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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 12, Slice 6, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 6
+       "Groups, Theory of" to "Gwyniad"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: December 14, 2011 [EBook #38304]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters and [Pd] for partial differential symbol.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE GUADALQUIVIR: "Here it forms two subsidiary channels, the
+      western 31 m., the eastern 12 m. long, which rejoin the main stream
+      on the borders of the province of Cadiz." 'm.' amended from 'M.'.
+
+    ARTICLE GUANAJUATO: "... W. of Guanajuato in a rich mining
+      district; and Acambaro (8345), a prosperous town of the plain, 76
+      m. S.S.E. of Guanajuato." 'Guanajuato' amended from 'Guanaiuato'.
+
+    ARTICLE GUARANTEE: "The Egyptian codes sanction guarantees
+      expressly entered into 'in view of debtor's want of legal capacity'
+      to contract a valid principal obligation (Egyptian Codes, Mixed
+      Suits, 605; Native Tribunals, 496)." 'Egyptian' amended from
+      'Egyptain'.
+
+    ARTICLE GUINEA FOWL: "Allied to the genus Numida, but readily
+      distinguished form among other characters by the possession of
+      spurs and the absence of a helmet, are two very rare forms ..."
+      'form' amended from 'thereform'.
+
+    ARTICLE GUIPÚZCOA: "The principal industrial centres are Irun,
+      Renteria, Villabona, Vergara and Azpéitia for cotton and linen
+      stuffs; Zumarraga for osiers; Eibar, Plasencia and Elgoibar for
+      arms and cannon and gold incrustations; ..." 'osiers' amended from
+      'osies'.
+
+    ARTICLE GUTZKOW, KARL FERDINAND: "The success of Die Ritter vom
+      Geiste suggested to Gutzkow the establishment of a journal on the
+      model of Dickens' Household Words, entitled Unterhaltungen am
+      häuslichen Herd, which first appeared in 1852 and was continued
+      till 1862." "Dickens'" amended from "Dicken's".
+
+    ARTICLE GUY OF WARWICK: "... The Tragical History, Admirable
+      Achievements and Curious Events of Guy, Earl of Warwick ..."
+      'Achievements' amended from 'Atchievements'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME XII, SLICE VI
+
+        Groups, Theory of to Gwyniad
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  GROUPS, THEORY OF                GUIDICCIONI, GIOVANNI
+  GROUSE                           GUIDO OF AREZZO
+  GROVE, SIR GEORGE                GUIDO OF SIENA
+  GROVE, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT        GUIDO RENI
+  GROVE                            GUIENNE
+  GROZNYI                          GUIGNES, JOSEPH DE
+  GRUB                             GUILBERT, YVETTE
+  GRUBER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED         GUILDFORD
+  GRUMBACH, WILHELM VON            GUILDHALL
+  GRUMENTUM                        GUILFORD, BARONS AND EARLS OF
+  GRÜN                             GUILFORD
+  GRÜNBERG                         GUILLAUME, JEAN BAPTISTE CLAUDE EUGÈNE
+  GRUNDTVIG, NIKOLAI SEVERIN       GUILLAUME DE LORRIS
+  GRUNDY, SYDNEY                   GUILLAUME DE PALERME
+  GRUNDY, MRS                      GUILLAUME D'ORANGE
+  GRUNER, GOTTLIEB SIGMUND         GUILLEMOT
+  GRÜNEWALD, MATHIAS               GUILLOCHE
+  GRUTER, JAN                      GUILLON, MARIE NICOLAS SYLVESTRE
+  GRUYÈRE                          GUILLOTINE
+  GRYNAEUS, JOHANN JAKOB           GUILT
+  GRYNAEUS, SIMON                  GUIMARÃES
+  GRYPHIUS, ANDREAS                GUIMARD, MARIE MADELEINE
+  GUACHARO                         GUIMET, JEAN BAPTISTE
+  GUACO                            GUINEA (Africa)
+  GUADALAJARA (city of Mexico)     GUINEA (gold coin)
+  GUADALAJARA (province of Spain)  GUINEA FOWL
+  GUADALAJARA (city of Spain)      GUINEA-WORM
+  GUADALQUIVIR                     GÜINES
+  GUADELOUPE                       GUINGAMP
+  GUADET, MARGUERITE ÉLIE          GUINNESS
+  GUADIANA                         GUINOBATAN
+  GUADIX                           GUIPÚZCOA
+  GUADUAS                          GUIRAUD, ERNEST
+  GUAIACUM                         GUISBOROUGH
+  GUALDO TADINO                    GUISE
+  GUALEGUAY                        GUISE, HOUSE OF
+  GUALEGUAYCHÚ                     GUITAR
+  GUALO, CARDINAL                  GUITAR FIDDLE
+  GUAM                             GUITRY, LUCIEN GERMAIN
+  GUAN                             GUIZOT, FRANÇOIS PIERRE GUILLAUME
+  GUANABACOA                       GUJARAT
+  GUANACO                          GUJARATI and RAJASTHANI
+  GUANAJAY                         GUJRANWALA
+  GUANAJUATO (state of Mexico)     GUJRAT
+  GUANAJUATO (city of Mexico)      GULA
+  GUANCHES                         GULBARGA
+  GUANIDINE                        GULF STREAM
+  GUANO                            GULFWEED
+  GUANTA                           GULL, SIR WILLIAM WITHEY
+  GUANTÁNAMO                       GULL
+  GUARANA                          GULLY, JOHN
+  GUARANIS                         GULPÁÏGÁN
+  GUARANTEE                        GUM
+  GUARATINGUETÁ                    GÜMBEL, KARL WILHELM VON
+  GUARDA                           GUMBINNEN
+  GUARDI, FRANCESCO                GUMBO
+  GUARDIAN                         GUMTI
+  GUARDS, and HOUSEHOLD TROOPS     GUMULJINA
+  GUARD-SHIP                       GUMUS
+  GUÁRICO                          GÜMÜSH-KHANEH
+  GUARIENTO                        GUN
+  GUARINI, CAMILLO-GUARINO         GUNA
+  GUARINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA       GUNCOTTON
+  GUARINO                          GUNDULICH, IVAN
+  GUARINO [GUARINUS] DA VERONA     GUNG'L, JOSEF
+  GUARNIERI                        GUNNER
+  GUASTALLA                        GUNNING, PETER
+  GUATEMALA (republic)             GUNNY
+  GUATEMALA (city of Guatemala)    GUNPOWDER
+  GUATOS                           GUNPOWDER PLOT
+  GUATUSOS                         GUN-ROOM
+  GUAVA                            GUNTER, EDMUND
+  GUAYAMA                          GÜNTHER, JOHANN CHRISTIAN
+  GUAYAQUIL                        GÜNTHER OF SCHWARZBURG
+  GUAYAS                           GUNTRAM
+  GUAYCURUS                        GUNTUR
+  GUAYMAS                          GUPTA
+  GUBBIO                           GURA, EUGEN
+  GUBEN                            GURDASPUR
+  GUBERNATIS, ANGELO DE            GURGAON
+  GUDBRANDSDAL                     GURKHA
+  GUDE, MARQUARD                   GURNALL, WILLIAM
+  GUDEMAN, ALFRED                  GURNARD
+  GUDGEON                          GURNEY
+  GUDRUN                           GURNEY, EDMUND
+  GUÉBRIANT, JEAN BAPTISTE BUDES   GURWOOD, JOHN
+  GUELDER ROSE                     GUSLA
+  GUELPH                           GUSTAVUS I. ERIKSSON
+  GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES          GUSTAVUS II. ADOLPHUS
+  GUENEVERE                        GUSTAVUS III.
+  GUENON                           GUSTAVUS IV.
+  GUÉRET                           GUSTAVUS V.
