down through the liquid, the succeeding
+layers of the latter are thus alternately distorted and released. The
+distortive movement takes place in virtue of the communication of energy
+from the moving pendulum to the liquid, and during the movement energy
+is stored in the fluid as energy of strain and as kinetic energy. At the
+same time, a transformation of the applied energy into heat takes place
+in the distorted material. The release of this material from strain, and
+its movement back towards its original state, is also accompanied by a
+similar transformation, in which the stored strain energy is, in turn,
+converted into the heat form. The whole operation is similar in nature
+to that frictional process already described (Sec. 16) in the case of a
+body moving on a rough horizontal table. The final action of the heat
+energy thus communicated to the fluid is to expand the latter against
+the internal cohesive or viscous forces of its material, and also
+against the gravitative attraction of the earth.
+
+Now when the pendulum moves in air, the action taking place is of the
+same nature, and the final result is the same as in oil. It differs
+merely in degree. Compared with the oil, the air masses offer only a
+slight resistance to the motion, and thus only an exceedingly small part
+of the pendulum's energy is transmitted to them. The pendulum, however,
+does set the surrounding air masses in motion, and by a process similar
+in nature to that in the oil, a modicum of the energy of the falling
+pendulum is converted into heat, and thence by the expansion of the air
+into energy of position. In the downward motion from rest, the first
+stage of the process is a transformation peculiar to the pendulum
+itself, namely, energy of position into energy of motion. The
+transmission to the fluid is a necessary secondary result. It is
+important to note that this transmission is carried out in virtue of the
+actual movement of the material of the pendulum, and that the energy
+transmitted is in reality mechanical or work energy (Sec. 31). This
+mechanical or work energy, then actually leaves or is transmitted from
+the pendulum system, and is finally absorbed by the surrounding air
+masses in the form of energy of position.
+
+Considered as a whole, there is evidently no aspect of reversibility
+about the operation, but it will be shown later (Sec. 32) that with the
+introduction of other factors, it really forms part of a comprehensive
+cyclical process. It is itself a process of direct transmission. It is
+carried out by means of a definite material machine which embodies
+certain energy transformations, and which is strictly limited in the
+extent of its operations by certain physical factors. These factors are
+the cohesive properties of the moving pendulum mass and the fluid with
+which it is in contact (Sec. 16). It is clear, also, that in an apparatus
+in which the motion is carried out in oil, any heat energy communicated
+to the oil would inevitably find its way to the surrounding air masses
+by conduction and radiation. The final result of the pendulum's motion
+would therefore be the same in this case as in air; the heat energy
+would, when communicated to the surrounding air masses, cause an
+expansive movement against gravity.
+
+
+30. _Energy Machines and Energy Transmission_
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5]
+
+The various examples of energy transformation and transmission which
+have been discussed above (Secs. 13-27) will suffice to show the essential
+differences which exist in the general nature of these operations. But
+they will also serve another purpose in portraying one striking and
+important aspect in which these processes are alike. From the
+descriptions given above, it will be amply evident that each of these
+processes, whether transformation or transmission, requires as an
+essential condition of its existence, the presence of a certain
+arrangement of matter; each process is of necessity associated with and
+embodied in a definite physical and material machine. This material
+machine is simply the contrivance provided by Nature to carry out the
+energy operation. It differs in construction and in character for
+different processes, but in every case there must be in its constitution
+some material substance, perceptible to the senses, with which the
+acting energy is intimately associated. This fact is but another aspect
+of the principle that energy is never found dissociated from matter (Sec.
+11). In every energy machine, the material substance or operator forms
+the real foundation or basis of the energy operation, but besides this
+there are also always other phenomena of a secondary nature, totally
+different, it may be, from the main energy operation, which combine with
+that operation to constitute the whole. These subsidiary energy
+phenomena are the incepting factors, and are most important
+characteristics. Their presence is just as essential in energy
+transmission as it is in energy transformation. As demonstrated above,
+they are usually associated with the physical peculiarities of the basis
+or acting material of the energy machine, and their peculiar function is
+to conserve or limit the extent of its action. A complete description of
+these phenomena, in any given case, would not only be equivalent to a
+complete description of the machine, but would also serve as a complete
+description of the main energy operation embodied in that machine.
+Sometimes, however, the description of the machine is a matter of
+extreme difficulty, and may be, in fact, impossible owing to the lack of
+a full knowledge of the intimate phenomena concerned. An illustrative
+example of this is provided by the familiar phenomenon of heat
+radiation. Take the case of two isolated solid bodies A and B (Fig. 5)
+in close proximity on the earth's surface. If the body A at a high
+temperature be sufficiently near to B at a lower temperature, a
+transmission of energy takes place from A to B. This transmission is
+usually attributed to "radiation," but, after all, the use of the term
+"radiation" is merely a descriptive device which hides our ignorance of
+the operation. It is known that a transmission takes place, but the
+intimate phenomena are not known, and, accordingly, it is impossible to
+describe the machine or mechanism by which it is carried out. From
+general considerations, however, it appears that the material basis of
+this machine is to be found in the air medium which surrounds the two
+bodies. Experiment shows, indeed, that if this intervening material
+medium of air be even partially withdrawn or removed, the transmission
+is immensely reduced in amount. In fact, this latter phenomenon is
+largely taken advantage of in the so-called vacuum flasks or other
+devices to maintain bodies at a temperature either above or below that
+of the external surrounding bodies. The device adopted is, simply, as
+far as practicable to withdraw all material connection between the body
+which it is desired to isolate thermally and its surroundings. But it is
+clearly impossible to isolate completely any terrestrial body in this
+way. There must be some material connection remaining. As already
+pointed out (Sec. 5), we have no experimental experience of really separate
+bodies or of an absolute vacuum. It is to be noted that any vacuous
+space which we can experimentally arrange does not even approximately
+reproduce the conditions of true separation prevailing in interplanetary
+space. Any arrangement of separate bodies which might thus be contrived
+is necessarily entirely surrounded or enclosed by terrestrial material
+which, in virtue of its stressed condition, constitutes an energy
+machine of the same nature as those already described (Sec. 21). Even
+although the air could be absolutely exhausted from a vessel, it is
+still quite impossible to enclose any body permanently within that
+vessel without some material connection between the body and the
+enclosing walls. If for example, as shown in Fig. 6, CC represents a
+spherical vessel, completely exhausted, and having two bodies, A and B
+at different temperatures, in its interior, it is obvious that if these
+bodies are to maintain continuously their relative positions of
+separation, each must be united by some material connection to the
+containing vessel. But when such a connection is made, say as shown at D
+and E (Fig. 7), it is clear that A and B are no longer separate bodies
+in the fullest sense of the word, but are now in direct communication
+with one another through the supports at D and E and the enclosing sides
+of the vessel CC. The practicable conditions are thus far from those of
+separate bodies in a complete vacuum. It would seem, indeed, to be
+beyond human experimental contrivance to reproduce such conditions in
+their entirety. So far as these conditions can be achieved, however,
+and judging solely by the experimental results already attained with
+respect to the effect of exhaustion on radiation, it may be quite justly
+averred that, if the conditions portrayed in Fig. 6 could be realised,
+no transmission of energy would take place between two bodies, such as A
+and B, completely isolated from one another in a vacuous space. It
+appears, in fact, to be a quite reasonable and logical deduction from
+the experimental evidence that the energy operation of transmission of
+heat from one body to another by radiation is dependent on the existence
+between these bodies of a real and material substance which forms in
+some way (at present unknown) the transmitting medium or machine. The
+difficulty which arises in the description of this machine is due, as
+already explained above, simply to lack of knowledge of the intimate
+phenomena of its working. Many other energy processes will, no doubt,
+occur to the reader in which the same difficulty presents itself, due to
+the same cause.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6]
+
+In dealing with terrestrial operations generally, and particularly when
+transmission processes are under consideration, it is important to
+recognise clearly the precise nature of these operations and the
+peculiar conditions under which they work. It must ever be borne in mind
+that the terrestrial atmosphere is a real and material portion of the
+earth's mass, extending from the surface for a limited distance into
+space (Sec. 34), and whatever its condition of gaseous tenuity, completely
+occupying that space in the manner peculiar to a gaseous substance. When
+the whole mass of the planet, including the atmosphere, is taken into
+consideration, it is readily seen that all energy operations embodied in
+or associated with material on what is usually termed the surface of the
+earth take place at the bottom of this atmospheric ocean, or, in
+reality, in the interior of the earth. The operations themselves are the
+manifestations of purely terrestrial energy, which, by its working in
+various devices or arrangements of material is being transformed and
+transmitted from one form of matter to another. As will be fully
+demonstrated later (Part III.), the nature of the terrestrial energy
+system makes it impossible for this energy ever to escape beyond the
+confines of the planetary atmospheric envelope. These are briefly the
+general conditions under which the study of terrestrial or secondary
+energy operations is of necessity conducted, and it is specially
+important to notice these conditions when it is sought to apply the
+results of experimental work to the discussion of celestial phenomena.
+It must ever be borne in mind that even the direct observation of the
+latter must always be carried out through the encircling planetary
+atmospheric material.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7]
+
+In this portion of the work it is proposed to investigate in the light
+of known phenomena the possibility of energy transmission between
+separate masses. As explained above, the term separate is here meant to
+convey the idea of perfect isolation, and the only masses in Nature
+which truly satisfy this condition are the celestial and planetary
+bodies, separated as they are from one another by interplanetary space
+and in virtue of their energised condition (Sec. 5). Since this state of
+separation cannot be experimentally realised under terrestrial
+conditions, it is obvious, therefore, that no purely terrestrial energy
+process can be advanced either as direct verification or direct disproof
+of a transmission of energy between such truly separate masses as the
+celestial bodies. But as we are unable to experiment directly on these
+bodies themselves or across interplanetary space, we are forced of
+necessity to rely, for experimental facts and conclusions, on the
+terrestrial energy phenomena to which access is possible. As already
+indicated in the General Statement (Sec. 11), the same energy is bestowed
+on all parts of the cosmical system, and by the close observation of the
+phenomena of its action in familiar operations the truest guidance may
+be obtained as to its general nature and working. In such
+investigations, however, only the actual phenomena of the operation are
+of scientific or informative value. There is no gain to real knowledge
+in assuming, say in the examination of the phenomena of magnetic
+attraction between two bodies, that the one is urged towards the other
+by stresses in an intervening ethereal medium, when absolutely no
+phenomenal evidence of the existence of such a medium is available. It
+may be urged that the conception of an ethereal medium is adapted to the
+explanation of phenomena, and appears in many instances to fulfil this
+function. But as already pointed out (see Introduction), it is
+absolutely impossible to explain phenomena. So-called explanations must
+ever resolve themselves simply into revelations of further phenomena.
+While the value of true working hypotheses cannot be denied, it is
+surely evident that such hypotheses, unless they embody and are under
+the limitation of controlling facts, are not only useless, but, from the
+misleading ideas they are apt to convey, may even be dangerous factors
+in the search for truth. Now, if all speculative ideas or hypotheses are
+banished from the mind, and reliance is placed solely on the evidential
+phenomena of Nature, the study of terrestrial energy operations leads
+inevitably to certain conclusions on the question of energy
+transmission. In the first place, it must lead to the denial of what has
+been virtually the great primary assumption of modern science, namely,
+that a mass of material at a high temperature isolated in interplanetary
+space would radiate heat in all directions through that space. Such a
+conception is unsupported by our experimental or real knowledge of
+radiation. The fact that heat radiation takes place from a hot to a cold
+body in whatever direction the latter is placed relatively to the
+former, does not justify the assumption that such radiation takes place
+in all directions in the absence of a cold body. And since there is
+absolutely no manifestation of any real material medium occupying
+interplanetary space, no sign of the material agency or machine which
+the results of direct experiment have led us to conclude is a necessity
+for the transmission process of heat radiation, the whole conception
+must be regarded as at least doubtful. Even with our limited knowledge
+of radiation, the doctrine of heat radiation through space stands
+controverted by ordinary experimental experience. With this doctrine
+must fall also the allied conception of the transmission of heat energy
+by radiation from the sun to the earth. It is to be noted, however, that
+only the actual transmission of heat energy from the sun to the earth is
+inadmissible; the _heating effect_ of the sun on the earth, which leads
+to the manifestation of terrestrial energy in the heat form, is a
+continuous operation readily explained in the light of the general
+principle of energy transformation already enunciated (Sec. 4). With
+respect to other possible processes of energy transmission between the
+sun and the earth or across interplanetary space, the same general
+methods of experimental investigation must be adopted. The transmission
+of energy under terrestrial conditions is carried out in many different
+forms and by the working of a large variety of machines. In every case,
+no matter in what form the energy is transmitted, that energy must be
+associated with a definite arrangement of terrestrial material
+constituting the transmission machine. Each energy process of
+transmission has its own peculiar conditions of operation which must be
+completely satisfied. By the study of these conditions and the allied
+phenomena it is possible to gain a real knowledge of the precise
+circumstances in which the process can be carried out. Now let us apply
+the knowledge of transmission processes thus gained to the general
+celestial case, to the question of energy transmission between truly
+separate bodies, and particularly to the case of the sun and the earth.
+Do we find in this case any evidence of the presence of a machine for
+energy transmission? It is impossible, within the limits of this work,
+to deal with all the forms in which energy may be transmitted, but let
+the reader review any instance of the transmission of energy under
+terrestrial conditions, or any energy-transmission machine with which he
+is familiar, noting particularly the essential phenomena and material
+arrangements, and let him ask himself if there is any evidence of the
+existence of a machine of this kind in operation between the sun and
+the earth or across interplanetary space. We venture to assert that the
+answer must be in the negative. The real knowledge of terrestrial
+processes of energy transmission at command, on which all our deductions
+must be based, does not warrant in the slightest degree the assumption
+of transmission between the sun and the earth. The most plausible of
+such assumptions is undoubtedly that which attributes transmission to
+heat radiation, but this has already been shown to be at variance with
+well-known facts. The question of light transmission will offer no
+difficulty if it be borne in mind that light is not in itself a form of
+energy, but merely a manifestation of energy as an incepting influence,
+which like other incepting influences of a similar nature, can readily
+operate across either vacuous or interplanetary space (Sec. 19).
+
+On these general considerations, deduced from the observation of
+terrestrial phenomena, allied with the conception of energy machines and
+separate masses in space, the author bases one aspect of the denial of
+energy transmission between celestial masses. The doctrine of
+transmission cannot be sustained in the face of legitimate scientific
+deduction from natural phenomena. In the later parts of this work, and
+from a more positive point of view, the denial is completely justified.
+
+
+31. _Identification of Forms of Energy_
+
+Before leaving the question of energy transmission, there are still one
+or two interesting features to be considered. Although energy, as
+already pointed out, is ever found associated with matter, this
+association does not, in itself, always furnish phenomena sufficient to
+distinguish the precise phase in which the energy may be manifested.
+Some means must, as a rule, be adopted to isolate and identify the
+various forms.
+
+Now one of the most interesting and important features of the process of
+energy transmission is that it usually provides the direct means for the
+identification of the acting energy. Energy, as it were, in movement, in
+the process of transmission, is capable of being detected in its
+different phases and recognised in each. The phenomena of transmission
+usually serve, either directly or indirectly, to portray the precise
+nature of the energy taking part in the operation. One of the most
+direct instances of this is provided by the transmission of heat energy.