+  GUEREZA                          GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS UNION
+  GUERICKE, HEINRICH FERDINAND     GÜSTROW
+  GUERICKE, OTTO VON               GUTENBERG, JOHANN
+  GUÉRIDON                         GÜTERSLOH
+  GUÉRIN, JEAN BAPTISTE PAULIN     GUTHRIE, SIR JAMES
+  GUÉRIN, PIERRE NARCISSE          GUTHRIE, THOMAS
+  GUÉRIN DU CAYLA, MAURICE DE      GUTHRIE, THOMAS ANSTEY
+  GUERNIERI                        GUTHRIE
+  GUERNSEY                         GUTHRUM
+  GUERRAZZI, FRANCESCO DOMENICO    GUTSCHMID, ALFRED
+  GUERRERO                         GUTS-MUTHS, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH
+  GUERRILLA                        GUTTA
+  GUERRINI, OLINDO                 GUTTA PERCHA
+  GUESDE, JULES BASILE             GUTTER
+  GUEST, EDWIN                     GUTZKOW, KARL FERDINAND
+  GUEST                            GÜTZLAFF, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST
+  GUETTARD, JEAN ÉTIENNE           GUY OF WARWICK
+  GUEUX, LES                       GUY, THOMAS
+  GUEVARA, ANTONIO DE              GUYON, JEANNE BOUVIER DE LA MOTHE
+  GUEVARA, LUIS VELEZ DE           GUYON, RICHARD DEBAUFRE
+  GUGLIELMI, PIETRO                GUYOT, ARNOLD HENRY
+  GUIANA                           GUYOT, YVES
+  GUIART, GUILLAUME                GUYTON DE MORVEAU, LOUIS BERNARD
+  GUIBERT (of Ravenna)             GUZMICS, IZIDÓR
+  GUIBERT (of Nogent)              GWADAR
+  GUIBERT, JACQUES HIPPOLYTE       GWALIOR
+  GUICCIARDINI, FRANCESCO          GWEEDORE
+  GUICHARD, KARL GOTTLIEB          GWILT, JOSEPH
+  GUICHEN, LUC URBAIN DE BOUËXIC   GWYN, NELL
+  GUIDE                            GWYNIAD
+  GUIDI, CARLO ALESSANDRO
+
+
+
+
+GROUPS,[1] THEORY OF. The conception of an operation to be carried out
+on some object or set of objects underlies all mathematical science.
+Thus in elementary arithmetic there are the fundamental operations of
+the addition and the multiplication of integers; in algebra a linear
+transformation is an operation which may be carried out on any set of
+variables; while in geometry a translation, a rotation, or a projective
+transformation are operations which may be carried out on any figure.
+
+In speaking of an operation, an object or a set of objects to which it
+may be applied is postulated; and the operation may, and generally will,
+have no meaning except in regard to such a set of objects. If two
+operations, which can be performed on the same set of objects, are such
+that, when carried out in succession on any possible object, the result,
+whichever operation is performed first, is to produce no change in the
+object, then each of the operations is spoken of as a _definite_
+operation, and each of them is called the _inverse_ of the other. Thus
+the operations which consist in replacing x by nx and by x/n
+respectively, in any rational function of x, are definite inverse
+operations, if n is any assigned number except zero. On the contrary,
+the operation of replacing x by an assigned number in any rational
+function of x is not, in the present sense, although it leads to a
+unique result, a definite operation; there is in fact no unique inverse
+operation corresponding to it. It is to be noticed that the question
+whether an operation is a definite operation or no may depend on the
+range of the objects on which it operates. For example, the operations
+of squaring and extracting the square root are definite inverse
+operations if the objects are restricted to be real positive numbers,
+but not otherwise.
+
+  If O, O´, O´´, ... is the totality of the objects on which a definite
+  operation S and its inverse S´ may be carried out, and if the result
+  of carrying out S on O is represented by O·S, then O.S.S´, O·S´.S, and
+  O are the same object whatever object of the set O may be. This will
+  be represented by the equations SS´ = S´S = 1. Now O·S·S´ has a
+  meaning only if O·S is an object on which S´ may be performed. Hence
+  whatever object of the set O may be, both O·S and O·S´ belong to the
+  set. Similarly O·S·S, O·S·S·S, ... are objects of the set. These will
+  be represented by O·S², O·S³, ... Suppose now that T is another
+  definite operation with the same set of objects as S, and that T´ is
+  its inverse operation. Then O·S·T is a definite operation of the set,
+  and therefore the result of carrying out S and then T on the set of
+  objects is some operation U with a unique result. Represent by U´ the
+  result of carrying out T´ and then S´. Then O·UU´ = O·S·T·T´·S´ =
+  O·SS´ = O, and O·U´U = O·T´·S´·S·T = O·T´T = O, whatever object O may
+  be. Hence UU´ = U´U = 1; and U, U´ are definite inverse operations.
+
+  If S, U, V are definite operations, and if S´ is the inverse of S,
+  then
+
+               SU = SV
+
+  implies    S´SU = S´SV,
+
+  or            U = V.
+
+  Similarly    US = VS
+
+  implies       U = V.
+
+
+    Definition of a group.
+
+  Let S, T, U, ... be a set of definite operations, capable of being
+  carried out on a common object or set of objects, and let the set
+  contain--
+
+  (i.) the operation ST, S and T being any two operations of the set;
+
+  (ii.) the inverse operation of S, S being any operation of the set;
+  the set of operations is then called a group.
+
+  The number of operations in a group may be either finite or infinite.
+  When it is finite, the number is called the _order_ of the group, and
+  the group is spoken of as a _group of finite order_. If the number of
+  operations is infinite, there are three possible cases. When the group
+  is represented by a set of geometrical operations, for the
+  specification of an individual operation a number of measurements will
+  be necessary. In more analytical language, each operation will be
+  specified by the values of a set of parameters. If no one of these
+  parameters is capable of continuous variation, the group is called a
+  _discontinuous group_. If all the parameters are capable of continuous
+  variation, the group is called a _continuous group_. If some of the
+  parameters are capable of continuous variation and some are not, the
+  group is called a _mixed group_.
+
+  If S' is the inverse operation of S, a group which contains S must
+  contain SS´, which produces no change on any possible object. This is
+  called the _identical operation_, and will always be represented by I.
+  Since S^pS^q = S^(p+q) when p and q are positive integers, and S^pS´ =
+  S^(p-1) while no meaning at present has been attached to S^q when q is
+  negative, S´ may be consistently represented by S^(-1). The set of
+  operations ..., S^(-2), S(-1), 1, S, S², ... obviously constitute a
+  group. Such a group is called a _cyclical_ group.
+
+
+    Subgroups, conjugate operations, isomorphism, &c.
+
+  It will be convenient, before giving some illustrations of the general
+  group idea, to add a number of further definitions and explanations
+  which apply to all groups alike. If from among the set of operations
+  S, T, U, ... which constitute a group G, a smaller set S´, T´, U´, ...
+  can be chosen which themselves constitute a group H, the group H is
+  called a _subgroup_ of G. Thus, in particular, if S is an operation of
+  G, the cyclical group constituted by ..., S^(-2), S^(-1), 1, S, S²,
+  ... is a subgroup of G, except in the special case when it coincides
+  with G itself.
+
+  If S and T are any two operations of G, the two operations S and
+  T^(-1)ST are called _conjugate_ operations, and T^(-1)ST is spoken of
+  as the result of _transforming_ S by T. It is to be noted that since
+  ST = T^(-1), TS, T, ST and TS are always conjugate operations in any
+  group containing both S and T. If T transforms S into itself, that is,
+  if S = T^(-1)ST or TS = ST, S and T are called _permutable_
+  operations. A group whose operations are all permutable with each
+  other is called an _Abelian_ group. If S is transformed into itself by
+  every operation of G, or, in other words, if it is permutable with
+  every operation of G, it is called a _self-conjugate_ operation of G.
+
+  The conception of operations being conjugate to each other is extended
+  to subgroups. If S´, T´, U´, ... are the operations of a subgroup H,
+  and if R is any operation of G, then the operations R^(-1)S´R,
+  R^(-1)T´R, R^(-1)U´R, ... belong to G, and constitute a subgroup of G.
+  For if S´T´ = U´, then R^(-1)S´R·R^(-1)T´R = R^(-1)S´T´R = R^(-1)U´R.
+  This subgroup may be identical with H. In particular, it is
+  necessarily the same as H if R belongs to H. If it is not identical
+  with H, it is said to be _conjugate_ to H; and it is in any case
+  represented by the symbol R^(-1)HR. If H = R^(-1)HR, the operation R
+  is said to be permutable with the subgroup H. (It is to be noticed
+  that this does not imply that R is permutable with each operation of
+  H.)
+
+  If H = R^(-1)HR, when for R is taken in turn each of the operations of
+  G, then H is called a _self-conjugate_ subgroup of G.
+
+  A group is spoken of as _simple_ when it has no self-conjugate
+  subgroup other than that constituted by the identical operation alone.
+  A group which has a self-conjugate subgroup is called _composite_.
+
+  Let G be a group constituted of the operations S, T, U, ..., and g a
+  second group constituted of s, t, u, ..., and suppose that to each
+  operation of G there corresponds a single operation of g in such a way
+  that if ST = U, then _st_ = u, where s, t, u are the operations
+  corresponding to S, T, U respectively. The groups are then said to be
+  _isomorphic_, and the correspondence between their operations is
+  spoken of as an _isomorphism_ between the groups. It is clear that
+  there may be two distinct cases of such isomorphism. To a single
+  operation of g there may correspond either a single operation of G or
+  more than one. In the first case the isomorphism is spoken of as
+  _simple_, in the second as _multiple_.
+
+  Two simply isomorphic groups considered abstractly--that is to say, in
+  regard only to the way in which their operations combine among
+  themselves, and apart from any concrete representation of the
+  operations--are clearly indistinguishable.
+
+  If G is multiply isomorphic with g, let A, B, C, ... be the operations
+  of G which correspond to the identical operation of g. Then to the
+  operations A^(-1) and AB of G there corresponds the identical
+  operation of g; so that A, B, C, ... constitute a subgroup H of G.
+  Moreover, if R is any operation of G, the identical operation of g
+  corresponds to every operation of R^(-1)HR, and therefore H is a
+  self-conjugate subgroup of G. Since S corresponds to s, and every
+  operation of H to the identical operation of g, therefore every
+  operation of the set SA, SB, SC, ..., which is represented by SH,
+  corresponds to s. Also these are the only operations that correspond
+  to s. The operations of G may therefore be divided into sets, no two
+  of which contain a common operation, such that the correspondence
+  between the operations of G and g connects each of the sets H, SH, TH,
+  UH, ... with the single operations 1, s, t, u, ... written below them.
+  The sets into which the operations of G are thus divided combine among
+  themselves by exactly the same laws as the operations of g. For if
+  st = u, then SH·TH = UH, in the sense that any operation of the set
+  SH followed by any operation of the set TH gives an operation of the
+  set UH.
+
+  The group g, abstractly considered, is therefore completely defined by
+  the division of the operations of G into sets in respect of the
+  self-conjugate subgroup H. From this point of view it is spoken of as
+  the _factor-group_ of G in respect of H, and is represented by the
+  symbol G/H. Any composite group in a similar way defines abstractly a
+  factor-group in respect of each of its self-conjugate subgroups.
+
+  It follows from the definition of a group that it must always be
+  possible to choose from its operations a set such that every operation
+  of the group can be obtained by combining the operations of the set
+  and their inverses. If the set is such that no one of the operations
+  belonging to it can be represented in terms of the others, it is
+  called a set of _independent generating_ operations. Such a set of
+  generating operations may be either finite or infinite in number. If
+  A, B, ..., E are the generating operations of a group, the group
+  generated by them is represented by the symbol {A, B, ..., E}. An
+  obvious extension of this symbol is used such that {A, H} represents
+  the group generated by combining an operation A with every operation
+  of a group H; {H1, H2} represents the group obtained by combining in
+  all possible ways the operations of the groups H1 and H2; and so on.
+  The independent generating operations of a group may be subject to
+  certain relations connecting them, but these must be such that it is
+  impossible by combining them to obtain a relation expressing one
+  operation in terms of the others. For instance, AB = BA is a relation
+  conditioning the group {A, B}; it does not, however, enable A to be
+  expressed in terms of B, so that A and B are independent generating
+  operations.
+
+
+    Transitivity and primitivity.
+
+  Let O, O´, O´´, ... be a set of objects which are interchanged among
+  themselves by the operations of a group G, so that if S is any
+  operation of the group, and O any one of the objects, then O·S is an
+  object occurring in the set. If it is possible to find an operation S
+  of the group such that O·S is any assigned one of the set of objects,
+  the group is called _transitive_ in respect of this set of objects.
+  When this is not possible the group is called _intransitive_ in
+  respect of the set. If it is possible to find S so that any
+  arbitrarily chosen n objects of the set, O1, O2, ..., O_n are changed
+  by S into O´1, O´2, ..., O´n respectively, the latter being also
+  arbitrarily chosen, the group is said to be n-ply transitive.
+
+  If O, O´, O´´, ... is a set of objects in respect of which a group G
+  is transitive, it may be possible to divide the set into a number of
+  subsets, no two of which contain a common object, such that every
+  operation of the group either interchanges the objects of a subset
+  among themselves, or changes them all into the objects of some other
+  subset. When this is the case the group is called _imprimitive_ in
+  respect of the set; otherwise the group is called _primitive_. A group
+  which is doubly-transitive, in respect of a set of objects, obviously
+  cannot be imprimitive.
+
+
+    Illustrations of the group idea.
+
+  The foregoing general definitions and explanations will now be
+  illustrated by a consideration of certain particular groups. To begin
+  with, as the operations involved are of the most familiar nature, the
+  group of rational arithmetic may be considered. The fundamental
+  operations of elementary arithmetic consist in the addition and
+  subtraction of integers, and multiplication and division by integers,
+  division by zero alone omitted. Multiplication by zero is not a
+  definite operation, and it must therefore be omitted in dealing with
+  those operations of elementary arithmetic which form a group. The
+  operation that results from carrying out additions, subtractions,
+  multiplications and divisions, of and by integers a finite number of
+  times, is represented by the relation x´ = ax + b, where a and b are
+  rational numbers of which a is not zero, x is the object of the
+  operation, and x´ is the result. The totality of operations of this
+  form obviously constitutes a group.
+
+  If S and T represent respectively the operations x´ = ax + b and x´ =
+  cx + d, then T^(-1)ST represents x´ = ax + d - ad + bc. When a and b
+  are given rational numbers, c and d may be chosen in an infinite
+  number of ways as rational numbers, so that d - ad + bc shall be any
+  assigned rational number. Hence the operations given by x' = ax + b,
+  where a is an assigned rational number and b is any rational number,
+  are all conjugate; and no two such operations for which the a's are
+  different can be conjugate. If a is unity and b zero, S is the
+  identical operation which is necessarily self-conjugate. If a is unity
+  and b different from zero, the operation x´ = x + b is an addition.
+  The totality of additions forms, therefore, a single conjugate set of
+  operations. Moreover, the totality of additions with the identical
+  operation, i.e. the totality of operations of the form x´ = x + b,
+  where b may be any rational number or zero, obviously constitutes a
+  group. The operations of this group are interchanged among themselves
+  when transformed by any operation of the original group. It is
+  therefore a self-conjugate subgroup of the original group.
+
+  The totality of multiplications, with the identical operation, i.e.
+  all operations of the form x´ = ax, where a is any rational number
+  other than zero, again obviously constitutes a group. This, however,
+  is not a self-conjugate subgroup of the original group. In fact, if
+  the operations x´ = ax are all transformed by x´ = cx + d, they give
+  rise to the set x´ = ax + d(1 - a). When d is a given rational number,
+  the set constitutes a subgroup which is conjugate to the group of
+  multiplications. It is to be noticed that the operations of this
+  latter subgroup may be written in the form x´ - d = a(x - d).
+
+  The totality of rational numbers, including zero, forms a set of
+  objects which are interchanged among themselves by all operations of
+  the group.
+
+  If x1 and x2 are any pair of distinct rational numbers, and y1 and y2
+  any other pair, there is just one operation of the group which changes
+  x1 and x2 into y1 and y2 respectively. For the equations y1 = ax1 + b,
+  y1 = ax2 + b determine a and b uniquely. The group is therefore doubly
+  transitive in respect of the set of rational numbers. If H is the
+  subgroup that leaves unchanged a given rational number x1, and S an
+  operation changing x1 into x2, then every operation of S^(-1)HS leaves
+  x2 unchanged. The subgroups, each of which leaves a single rational
+  number unchanged, therefore form a single conjugate set. The group of
+  multiplications leaves zero unchanged; and, as has been seen, this is
+  conjugate with the subgroup formed of all operations x´ - d = a(x -
+  d), where d is a given rational number. This subgroup leaves d
+  unchanged.
+
+  The group of multiplications is clearly generated by the operations x´
+  = px, where for p negative unity and each prime is taken in turn.
+  Every addition is obtained on transforming x´ = x + 1 by the different
+  operations of the group of multiplications. Hence x´ = x + 1, and x´ =
+  px, (p = -1, 3, 5, 7, ...), form a set of independent generating
+  operations of the group. It is a discontinuous group.
+
+  As a second example the group of motions in three-dimensional space
+  will be considered. The totality of motions, i.e. of space
+  displacements which leave the distance of every pair of points
+  unaltered, obviously constitutes a set of operations which satisfies
+  the group definition. From the elements of kinematics it is known that
+  every motion is either (i.) a translation which leaves no point
+  unaltered, but changes each of a set of parallel lines into itself; or
+  (ii.) a rotation which leaves every point of one line unaltered and
+  changes every other point and line; or (iii.) a twist which leaves no
+  point and only one line (its axis) unaltered, and may be regarded as a
+  translation along, combined with a rotation round, the axis. Let S be
+  any motion consisting of a translation l along and a rotation a round
+  a line AB, and let T be any other motion. There is some line CD into
+  which T changes AB; and therefore T^(-1)ST leaves CD unchanged.