+For illustrative purposes, let it be assumed that a body A, possessed of
+heat energy to an exceedingly high degree, is isolated within a
+spherical glass vessel CC, somewhat as already shown (Fig. 6). If it be
+assumed that the space within CC is a perfect vacuum, and that no
+material connection exists between the walls of the vessel and the body
+A, the latter is completely isolated, and no means whatever are
+available for the detection of its heat qualities (Sec. 30). It may seem
+that, if the temperature of the body A were sufficiently high, its
+energy state might be detected, and in a manner estimated, by its effect
+on the eye or by its luminous properties, but we take this opportunity
+of pointing out that luminosity is not invariably associated with high
+temperature. On the contrary, many bodies are found in Nature, both
+animate and inanimate, which are luminous and affect the eye at
+comparatively low temperatures. How then is the energy condition of the
+body to be definitely ascertained? The only means whereby it is possible
+to identify the energy of the body is by transmitting a portion of that
+energy to some other body and observing the resultant phenomena.
+Suppose, then, another body, such as B (Fig. 6), at a lower temperature
+than A, is brought into contact with A, so that a transmission of heat
+energy ensues between the two. The phenomena which would result in such
+circumstances will be exactly as already described in the case of the
+transmission of energy through a solid (Sec. 27). Amongst other
+manifestations it would be noticeable that the material of B was
+expanded against its inherent cohesive forces. Now if, instead of a
+spherical body such as B, a mercurial thermometer were utilised, the
+phenomena would be of precisely the same nature. A definite portion of
+the heat energy would be transmitted to the thermometer, and would
+produce expansion of the contained fluid. By the amount of this
+expansion it becomes possible to estimate the energy condition and
+properties of the body A, relative to its surroundings or to certain
+generally accepted standard conditions. Thermometric measurement is, in
+fact, merely the employment of a process of energy transmission for the
+purpose of identifying and estimating the heat-energy properties of
+material substances.
+
+In everyday life, rough ideas of heat energy are constantly being
+obtained by the aid of the senses. This method is, however, only another
+aspect of transmission, for it will be clear that the sensations of heat
+and cold are, in themselves, but the evidence of the transformation of
+heat energy to or from the body.
+
+The process of energy transmission by a flexible band or cord (Sec. 28)
+also provides evidence leading to the identification of the peculiar
+form of energy which is being transmitted. At first sight, it would
+appear as if this energy were simply energy of motion or kinetic energy.
+A little reflection, however, on the general conditions of the process
+must dispel this idea, for it is clear that the precise nature of the
+energy transmitted has no real connection with the kinetic properties of
+the system. The latter, truly, influence the rate of transmission and
+impose certain limits, but evidently, if the pull in the band increases
+without any increase in its velocity, the actual amount of energy
+transmitted by the system would increase without altering in any respect
+the kinetic properties. It becomes necessary, then, to distinguish
+clearly the energy inherent to, or as it were, latent in the system,
+from the energy actually transmitted by the system, to recognise the
+difference between the energy transmitted by moving material and the
+energy of that material. In this special instance, to identify the form
+of energy transmitted it must of necessity be associated with the
+peculiar phenomena of transmission. Now the energy is evidently
+transmitted by the movement of the connecting belt or band. Before any
+transmission can take place, however, a certain amount of energy must be
+stored in the moving system, partly as cohesion or strain energy and
+partly as energy of motion or kinetic energy. It is this preliminary
+storage of energy which, in reality, constitutes the transmission
+machine, and for a given rate of transmission, the energy thus stored
+will be constant in value. It is obtained at the expense of the applied
+energy, and, neglecting certain minor processes, will be returned (or
+transmitted) in its entirety when the moving system once more comes to
+rest. This stored energy, in fact, works in a reversible process. But
+when the transmission machine is once constituted, the energy
+transmitted is then that energy which is being continually applied at
+the spindle A (Fig. 4) and as continually withdrawn at the spindle B. It
+must be emphasised that the energy thus transmitted is absolutely
+different from the kinetic or other energy associated with the moving
+material of the system. It is the function of this energised material of
+the band to transmit the energy from A to B, but this is the only
+relationship which the transmitted energy bears to the material. The
+energy thus transmitted by the moving material we term mechanical or
+work energy. We may thus define mechanical or work energy as "_that form
+of energy transmitted by matter in motion_."
+
+The idea of work is usually associated with that of a force acting
+through a certain distance. The form of energy referred to above as work
+energy is, in the same way, always associated with the idea of a thrust
+or of a pressure of some kind acting on moving material. Work energy
+thus bears two aspects, which really correspond to the familiar product
+of pressure and volume. Both aspects are manifested in transmission.
+Since work energy is invariably transmitted by matter in motion, every
+machine for its transmission must possess energy of motion as one of its
+essential features. As shown above (see also Sec. 28), this energy of
+motion is really obtained at the expense of the originally applied work
+energy, and as it remains unaltered in value during the progress of a
+uniform transmission, it may be regarded as simply transformed work
+energy, stored or latent in the system, which will be returned in its
+entirety and in its original form at the termination of the operation.
+The energy stored against cohesion or other forces may be regarded in
+the same way. It is really the manifestation of the pressure or thrust
+aspect of the work energy, just as the kinetic energy is the
+manifestation of the translational or velocity aspect.
+
+Our definition of work energy given above enables us to recognise its
+operation in many familiar processes. Take the case of a gas at high
+pressure confined in a cylinder behind a movable piston. We can at once
+say that the energy of the gas is work energy because this energy may
+quite clearly be transmitted from the gas by the movement of the piston.
+If the latter form part of a steam-engine mechanism of rods and crank,
+the energy may, by the motion of this mechanism, be transmitted to the
+crank shaft, and there utilised. This is eminently a case in which
+energy is _transmitted_ by matter in motion. The moving material
+comprises the piston, piston-rod, and connecting-rod, which are, one and
+all, endowed with both cohesive and kinetic energy qualities, and form
+together the transmission machine. So long as the piston is at rest only
+one aspect of the work energy of the gas is apparent, namely, the
+pressure aspect, but immediately motion and transmission take place,
+both aspects are presented. The work energy of the gas, obtained in the
+boiler by a _transformation_ of heat energy is thus, by matter in
+motion, transmitted and made available at the crank shaft. The shaft
+itself is also commonly utilised for the further transmission of the
+work energy applied. By the application of the energy at the crank, it
+is thrown into a state of strain, and at the same time is endowed with
+kinetic energy of rotation. It thus forms a machine for transmission,
+and the work energy applied at one point of the shaft may be withdrawn
+at another point more remote. The transmission is, in reality, effected
+by the movement of the material of the shaft. So long as the shaft is
+stationary, it is clear that no actual transmission can be carried out,
+no matter how great may be the strain imposed. If our engine mechanism
+were, by a change in design, adapted to the use of a liquid substance as
+the working material instead of a gas, it is clear that no change would
+be effected in the general conditions. The energy of a liquid under
+pressure is again simply work energy, and it would be transmitted by the
+moving mechanism in precisely the same manner.
+
+From the foregoing, it will now be evident to the reader that the energy
+originally applied to the primary mass (Sec. 3) of our cosmical system must
+be work energy. It is this form of energy also which is inherent to each
+unit of the planetary system associated with the primary. In this system
+it is of course presented outwardly in the two phases of kinetic energy
+and energy of strain or distortion. It is apparent, also, that work
+energy could be transmitted from the primary mass to the separate
+planets on one condition only, that is, by the movement of some material
+substance connecting each planet to the primary. Since no such material
+connection is admitted, the transmission of work energy is clearly
+impossible.
+
+
+32. _Complete Secondary Cyclical Operation_
+
+A general outline of the conditions of working and the relationships of
+secondary processes has already been given in the General Statement (Sec.
+9), but it still remains to indicate, in a broad way, the general
+methods whereby these operations are linked to the atmospheric machine.
+In the example of the simple pendulum, it has been pointed out that the
+energy processes giving rise to heating at the bearing surfaces and
+transmission of energy to the air masses are not directly reversible
+processes, but really form part of a more extensive cyclical operation,
+in itself, however, complete and self-contained. This cyclical operation
+may be regarded as a typical illustration of the manner in which
+separate processes of energy transmission or transformation, such as
+already described, are combined or united in a continuous chain forming
+a complete whole.
+
+It has been assumed, in all the experiments with the pendulum, that the
+operating energy is initially communicated from an outside source, say
+the hand of the observer. This energy is, therefore, the acting energy
+which must be traced through all its various phases from its origin to
+its final destination. At the outset, it may be pointed out that this
+energy, applied by hand, is obtained from the original rotational energy
+of the earth by certain definite energy processes. Due to the influences
+of various incepting fields which emanate from the sun (Secs. 17-19), a
+portion of the earth's rotational energy is transformed into that form
+of plant energy which is stored in plant tissue, and which, by the
+physico-chemical processes of digestion, is in turn converted into heat
+and the various other forms of energy associated with the human frame.
+This, then, is the origin of the energy communicated to the pendulum.
+Its progress through that machine has already been described in detail
+(Secs. 21-26). The transformation of energy of motion to energy of position
+which takes place is in itself a reversible process and may in the
+meantime be neglected. But the final result of the operations, at the
+bearing surfaces and in the air masses surrounding the moving pendulum,
+was shown to be, in each case, that heat energy was communicated to
+these air masses. The effect of the heat energy thus impressed, is to
+cause the expansion of the air and its elevation from the surface of the
+earth in the lines or field of the gravitative attraction, so that this
+heat energy is transformed, and resides in the air masses as energy of
+position. The energy then, originally drawn from the rotational energy
+of the earth, has thus worked through the pendulum machine, and is now
+stored in the air masses in this form of energy of position. To make the
+process complete and cyclical this energy must now, therefore, be
+returned once more to the earth in its original rotational form. This
+final step is carried out in the atmospheric machine (Sec. 41). In this
+machine, therefore, the energy of position possessed by the air masses
+is, in their descent to their original positions at lower levels,
+transformed once more into axial or rotational energy. In this fashion
+this series of secondary processes, involving both transformations and
+transmissions, is linked to the great atmospheric process. The amount of
+energy which operates through the particular chain of processes we have
+described is, of course, exceedingly small, but in this or a similar
+manner all secondary operations, great or small, are associated with the
+atmospheric machine. Instances could readily be multiplied, but a little
+reflection will show how almost every energy operation, no matter what
+may be its nature, whether physical, chemical, or electrical, leads
+inevitably to the communication of energy to the atmospheric air masses
+and to their consequent upraisal.
+
+It is interesting to note the infallible tendency of energy to revert
+to its original form of axial energy, or energy of rotation, by means of
+the air machine. All Nature bears witness to this tendency, and although
+the path of energy through the maze of terrestrial transformation often
+appears tortuous and uncertain, its final destination is always sure.
+The secondary operations are thus interlinked into one great whole by
+their association in the terrestrial energy cycle. Many of these
+secondary operations are of short duration; others extend over long
+periods of time. Energy, in some cases, appears to slumber, as in the
+coal seams of the earth, until an appropriate stimulus is applied, when
+it enters into active operation once more. The cyclical operations are
+thus long or short according to the duration of their constituent
+secondary energy processes. But the balance of Nature is ever preserved.
+Axial energy, transformed by the working of one cyclical process, is
+being as continuously returned by the simultaneous operation of others.
+
+
+
+
+PART III
+
+
+
+
+TERRESTRIAL CONDITIONS
+
+
+33. _Gaseous Expansion_
+
+Before proceeding to the general description of the atmospheric machine
+(Sec. 10), it is desirable to consider one or two features of gaseous
+reaction which have a somewhat important bearing on its working. Let it
+be assumed that a mass of gaseous material is confined within the lower
+portion of a narrow tube ABCD (Fig. 8) assumed to be thermally
+non-conducting; the upper portion of the tube is in free communication
+with the atmosphere. The gas within the tube is assumed to be isolated
+from the atmosphere by a movable piston EF, free to move vertically in
+the tube, and for the purpose of illustration, assumed also frictionless
+and weightless. With these assumptions, the pressure on the confined gas
+will simply be that due to the atmosphere. If heat energy be now
+applied to the gas, its temperature will rise and expansion will ensue.
+This expansion will be carried out at constant atmospheric pressure; the
+gaseous material, as it expands, must lift with it the whole of the
+superimposed atmospheric column against the downward attractive force of
+the earth's gravitation on that column. Work is thus done by the
+expanding gas, and in consequence of this work done, a definite quantity
+of atmospheric material gains energy of position or potential energy
+relative to the earth's surface. At the same time, the rise of
+temperature of the gas will indicate an accession of heat energy to its
+mass. These familiar phenomena of expansion under constant pressure
+serve to illustrate the important fact that, when heat energy is applied
+to a gaseous mass, it really manifests itself therein in two aspects,
+namely, heat energy and work energy. The increment of heat energy is
+indicated by the increase in temperature, the increment of work energy
+by the increase in pressure. In the example just quoted, however, there
+is no increase in pressure, because the work energy, as rapidly as it is
+applied to the gas, is transformed or worked down in displacing the
+atmospheric column resting on the upper side of the moving piston. The
+energy applied, in the form of heat from the outside source, has in
+reality been introduced into a definite energy machine, a machine in
+this case adapted for the complete transformation of work energy into
+energy of position. As already indicated, when the expansive movement is
+completed, the volume and temperature of the gaseous mass are both
+increased but the pressure remains unaltered. While the increase in
+temperature is the measure and index of a definite increase in the heat
+energy of the gas, it is important to note that, so far as its work
+energy is concerned, the gas is finally in precisely the same condition
+as at the commencement of the operation. Work energy has been, by the
+working of this energy machine, as it were passed through the gaseous
+mass into the surrounding atmosphere. The pressure of the gas is the
+true index of its work energy properties. So long as the pressure
+remains unaltered, the inherent work energy of the material remains
+absolutely unaffected. A brief consideration of the nature of work
+energy as already portrayed (Sec. 31) will make this clear. Work energy has
+been defined as "_that form of energy transmitted by matter in motion_,"
+and it is clear that pressure is the essential factor in any
+transmission of this nature. Temperature has no direct bearing on it
+whatever. It is common knowledge, however, that in the application of
+heat energy to a gaseous substance, the two aspects of pressure and
+temperature cannot be really dissociated. They are mutually dependent.
+Any increment of heat energy to the gas is accompanied by an increment
+of work energy, and vice versa. The precise mode of action of the work
+energy will, of course, depend on the general circumstances of the
+energy machine in which it operates. In the case just considered the
+work energy does not finally reside in the gaseous mass itself, but, by
+the working of the machine, is communicated to the atmosphere. If, on
+the other hand, heat energy were applied in the same fashion to a mass
+of gas in a completely enclosed vessel, that is to say at constant
+volume instead of at constant pressure, the general phenomena are merely
+altered in degree according to the change in the precise nature of the
+energy machine. In the former case, the nature of the energy machine was
+such that the work energy communicated was expended in its entirety
+against gravitation. Under what is usually termed constant volume
+conditions, only a portion of the total work energy communicated is
+transformed, and the transformation of this portion is carried out, not
+against gravitation, but against the cohesive forces of the material of
+the enclosing vessel which restrains the expansion. No matter how great
+may be the elastic properties of this material, it will be distorted,
+more or less, by the application of work energy. This distortional
+movement is the external evidence of the energy process of
+transformation. Energy is stored in the material against the forces of
+cohesion (Sec. 15). But the energy thus stored is only a small proportion
+of the total work energy which accrues to the gas in the heating
+process. The remainder is stored in the gas itself, and the evidence of
+such storage is found simply in the increase of pressure. Different
+energy machines thus offer different facilities for the transformation
+or the storage of the applied energy. In every case where the work
+energy applied has no opportunity of expending itself, its presence will
+be indicated by an increase in the pressure or work function of the gas.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8]
+
+The principles which underlie the above phenomena can readily be applied
+to other cases of gaseous expansion. It is a matter of common experience
+that if a given mass of gaseous material be introduced into a vessel
+which has been exhausted by an air-pump or other device for the
+production of a vacuum, the whole space within the vessel is instantly
+permeated by the gas, which will expand until its volume is precisely
+that of the containing vessel. Further phenomena of the operation are
+that the expanding gas suffers a decrease in temperature and pressure
+corresponding to the degree or ratio of the expansion. Before the
+expansive process took place the gaseous mass, as indicated by its
+initial temperature and pressure, is endowed with a definite quantity of
+energy in the form of heat and work energy. After expansion, these
+quantities are diminished, as indicated by its final and lower
+temperature and pressure. The operation of expansion has thus involved
+an expenditure of energy. This expenditure takes place in virtue of the
+movement of the gaseous material (Sec. 4). It is obvious that if the volume
+of the whole is to be increased, each portion of the expanding gas
+requires to move relatively to the remainder. This movement is carried
+out in the lines of the earth's gravitative attraction, and to a certain
+extent over the surface of the containing vessel. In some respects, it
+thus corresponds simply to the movement of a body over the earth's
+surface (Sec. 16). It is also carried out against the viscous or frictional
+forces existing throughout the gaseous material itself (Sec. 29). Assuming
+no influx of energy from without, the energy expended in the movement of
+the gaseous material must be obtained at the expense of the inherent
+heat and work energy of the gas, and these two functions will decrease
+simultaneously. The heat and work energy of the gas or its inherent
+energy is thus taken to provide the energy necessary for the expansive
+movement. This energy, however, does not leave the gas, but still
+resides therein in a form akin to that of energy of position or
+separation. It will be clear also, that the reverse operation cannot, in
+this case, be carried out; the gas cannot move back to its original
+volume in the same fashion as it expanded into the vacuum, so that the
+energy utilised in this way for separation cannot be directly returned.
+
+The expansion of the gas has been assumed above to take place into a
+vacuous space, but a little consideration will show that this condition
+cannot be properly or even approximately fulfilled under ordinary
+experimental conditions. The smallest quantity of gas introduced into
+the exhausted vessel will at once completely fill the vacuous space,
+and, on this account, the whole expansion of the gas does not in reality
+take place _in vacuo_ at all. To study the action of the gas under the
+latter conditions, it is necessary to look on the operation of expansion
+in a more general way, which might be presented as follows.
+
+
+34. _Gravitational Equilibrium of Gases_
+
+Consider a planetary body, in general nature similar to the earth, but,
+unlike the earth, possessing no atmosphere whatever. The space
+surrounding such a celestial mass may then be considered as a perfect
+vacuum. Now let it be further assumed that in virtue of some change in
+the conditions, a portion of the material of the planetary mass is
+volatilised and a mass of gas thereby liberated over its surface. The
+gas is assumed to correspond in temperature to that portion of the
+planet's surface with which it is in contact. It is clear that, in the
+circumstances, the gas, in virtue of its elastic and energetic
+properties, will expand in all directions. It will completely envelop
+the planet, and it will also move radially outwards into space. In these
+respects, its expansion will correspond to that of a gas introduced
+into a vacuous space of unlimited extent.
+
+The question now arises as to the nature of the action of the gaseous
+substance in these circumstances. It is clear that the radial or outward
+movement of the gas from the planetary surface is made directly against
+the gravitative attraction of the planet on the gaseous mass. In other
+words, matter or material is being moved in the lines or field of this
+gravitative force. This movement, accordingly, will be productive of an
+energy transformation (Sec. 4). In its initial or surface condition each
+portion of the gaseous mass is possessed of a perfectly definite amount
+of energy indicated by and dependent on that condition. As it moves
+upwards from the surface, it does work against gravity in the raising of
+its own mass. But as the mass is thus raised, it is gaining energy of
+position (Sec. 20), and as it has absolutely no communication with any
+external source of energy in its ascent, the energy of position thus
+gained can only be obtained at the expense of its initial inherent heat
+and work energy. The operation is, in fact, a simple transformation of
+this inherent energy into energy of position, a transformation in which
+gravity is the incepting agency. The external evidence of transformation
+will be a fall in temperature of the material. Since the action is
+exactly similar for all ascending particles, it is evident that as the
+altitude of the gaseous mass increases the temperature will
+correspondingly diminish. This diminution will proceed so long as the
+gaseous particles continue to ascend, and until an elevation is finally
+attained at which their inherent energy is entirely converted into
+energy of position. The expansion of the gas, and the associated
+transformation of energy, thus leads to the erection of a gaseous column
+in space, the temperature of which steadily diminishes from the base to
+the summit. At the latter elevation, the inherent energy of the gaseous
+particles which attain to it is completely transformed or worked out
+against gravity in the ascent; the energy possessed by the gas at this
+elevation is, therefore, entirely energy of position; the energy
+properties of heat and work have entirely vanished, and the temperature
+will, therefore, at this elevation, be absolute zero. It is important to
+note also that in the building of such a column or gaseous spherical
+envelope round the planet, the total energy of any gaseous particle of
+that column will remain unchanged throughout the process. No matter
+where the particle may be situated in the column, its total energy must
+always be expressed by its heat and work energy properties together with
+its energy of position. This sum is always a constant quantity. For if
+the particle descends from a higher to a lower altitude, its total
+energy is still unchanged, because a definite transformation of its
+energy of position takes place corresponding to its fall, and this
+transformed energy duly appears in its original form of heat and work
+energy in accordance with the decreased altitude of the particle. Since
+the temperature of the column remains unchanged at the base surface and
+only decreases in the ascent, it is clear that the entire heat and work
+energy of the originally liberated gaseous mass is not expended in the
+movement against gravity. Every gaseous particle--excepting those on the
+absolute outer surface of the gaseous envelope--has still the property
+of temperature. It is evident, therefore, that in the constitution of
+the column, only a portion of the total original heat and work energy of
+the gaseous substance is transformed into energy of position.
+
+The space into which the gas expands has been referred to as unlimited
+in extent. But although in one sense it may be correctly described thus,
+yet in another, and perhaps in a truer sense, the space is very strictly
+limited. It is true there is no enclosing vessel or bounding surface,
+but nevertheless the expansion of the gas is restrained in two ways or
+limited by two factors. The position of the bounding surface of the
+spherical gaseous envelope depends, in the first place, on the original
+energy of the gas as deduced from its initial temperature and its other
+physical properties, and secondly on the value of the gravitative
+attraction exerted on the gas by the planetary body. Looking at the
+first factor, it is obvious that since the gaseous mass initially
+possesses only a limited amount of energy, and since only a certain
+portion of this energy is really available for the transformation, the
+whole process is thereby limited in extent. The complete transformation
+and disappearance of that available portion of the gaseous energy in the
+process of erection of the atmospheric column will correspond to a
+definite and limited increase of energy of position of gaseous material.
+Since the energy of position is thus restricted in its totality, and the
+mass of material for elevation is constant, the height of the column or
+the boundary of expansion of the gas is likewise rigidly defined. In
+this fashion, the energy properties of the gaseous material limit the
+expansive process.
+
+Looking at the operation from another standpoint, it is clear that the
+maximum height of the spherical gaseous envelope must also be dependent
+on the resistance against which the upward movement of the gas is
+carried out, that is, on the value of the gravitative attraction. The
+expenditure of energy in the ascent varies directly as the opposing
+force; if this force be increased the ultimate height must decrease, and
+vice versa. Each particle might be regarded as moving in the ascent
+against the action of an invisible spring, stretching it so that with
+increase of altitude more and more of the energy of the particle is
+transformed or stored in the spring in the extension. When the particle
+descends to its original position, the operation is reversed; the
+spring is now contracting, and yielding up the stored energy to the
+particle in the contraction. The action of the spring would here be
+merely that of an apparatus for the storage and return of energy. In the
+case of the gaseous mass, we conceive the action of gravitation to be
+exactly analogous to that of a spring offering an approximately constant
+resistance to extension. (The value of gravity is assumed approximately
+constant, and independent of the particle's displacement.) The energy
+stored or transformed in the ascension against gravity is returned on
+the descent in a precisely similar fashion. The operation is a
+completely reversible one. The range of motion of the gaseous mass or
+the ultimate height of the gaseous column will thus depend on the value
+of the opposing attractive force controlling the motion or, in other
+words, on the value of gravity. This value is of course defined by the
+relative mass of the planet (Sec. 20).
+
+It is evident that the spherical envelope which would thus enwrap the
+planetary mass possesses certain peculiar properties which are not
+associated with gaseous masses under ordinary experimental conditions.
+It by no means corresponds to any ordinary body of gaseous material,
+having a homogeneous constitution and a precise and determinate pressure
+and temperature throughout. On the contrary, its properties are somewhat
+complex. Throughout the gaseous envelope the physical condition of the
+substance is continually changing with change of altitude. The extremes
+are found at the inner and outer bounding surfaces. At any given level,
+the gaseous pressure is simply the result of the attractive action of
+gravitation on the mass of gaseous material above that level--or, more
+simply, to the weight of material above that level. There is, of course,
+a certain decrease in the value of the gravitative attraction with
+increase of altitude, but within the limits of atmospheric height
+obtained by ordinary gaseous substances (Sec. 36) this decrease may be
+neglected, and the weight of unit mass of the material assumed constant
+at different levels. Increase of atmospheric altitude is thus
+accompanied by decrease in atmospheric pressure. But decrease in
+pressure must be accompanied by a corresponding decrease in density of
+the gas, so that, if uniform temperature were for the time being
+assumed, it would be necessary at the higher levels to rise through a
+greater distance to experience the same decrease in pressure than at the
+lower levels. In fact, given uniform conditions of temperature, if
+different altitudes were taken in arithmetical progression the
+respective pressures and densities would diminish in geometrical
+progression. But we have seen that the energy conditions absolutely
+preclude the condition of uniformity of temperature, and accordingly,
+the decreasing pressure and density must be counteracted to some extent
+at least by the decreasing temperature. The conditions are somewhat
+complex; but the general effect of the decreasing temperature factor
+would seem to be by increasing the density to cause the available
+gaseous energy to be completely worked down at a somewhat lower level
+than otherwise, and thus to lessen to some degree the height of the
+gaseous envelope.
+
+It is to be noted that a gaseous column or atmosphere of this nature
+would be in a state of complete equilibrium under the action of the
+gravitative attraction--provided there were no external disturbing
+influences. The peculiar feature of such a column is that the total
+energy of unit mass of its material, wherever that mass may be situated,
+is a constant quantity. In virtue of this property, the equilibrium of
+the column might be termed neutral or statical equilibrium. The gas may
+then be described as in the neutral or statical condition. This statical
+condition of equilibrium of a gas is of course a purely hypothetical
+one. It has been described in order to introduce certain ideas which are
+essential to the discussion of energy changes and reactions of gases in
+the lines of gravitational forces. These reactions will now be dealt
+with.
+
+
+35. _Total Energy of Gaseous Substances_
+
+Since the maximum height of a planetary atmosphere is dependent on the
+total energy of the gaseous substance or substances of which it is
+composed, it becomes necessary, in determining this height, to estimate
+this total energy. This, however, is a matter of some difficulty. By the
+total energy is here meant the entire energy possessed by the substance,
+that energy which it would yield up in cooling from its given condition
+down to absolute zero of temperature. On examination of the recorded
+properties of the various gaseous substances familiar to us, it will be
+found that in no single instance are the particulars available for
+anything more than an exceedingly rough estimate of this total energy.
+Each substance, in proceeding from the gaseous condition towards
+absolute zero, passes through many physical phases. In most cases, there
+is a lack of experimental phenomena or data of any kind relating to
+certain of these phases; the necessary information on certain points,
+such as the values and variations of latent and specific heats and other
+physical quantities, is, in the meantime, not accessible. Experimental
+research in regions of low temperature may be said to be in its infancy,
+and the properties of matter in these regions are accordingly more or
+less unknown. The researches of Mendeleef and others tend to show, also,
+that the comparatively simple laws successfully applied to gases under
+normal conditions are entirely departed from at very low temperatures.
+In view of these facts, it is necessary, in attempting to estimate, by
+ordinary methods, the total energy of any substance, to bear in mind
+that the quantity finally obtained may only be a rough approximation to
+the true value. These approximations, however, although of little value
+as precise measurements, may be of very great importance for certain
+general comparative purposes.
+
+Keeping in view these general considerations, it is now proposed to
+estimate, under ordinary terrestrial atmospheric conditions, the total
+energy properties of the three gaseous substances, oxygen, nitrogen, and
+aqueous vapour. The information relative to the energy calculation which
+is in the meantime available is shown below in tabular form. As far as
+possible all the heat and other energy properties of each substance as
+it cools to absolute zero have been taken into account.
+
+_Table of Properties_
+
+  +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+
+  |   I    |    II   |    III   |    IV    |      V      |  VI   |   VII   |
+  +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+
+  |        |Specific |     Evaporation     |             |       |         |
+  |        | Heat at |Temperature of Liquid| Approximate | Latent|  Vapour |
+  |  Gas   | Constant|    at Atmospheric   | Latent Heat |Heat of|Pressure.|
+  |        |Pressure.|      Pressure.      |of Gas 50 deg. F.|Liquid.|  50 deg. F. |
+  |        |         |  deg.F.   deg.F. (Abs.)|          |       |         |
+  +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+
+  |Oxygen  | 0.2175  |   -296   |    164   |     100     |  ...  |   ...   |
+  +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+
+  |Nitrogen| 0.2438  |   -320   |    141   |     100     |  ...  |   ...   |
+  +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+
+  |Aqueous |         |          |          |             |       |         |
+  |Vapour  | 0.4     |    212   |    673   |    1080     |  144  |  0.176  |
+  +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+
+
+Since no reliable data can be obtained with regard to the values and
+variations of specific heats at extremely low temperatures, they are
+assumed for the purpose of our calculation to be in each case that of
+the gas, and to be constant under all conditions. Latent heats are
+utilised in every case when available.
+
+With these reservations, the total energy, referred to absolute zero, of
+one pound of oxygen gas at normal temperature of 50 deg. F. or 511 deg. F.
+(Abs.) will be approximately
+
+     (511 x 0.2175) + 100 = 211 Thermal Units Fahrenheit.
+
+This in work units is roughly equivalent to
+
+     211 x 778 = 164,000 ft. lbs.