+  Moreover, T^(-1)ST clearly effects the same translation along and
+  rotation round CD that S effects for AB. Two motions, therefore, are
+  conjugate if and only if the amplitudes of their translation and
+  rotation components are respectively equal. In particular, all
+  translations of equal amplitude are conjugate, as also are all
+  rotations of equal amplitude. Any two translations are permutable with
+  each other, and give when combined another translation. The totality
+  of translations constitutes, therefore, a subgroup of the general
+  group of motions; and this subgroup is a self-conjugate subgroup,
+  since a translation is always conjugate to a translation.
+
+  All the points of space constitute a set of objects which are
+  interchanged among themselves by all operations of the group of
+  motions. So also do all the lines of space and all the planes. In
+  respect of each of these sets the group is simply transitive. In fact,
+  there is an infinite number of motions which change a point A to A´,
+  but no motion can change A and B to A´ and B´ respectively unless the
+  distance AB is equal to the distance A´B´.
+
+  The totality of motions which leave a point A unchanged forms a
+  subgroup. It is clearly constituted of all possible rotations about
+  all possible axes through A, and is known as the group of rotations
+  about a point. Every motion can be represented as a rotation about
+  some axis through A followed by a translation. Hence if G is the group
+  of motions and H the group of translations, G/H is simply isomorphic
+  with the group of rotations about a point.
+
+  The totality of the motions which bring a given solid to congruence
+  with itself again constitutes a subgroup of the group of motions. This
+  will in general be the trivial subgroup formed of the identical
+  operation above, but may in the case of a symmetrical body be more
+  extensive. For a sphere or a right circular cylinder the subgroups are
+  those that leave the centre and the axis respectively unaltered. For a
+  solid bounded by plane faces the subgroup is clearly one of finite
+  order. In particular, to each of the regular solids there corresponds
+  such a group. That for the tetrahedron has 12 for its order, for the
+  cube (or octahedron) 24, and for the icosahedron (or dodecahedron) 60.
+
+  The determination of a particular operation of the group of motions
+  involves six distinct measurements; namely, four to give the axis of
+  the twist, one for the magnitude of the translation along the axis,
+  and one for the magnitude of the rotation about it. Each of the six
+  quantities involved may have any value whatever, and the group of
+  motions is therefore a continuous group. On the other hand, a subgroup
+  of the group of motions which leaves a line or a plane unaltered is a
+  mixed group.
+
+We shall now discuss (i.) continuous groups, (ii.) discontinuous groups
+whose order is not finite, and (iii.) groups of finite order. For proofs
+of the statements, and the general theorems, the reader is referred to
+the bibliography.
+
+
+_Continuous Groups._
+
+The determination of a particular operation of a given continuous group
+depends on assigning special values to each one of a set of parameters
+which are capable of continuous variation. The first distinction regards
+the number of these parameters. If this number is finite, the group is
+called a _finite_ continuous group; if infinite, it is called an
+_infinite_ continuous group. In the latter case arbitrary functions must
+appear in the equations defining the operations of the group when these
+are reduced to an analytical form. The theory of infinite continuous
+groups is not yet so completely developed as that of finite continuous
+groups. The latter theory will mainly occupy us here.
+
+Sophus Lie, to whom the foundation and a great part of the development
+of the theory of continuous groups are due, undoubtedly approached the
+subject from a geometrical standpoint. His conception of an operation is
+to regard it as a geometrical transformation, by means of which each
+point of (n-dimensional) space is changed into some other definite
+point.
+
+  The representation of such a transformation in analytical form
+  involves a system of equations,
+
+    x'_s = [f]_s(x1, x2, ..., x_n), (s = 1, 2, ..., n),
+
+  expressing x´1, x´2, ..., x´_n, the co-ordinates of the transformed
+  point in terms of x1, x2, ..., x_n, the co-ordinates of the original
+  point. In these equations the functions [f]_s are analytical functions
+  of their arguments. Within a properly limited region they must be
+  one-valued, and the equations must admit a unique solution with
+  respect to x1, x2, ..., x_n, since the operation would not otherwise
+  be a definite one.
+
+  From this point of view the operations of a continuous group, which
+  depends on a set of r parameters, will be defined analytically by a
+  system of equations of the form
+
+    x´_s = [f]_s(x1, x2, ..., x_n; a1, a2, ..., a_r), (s = 1, 2, ..., n),
+      (i.)
+
+  where a1, a2, ..., a_r represent the parameters. If this operation be
+  represented by A, and that in which b1, b2, ..., b_r are the
+  parameters by B, then the operation AB is represented by the
+  elimination (assumed to be possible) of x´1, x´2, ..., x´_n between
+  the equations (i.) and the equations
+
+    x´´_s = [f]_s(x´1, x´2, ..., x´_n; b1, b2, ..., b_r),
+      (s = 1, 2, ..., n).
+
+  Since AB belongs to the group, the result of the elimination must be
+
+    x´´_s = [f]_s(x1, x2, ..., x_n; c1, c2, ..., c_r),
+
+  where c1, c2, ..., c_r represent another definite set of values of the
+  parameters. Moreover, since A^(-1) belongs to the group, the result of
+  solving equations (i.) with respect to x1, x2, ..., x_n must be
+
+    x_s = [f]_s(x´1, x´2, ..., x´_n; d1, d2, ..., d_r),
+      (s = 1, 2, ..., n).
+
+  Conversely, if equations (i.) are such that these two conditions are
+  satisfied, they do in fact define a finite continuous group.
+
+
+    Infinitesimal operation of a continuous group.
+
+  It will be assumed that the r parameters which enter in equations (i.)
+  are independent, i.e. that it is impossible to choose r´ (< r)
+  quantities in terms of which a1, a2, ..., a_r can be expressed. Where
+  this is the case the group will be spoken of as a "group of order r."
+  Lie uses the term "_r-gliedrige Gruppe_." It is to be noticed that the
+  word order is used in quite a different sense from that given to it in
+  connexion with groups of finite order.
+
+  In regard to equations (i.), which define the general operation of the
+  group, it is to be noticed that, since the group contains the
+  identical operation, these equations must for some definite set of
+  values of the parameters reduce to x´1 = x1, x´2 = x2, ..., x´_n =
+  x_n. This set of values may, without loss of generality, be assumed to
+  be simultaneous zero values. For if i1, i2, ..., i_r be the values of
+  the parameters which give the identical operation, and if we write
+
+    a_s = i_s + a, (s = 1, 2, ..., r),
+
+  then zero values of the new parameters a1, a2, ..., a_r give the
+  identical operation.
+
+  To infinitesimal values of the parameters, thus chosen, will
+  correspond operations which cause an infinitesimal change in each of
+  the variables. These are called infinitesimal operations. The most
+  general infinitesimal operation of the group is that given by the
+  system
+
+                              [Pd][f]_s             [Pd][f]_s                   [Pd][f]_s
+    x´_s - x_s = [delta]x_s = --------- [delta]a1 + --------- [delta]a2 + ... + --------- [delta]a_r, (s = 1, 2, ..., n),
+                               [Pd]a1                 [Pd]a2                     [Pd]a_r
+
+  where, in [Pd][f]_s/[Pd]a_i, zero values of the parameters are to be
+  taken. Since a1, a2, ..., a_r are independent, the ratios of
+  [delta]a1, [delta]a2, ..., [delta]a_r are arbitrary. Hence the most
+  general infinitesimal operation of the group may be written in the
+  form
+
+                  /  [Pd][f]_s     [Pd][f]_s            [Pd][f]_s\
+    [delta]x_s = ( e1--------- + e2--------- + ... + e_r--------- ) [delta]t, (s = 1, 2, ..., n),
+                  \   [Pd]a1         [Pd]a2              [Pd]a_r /
+
+  where e1, e2, ..., e_r are arbitrary constants, and [delta]t is an
+  infinitesimal.
+
+  If F(x1, x2, ..., x_n) is any function of the variables, and if an
+  infinitesimal operation of the group be carried out on the variables
+  in F, the resulting increment of F will be
+
+    [Pd]F             [Pd]F                    [Pd]F
+    ------[delta]x1 + ------[delta]x2 + ... + -------[delta]x_n.
+    [Pd]x1            [Pd]x2                  [Pd]x_n
+
+  If the differential operator
+
+    [Pd][f]1  [Pd]    [Pd][f]2  [Pd]          [Pd][f]_n   [Pd]
+    -------- ------ + -------- ------ + ... + ---------  -------
+    [Pd]a_i  [Pd]x1   [Pd]a_i  [Pd]x2          [Pd]a_i   [Pd]x_n
+
+  be represented by X_i, (i = 1, 2, ..., r), then the increment of F is
+  given by
+
+    (e1X1 + e2X2 + ... + e_rX_r)F[delta]t.