+
+Adopting the same method with nitrogen gas, its energy at the same
+initial temperature will be, per unit mass,
+
+     174,600 ft. lbs.
+
+There is thus a somewhat close resemblance, not only in the general
+temperature conditions but also in the energy conditions, of the two
+gases oxygen and nitrogen.
+
+It will be readily seen, however, that under the same conditions the
+energy state of aqueous vapour differs very considerably from either,
+for by the same method as before the energy per pound of aqueous vapour
+is equal to
+
+     {(511 x 0.4) + 1080 + 144} x 778 = 1,111,000 ft. lbs.
+
+Under ordinary terrestrial atmospheric conditions, the energy of aqueous
+vapour per unit mass is thus nearly seven times as great as that of
+either oxygen or nitrogen gas. It is to be observed, also, that
+three-fourths of this energy of the vapour under the given conditions is
+present in the form of latent energy of the gas, or what we have already
+termed work energy.
+
+The values of the various temperatures and other physical features,
+which we have included in the Table of Properties above, and which will
+be utilised throughout this discussion, are merely those in everyday use
+in scientific work. They form simply the accessible information on the
+respective materials. They are the records of phenomena, and on these
+phenomena are based our energy calculations. Further research may reveal
+the true values of other factors which up to the present we have been
+forced to assume, and so lead to more accurate computation of the energy
+in each case. Such investigation, however, is unlikely to affect in any
+way the general object of this part of the work, which is simply to
+portray in an approximate manner the relative energy properties of the
+three gaseous substances under certain assumed conditions.
+
+
+36. _Comparative Altitudes of Planetary Atmospheres_
+
+The total energy of equal masses of the gases oxygen, nitrogen, and
+aqueous vapour, as estimated by the method above, are respectively in
+the ratios
+
+     1 : 1.06 : 6.8
+
+Referring back once more to the phenomena described with reference to
+the gravitational equilibrium of a gas, let it be assumed that the
+gaseous substance liberated on the surface of the planetary body is
+oxygen, and that the planetary body itself is of approximately the same
+constitution and dimensions as the earth. The oxygen gas thus liberated
+will expand against gravity, and envelop the planet in the manner
+already described (Sec. 34). Now the total energy of a mass of one pound of
+oxygen has been estimated under certain assumptions (Sec. 35) to be 164,000
+ft. lbs. The value of the gravitative attraction of the planet on this
+mass is the same as under ordinary terrestrial conditions, so that if
+the entire energy of one pound of the gas were utilised in raising
+itself against gravity, the height through which this mass would be
+raised, and at which the material would attain the level of absolute
+zero of temperature, assuming gravity constant with increasing altitude,
+would be simply 164,000 ft. or approximately 31 miles. The whole energy
+would not, of course, be expended in the expansive movement; only the
+outermost surface material of the planetary gaseous envelope attains to
+absolute zero of temperature. In estimating the altitude of this
+surface, however, the precise mass of gaseous substance assumed for the
+purpose of calculation is of little or no importance. Whatever may be
+the value of the mass assumed, its total energy and the gravitative
+attraction of the planetary body on it are both alike entirely and
+directly dependent on that mass value. It is therefore clear that no
+matter how the mass under consideration be diminished, the height at
+which its energy would be completely worked down, and at which its
+temperature would be absolute zero, is the same, namely 31 miles. At the
+planet's surface, the total energy of an infinitesimally small portion
+of the gaseous mass is proportional to that mass. This amount of energy
+is, however, all that is available for transformation against
+gravitation in the ascent. But at the same time, the gravitative force
+on the particle, that force which resists its upward movement, is
+proportionately small corresponding to the small mass, so that the
+particle will in reality require to rise to the same altitude of 31
+miles in order to completely transform its energy and attain absolute
+zero of temperature. When the expansive process is completed, the outer
+surface of the spherical gaseous envelope surrounding the planet is then
+formed of matter in this condition of absolute zero; this height of 31
+miles is then the altitude or depth of the statical atmospheric column
+at a point on the planetary surface where the temperature is 50 deg. F.
+
+It is to be particularly noted that this height is entirely dependent
+on the gravitation, temperature, and energy conditions assumed.
+
+With respect, also, to the assumption made above, of constant
+gravitation with increasing altitude, the variation in the value of
+gravity within the height limits in which the gas operates is so slight,
+that the energy of the expanding substance is completely worked down
+long before the variation appreciably affects the estimated altitude of
+absolute zero. In any case, bearing in mind the approximate nature of
+the estimate of the energy of the gases themselves, the variation of
+gravity is evidently a factor of little moment in our scheme of
+comparison.
+
+Knowing the maximum height to be 31 miles, a uniform temperature
+gradient from the planetary surface to the outermost surface of the
+atmospheric material may be readily calculated. In the case of oxygen,
+the decrease of temperature with altitude will be at the rate of 16 deg. F.
+per mile, or 1 deg. F. per 330 ft.
+
+If the planetary atmosphere were composed of nitrogen instead of oxygen,
+the height of the statical atmospheric column under the given conditions
+would then be approximately
+
+     31 x 1.06 = 33 miles,
+
+and the gradient of temperature 15.5 deg. F. per mile.
+
+In the case of aqueous vapour, which is possessed of much more powerful
+energy properties than either oxygen or nitrogen, the height of the
+statical column, to correspond to the energy of the material, is no less
+than 210 miles and the temperature gradient only 2.4 deg. F. per mile.
+
+Each of the gases, then, if separately associated with the planetary
+body, would form an atmosphere around it depending in height on the
+peculiar energy properties of the gas. A point to be observed is that
+the actual or total mass of any gas thus liberated at the planet's
+surface has no bearing on the ultimate height of the atmosphere which it
+would constitute. When the expansive motion is completed, the density
+properties of the atmosphere would of course depend on the initial mass
+of gas liberated, but for any given value of gravity it is the energy
+properties of the gas per unit mass, or what might be termed its
+specific energy properties, which really determine the height of its
+atmosphere.
+
+
+37. _Reactions of Composite Atmosphere_
+
+It is now possible to deal with the case in which not only one gas but
+several gases are initially liberated on the planetary surface. Since
+the gases are different, then at the given surface temperature of the
+planet they possess different amounts of heat energy, and for each gas
+considered statically, the temperature-altitude gradient will be
+different from any of the others. The limiting height of the gaseous
+column for each gas, considered separately, will also depend on the
+total energy of that gas per unit mass, at the surface temperature. But
+it is evident that in a composite atmosphere, the separate statical
+conditions of several gases could not be maintained. In such a mixture,
+separate temperature-altitude gradients would be impossible. Absolute
+zero of temperature could clearly not be attained at more than one
+altitude, and it is evident that the temperature-altitude gradient of
+the mixture must, in some way, settle down to a definite value, and
+absolute zero of temperature must occur at some determinate height. This
+can only be brought about by energy exchanges and reactions between the
+atmospheric constituents. When these reactions have taken place, the
+atmosphere as a whole will have attained a condition analogous to that
+of statical equilibrium (Sec. 34). Each of its constituents, however, will
+have decidedly departed from this latter condition. In the course of the
+mutual energy reactions, some will lose a portion of their energy.
+Others will gain at their expense. All are in equilibrium as
+constituents of the composite atmosphere, but none approach the
+condition of statical equilibrium peculiar to an atmosphere composed of
+one gas only (Sec. 35). The precise energy operations which would thus take
+place in any composite atmosphere would of course depend in nature and
+extent on the physical properties of the reacting constituents. If the
+latter were closely alike in general properties, the energy changes are
+likely to be small. A strong divergence in energy properties will give
+rise to more powerful reactions. A concrete instance will perhaps make
+this more clear. Let it be assumed in the first place that the planetary
+atmosphere is composed of the two gases oxygen and nitrogen. From
+previous considerations, it will be clear that the natural decrease of
+temperature of nitrogen gas with increase of altitude is, in virtue of
+its slightly superior energy qualities, correspondingly slower than that
+of oxygen. The approximate rates are 15.5 deg. F. and 16 deg. F. per mile
+respectively. The tendency of the nitrogen is therefore to transmit a
+portion of its energy to the oxygen. Such a transmission, however, would
+increase the height of the oxygen column and correspondingly decrease
+the height of the nitrogen. When the balance is finally obtained, the
+height of the atmospheric column does not correspond to the energy
+properties of either gas, but to those of the combination. In the case
+of these two materials, oxygen and nitrogen, the energy reactions
+necessary to produce the condition of equilibrium are comparatively
+small in magnitude on account of the somewhat close resemblance in the
+energy properties of the two substances. On this account, therefore, the
+two gases might readily be assumed to behave as one gas composing the
+planetary atmosphere.
+
+But what, then, will be the effect of introducing a quantity of aqueous
+vapour into an atmosphere this nature? The general phenomena will be of
+the same order as before, but of much greater magnitude. From the
+approximate figures obtained (Secs. 35, 36), the inherent energy of aqueous
+vapour per unit mass is seen to be, under the same conditions,
+enormously greater than that of the other two gases. In statical
+equilibrium (Sec. 34), the altitude of the gaseous column formed by aqueous
+vapour is almost seven times as great as that of the oxygen or nitrogen
+with which, in the composite atmosphere, it would be intermixed. In the
+given circumstances, then, aqueous vapour would be forced by these
+conditions to give up a very large portion of its energy to the other
+atmospheric constituents. The latter would thus be still further
+expanded against gravity; the aqueous vapour itself would suffer a loss
+of energy equivalent to the work transmitted from it. It is therefore
+clear that in a composite atmosphere formed in the manner described, any
+gas possessed of energy properties superior to the other constituents is
+forced of necessity to transmit energy to these constituents. This
+phenomenon is merely a consequence of the natural disposition of the
+atmospheric gaseous substances towards a condition of equilibrium with
+more or less uniform temperature gradation. The greater the inherent
+energy qualities of any one constituent relative to the others, the
+greater will be the quantity of energy transmitted from it in this way.
+
+
+38. _Description of Terrestrial Case_
+
+Bearing in mind the general considerations which have been advanced
+above with respect to planetary atmospheres, it is now possible to place
+before the reader a general descriptive outline of the circumstances and
+operation of an atmospheric machine in actual working. The machine to be
+described is that associated with the earth.
+
+In the earth is found an example of a planetary body of spheroidal form
+pursuing a clearly defined orbit in space and at the same time rotating
+with absolutely uniform velocity about a central axis within itself. The
+structural details of its surface and the general distribution of
+material thereon will be more or less familiar to the reader, and it is
+not, therefore, proposed to dwell on these features here. Attention may
+be drawn, however, to the fact that a very large proportion of the
+surface of the earth is a liquid surface. Of all the material familiar
+to us from terrestrial experience there is none which enters into the
+composition of the earth's crust in so large a proportion as water. In
+the free state, or in combination with other material, water is found
+everywhere. In the liquid condition it is widely distributed. Although
+the liquid or sea surface of the planet extends over a large part of
+the whole, the real water surface, that is, the _wetted_ surface, if we
+except perhaps a few desert regions, may be said to comprise practically
+the entire surface area of the planet. And water is found not only on
+the earth's crust but throughout the gaseous atmospheric envelope. The
+researches of modern chemistry have revealed the fact that the
+atmosphere by which the earth is surrounded is not only a mixture of
+gases, but an exceedingly complex mixture. The relative proportions of
+the rarer gases present are, however, exceedingly small, and their
+properties correspondingly obscure. Taken broadly, the atmosphere may be
+said to be composed of air and water (in the form of aqueous vapour) in
+varying proportion. The former constituent exists as a mixture of oxygen
+and nitrogen gases of fairly constant proportion over the entire surface
+of the globe. The latter is present in varying amount at different
+points according to local conditions. This mixture of gaseous
+substances, forming the terrestrial atmosphere, resides on the surface
+of the planet and forms, as already described (Sec. 34), a column or
+envelope completely surrounding it; the quantity of gaseous material
+thus heaped up on the planetary surface is such that it exerts almost
+uniformly over that surface the ordinary atmospheric pressure of
+approximately 14.7 lb. per sq. inch. It is advisable, also, at this
+stage to point out and emphasise the fact that the planetary atmosphere
+must be regarded as essentially a material portion of the planet itself.
+Although the atmosphere forms a movable shell or envelope, and is
+composed of purely gaseous material, it will still partake of the same
+complete orbital and rotatory axial motion as the solid core, and will
+also be subjected to the same external and internal influences of
+gravitation. Such are the general planetary conditions. Let us now turn
+to the particular phenomena of axial revolution.
+
+In virtue of the unvarying rotatory movement of the planetary mass in
+the lines of the various incepting fields of its primary the sun,
+transformations of the axial or mechanical energy of the planet will be
+in continuous operation (Secs. 17-19). Although the gaseous atmospheric
+envelope of the planet partakes of this general rotatory motion under
+the influence of the incepting fields, the latter have apparently no
+action upon it. The sun's influence penetrates, as it were, the
+atmospheric veil, and operating on the solid and liquid material below,
+provokes the numerous and varied transformations of planetary energy
+which constitute planetary phenomena. At the equatorial band, where the
+velocity or axial energy properties of the surface material is greatest,
+these effects of transformation will naturally be most pronounced. In
+the polar regions of low velocity they will be less evident. One of the
+most important of these transforming effects may be termed the heating
+action of the primary on the planet--a process which takes place in
+greater or less degree over the entire planetary surface, and which is
+the result of the direct transformation of axial energy into the form of
+heat (Sec. 18). In virtue of this heat transformation, or heating effect of
+the sun, the temperature of material on the earth's surface is
+maintained in varying values from regions of high velocity to those of
+low--from equator to poles--according to latitude or according to the
+displacement of that material, in rotation, from the central axis. Owing
+to the irregular distribution of matter on the earth's surface, and
+other causes to be referred to later, this variation in temperature is
+not necessarily uniform with the latitude. This heating effect of the
+sun on the earth will provoke on the terrestrial surface all the
+familiar secondary processes (Sec. 9) associated with the heating of
+material. Most of these processes, in combination with the operations of
+radiation and conduction, will lead either directly or indirectly to the
+communication of energy to the atmospheric masses (Sec. 27).
+
+Closely associated with the heat transformation, there is also in
+operation another energy process of great importance. This process is
+one of evaporative transformation. Reference has already been made to
+the vast extent of the liquid or wetted surface of the earth. This
+surface forms the seat of evaporation, and the action of the sun's
+incepting influence on the liquid of this surface is to induce a direct
+transformation of the earth's axial or mechanical energy into the
+elastic energy of a gas, or in other words into the form of work energy.
+By this process, therefore, water is converted into aqueous vapour.
+Immediately the substance attains the latter or gaseous state it becomes
+unaffected by, or transparent to, the incepting influence of the sun (Sec.