+
+  When the equations (i.) defining the general operation of the group
+  are given, the coefficients [Pd][f]_s/[Pd]a_i, which enter in these
+  differential operators are functions of the variables which can be
+  directly calculated.
+
+  The differential operator e1X1 + e2X2 + ... + e_rX_r may then be
+  regarded as defining the most general infinitesimal operation of the
+  group. In fact, if it be for a moment represented by X, then (1 +
+  [delta]tX)F is the result of carrying out the infinitesimal operation
+  on F; and by putting x1, x2, ..., x_n in turn for F, the actual
+  infinitesimal operation is reproduced. By a very convenient, though
+  perhaps hardly justifiable, phraseology this differential operator is
+  itself spoken of as the general infinitesimal operation of the group.
+  The sense in which this phraseology is to be understood will be made
+  clear by the foregoing explanations.
+
+  We suppose now that the constants e1, e2, ..., e_r have assigned
+  values. Then the result of repeating the particular infinitesimal
+  operation e1X1 + e2X2 + ... + e_rX_r or X an infinite number of times
+  is some finite operation of the group. The effect of this finite
+  operation on F may be directly calculated. In fact, if [delta]t is the
+  infinitesimal already introduced, then
+
+    dF        d²F
+    -- = X·F, --- = X·X·F, ...
+    dt        dt²
+
+  Hence
+
+              dF   t²  d²F
+    F´ = F + t-- + --- --- + ...
+              dt   1·2 dt²
+
+                   t²
+      = F + tX·F + --- X·X·F + ...
+                   1·2
+
+  It must, of course, be understood that in this analytical
+  representation of the effect of the finite operation on F it is
+  implied that t is taken sufficiently small to ensure the convergence
+  of the (in general) infinite series.
+
+  When x1, x2, ... are written in turn for F, the system of equations
+
+                     t²
+    x´_s = (1 + tX + --- X·X + ...)x_s, (s = 1, 2, ..., n) (ii.)
+                     1.2
+
+  represent the finite operation completely. If t is here regarded as a
+  parameter, this set of operations must in themselves constitute a
+  group, since they arise by the repetition of a single infinitesimal
+  operation. That this is really the case results immediately from
+  noticing that the result of eliminating F´ between
+
+                    t²
+    F´ = F + tX·F + --- X·X·F + ...
+                    1.2
+
+  and
+
+                        t´²
+    F´´ = F´ + t´X·F´ + --- X·X·F´ + ...
+                        1·2
+
+  is
+
+                             (t + t´)²
+    F´´ = F + (t + t´) X·F + --------- X·X·F + ...
+                                1·2
+
+  The group thus generated by the repetition of an infinitesimal
+  operation is called a _cyclical_ group; so that a continuous group
+  contains a cyclical subgroup corresponding to each of its
+  infinitesimal operations.
+
+  The system of equations (ii.) represents an operation of the group
+  whatever the constants e1, e2, ..., e_r may be. Hence if e1t, e2t,
+  ..., e_rt be replaced by a1, a2, ..., a_r the equations (ii.)
+  represent a set of operations, depending on r parameters and belonging
+  to the group. They must therefore be a form of the general equations
+  for any operation of the group, and are equivalent to the equations
+  (i.). The determination of the finite equations of a cyclical group,
+  when the infinitesimal operation which generates it is given, will
+  always depend on the integration of a set of simultaneous ordinary
+  differential equations. As a very simple example we may consider the
+  case in which the infinitesimal operation is given by X =
+  x²[Pd]/[Pd]x, so that there is only a single variable. The relation
+  between x´ and t is given by dx´/dt = x´², with the condition that x´
+  = x when t = 0. This gives at once x´ = x/(1 - tx), which might also
+  be obtained by the direct use of (ii.).
+
+
+    Relations between the infinitesimal operations of a finite continuous
+      group.
+
+  When the finite equations (i.) of a continuous group of order r are
+  known, it has now been seen that the differential operator which
+  defines the most general infinitesimal operation of the group can be
+  directly constructed, and that it contains r arbitrary constants. This
+  is equivalent to saying that the group contains r linearly independent
+  infinitesimal operations; and that the most general infinitesimal
+  operation is obtained by combining these linearly with constant
+  coefficients. Moreover, when any r independent infinitesimal
+  operations of the group are known, it has been seen how the general
+  finite operation of the group may be calculated. This obviously
+  suggests that it must be possible to define the group by means of its
+  infinitesimal operations alone; and it is clear that such a definition
+  would lend itself more readily to some applications (for instance, to
+  the theory of differential equations) than the definition by means of
+  the finite equations.
+
+  On the other hand, r arbitrarily given linear differential operators
+  will not, in general, give rise to a finite continuous group of order
+  r; and the question arises as to what conditions such a set of
+  operators must satisfy in order that they may, in fact, be the
+  independent infinitesimal operations of such a group.
+
+  If X, Y are two linear differential operators, XY - YX is also a
+  linear differential operator. It is called the "combinant" of X and Y
+  (Lie uses the expression _Klammerausdruck_) and is denoted by (XY). If
+  X, Y, Z are any three linear differential operators the identity
+  (known as Jacobi's)
+
+    (X(YZ)) + (Y(ZX)) + (Z(XY)) = 0
+
+  holds between them. Now it may be shown that any continuous group of
+  which X, Y are infinitesimal operations contains also (XY) among its
+  infinitesimal operations. Hence if r linearly independent operations
+  X1, X2, ..., X_r give rise to a finite continuous group of order r,
+  the combinant of each pair must be expressible linearly in terms of
+  the r operations themselves: that is, there must be a system of
+  relations
+
+                __k=r
+    (X_iX_j) = \      c_(ijk)X_k,
+               /__k=1
+
+  where the c's are constants. Moreover, from Jacobi's identity and the
+  identity (XY) + (YX) = 0 it follows that the c's are subject to the
+  relations
+
+    c_(ijt) + c_(jit) = 0,                                           \
+                                                                     |
+  and                                                                 >
+                                                                     |
+    [Sigma][s](c_(jks)c_(ist) + c_(kis)c_(jst) + c_(ijs)c_(kst)) = 0 /
+      (iii.)
+
+  for all values of i, j, k and t.
+
+
+    Determination of the distinct types of continuous groups of a given
+      order.
+
+  The fundamental theorem of the theory of finite continuous groups is
+  now that these conditions, which are necessary in order that X1, X2,
+  ..., X_r may generate, as infinitesimal operations, a continuous group
+  of order r, are also sufficient.
+
+  For the proof of this fundamental theorem see Lie's works (cf.
+  Lie-Engel, i. chap. 9; iii. chap. 25).
+
+  If two continuous groups of order r are such that, for each, a set of
+  linearly independent infinitesimal operations X1, X2, ..., X_r and Y1,
+  Y2, ..., Y_r can be chosen, so that in the relations
+
+    (X_iX_j) = [Sigma]c_(ijs)X_s, (Y_iY_j) = [Sigma]d_(ijs)Y_s,
+
+  the constants c_(ijs) and d_(ijs) are the same for all values of i, j
+  and s, the two groups are simply isomorphic, X_s and Y_s being
+  corresponding infinitesimal operations.
+
+  Two continuous groups of order r, whose infinitesimal operations obey
+  the same system of equations (iii.), may be of very different _form_;
+  for instance, the number of variables for the one may be different
+  from that for the other. They are, however, said to be of the same
+  _type_, in the sense that the laws according to which their operations
+  combine are the same for both.
+
+  The problem of determining all distinct types of groups of order r is
+  then contained in the purely algebraical problem of finding all the
+  systems of r³ quantities c_(ijs) which satisfy the relations
+
+    c_(ijt) + c_(ijt) = 0,
+
+    [Sigma] [c_(ijs)c_(skt) + c_(jks)c_(sit) + c_(kis)c_(sjt)] = 0.
+         s
+
+  for all values of i, j, k and t. To two distinct solutions of the
+  algebraical problem, however, two distinct types of group will not
+  necessarily correspond. In fact, X1, X2, ..., X_r may be replaced by
+  any r independent linear functions of themselves, and the c's will
+  then be transformed by a linear substitution containing r² independent
+  parameters. This, however, does not alter the type of group
+  considered.
+
+  For a single parameter there is, of course, only one type of group,
+  which has been called cyclical.
+
+  For a group of order two there is a single relation
+
+    (X1X2) = [alpha]X1 + ßX2.
+
+  If [alpha] and ß are not both zero, let [alpha] be finite. The
+  relation may then be written ([alpha]X1 + ßX2, [alpha]^(-1)X2) =
+  [alpha]X1 + ßX2. Hence if [alpha]X1 + ßX2 = X´1, and [alpha]^(-1)X2 =
+  X´2, then (X´1X´2) = X´1. There are, therefore, just two types of
+  group of order two, the one given by the relation last written, and
+  the other by (X1X2) = 0.