+18). And the action of evaporation is not restricted in locality to the
+earth's surface only. It may proceed throughout the atmosphere. Wherever
+condensation of aqueous vapour takes place and water particles are
+thereby suspended in the atmosphere, these particles are immediately
+susceptible to the sun's incepting field, and if the conditions are
+otherwise favourable, re-evaporation will at once ensue. Like the
+ordinary heating action also, that of transformation will take place
+with greater intensity in equatorial than in polar regions. These two
+planetary secondary processes, of heating and evaporation, are of vital
+importance to the working of the atmospheric machine. But, as already
+pointed out elsewhere (Secs. 10, 32), every secondary operation is in some
+fashion linked to that machine. Other incepting influences, such as
+light, are in action on the planet, and produce transformations peculiar
+to themselves. These, in the meantime, will not be considered except to
+point out that in every case the energy active in them is the axial
+energy of the earth itself operating under the direct incepting
+influence of the sun. The general conditions of planetary revolution and
+transformation are thus intimately associated with the operation of the
+atmospheric machine. In this machine is embodied a huge energy process,
+in the working of which the axial energy of the earth passes through a
+series of energy changes which, in combination, form a complete cyclical
+operation. In their perhaps most natural sequence these processes are as
+follows:--
+
+1. The direct transformation of terrestrial axial energy into the work
+energy of aqueous vapour.
+
+2. The direct transmission of the work energy of aqueous vapour to the
+general atmospheric masses, and the consequent elevation of these masses
+from the earth's surface against gravity.
+
+3. The descent of the atmospheric air masses in their movement towards
+regions of low velocity, and the return in the descent of the initially
+transformed axial energy to its original form.
+
+The first of these processes is carried out through the medium of the
+aqueous material of the earth. It is simply the evaporative
+transformation referred to above. By that evaporative process a portion
+of the energy of motion or axial energy of the earth is directly
+communicated or passed into the aqueous material. Its form, in that
+material, is that of work energy, or the elastic energy of aqueous
+vapour, and, as already pointed out, this process of evaporative
+transformation reaches its greatest intensity in equatorial or regions
+of highest velocity. In these regions also, in virtue of the working of
+the heat process already referred to above, the temperature conditions
+are eminently favourable to the presence of large quantities of aqueous
+vapour. The tension or pressure of the vapour, which really depends on
+the quantity of gaseous material present, is directly proportional to
+the temperature, so that in equatorial regions not only is the general
+action of transformation in the aqueous material most intense, but the
+surrounding temperature conditions in these regions are such as to
+favour the continuous presence of large quantities of the aqueous vapour
+which is the direct product of the action of transformation. The
+equatorial regions of the earth, or the regions of high velocity, are
+thus eminently adapted, by the natural conditions, to be the seat of the
+most powerful transformations of axial energy. As already pointed out,
+however, these same transformations take place over the entire
+terrestrial surface in varying degree and intensity according to the
+locality and the temperature or other conditions which may prevail. Now
+this transformation of axial energy which takes place through the medium
+of the evaporative process is a continuous operation. The energy
+involved, which passes into the aqueous vapour, augmented by the energy
+of other secondary processes (Sec. 32), is the energy which is applied to
+the atmospheric air masses in the second stage of the working of the
+atmospheric machine. Before proceeding to the description of this stage,
+however, it is absolutely necessary to point out certain very important
+facts with reference to the energy condition of the atmospheric
+constituents in the peculiar circumstances of their normal working.
+
+
+39. _Relative Physical Conditions of Atmospheric Constituents_
+
+It will be evident that no matter where the evaporation of the aqueous
+material takes place, it must be carried out at the temperature
+corresponding to that location, and since the aqueous vapour itself is
+not superheated in any way (being transparent to the sun's influence),
+the axial energy transformed and the work energy stored in the material
+per unit mass, will be simply equivalent to the latent heat of aqueous
+vapour under the temperature conditions which prevail. In virtue of the
+relatively high value of this latent heat under ordinary conditions, the
+gas may be regarded as comparatively a very highly energised substance.
+It is clear, however, that since the gas is working at its precise
+temperature of evaporation, the maximum amount of energy which it can
+possibly yield up at that temperature is simply this latent heat of
+evaporation, and if this energy be by any means withdrawn, either in
+whole or in part, then condensation corresponding to the energy
+withdrawal will at once ensue. The condition of the aqueous vapour is in
+fact that of a true vapour, or of a gaseous substance operating exactly
+at its evaporation temperature, and unable to sustain even the slightest
+abstraction of energy without an equivalent condensation. No matter in
+what manner the abstraction is carried out, whether by the direct
+transmission of heat from the substance or by the expansion of the gas
+against gravity, the result is the same; part of the gaseous material
+returns to the liquid form.
+
+In the case of the more stable or permanent constituents of the
+atmosphere, namely oxygen and nitrogen, their physical conditions are
+entirely different from that of the aqueous vapour. Examination of the
+Table of Properties (p. 133) shows that the evaporation temperatures of
+these two substances under ordinary conditions of atmospheric pressure
+are as low as -296 deg. F. and -320 deg. F. respectively. At an ordinary
+atmospheric temperature of say 50 deg. F. these two gases are therefore so
+far above their evaporation temperature that they are in the condition
+of what might be termed true gaseous substances. Although only at a
+temperature of 50 deg. F., they may be truly described as highly superheated
+gases, and it is evident that they may be readily cooled from 50 deg. F.
+through wide ranges of temperature, without any danger of their
+condensation or liquefaction. Oxygen and nitrogen gases thus present in
+their physical condition and qualities a strong contrast to aqueous
+vapour, and it is this difference in properties, particularly the
+difference in evaporation temperatures, which is of vital importance in
+the working of the atmospheric machine. The two gases oxygen and
+nitrogen are, however, so closely alike in their general energy
+properties that, in the meantime, the atmospheric mixture of the two can
+be conveniently assumed to act simply as one gas--atmospheric air.
+
+From these considerations of the ordinary atmospheric physical
+properties of air and aqueous vapour it may be readily seen how each is
+eminently adapted to its function in the atmospheric process. The
+peculiar duty of the aqueous vapour is the absorption and transmission
+of energy. Its relatively enormous capacity for energy, the high value
+of its latent heat at all ordinary atmospheric temperatures, and the
+fact that it must always operate precisely at its evaporation
+temperature makes it admirably suited for both functions. Thus, in
+virtue of its peculiar physical properties, it forms an admirable agent
+for the storage of energy and for its transmission to the surrounding
+air masses. The low temperature of evaporation of these air masses
+ensures their permanency in the gaseous state. They are thus perfectly
+adapted for expansive and other movements, for the conversion of their
+energy against gravity into energy of position, or for any other
+reactions involving temperature change without condensation.
+
+
+40. _Transmission of Energy from Aqueous Vapour to Air Masses_
+
+The working of the second or transmission stage of the atmospheric
+machine involves certain energy operations in which gravitation is the
+incepting factor or agency. Let it be assumed that a mass of aqueous
+vapour liberated at its surface of evaporation by the transformation of
+axial energy, expands upwards against the gravitative attraction of the
+earth (Secs. 34, 38). As the gaseous particles ascend and thus gain energy
+of position, they do work against gravity. This work is done at the
+expense of their latent energy. Since the aqueous material is always
+working precisely at its evaporation temperature, this gain in energy of
+position and consequent loss of latent energy will be accompanied by an
+equivalent condensation and conversion of the rising vapour into the
+liquid form. This condensation will thus be the direct evidence and
+measure of work done by the aqueous material against the gravitational
+forces, and the energy expended or worked down in this way may now,
+accordingly, be regarded as stored in the condensed material or liquid
+particles in virtue of their new and exalted position above the earth's
+surface. It is this energy which is finally transmitted to the
+atmospheric air masses. The transmission process is carried out in the
+downward movement of the liquid particles. The latter, in their exalted
+positions, are at a low temperature corresponding to that position--that
+is, corresponding to the work done--and provided no energy were
+transmitted from them to the surrounding air masses, their temperature
+would gradually rise during the descent by the transformation of this
+energy of position. In fact the phenomena of descent, supposing no
+transmission of energy from the aqueous material, would simply be the
+reverse of the phenomena of ascent. Since, however, the energy of
+position which the liquid particles possess is transmitted from them to
+the atmospheric masses, then it follows that this natural increase in
+their temperature would not occur in the descent. A new order of
+phenomena would now appear. Since the evaporative process is a
+continuous one, the liquid particles in their downward movement must be
+in intimate contact with rising gaseous material, and these liquid
+particles will, accordingly, at each stage of the descent, absorb from
+this rising material the whole energy necessary to raise their
+temperature to the values corresponding to their decreasing elevation.
+In virtue of this absorption of energy then, from the rising material,
+these liquid particles are enabled to reach the level of evaporation at
+the precise temperature of that level.
+
+Now, considering the process as a whole, it will be readily seen that
+for any given mass of aqueous material thus elevated from and returned
+to a surface of evaporation, there must be a definite expenditure of
+energy (axial energy) at that surface. Since the material always regains
+the surface at the precise temperature of evaporation, this expenditure
+is obviously, in total, equal to the latent heat of aqueous vapour at
+the surface temperature. It may be divided into two parts. One portion
+of the axial energy--the transmitted portion--is utilised in the
+elevation of the material against gravity; the remainder is expended, as
+explained above, in the heating of the returning material. The whole
+operation takes place between two precise temperatures, a higher
+temperature, which is that of the surface of evaporation, and a lower
+temperature, corresponding to the work done, and so related to the
+higher that the whole of the energy expended by the working aqueous
+substance--in heating the returning material and in transmitted work--is
+exactly equivalent to the latent heat of aqueous vapour at the high or
+surface temperature. But, as will be demonstrated later, the whole
+energy transmitted from the aqueous material to the air masses is
+finally returned in its entirety as axial energy, and is thus once more
+made available in the evaporative transformation process. The energy
+expended in raising the temperature of the working material returning to
+the surface of evaporation is obviously returned with that material.
+Both portions of the original expenditure are thus returned to the
+source in different ways. The whole operation is, in fact, completely
+cyclical in nature; we are in reality describing "Nature's Perfect
+Engine," which is completely reversible and which has the highest
+possible efficiency.[1] Although the higher temperature at the
+evaporation surface may vary with different locations of that surface,
+in every case the lower temperature is so related to it as to make the
+total expenditure precisely equal to the latent heat at that evaporation
+temperature.[2] It must be borne in mind also, that all the condensed
+material in the upper strata of the atmosphere must not of necessity
+return to the planetary liquid surface. On the contrary, immediately
+condensation of the aqueous vapour takes place and the material leaves
+the gaseous state, no matter where that material is situated, it is once
+more susceptible to the incepting influences of the sun. Re-evaporation
+may thus readily take place even at high altitudes, and complete
+cyclical operations may be carried out there. These operations will,
+however, be carried out in every case between precise temperature limits
+as explained above.
+
+    [1] The conception of "Nature's Perfect Engine" was originally
+    arrived at by the author from consideration of the phenomena of the
+    steam-engine. The following extract from the "Review" of his work
+    (1895) illustrates the various stages which finally lead to that
+    conclusion:--
+
+    "My first steps in the right direction came about thus. I had always
+    been working with a cylinder and piston, and could make no progress,
+    till at length it struck me to make my cylinder high enough to do
+    without a piston--that is, to leave the steam to itself and observe
+    its behaviour when left to work against gravity. The first thing I
+    had to settle was the height of my cylinder. And I found, by
+    calculation from Regnault's experiments that it would require to be
+    very high, and that the exact height would depend on the temperature
+    of the water in the boiler which was the bottom of this ideal
+    cylinder. Now, at any ordinary temperature the height was so great
+    that it was impossible to get known material to support its own
+    weight, and I did not wish to use a hypothetical substance in the
+    construction of this engine. Finally, the only course left me was to
+    abolish the cylinder as I had done the piston. I then discovered
+    that the engine I had been trying to evolve--the perfect engine--was
+    not the ideal thing I had been groping after but an actual reality,
+    in full working order, its operations taking place every day before
+    my eyes.
+
+    "Every natural phenomenon fitted in exactly; it had its function to
+    perform, and the performance of its function constituted the
+    phenomenon. Let me trace the analogy in a few of its details. The
+    sea corresponds to the boiler; its cylinder surrounds the earth; it
+    has for its fuel the axial energy of the earth; it has no condenser
+    because it has no exhaust; the work it performs is all expended in
+    producing the fuel. Every operation in the cycle is but an energy
+    transformation, and these various transformations constitute the
+    visible life of the world."
+
+    [2] For definite numerical examples see the author's _Terrestrial
+    Energy_ (Chap. 1.).
+
+It will be evident, from a general consideration of this process of
+transmission of energy from the aqueous vapour, that relatively large
+quantities of that vapour are not required in the atmosphere for the
+working of the gaseous machine. The peculiar property of ready
+condensation of the aqueous vapour makes the evaporative process a
+continuous one, and the highly energised aqueous material, although only
+present in comparatively small amount, contributes a continuous flow of
+energy, and is thus able to steadily convey a very large quantity to
+the atmospheric masses. For the same reason, the greater part of the
+energy transmission from the aqueous vapour to the air will take place
+at comparatively low altitudes and between reasonably high temperatures.
+The working of any evaporative cycle may also be spread over very large
+terrestrial areas by the free movement of the acting material. Aqueous
+vapour rising in equatorial regions may finally return to the earth in
+the form of ice-crystals at the poles. In every complete cycle, however,
+the total expenditure per unit mass of material initially evaporated is
+always the latent heat at the higher or evaporation temperature; in the
+final or return stages of the cycle, any energy not transmitted to the
+air masses is devoted to the heating of returning aqueous material.
+
+Referring again to the transmitted energy, and speaking in the broadest
+fashion, the function of the aqueous vapour in the atmosphere may be
+likened to that of the steam in the cylinder of a steam-engine. In both
+cases the aqueous material works in a definite machine for energy
+transmission. In the case of the steam-engine work energy is transmitted
+(Sec. 31) from the steam through the medium of the moving piston and
+rotating shaft, and thence may be further diverted to useful purposes.
+In the planetary atmospheric machine the work energy of aqueous vapour
+is likewise transmitted by the agency of the moving air masses, not to
+any external agent, but back once more to its original source, which is
+the planetary axial energy. In neither case are we able to explain the
+precise nature of the transmission process in its ultimate details. We
+cannot say _how_ the steam transmits its work energy by the moving
+piston, nor yet by what agency the elevated particles of aqueous
+material transmit their energy to the air masses. Our knowledge is
+confined entirely to the phenomena, and, fortunately, these are in some
+degree accessible. Nature presents direct evidence that such
+transmissions actually take place. This evidence is to be found, in both
+cases, in the condensation of the aqueous material which sustains the
+loss of its work energy. In the engine cylinder condensation takes place
+due to work being transmitted from the steam; in the atmosphere the
+visible phenomena of condensation are likewise the ever present evidence
+of the transmission of work energy from the aqueous vapour to the air
+masses. In virtue of this accession of energy these masses will,
+accordingly, be expanded upwards against the gravitational attractive
+forces. This upward movement, being made entirely at the expense of
+energy communicated from the aqueous vapour, is not accompanied by the
+normal fall of temperature due to the expansion of the air. Planetary
+axial energy, originally absorbed by the aqueous vapour, in the work
+form, has been transferred to the air masses in the same form, and is
+now, after the expansive movement, resident in these masses in the form
+of energy of position. It is the function of the atmospheric machine in
+its final stage to return this energy in the original axial form.