+
+  Lie has determined all distinct types of continuous groups of orders
+  three or four; and all types of non-integrable groups (a term which
+  will be explained immediately) of orders five and six (cf. Lie-Engel,
+  iii. 713-744).
+
+
+    Self-conjugate subgroups. Integrable groups.
+
+  A problem of fundamental importance in connexion with any given
+  continuous group is the determination of the self-conjugate subgroups
+  which it contains. If X is an infinitesimal operation of a group, and
+  Y any other, the general form of the infinitesimal operations which
+  are conjugate to X is
+
+                t²
+    X + t(XY) + --- ((XY)Y) + ....
+                1.2
+
+  Any subgroup which contains all the operations conjugate to X must
+  therefore contain all infinitesimal operations (XY), ((XY)Y), ...,
+  where for Y each infinitesimal operation of the group is taken in
+  turn. Hence if X´1, X´2, ..., X´_s are s linearly independent
+  operations of the group which generate a self-conjugate subgroup of
+  order s, then for _every_ infinitesimal operation Y of the group
+  relations of the form
+
+               __e=1
+    (X´_iY) = \      a_(ie)X'_e, (i = 1, 2, ..., s)
+              /__e=s
+
+  must be satisfied. Conversely, if such a set of relations is
+  satisfied, X´1, X´2, ..., X´_s generate a subgroup of order s, which
+  contains every operation conjugate to each of the infinitesimal
+  generating operations, and is therefore a self-conjugate subgroup.
+
+  A specially important self-conjugate subgroup is that generated by the
+  combinants of the r infinitesimal generating operations. That these
+  generate a self-conjugate subgroup follows from the relations (iii.).
+  In fact,
+
+    ((X_iX_j)X_k) = [Sigma] c_(ijs)(X_sX_k).
+                         s
+
+  Of the ½r(r - 1) combinants not more than r can be linearly
+  independent. When exactly r of them are linearly independent, the
+  self-conjugate group generated by them coincides with the original
+  group. If the number that are linearly independent is less than r, the
+  self-conjugate subgroup generated by them is actually a subgroup; i.e.
+  its order is less than that of the original group. This subgroup is
+  known as the derived group, and Lie has called a group _perfect_ when
+  it coincides with its derived group. A simple group, since it contains
+  no self-conjugate subgroup distinct from itself, is necessarily a
+  perfect group.
+
+  If G is a given continuous group, G1 the derived group of G, G2 that
+  of G1, and so on, the series of groups G, G1, G2, ... will terminate
+  either with the identical operation or with a perfect group; for the
+  order of G_(s+1) is less than that of G_s unless G_s is a perfect
+  group. When the series terminates with the identical operation, G is
+  said to be an _integrable_ group; in the contrary case G is called
+  _non-integrable_.
+
+  If G is an integrable group of order r, the infinitesimal operations
+  X1, X2, ..., X_r which generate the group may be chosen so that X1,
+  X2, ..., X_(r1), (r1 < r) generate the first derived group, X1, X2,
+  ..., X_(r2), (r2 < r1) the second derived group, and so on. When they
+  are so chosen the constants c_(ijs) are clearly such that if r_p < i
+  <= r_(p+1), r_q < j <= r_(q+1), p >= q, then c_(ijs) vanishes unless
+  s <= r_(p+1).
+
+  In particular the generating operations may be chosen so that c_(ijs)
+  vanishes unless s is equal to or less than the smaller of the two
+  numbers i, j; and conversely, if the c's satisfy these relations, the
+  group is integrable.
+
+
+    Simple groups.
+
+  A simple group, as already defined, is one which has no self-conjugate
+  subgroup. It is a remarkable fact that the determination of all
+  distinct types of simple continuous groups has been made, for in the
+  case of discontinuous groups and groups of finite order this is far
+  from being the case. Lie has demonstrated the existence of four great
+  classes of simple groups:--
+
+  (i.) The groups simply isomorphic with the general projective group in
+  space of n dimensions. Such a group is defined analytically as the
+  totality of the transformations of the form
+
+           a_s, _1x1 + a_s, _2x2 + ... + a_s, _nx_n + a_(s, n + 1)
+    x´_s = --------------------------------------------------------, (s = 1, 2, ..., n),
+           a_(n+1), _1x1 + a_(n+1), _2x2 + ... + a_(n+1), _nx_n + 1
+
+  where the a's are parameters. The order of this group is clearly n(n +
+  2).
+
+  (ii.) The groups simply isomorphic with the totality of the projective
+  transformations which transform a non-special linear complex in space
+  of 2n - 1 dimensions with itself. The order of this group is n(2n +
+  1).
+
+  (iii.) and (iv.) The groups simply isomorphic with the totality of the
+  projective transformations which change a quadric of non-vanishing
+  discriminant into itself. These fall into two distinct classes of
+  types according as n is even or odd. In either case the order is ½n(n
+  + 1). The case n = 3 forms an exception in which the corresponding
+  group is not simple. It is also to be noticed that a cyclical group is
+  a simple group, since it has no continuous self-conjugate subgroup
+  distinct from itself.
+
+  W. K. J. Killing and E. J. Cartan have separately proved that outside
+  these four great classes there exist only five distinct types of
+  simple groups, whose orders are 14, 52, 78, 133 and 248; thus
+  completing the enumeration of all possible types.
+
+  To prevent any misapprehension as to the bearing of these very general
+  results, it is well to point out explicitly that there are no
+  limitations on the parameters of a continuous group as it has been
+  defined above. They are to be regarded as taking in general complex
+  values. If in the finite equations of a continuous group the imaginary
+  symbol does not explicitly occur, the finite equations will usually
+  define a group (in the general sense of the original definition) when
+  both parameters and variables are limited to real values. Such a group
+  is, in a certain sense, a continuous group; and such groups have been
+  considered shortly by Lie (cf. Lie-Engel, iii. 360-392), who calls
+  them _real_ continuous groups. To these real continuous groups the
+  above statement as to the totality of simple groups does not apply;
+  and indeed, in all probability, the number of types of _real_ simple
+  continuous groups admits of no such complete enumeration. The effect
+  of limitation to real transformations may be illustrated by
+  considering the groups of projective transformations which change
+
+    x² + y² + z² - 1 = 0 and x² + y² - z² - 1 = 0
+
+  respectively into themselves. Since one of these quadrics is changed
+  into the other by the imaginary transformation
+
+    x´ = x, y´ = y, z´ = z[root](-1),
+
+  the general continuous groups which transform the two quadrics
+  respectively into themselves are simply isomorphic. This is not,
+  however, the case for the _real_ continuous groups. In fact, the
+  second quadric has two real sets of generators; and therefore the real
+  group which transforms it into itself has two self-conjugate
+  subgroups, either of which leaves unchanged each of one set of
+  generators. The first quadric having imaginary generators, no such
+  self-conjugate subgroups can exist for the real group which transforms
+  it into itself; and this real group is in fact simple.
+
+
+    The adjunct group.
+
+  Among the groups isomorphic with a given continuous group there is one
+  of special importance which is known as the _adjunct_ group. This is a
+  homogeneous linear group in a number of variables equal to the order
+  of the group, whose infinitesimal operations are defined by the
+  relations
+
+                            [Pd]
+    X_i=[Sigma] c_(ijs)x_i -------, (j = 1, 2, ..., r),
+           i, s            [Pd]x_s
+
+  where c_(ijs) are the often-used constants, which give the combinants
+  of the infinitesimal operations in terms of the infinitesimal
+  operations themselves.
+
+  That the r infinitesimal operations thus defined actually generate a
+  group isomorphic with the given group is verified by forming their
+  combinants. It is thus found that (X_pX_q) = [Sigma][s]c_(pqs)X_s. The
+  X's, however, are not necessarily linearly independent. In fact, the
+  sufficient condition that [Sigma][j]a_jX_j should be identically zero
+  is that [Sigma][j]a_jc_(ijs) should vanish for all values of i and s.
+  Hence if the equations [Sigma][j]a_jc_(ijs) = 0 for all values of i
+  and s have r' linearly independent solutions, only r - r´ of the X's
+  are linearly independent, and the isomorphism of the two groups is
+  multiple. If Y1, Y2, ..., Y_r are the infinitesimal operations of the
+  given group, the equations
+
+    [Sigma] a_jc_(ijs) = 0, (s, i = 1, 2, ..., r)
+          j
+
+  express the condition that the operations of the cyclical group
+  generated by [Sigma][j]a_jY_i should be permutable with every
+  operation of the group; in other words, that they should be
+  self-conjugate operations. In the case supposed, therefore, the given
+  group contains a subgroup of order r´ each of whose operations is
+  self-conjugate. The adjunct group of a given group will therefore be
+  simply isomorphic with the group, unless the latter contains
+  self-conjugate operations; and when this is the case the order of the
+  adjunct will be less than that of the given group by the order of the
+  subgroup formed of the self-conjugate operations.
+
+
+    Continuous groups of the line of the plane, and of three-dimensional
+      space.
+
+  We have been thus far mainly concerned with the abstract theory of
+  continuous groups, in which no distinction is made between two simply
+  isomorphic groups. We proceed to discuss the classification and theory
+  of groups when their form is regarded as essential; and this is a
+  return to a more geometrical point of view.
+
+  It is natural to begin with the projective groups, which are the
+  simplest in form and at the same time are of supreme importance in
+  geometry. The general projective group of the straight line is the
+  group of order three given by
+
+         ax + b
+    x´ = -------
+         cx + d´
+
+  where the parameters are the ratios of a, b, c, d. Since
+
+    x´3 - x´2   x´ - x´1   x3 - x2   x - x1
+    --------- · -------- = ------- · ------
+    x´3 - x´1   x´ - x´2   x3 - x1   x - x2
+
+  is an operation of the above form, the group is triply transitive.
+  Every subgroup of order two leaves one point unchanged, and all such
+  subgroups are conjugate. A cyclical subgroup leaves either two
+  distinct points or two coincident points unchanged. A subgroup which
+  either leaves two points unchanged or interchanges them is an example
+  of a "mixed" group.
+
+  The analysis of the general projective group must obviously increase
+  very rapidly in complexity, as the dimensions of the space to which it
+  applies increase. This analysis has been completely carried out for
+  the projective group of the plane, with the result of showing that
+  there are thirty distinct types of subgroup. Excluding the general
+  group itself, every one of these leaves either a point, a line, or a
+  conic section unaltered. For space of three dimensions Lie has also
+  carried out a similar investigation, but the results are extremely
+  complicated. One general result of great importance at which Lie
+  arrives in this connexion is that every projective group in space of
+  three dimensions, other than the general group, leaves either a point,
+  a curve, a surface or a linear complex unaltered.
+
+  Returning now to the case of a single variable, it can be shown that
+  any finite continuous group in one variable is either cyclical or of
+  order two or three, and that by a suitable transformation any such
+  group may be changed into a projective group.
+
+  The genesis of an infinite as distinguished from a finite continuous
+  group may be well illustrated by considering it in the case of a
+  single variable. The infinitesimal operations of the projective group
+  in one variable are d/dx, x(d/dx), x²(d/dx). If these combined with
+  x³(d/dx) be taken as infinitesimal operations from which to generate
+  a continuous group among the infinitesimal operations of the group,
+  there must occur the combinant of x²(d/dx) and x³(d/dx). This is
+  x^4(d/dx). The combinant of this and x²(d/dx) is 2x^5(d/dx) and so on.
+  Hence x^_r(d/dx), where r is any positive integer, is an infinitesimal
+  operation of the group. The general infinitesimal operation of the
+  group is therefore [f](x)(d/dx), where [f](x) is an arbitrary integral
+  function of x.
+
+  In the classification of the groups, projective or non-projective of
+  two or more variables, the distinction between primitive and
+  imprimitive groups immediately presents itself. For groups of the
+  plane the following question arises. Is there or is there not a
+  singly-infinite family of curves [f](x, y) = C, where C is an
+  arbitrary constant such that every operation of the group interchanges
+  the curves of the family among themselves? In accordance with the
+  previously given definition of imprimitivity, the group is called
+  imprimitive or primitive according as such a set exists or not. In
+  space of three dimensions there are two possibilities; namely, there
+  may either be a singly infinite system of surfaces F(x, y, z) = C,
+  which are interchanged among themselves by the operations of the
+  group; or there may be a doubly-infinite system of curves G(x, y, z) =
+  a, H(x, y, z) = b, which are so interchanged.
+
+  In regard to primitive groups Lie has shown that any primitive group
+  of the plane can, by a suitably chosen transformation, be transformed
+  into one of three definite types of projective groups; and that any
+  primitive group of space of three dimensions can be transformed into
+  one of eight definite types, which, however, cannot all be represented
+  as projective groups in three dimensions.
+
+  The results which have been arrived at for imprimitive groups in two
+  and three variables do not admit of any such simple statement.
+
+
+    Contact transformations.
+
+  We shall now explain the conception of contact-transformations and
+  groups of contact-transformations. This conception, like that of
+  continuous groups, owes its origin to Lie.
+
+  From a purely analytical point of view a contact-transformation may be
+  defined as a point-transformation in 2n + 1 variables, z, x1, x2, ...,
+  x_n, p1, p2, ..., p_n which leaves unaltered the equation dz - p1dx1 -
+  p2dx2 - ... - p_ndx_n = 0. Such a definition as this, however, gives
+  no direct clue to the geometrical properties of the transformation,
+  nor does it explain the name given.
+
+  In dealing with contact-transformations we shall restrict ourselves to
+  space of two or of three dimensions; and it will be necessary to begin
+  with some purely geometrical considerations. An infinitesimal
+  surface-element in space of three dimensions is completely specified,
+  apart from its size, by its position and orientation. If x, y, z are
+  the co-ordinates of some one point of the element, and if p, q, -1
+  give the ratios of the direction-cosines of its normal, x, y, z, p, q
+  are five quantities which completely specify the element. There are,
+  therefore, [oo]^5 surface elements in three-dimensional space. The
+  surface-elements of a surface form a system of [oo]² elements, for
+  there are [oo]² points on the surface, and at each a definite
+  surface-element. The surface-elements of a curve form, again, a system
+  of [oo]² elements, for there are [oo]¹ points on the curve, and at
+  each [oo]¹ surface-elements containing the tangent to the curve at the
+  point. Similarly the surface-elements which contain a given point
+  clearly form a system of [oo]² elements. Now each of these systems of
+  [oo]² surface-elements has the property that if (x, y, z, p, q) and (x
+  + dx, y + dy, z + dz, p + dp, q + dq) are consecutive elements from
+  any one of them, then dz - pdx - qdy = 0. In fact, for a system of the
+  first kind dx, dy, dz are proportional to the direction-cosines of a
+  tangent line at a point of the surface, and p, q, -1 are proportional
+  to the direction-cosines of the normal. For a system of the second
+  kind dx, dy, dz are proportional to the direction-cosines of a tangent
+  to the curve, and p, q, -1 give the direction-cosines of the normal to
+  a plane touching the curve; and for a system of the third kind dx, dy,
+  dz are zero. Now the most general way in which a system of [oo]²
+  surface-elements can be given is by three independent equations
+  between x, y, z, p and q. If these equations do not contain p, q, they
+  determine one or more (a finite number in any case) points in space,
+  and the system of surface-elements consists of the elements containing
+  these points; i.e. it consists of one or more systems of the third
+  kind.
+
+  If the equations are such that two distinct equations independent of p
+  and q can be derived from them, the points of the system of
+  surface-elements lie on a curve. For such a system the equation dz -
+  pdx - qdy = 0 will hold for each two consecutive elements only when
+  the plane of each element touches the curve at its own point.
+
+  If the equations are such that only one equation independent of p and
+  q can be derived from them, the points of the system of
+  surface-elements lie on a surface. Again, for such a system the
+  equation dz - pdx - qdy = 0 will hold for each two consecutive
+  elements only when each element touches the surface at its own point.
+  Hence, when all possible systems of [oo]² surface-elements in space
+  are considered, the equation dz - pdx - qdy = 0 is characteristic of
+  the three special types in which the elements belong, in the sense
+  explained above, to a point or a curve or a surface.
+
+  Let us consider now the geometrical bearing of any transformation x´ =
+  [f]1(x, y, z, p, q), ..., q´ = [f]5(x, y, z, p, q), of the five
+  variables. It will interchange the surface-elements of space among
+  themselves, and will change any system of [oo]² elements into another
+  system of [oo]² elements. A special system, i.e. a system which
+  belongs to a point, curve or surface, will not, however, in general be
+  changed into another special system. The necessary and sufficient
+  condition that a special system should always be changed into a
+  special system is that the equation dz´ - p´dx´ - q´dy´ = 0 should be
+  a consequence of the equation dz - pdx - qdy = 0; or, in other words,
+  that this latter equation should be invariant for the transformation.