+
+
+41. _Terrestrial Energy Return_
+
+Let it be assumed that an atmospheric mass has been raised, by the
+transmission of work energy, to a high altitude in the equatorial
+regions of the earth. The assumption of locality is made merely for
+illustrative purposes; it will be evident to the reader that the
+transmission of work energy to the atmospheric masses and their
+consequent elevation will be continuously proceeding, more or less, over
+the whole planetary surface. To replace the gaseous material thus
+raised, a corresponding mass of air will move at a lower level, towards
+the equator from the more temperate zones adjoining. A circulatory
+motion will thus be set up in the atmosphere. In the upper regions the
+elevated and energised air masses move towards the poles; at lower
+levels the replacing masses move towards the equator, and in their
+passage may be operated on by the aqueous vapour which they encounter,
+energised, and raised to higher levels. The movement will be continuous.
+In their transference from equatorial towards polar regions, the
+atmospheric masses are leaving the surfaces or regions of high linear
+velocity for those of low, and must in consequence lose or return in
+the passage a portion of that natural energy of motion which they
+possess in virtue of their high linear velocity at the equator. But on
+the other hand, the replacing air masses, which are travelling in the
+opposite direction from poles to equator, must gain or absorb a
+corresponding amount of energy. The one operation thus balances the
+other, and the planetary equilibrium is in no way disturbed. But the
+atmospheric masses which are moving from the equator in the polar
+direction will possess, in addition, that energy of position which has
+been communicated to them through the medium of the aqueous vapour and
+by the working of the second stage of the atmospheric machine. These
+masses, in the circulatory polar movements, move downwards towards the
+planetary surface. In this downward motion (as in the downward motion of
+a pendulum mass vibrating under the action of gravitation) the energy of
+position of the air mass is converted once more into energy of
+motion--that is, into its original form of axial energy of rotation. In
+equatorial regions the really important energy property of the
+atmospheric mass was indicated by its elevation or its energy of
+position. In the descent this energy is thus entirely transformed, and
+reverts once more to its original form of energy of rotation.
+
+The continual transformation of axial energy by the aqueous vapour, and
+the conversion of that energy by the upward movement of the air masses
+into energy of position, naturally tends to produce a retardative effect
+on the motion of revolution of the earth. But this retardative effect is
+in turn completely neutralised or balanced by the corresponding
+accelerative effect due to the equally continuous return as the energy
+of the air masses reverts in the continuous polar movement to its
+original axial form. Speaking generally, the equatorial regions, or the
+regions of high velocity, are the location of the most powerful
+transformation or abstraction of axial energy by the aqueous vapour.
+Conversely, the polar or regions of low velocity are the location of the
+greatest return of energy by the air. As no energy return is possible
+unless by the transference of the atmospheric material from regions of
+high to regions of low velocity, the configuration of the planet in
+rotation must conform to this condition. The spheroidal form of the
+earth is thus exquisitely adapted to the working of the atmospheric
+machine. As already pointed out, however, the energising and raising of
+atmospheric masses is by no means confined to equatorial regions, but
+takes place more or less over the whole planetary surface. The same
+applies to the energy return. The complete cycle may be carried out in
+temperate zones; gaseous masses, also, leaving equatorial regions at
+high altitudes do not necessarily reach the polar regions, but may
+attain their lowest levels at intermediate points. Neither do such
+masses necessarily proceed to the regions of low velocity by purely
+linear paths. On the contrary, they may and do move both towards the
+poles and downwards by circuitous and even vortical paths. In fact, as
+will be readily apparent, their precise path is of absolutely no moment
+in the consideration of energy return.
+
+It might naturally be expected that such movements of the atmospheric
+air masses as have been described above would give rise to great
+atmospheric disturbance over the earth's surface, and that the transfer
+of gaseous material from pole to equator and vice versa would be
+productive of violent storms of wind. Such storms, however, are
+phenomena of somewhat rare occurrence; the atmosphere, on the whole,
+appears to be in a state of comparative tranquillity. This serenity of
+the atmosphere is, however, confined to the lower strata, and may be
+ascribed to an inherent stability possessed by the air mass as a whole
+in virtue of the accession of energy to it at high levels. As already
+explained, the transfer of energy from the vapour to the air masses is
+accomplished at comparatively low altitudes, and when this reaction is
+taking place the whole tendency of the energised material is to move
+upwards. In so moving it tends to leave behind it the condensed aqueous
+vapour, and would, therefore, rise to the higher altitudes in a
+comparatively dry condition. This dryness is accentuated by the further
+loss of aqueous vapour by condensation as the air moves toward regions
+of low velocity. That air which actually attains to the poles will be
+practically dry, and having also returned, in its entirety, the surplus
+energy obtained from the aqueous vapour, it will be in this region
+practically in the condition of statical equilibrium of a gas against
+gravity (Sec. 34). But the general state of the atmosphere in other regions
+where a transference of energy from the aqueous vapour has taken or is
+taking place is very different from this condition of natural statical
+equilibrium which is approached at the poles. In the lower strata of the
+atmosphere the condition in some cases may approximate to the latter,
+but in the upper strata it is possessed of energy qualities quite
+abnormal to statical equilibrium. Its condition is rather one of the
+nature of stable equilibrium. It is in a condition similar to that of a
+liquid heated in its upper layers; there is absolutely no tendency to a
+direct or vertical downward circulation. In statical equilibrium, any
+downward movement of an air mass would simply be accompanied by the
+natural rise in temperature corresponding to the transformation of its
+energy of position, but in this condition of stable equilibrium any
+motion downwards must involve, not only this natural temperature rise,
+but also a return, either in whole or in part, of the energy absorbed
+from the aqueous vapour. The natural conditions are therefore against
+any direct vertical return. These conditions, however, favour in every
+respect the circulatory motion of the highly energised upper air masses
+towards regions of low velocity. All circumstances combine, in fact, to
+confine the more powerfully energised and highly mobile air masses to
+high altitudes. In the lower atmosphere, owing to the continuous action
+of the aqueous vapour on the air masses moving from regions of low to
+those of high velocity, the circulation tends largely to be a vertical
+one, so that this locality is on the whole preserved in comparative
+tranquillity. It may happen, however, that owing to changes in the
+distribution of aqueous vapour, or other causes, this natural stability
+of the atmosphere may be disturbed over certain regions of the earth's
+surface. The circumstances will then favour a direct or more or less
+vertical return of the energy of the air masses in the neighbourhood of
+these regions. This return will then take the form of violent storms of
+wind, usually of a cyclonic nature, and affording direct evidence of the
+tendency of the air masses to pursue vortical paths in their movement
+towards lower levels.
+
+Under normal conditions, however, the operation of the atmospheric
+machine is smooth and continuous. The earth's axial energy, under the
+sun's incepting influence, steadily flows at all parts of the earth's
+surface through the aqueous vapour into the atmospheric masses, and the
+latter, rising from the terrestrial surface, with a motion somewhat like
+that of a column of smoke, spread out and speed towards regions of lower
+velocity, and travelling by devious and lengthened paths towards the
+surface, steadily return the abstracted energy in its original form.
+Every operation is exactly balanced; energy expenditure and energy
+return are complementary; the terrestrial atmospheric machine as a whole
+works without jar or discontinuity, and the earth's motion of rotation
+is maintained with absolute uniformity.
+
+Like every other energy machine, the atmospheric machine has
+clearly-defined energy limits. The total quantity of energy in operation
+is strictly limited by the mass of the acting materials. It is well,
+also, to note the purely mechanical nature of the machine. Every
+operation is in reality the operation of mechanical energy, and involves
+the movement of matter in some way or other relative to the earth's
+surface and under the incepting action of the earth's gravitation (Secs.
+16, 20). The moving gaseous masses have as real an existence as masses
+of lead or other solid material, and require as real an expenditure of
+energy to move them relative to the terrestrial surface (Sec. 18). This
+aspect of the planetary machine will be more fully treated later.
+
+Throughout this description we have constantly assumed the atmospheric
+mixture of oxygen and nitrogen to act as one gas, and at ordinary
+temperatures the respective energy properties of the two substances (Sec.
+35) make this assumption justifiable. Both gases are then working far
+above their respective evaporation temperatures. But, in the higher
+regions of the atmosphere, where very low temperatures prevail, a point
+or altitude will be reached where the temperature corresponds to the
+evaporation or condensation temperature of one of the gases. Since
+oxygen appears to have the highest temperature of evaporation (see Table
+of Properties, p. 133), it would naturally be the first to condense in
+the ascent. But immediately condensation takes place, the material will
+become susceptible to the incepting influence of the sun, and working as
+it does at its temperature of evaporation it will convey its energy to
+the surrounding nitrogen in precisely the same fashion as the aqueous
+vapour conveys the energy to the aerial mixture in the lower atmosphere.
+The whole action is made possible simply by the difference existing in
+the respective evaporation temperatures of the two gases. It will give
+rise to another cyclical atmospheric energy process exactly as already
+described for lower altitudes. Axial energy of rotation will be
+communicated to the nitrogen by the working material, which is now the
+oxygen, and by the movement of the nitrogen masses towards regions of
+low velocity, this transmitted energy will be finally returned to its
+original axial form.
+
+It has been already explained (Secs. 10, 32) how all terrestrial energy
+processes, also, great or small, are sooner or later linked to the
+general atmospheric machine. The latter, therefore, presents in every
+phase of its working completely closed energy circuits. In no aspect of
+its operation can we find any evidence of, or indeed any necessity for,
+an energy transmission either to or from any external body or agent such
+as the sun. Every phenomenon of Nature is, in fact, a direct denial of
+such transmission.
+
+The student of terrestrial phenomena will readily find continuous and
+ample evidence in Nature of the working of the atmospheric machine. In
+the rising vapour and the falling rain he will recognise the visible
+signs of the operation of that great secondary process of transmission
+by which the inherent axial energy of the earth is communicated to the
+air masses. The movements of bodies, animate and inanimate, on the
+earth's surface, the phenomena of growth and decay, and in fact almost
+every experience of everyday life, will reveal to him the persistent
+tendency of the energy of secondary processes to revert to the
+atmospheric machine. And in the winds that traverse the face of the
+globe he will also witness the mechanism of that energy return which
+completes the atmospheric cyclical process. It may be pointed out here
+also that the terrestrial cyclical energy processes are not necessarily
+all embodied in the atmosphere. The author has reason to believe, and
+phenomenal evidence is not awanting to show, that the circulatory
+motions of the atmosphere are in some degree reproduced in the sea. The
+reader will readily perceive that as regards stability the water
+composing the sea is in precisely the same condition as the atmosphere,
+namely, that of a liquid heated in its upper strata, and any circulatory
+motion of the water must therefore be accompanied by corresponding
+transformations of energy. That such a circulatory motion takes place is
+undoubted, and in the moving mass of sea-water we have therefore a
+perfectly reversible energy machine of the same general nature as the
+atmospheric machine, but working at a very much slower rate. It is not
+beyond the limits of legitimate scientific deduction to trace also the
+working of a similar machine in the solid material of the earth. The
+latter is, after all, but an agglomeration of loose material bound by
+the force of gravitation into coherent form. By the action of various
+erosive agencies a movement of solid material is continually taking
+place over the earth's surface. The material thus transported, it may
+be, from mountain chains, and deposited on the sea-bed, causes a
+disturbance of that gravitational equilibrium which defines the exact
+form of the earth. The forces tending to maintain this equilibrium are
+so enormous compared with the cohesive forces of the material forming
+the earth that readjustment continuously takes place, as evidenced by
+the tremors observed in the earth's crust. Where the structure of the
+latter is of such a nature as to offer great resistance to the
+gravitational forces, the readjustment may take the form of an
+earthquake. Geological evidence, as a whole, strongly points to a
+continuous kneading and flow of terrestrial material. The structure of
+igneous rocks, also, is exactly that which would be produced from
+alluvial deposits subjected during these cyclical movements to the
+enormous pressure and consequent heating caused by superimposed
+material. The occurrence of coal in polar regions, and of glacial
+residue in the tropics, may be regarded as further corroborative
+evidence. From this point of view also, it becomes unnecessary to
+postulate a genesis for the earth, as every known geological formation
+is shown to be capable of production under present conditions in Nature,
+and in fact to be in actual process of production at all times.
+
+
+42. _Experimental Analogy and Demonstration of the General Mechanism of
+      Energy Transformation and Return in the Atmospheric Cycle_
+
+In the preceding articles, the atmospheric machine has been regarded
+more or less from the purely physical point of view. The purpose of this
+demonstration is now to place before the reader what might be termed
+the mechanical aspects of the machine; to give an outline, using simple
+experimental analogies, of its nature and operation when considered
+purely and simply as a mechanism for the transformation and return of
+mechanical energy.
+
+Familiar apparatus is used in illustration. In all cases, it is merely
+some adaptation of the simple pendulum (Sec. 21). Its minute structural
+details are really of slight importance in the discussion, and have
+accordingly been ignored, but the apparatus generally, and the energy
+operations embodied therein, are so familiar to physicists and engineers
+that the experimental results illustrated can be readily verified by
+everyday experience. It is of great importance, also, in considering
+these results, to bear in mind the principles already enunciated (Secs. 13,
+20) with reference to the operation of mechanical energy on the various
+forms of matter. The general working conditions of energy systems with
+respect to energy limits, stability, and reversibility (Sec. 23) should
+also be kept in view.
+
+As an introductory step we shall review first a simple system of
+rotating pendulums. Two simple pendulums CM and DM{1} (Fig. 9) are
+mounted by means of a circular collar CD upon a vertical spindle AB,
+which is supported at A and B and free to rotate. When the central
+spindle AB is at rest the pendulums hang vertically; when energy is
+applied to the system, and AB is thereby caused to rotate, the
+spherical masses M and M{1} will rise by circular paths about C and D.
+This upward movement, considered apart from the centrifugal influence
+producing it, corresponds in itself to the upward movement of the simple
+pendulum (Sec. 21) against gravity. It is representative of a definite
+transformation, namely, the transformation of the work energy originally
+applied to the system and manifested in its rotary motion, into energy
+of position. The movements of the rotating pendulums will also be
+accompanied by other energy operations associated with bearing friction
+and windage (Secs. 23, 29), but these operations being part of a separate
+and complete cyclical energy process (Sec. 32), they will in this case be
+neglected.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9]
+
+It will be readily seen, however, that the working of this rotating
+pendulum machine, when considered as a whole, is of a nature somewhat
+different from that of the simple pendulum machine in that the energy of
+position of the former (as measured by the vertical displacement of M
+and M{1} in rotation) and its energy of rotation must increase
+concurrently, and also in that the absolute maximum value of this energy
+of position will be attained when the pendulum masses reach merely the
+horizontal level HL in rotation. The machines are alike, however, in
+this respect, that the transformation of energy of motion into energy of
+position is in each case a completely reversible process. In the working
+of the rotating pendulums the limiting amount of energy which can
+operate in this reversible process is dependent on and rigidly defined
+by the maximum length of the pendulum arms; the longer the arms, the
+greater is the possible height through which the masses at their
+extremities must rise to attain the horizontal position in rotation. It
+will be clear also that it is not possible for the whole energy of the
+rotating system to work in the reversible process as in the case of the
+simple pendulum. As the pendulum masses rise, the ratio of the limiting
+energy for reversibility to the total energy of the system becomes in
+fact smaller and smaller, until at the horizontal or position of maximum
+energy it reaches a minimum value. This is merely an aspect of the
+experimental fact that, as the pendulum masses approach the ultimate
+horizontal position, a much greater increment of energy to the system is
+necessary for their elevation through a given vertical distance than at
+the lower levels. A larger proportion of the applied energy is, in fact,
+stored in the material of the system in the form of energy of strain or
+distortion.
+
+The two points which this system is designed to illustrate, and which
+it is desirable to emphasise, are thus as follows. Firstly, as the whole
+system rotates, the movement of the pendulum masses M and M{1} from the
+lower to the higher levels, or from the regions of low to those of
+higher velocity, is productive of a transformation of the rotatory
+energy of the system into energy of position--a transformation of the
+same nature as in the case of the simple pendulum system. Neglecting the
+minor transformations (Secs. 24, 29), this energy process is a reversible
+one, and consequently, the return of the masses from the higher to the
+lower positions will be accompanied by the complete return of the
+transformed energy in its original form of energy of rotation. Secondly,
+the maximum amount of energy which can work in this reversible process
+is always less than the total energy of the system. The latter,
+therefore, conforms to the general condition of stability (Sec. 25).
+
+But this arrangement of rotating pendulums may be extended so as to
+include other features. To eliminate or in a manner replace the
+influence of gravitation, and to preserve the energy of position of the
+system--relative to the earth's surface--at a constant value, the
+pendulum arms may be assumed to be duplicated or extended to the points
+K and R (Fig. 10) respectively, where pendulum masses equal to M and
+M{1} are attached.
+
+The arms MK and M{1}R are thus continuous. Each arm is assumed to be
+pivoted at its middle point about a horizontal axis through N, and as
+the lower masses M and M{1} rise in the course of the rotatory movement
+about AB the upper masses K and R will fall by corresponding amounts.
+The total energy of position of the system--referred to the earth's
+surface--thus remains constant whatever may be the position of the
+masses in the system. The restraining influence on the movement of the
+masses, formerly exercised by gravitation, is now furnished by means of
+a central spring F. A collar CD, connected as shown to the pendulum
+arms, slides on the spindle AB and compresses this spring as the masses
+move towards the horizontal level HL. As the masses return towards A and
+B the spring is released.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10]
+
+If energy be applied to the system, so that it is caused to rotate about
+the central axis AB, the pendulum masses will tend to move outwards from
+that axis. Their movement may be said to be carried out over the surface
+of an imaginary sphere with centre on AB at N. The motion of the masses,
+as the velocity of rotation increases, is from the region of lower
+peripheral velocity, in the vicinity of the axis AB, to the regions of
+higher velocity, in the neighbourhood of H and L. This outward movement
+from the central axis towards H and L is representative of a
+transformation of energy of an exactly similar nature to that described
+above in the simple case. Part of the original energy of rotation of the
+system is now stored in the pendulum masses in virtue of their new
+position of displacement. But in this case, the movement is made, not
+against gravity, but against the central spring F. The energy, then,
+which in the former case might be said to be stored against gravitation
+(acting as an invisible spring) is in this case stored in the form of
+energy of strain or cohesion (Sec. 15) in the central spring, which thus as
+it were takes the place of gravitation in the system. As in the previous
+case also, the operation is a reversible energy process. If the pendulum
+masses move in the opposite direction from the regions of higher
+velocity to those of lower velocity, the energy stored in the spring
+will be returned to the system in its original form of energy of motion.
+A vibratory motion of the pendulums to and from the central axis would
+thus be productive of an alternate storage and return of energy. It is
+obvious also, that due to the action of centrifugal force, the pendulum
+masses would tend to move radially outwards on the arms as they move
+towards the regions of highest velocity. Let this radial movement be
+carried out against the action of four radial springs S{1}, S{2},
+S{3}, S{4}, as shown (Fig. 11). In virtue of the radial movement of
+the masses, these springs will be compressed and energy stored in them
+in the form of energy of strain or cohesion (Sec. 15). The radial movement
+implies also that the masses will be elevated from the surface of the
+imaginary sphere over which they are assumed to move. The elevation from
+this surface will be greatest in the regions of high velocity in the
+neighbourhood of H and L, and least at A and B. As the masses move,
+therefore, from H and L towards the axis AB, they will also move inwards
+on the pendulum arms, relieving the springs, so that the energy stored
+in them is free to be returned to the system in its original form of
+energy of rotation. Every movement of the masses from the central axis
+outwards against the springs is thus made at the expense of the original
+energy of motion, and every movement inwards provokes a corresponding
+return of that energy to the system. Every movement also against the
+springs forms part of a reversible operation. The sum total of the
+energy which works in these reversible operations is always less than
+the complete energy of the rotatory system, and the latter is always
+stable (Sec. 25), with respect to its energy properties. Let it now be
+assumed that the complete system as described is possessed of a precise
+and limited amount of energy of rotation, and that with the pendulum
+masses in an intermediate position as shown (Fig. 11) it is rotating
+with uniform angular velocity. The condition of the rotatory system
+might now be described as that of equilibrium. A definite amount of its
+original rotatory energy is now stored in the central spring and also in
+the radial springs. If now, without alteration in the intrinsic rotatory
+energy of the system, the pendulum masses were to execute a vibratory or
+pendulum motion about the position of equilibrium so that they move
+alternately to and from the central axis, then as they move inwards
+towards that axis the energy stored in the springs would be returned to
+the system in the original form of energy of rotation. This inward
+motion would, accordingly, produce acceleration. But, in the outward
+movement from the position of equilibrium, retardation would ensue on
+account of energy of motion being withdrawn from the system and stored
+in the springs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11]
+
+Under the given conditions, then, any vibratory motion of the pendulum
+masses to and from the central axis would be accompanied by alternate
+retardation and acceleration of the moving system. The storage of energy
+in the springs (central and radial) produces retardation, the
+restoration of this energy gives rise to a corresponding acceleration.
+The angular velocity of the system would rise and fall accordingly.
+These are the natural conditions of working of the system. As already
+pointed out, the motion of the pendulum masses may be regarded as
+executed over the surface of an imaginary sphere. Their motion against
+the radial springs would therefore correspond to a displacement outwards
+or upwards from the spherical surface. A definite part of the effect of
+retardation is, of course, due to this outward or radial displacement of
+the masses.
+
+Assuming still the property of constancy of energy of rotation, let it
+now be supposed that in such a vibratory movement of the pendulum masses
+as described above, the energy required merely for the displacement of
+the masses _against the radial springs_ is not withdrawn from and
+obtained at the expense of the original rotatory energy of the system,
+but is obtained from some energy agency, completely external to the
+system, and to which energy cannot be returned. The retardation,
+normally due to the outward displacement of the masses against the
+radial springs, would not then take place. But the energy is,
+nevertheless, stored in the springs. It now, therefore, forms part of
+the energy of the system, and consequently, on the returning or inward
+movement of vibration of the masses towards the central axis, this
+energy, received from the external source, would pass directly from the
+springs to the rotational energy of the system. It is clear, then, that
+while the introduction of energy in this fashion from an external source
+has in part eliminated the effect of retardation, the accelerating
+effect must still operate as before. Each vibratory movement of the
+pendulum system, under the given conditions, will lead to a definite
+increase in its energy of rotation by the amount stored in the radial
+springs. If the vibratory movement is continuous, the rotatory velocity
+of the system will steadily increase in value. Energy once stored in the
+radial springs can only be released by the return movement of the masses
+and _in the form of energy of rotation_; the nature of the mechanical
+machine is, in fact, such that if any incremental energy is applied to
+the displacement of the masses against the radial springs, it can only
+be returned in this form of energy of motion.
+
+These features of this experimental system are of vital importance to
+the author's scheme. They may be illustrated more completely, however,
+and in a form more suitable for their most general application, by the
+hypothetical system now to be described. This system is, of course,
+devised for purely illustrative purposes, but the general principles of
+working of pendulum systems and of energy return, as demonstrated above,
+will be assumed.
+
+
+43. _Application of Pendulum Principles_
+
+The movements of the pendulum masses described in the previous article
+have been regarded as carried out over the surface of an imaginary
+sphere. Let us now proceed to consider the phenomena of a similar
+movement of material over the surface of an actual spherical mass. The
+precise dimensions of the sphere are of little moment in the discussion,
+but for the purpose of illustration, its mass and general outline may be
+assumed to correspond to that of the earth or other planetary body. This
+spherical mass A (Fig. 12) rotates with uniform angular velocity about
+an axis NS through its centre. Associated with the rotating sphere are
+four auxiliary spherical masses, M{1}, M{2}, M{3}, M{4}, also of
+solid material, which are assumed to be placed symmetrically round its
+circumference as shown. These masses form an inherent part of the
+spherical system; they are assumed to be united to the main body of
+material by the attractive force of gravitation in precisely the same
+fashion as the atmosphere or other surface material of a planet is
+united to its inner core (Sec. 34); they will therefore partake completely
+of the rotatory motion of the sphere about its axis NS, moving in paths
+similar to those of the rotating pendulum masses already described (Sec.
+42). The restraining action of the pendulum arms is, however, replaced
+in this celestial case by the action of gravitation, which is the
+central force or influence of the system. Opposite masses are thus only
+united through the attractive influence of the material of the sphere.
+The place of the springs, both central and radial, in our pendulum
+system is now taken by this centripetal force of gravitative attraction,
+which therefore forms the restraining influence or determining factor in
+all the associated energy processes. While the auxiliary masses M{1}
+M{2}, &c., partake of the general motion of revolution of the main
+spherical mass about NS, they may also be assumed to revolve
+simultaneously about the axis WE, perpendicular to NS, and also passing
+through the centre of the sphere. Each of these masses will thus have a
+peculiar motion, a definite velocity over the surface of the sphere from
+pole to pole--about the axis WE--combined with a velocity of rotation
+about the central axis NS. The value of the latter velocity is, at any
+instant, directly proportional to the radius of the circle of latitude
+of the point on the surface of the sphere where the mass happens to be
+situated at that instant in its rotatory motion from pole to pole; this
+velocity accordingly diminishes as the mass withdraws from the equator,
+and becomes zero when it actually reaches the poles of rotation at N and
+S; and the energy of each mass in motion, since its linear velocity is
+thus constantly varying, will be itself a continuously varying quantity,
+increasing or diminishing accordingly as the mass is moving to or from
+the equatorial regions, attaining its maximum value at the equator and
+its minimum value at the poles. Now, since the masses thus moving are
+assumed to be a material and inherent portion of the spherical system,
+the source of the energy which is thus alternately supplied to and
+returned by them is the original energy of motion of the system; this
+original energy being assumed strictly limited in amount, the increase
+of the energy of each mass as it moves towards the equator will,
+therefore, be productive of a retardative effect on the revolution of
+the system as a whole. But, in a precisely similar manner, the energy
+thus gained by the mass would be fully returned on its movement towards
+the pole, and an accelerative effect would be produced corresponding to
+the original retardation. In the arrangement shown (Fig. 12), the moving
+masses are assumed to be situated at the extremities of diameters at
+right angles. With this symmetrical distribution, the transformation
+and return of energy would take place concurrently. Retardation is
+continually balanced by acceleration, and the motion of the sphere
+would, therefore, be approximately uniform about the central axis of
+rotation. It will be clear that the movements thus described of the
+masses will be very similar in nature to those of the pendulum masses in
+the experimental system previously discussed. The fact that the motion
+of the auxiliary masses over the surface of the sphere is assumed to be
+completely circular and not vibratory, as in the pendulum case, has no
+bearing on the general energy phenomena. These are readily seen to be
+identical in nature with those of the simpler system. In each case every
+movement of the masses implies either an expenditure of energy or a
+return, accordingly as the direction of that movement is to or from the
+regions of high velocity.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12]
+
+The paths of the moving auxiliary masses have been considered, so far,
+only as parallel to the surface of the sphere, but the general energy
+conditions are in no way altered if they are assumed to have in addition
+some motion normal to that surface; if, for example, they are repelled
+from the surface as they approach the equatorial regions, and return
+towards it once more as they approach the poles. Such a movement of the
+masses normal to the spherical surface really corresponds to the
+movement against the radial springs in the pendulum system; it would
+now be made against the attractive or restraining influence of
+gravitation, and a definite expenditure of energy would thus necessarily
+be required to produce the displacement. Energy, formerly stored in the
+springs, corresponds now to energy stored as energy of position (Sec. 20)
+against gravitation. If this energy is obtained at the expense of the
+inherent rotatory energy of the sphere, then its conversion in this
+fashion into energy of position will again be productive of a definite
+retardative effect on the revolution of the system. It is clear,
+however, that if each mass descends to the surface level once more in
+moving towards the poles, then in this operation its energy of position,
+originally obtained at the expense of the rotatory energy of the sphere,
+will be gradually but completely returned to that source. In a balanced
+system, such as we have assumed above, the descent of one mass in
+rotation would be accompanied by the elevation of another at a different
+point; the abstraction and return of the energy of rotation would then
+be equivalent, and would not affect the primary condition of uniformity
+of rotation of the system. In the circumstances assumed, the whole
+energy process which takes place in the movement of the masses from
+poles to equator and normal to the spherical surface would obviously be
+of a cyclical nature and completely reversible. It would be the working
+of mechanical energy in a definite material machine, and in accordance
+with the principles already outlined (Sec. 20) the maximum amount of
+energy which can operate in this machine is strictly limited by the mass
+of the material involved in the movement. The energy machine has thus a
+definite capacity, and as the maximum energy operating in the reversible
+cycle is assumed to be within this limit, the machine would be
+completely stable in nature (Sec. 25). The movements of the auxiliary
+masses have hitherto also been considered as taking place over somewhat
+restricted paths, but this convention is one which can readily be
+dispensed with. The general direction of motion of the masses must of
+course be from equator to pole or vice versa; but it is quite obvious
+that the exact paths pursued by the masses in this general motion is of
+no moment in the consideration of energy return, nor yet the precise
+region in which they may happen to be restored once more to the surface
+level. Whatever may be its position at any instant, each mass is
+possessed of a definite amount of energy corresponding to that position;
+this amount will always be equal to the total energy abstracted by that
+mass, less the energy returned. The nature of the energy system is,
+however, such that the various energy phases of the different masses
+will be completely co-ordinated. Since the essential feature of the
+system is its property of uniformity of rotation, any return of energy
+in the rotational form at any part of the system--due to the descent of
+material--produces a definite accelerating effect on the system, which
+effect is, however, at once neutralised or absorbed by a corresponding
+retardative effect due to that energy which must be extracted from the
+system in equivalent amount and devoted to the upraising of material at
+a different point. For simplicity in illustration only four masses have
+been considered in motion over the surface of the sphere, but it will be
+clear that the number which may so operate is really limited only by the
+dimensions of the system. The spherical surface might be completely
+covered with moving material, not necessarily of spherical form, not
+necessarily even material in the solid form (Sec. 13), which would rise and
+fall relative to the surface and flow to and from the poles exactly in
+the fashion already illustrated by the moving masses. The capacity of
+the reversible energy machine--which depends on the mass--would be
+altered in this case, but not the general nature of the machine itself.
+If the system were energised to the requisite degree, every energy
+operation could be carried out as before.
+
+As already pointed out, the dominating feature of a spherical system
+such as we have just described would be essentially its property of
+energy conservation manifested by its uniformity of rotation. All its
+operations could be carried out independently of the direct action of
+any external energy influences. For if it be assumed that the energy
+gained by the auxiliary moving surface material _in virtue of its
+displacement normal to the spherical surface_ be derived, not from the
+inherent rotational energy of the sphere itself, but by an influx of
+energy from some source completely external to the system, then since
+there has been no energy abstraction there will be no retardative effect
+on the revolution due to the upraising of this material. But the influx
+of energy thus stored in the material must of necessity work through the
+energy machine. In the movement towards the poles this energy would
+therefore be applied to the system in the form of energy of rotation,
+and would produce a definite accelerative effect. If the influx of
+energy were continuous, and no means were existent for a corresponding
+efflux, the rotatory velocity of the system would steadily increase. The
+phenomena would be of precisely the same nature as those already alluded
+to in the case of the system of rotating pendulums (Sec. 42). Acceleration
+would take place without corresponding retardation. A direct
+contribution would be continuously made to the rotatory energy of the
+system, and would under the given conditions be manifested by an
+increase in its velocity of revolution.
+
+
+44. _Extension of Pendulum Principles to Terrestrial Phenomena_
+
+The energy phenomena illustrated by the experimental devices above are
+to be observed, in their aspects of greatest perfection, in the natural
+world. In the earth, united to its encircling atmosphere by the
+invisible bond of gravitation, we find the prototype of the hypothetical
+system just described. Its uniformity of rotation is an established fact
+of centuries, and over its spheroidal surface we have, corresponding to
+the motion of our illustrative spherical masses, the movement of
+enormous quantities of atmospheric air in the general directions from
+equatorial to polar regions and vice versa. This circulatory movement,
+and the internal energy reactions which it involves, have been already
+fully dealt with (Sec. 88); we have now to consider it in a somewhat more
+comprehensive fashion, in the light of the pendulum systems described
+above. As already explained (Sec. 13), the operation of mechanical energy
+is not confined to solid and liquid masses only, but may likewise be
+manifested by the movements of gaseous masses. The terrestrial
+atmospheric machine provides an outstanding example. In its working
+conditions, and in the general nature of the energy operations involved,
+the terrestrial atmospheric machine is very clearly represented by the
+rotating pendulum system (Sec. 42). The analogy is still closer in the case
+of the hypothetical system just described. The actual terrestrial energy
+machine differs from both only in that the energy processes, which they
+illustrate by the movements of solid material, are carried out in the
+course of its working by the motion of gaseous masses. It is obvious,
+however, that this in no way affects the inherent nature of the energy
+processes themselves. They are carried out quite as completely and
+efficiently--in fact, more completely and more efficiently--by the
+motions of gaseous as by the motions of solid material.
+
+The atmospheric circulation, then, may be readily regarded as the
+movement, over the terrestrial surface, of gaseous masses which absorb
+and return energy in regions of high and low velocity exactly in the
+fashion explained above for solid material. In their movement from polar
+towards equatorial regions these masses, by the action of the aqueous
+vapour (Sec. 38), absorb energy (axial energy) and expand upwards against
+gravity. Here we have an energy operation identical in nature with that
+embodied in the movements of a pendulum mass simultaneously over a
+spherical surface and against radial springs as in the system of
+rotating pendulums, or identical with the equatorial and radial movement
+of the auxiliary masses in the hypothetical system. The return movement
+of the aerial masses over the terrestrial surface in the opposite
+direction from equatorial to polar regions provides also exactly the
+same phenomena of energy return as the return movement of the masses in
+our illustrative systems. These systems, in fact, portray the general
+operation of mechanical energy precisely as it occurs in the terrestrial
+atmospheric machine. But obviously they cannot illustrate the natural
+conditions in their entirety. The passage or flow of the atmospheric air
+masses over the earth's surface is a movement of an exceedingly complex
+nature, impossible to illustrate by experimental apparatus. And indeed,
+such illustration is quite unnecessary. As already pointed out (Sec. 38),
+no matter what may be the precise path of an aerial mass in its movement
+towards the planetary surface the final energy return is the same.
+Sooner or later its energy of position is restored in the original axial
+form.
+
+The terrestrial atmospheric machine will be thus readily recognised as
+essentially a material mechanical machine corresponding in general
+nature to the illustrative examples described above. The combination of
+its various energy processes is embodied in a complete cyclical and
+reversible operation. Its energy capacity, as in the simpler cases, is
+strictly limited by the total mass of the operating material. The active
+or working energy is well within the limit for reversibility (Sec. 23), and
+the machine is therefore essentially stable in nature. The continuous
+abstraction of axial energy by the aqueous vapour is balanced by an
+equally continuous return from the air masses, and the system, so far as
+its energy properties are concerned, is absolutely conservative. Energy
+transmission from or to any external source is neither admissible nor
+necessary for its working.
+
+
+45. _Concluding Review of Terrestrial Conditions--Effects of Influx of
+      Energy_
+
+The aspect of the earth as a separate mass in space, and its energy
+relationship to its primary the sun and to the associated planetary
+masses of the solar system have been broadly presented in the General
+Statement (Secs. 1-12). In that statement, based entirely on the
+universally accepted properties of matter and energy, an order of
+phenomena is described which is in strict accordance with observed
+natural conditions, and which portrays the earth and the other planetary
+bodies, so far as their material or energy properties are concerned, as
+absolutely isolated masses in space. The scientific verification of this
+position must of necessity be founded on the terrestrial observation of
+phenomena. So far as the orbital movements of the planet are concerned
+these are admittedly orderly; each planetary mass wheels its flight
+through space with unvarying regularity; the energy processes, also,
+associated with the variations of planetary orbital path, and which
+attain limiting conditions at perihelion and aphelion, are readily
+acknowledged to be reversible and cyclical in nature. In fact, even a
+slight observation of the movements of celestial masses inevitably leads
+to the conviction that the great energy processes of the solar system
+are inherently cyclical in nature, that every movement of its material
+and every manifestation of its energy is part of some complete
+operation. The whole appears to be but the natural or material
+embodiment of the great principle of energy conservation. It has been
+one of the objects of this work to show that the cyclical nature of the
+energy operations of the solar system is not confined only to the more
+prominent energy phenomena, but that it penetrates and is exhibited in
+the working of even the most insignificant planetary processes. Each one
+of the latter in reality forms part of an unbroken series or chain of
+energy phenomena. Each planet forms in itself a complete, perfect, and
+self-contained energy system. Every manifestation of planetary energy,
+great or small, whether associated with animate or inanimate matter, is
+but one phase or aspect of that energy as it pursues its cyclical path.
+
+It is a somewhat remarkable fact that in this age of scientific reason
+the observation of the strictly orderly arrangement of phenomena in the
+solar system as a whole should not have led to some idea in the minds of
+philosophical workers of a similar order of phenomena in its separate
+parts, but the explanation lies generally in the continual attempts to
+bring natural phenomena into line with certain preconceived hypotheses,
+and more particularly to the almost universal acceptance of the doctrine
+of the direct transmission of energy from the sun to the earth and the
+final rejection or radiation of this energy into space. There is no
+denying the eminent plausibility of this doctrine. The evidence of
+Nature _prima facie_ may even appear to completely substantiate it. But
+we would submit that the general circumstances in which this doctrine is
+now so readily accepted are very similar to those which prevailed in
+more ancient times, when the revolution of the sun and stars round the
+earth was the universal tenet of natural philosophy. This conception,
+allied to the belief that the sole function of the celestial bodies was
+to provide light and heat to the terrestrial mass, appeared to be in
+strict accordance with observed phenomena, and held undisturbed
+possession of the minds of men for centuries, until it was finally
+demolished by Copernicus as the result of simple and accurate
+observation of and deduction from natural phenomena. At the present
+time, the somewhat venerable belief in the transmission of energy in
+various forms from the sun to the earth appears at first sight to be
+supported by actual facts. But a more rigid scrutiny of the evidence and
+of the mental processes must inevitably lead the unbiassed mind to the
+conclusion that this belief has no real foundation on truly scientific
+observation, but is entirely unsupported by natural phenomena. Every
+operation of Nature, in fact, when considered in its true relationships
+is an absolute denial of the whole conception. Like its predecessor
+relating to the motion of the sun and stars round the earth, the
+doctrine of energy transmission between separate masses in space such as
+the sun and the earth cannot be sustained in the face of scientific
+observation. This doctrine is found on investigation to be supported not
+by phenomena but by the conception of an elastic ethereal medium, of
+whose existence there is absolutely no evidential proof, and the
+necessity for which disappears along with the hypothesis it supports. It
+is, however, not proposed to discuss in any detail either the supposed
+transmission of energy from the sun to the planets or the arbitrary
+properties of the transmitting medium, but rather to adopt a more
+positive method of criticism by summarising briefly the evidential
+phenomena which show the cyclical nature of the whole terrestrial energy
+process, and which remove the basis of belief in such a transmission.
+
+To recapitulate the more general conditions, we find the earth, alike
+with other planetary masses, pursuing a defined orbital path, and
+rotating with uniform angular velocity in the lines or under the
+influence of the gravitation, thermal, luminous, and other incepting
+fields (Secs. 17, 18, 19) which originate in the sun. Its axial rotation,
+in these circumstances, gives rise to all the secondary transformations
+(Sec. 9) of terrestrial axial energy, which in their operation provide the
+varied panorama of terrestrial phenomena. Terrestrial axial energy is
+thus diverted into terrestrial secondary processes. Each of these
+processes is found to be united to or embodied in a definite material
+machine (Secs. 27-30), and is, accordingly, limited in nature and extent by
+the physical properties and incepting factors associated with the
+materials of which the machine is composed. By ordinary methods of
+transmission, energy may pass from one material to another, that is to
+say from one machine to another, and by this means definite chains of
+energy processes are constituted, through which, therefore, passes the
+axial energy originally transformed by the action of the sun. These
+series or chains of energy processes are also found to be one and all
+linked at some stage of their progress to the general atmospheric
+machine (Sec. 29). The energy operating in them is, in every case, after
+many or few vicissitudes according to the nature of the intermediate
+operations, communicated to the gaseous atmospheric material. By the
+movement of this material in the working of the atmospheric machine (Sec.
+38) the energy is finally returned in its original form of axial energy
+of rotation. The sun's action is thus in a manner to force the inherent
+rotatory energy of the planet into the cyclical secondary operations,
+all of which converge alike towards the general atmospheric mechanism of
+return. The passage of the energy through the complete secondary
+operations, and its re-conversion into its original axial form, may be
+rapid or slow according to circumstances. In equatorial regions, where
+the influence of the sun's incepting fields is most intense, we find
+that the inherent planetary axial energy is communicated with great
+rapidity through the medium of the aqueous vapour to the air masses. By
+the movement of the latter it may be just as rapidly returned, and the
+whole operation completed in a comparatively short interval of time. In
+the same equatorial regions, the transformations of axial energy which
+are manifested in plant life attain their greatest perfection and
+vigour. But in this case the complete return of the operating energy may
+be very slow. The stored energy of tropical vegetation may still in
+great part remain in the bosom of the earth, awaiting an appropriate
+stimulus to be communicated to more active material for the concluding
+stages of that cyclical process which had its commencement in the
+absorption of axial energy into plant tissue. The duration of the
+complete secondary operation has, however, absolutely no bearing on the
+conservative energy properties of the planet. In this respect, the
+system is perfectly balanced. Every transformation or absorption of
+rotatory energy, great or small, for long or short periods of time, is
+counteracted by a corresponding return. Absolute uniformity of planetary
+axial rotation is thus steadily maintained.
+
+It is scarcely necessary at this stage to point out that the
+verification of this description of natural operations lies simply and
+entirely in the observation of Nature's working at first hand. The
+description is based on no theory and obscured by no preconceived ideas,
+it is founded entirely on direct experimental evidence. The field of
+study and of verification is not restricted, but comprises the whole
+realm of natural phenomena. In a lifetime of observation the author has
+failed to discern a single contradictory phenomenon; every natural
+operation is in reality a direct confirmation.
+
+The conception of energy, working only through the medium of definite
+material machines with their incepting and limiting agencies, is one
+which is of great value not only in natural philosophy but also in
+practical life. By its means it is possible in many cases to co-ordinate
+phenomena, apparently antagonistic, but in reality only different phases
+of energy machines. It aids materially also in the obtaining of a true
+grasp of the inexorable principle of energy conservation and its
+application to natural conditions, and it emphasises the indefensible
+nature of such ideas as the radiation of energy into _space_.
+
+It will be evident that in a planetary system such as described above
+there is no room for any transmission of energy to the system from an
+external source. The nature of the system is, in fact, such that a
+transmission of this kind is entirely unnecessary. As already
+demonstrated, every phenomenon and every energy operation can be
+carried out independently of any such transmission. For the purpose of
+illustration, however, it may be assumed that such a communication of
+energy does take place; that according to the accepted doctrines of
+modern science the sun pours energy in a continuous stream into the
+terrestrial system. Now, no matter in what form this energy is
+communicated, it is clear that once it is associated with or attached to
+the various planetary materials it is, as it were, incorporated or
+embodied in the planetary energy machines, and must of necessity work
+through the secondary energy operations. But these operations have been
+shown to be naturally and irresistibly connected to the general
+atmospheric machine. Into this machine, then, the incremental energy
+must be carried, and it will be there directly converted into the form
+of axial energy of rotation. Once the incremental energy is actually in
+the planet, once it is actually communicated to planetary material, the
+nature of the system absolutely forbids its escape. The effect of a
+direct and continuous influx such as we have assumed would inevitably be
+an increase in the angular velocity of the system. This effect has
+already been verified from an experimental point of view by
+consideration of the phenomena of a rotating pendulum system (Secs. 42,
+43). Whilst the influx of energy proceeds, then in virtue of the
+increasing velocity of the planetary material in the lines of the
+various incepting fields of the sun, all terrestrial phenomena involving
+the transformation of rotary or axial energy would be increased in
+magnitude and intensified in degree. The planet would thus rapidly
+attain an unstable condition; its material would soon become energised
+beyond its normal capacity, and the natural stability (Sec. 25) of its
+constituent energy machines would be destroyed; the system as a whole
+would steadily proceed towards disruption.
+
+But, happily, Nature presents no evidence of such a course of events.
+The earth spins on its axis with quiet and persistent regularity; the
+unvarying uniformity of its motion of axial rotation has been verified
+by the observations of generations of philosophers. Its temperature
+gradations show no evidence of change or decay in its essential heat
+qualities, and the recurrence of natural phenomena is maintained without
+visible sign of increase either in their intensity or multiplicity. The
+finger of Nature ever points to closed energy circuits, to the earth as
+a complete and conservative system in which energy, mutable to the
+highest degree with respect to its plurality of form, attains to the
+perfection of permanence in its essential character and amount.
+
+
+
+
+Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & CO.
+
+Edinburgh & London
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE:
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+within {} brackets, such as: M{1}.
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+book have been corrected without comment.
+
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+paragraph in which the footnote tag appears.
+
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