+
+  When this condition is satisfied the transformation is such as to
+  change the surface-elements of a surface in general into
+  surface-elements of a surface, though in particular cases they may
+  become the surface-elements of a curve or point; and similar
+  statements may be made with respect to a curve or point. The
+  transformation is therefore a veritable geometrical transformation in
+  space of three dimensions. Moreover, two special systems of
+  surface-elements which have an element in common are transformed into
+  two new special systems with an element in common. Hence two curves or
+  surfaces which touch each other are transformed into two new curves or
+  surfaces which touch each other. It is this property which leads to
+  the transformations in question being called contact-transformations.
+  It will be noticed that an ordinary point-transformation is always a
+  contact-transformation, but that a contact-transformation (in space of
+  n dimensions) is not in general a point-transformation (in space of n
+  dimensions), though it may always be regarded as a
+  point-transformation in space of 2n + 1 dimensions. In the analogous
+  theory for space of two dimensions a line-element, defined by (x, y,
+  p), where 1 : p gives the direction-cosines of the line, takes the
+  place of the surface-element; and a transformation of x, y and p which
+  leaves the equation dy - pdx = 0 unchanged transforms the [oo]¹
+  line-elements, which belong to a curve, into [oo]¹ line-elements which
+  again belong to a curve; while two curves which touch are transformed
+  into two other curves which touch.
+
+  One of the simplest instances of a contact-transformation that can be
+  given is the transformation by reciprocal polars. By this
+  transformation a point P and a plane p passing through it are changed
+  into a plane p´ and a point P´ upon it; i.e. the surface-element
+  defined by P, p is changed into a definite surface-element defined by
+  P´, p´. The totality of surface-elements which belong to a
+  (non-developable) surface is known from geometrical considerations to
+  be changed into the totality which belongs to another
+  (non-developable) surface. On the other hand, the totality of the
+  surface-elements which belong to a curve is changed into another set
+  which belong to a developable. The analytical formulae for this
+  transformation, when the reciprocation is effected with respect to the
+  paraboloid x² + y² - 2z = 0, are x´ = p, y´ = q, z´ = px + qy - z, p´ =
+  x, q´ = y. That this is, in fact, a contact-transformation is verified
+  directly by noticing that dz´ - p´dx´ - q´dy´ = -d(z - px - qy) - xdp
+  - ydq = -(dz - pdx - qdy). A second simple example is that in which
+  every surface-element is displaced, without change of orientation,
+  normal to itself through a constant distance t. The analytical
+  equations in this case are easily found in the form
+
+                     pt                             qt
+    x´ = x + -------------------, y´ = y + -------------------,
+             [root](1 + p² + q²)           [root](1 + p² + q²)
+
+                        t
+      z´ = z - -------------------,
+               [root](1 + p² + q²)
+
+    p´ = q, q´ = q.
+
+  That this is a contact-transformation is seen geometrically by
+  noticing that it changes a surface into a parallel surface. Every
+  point is changed by it into a sphere of radius t, and when t is
+  regarded as a parameter the equations define a cyclical group of
+  contact-transformations.
+
+  The formal theory of continuous groups of contact-transformations is,
+  of course, in no way distinct from the formal theory of continuous
+  groups in general. On what may be called the geometrical side, the
+  theory of groups of contact-transformations has been developed with
+  very considerable detail in the second volume of Lie-Engel.
+
+
+    Applications of the theory of continuous groups.
+
+  To the manifold applications of the theory of continuous groups in
+  various branches of pure and applied mathematics it is impossible here
+  to refer in any detail. It must suffice to indicate a few of them very
+  briefly. In some of the older theories a new point of view is obtained
+  which presents the results in a fresh light, and suggests the natural
+  generalization. As an example, the theory of the invariants of a
+  binary form may be considered.
+
+  If in the form [f] = a0x^_n + na1x^(n-1)y + ... + a_ny^n, the
+  variables be subjected to a homogeneous substitution
+
+    x´ = [alpha]x + ßy, y´ = [gamma]x + [delta]y,   (i.)
+
+  and if the coefficients in the new form be represented by accenting
+  the old coefficients, then
+
+    a´0 = a0[alpha]^n + a1n[alpha]^(n-1)[gamma] + ... + a_n[gamma]^n,\
+                                                                     |
+    a´1 = a0[alpha]^(n-1)ß + a1_(n-1)[alpha]^(n-2)ß[gamma] +         |
+      [alpha]^(n-1)[delta]} + ... + a_n[gamma]^(n-1)[delta],          > (ii.)
+                                                                     |
+    a´_n = a0ß^n + a1nß^(n-1)[delta] + ... + a_n[delta]^n;           /
+
+  and this is a homogeneous linear substitution performed on the
+  coefficients. The totality of the substitutions, (i.), for which
+  [alpha][delta] - ß[gamma] = 1, constitutes a continuous group of order
+  3, which is generated by the two infinitesimal transformations
+  y([Pd]/[Pd]x) and x([Pd]/[Pd]y). Hence with the same limitations on
+  [alpha], ß, [gamma], [delta] the totality of the substitutions (ii.)
+  forms a simply isomorphic continuous group of order 3, which is
+  generated by the two infinitesimal transformations
+
+        [Pd]         [Pd]         [Pd]                    [Pd]
+    a0 ------ + 2a1 ------ + 3a1 ------ + ... + na_(n-1) -------,
+       [Pd]a1       [Pd]a2       [Pd]a3                  [Pd]a_n
+
+  and
+
+         [Pd]               [Pd]               [Pd]                 [Pd]
+    na1 ------ + (n - 1)a2 ------ + (n - 2)a3 ------ + ... + a_u ----------.
+        [Pd]a0             [Pd]a1             [Pd]a2             [Pd]a_(u-1)
+
+  The invariants of the binary form, i.e. those functions of the
+  coefficients which are unaltered by all homogeneous substitutions on
+  x, y of determinant unity, are therefore identical with the functions
+  of the coefficients which are invariant for the continuous group
+  generated by the two infinitesimal operations last written. In other
+  words, they are given by the common solutions of the differential
+  equations
+
+       [Pd][f]       [Pd][f]       [Pd][f]
+    a0 ------- + 2a1 ------- + 3a2 ------- + ... = 0,
+       [Pd]a1        [Pd]a2        [Pd]a3
+
+        [Pd][f]             [Pd][f]             [Pd][f]
+    na1 ------- + (n - 1)a2 ------- + (n - 2)a3 ------- + ... = 0.
+        [Pd]a0              [Pd]a1              [Pd]a2
+
+  Both this result and the method by which it is arrived at are well
+  known, but the point of view by which we pass from the transformation
+  group of the variables to the isomorphic transformation group of the
+  coefficients, and regard the invariants as invariants rather of the
+  group than of the forms, is a new and a fruitful one.
+
+  The general theory of curvature of curves and surfaces may in a
+  similar way be regarded as a theory of their invariants for the group
+  of motions. That something more than a mere change of phraseology is
+  here implied will be evident in dealing with minimum curves, i.e. with
+  curves such that at every point of them dx² + dy² + dz² = 0. For such
+  curves the ordinary theory of curvature has no meaning, but they
+  nevertheless have invariant properties in regard to the group of
+  motions.
+
+  The curvature and torsion of a curve, which are invariant for all
+  transformations by the group of motions, are special instances of what
+  are known as _differential invariants_. If [xi]([Pd]/[Pd]x) +
+  [eta]([Pd]/[Pd]y) is the general infinitesimal transformation of a
+  group of point-transformations in the plane, and if y1, y2, ...
+  represent the successive differential coefficients of y, the
+  infinitesimal transformation may be written in the extended form
+
+         [Pd]          [Pd]            [Pd]            [Pd]
+    [xi] ----- + [eta] ----- + [eta]1 ------ + [eta]2 ------ + ...
+         [Pd]x         [Pd]y          [Pd]y1          [Pd]y2
+
+  where [eta]1[delta]t, [eta]2[delta]t, ... are the increments of y1,
+  y2, .... By including a sufficient number of these variables the group
+  must be intransitive in them, and must therefore have one or more
+  invariants. Such invariants are known as differential invariants of
+  the original group, being necessarily functions of the differential
+  coefficients of the original variables. For groups of the plane it may
+  be shown that not more than two of these differential invariants are
+  independent, all others being formed from these by algebraical
+  processes and differentiation. For groups of point-transformations in
+  more than two variables there will be more than one set of
+  differential invariants. For instance, with three variables, one may
+  be regarded as independent and the other two as functions of it, or
+  two as independent and the remaining one as a function. Corresponding
+  to these two points of view, the differential invariants for a curve
+  or for a surface will arise.
+
+  If a differential invariant of a continuous group of the plane be
+  equated to zero, the resulting differential equation remains unaltered
+  when the variables undergo any transformation of the group.
+  Conversely, if an ordinary, differential equation [f](x, y, y1, y2,
+  ...) = 0 admits the transformations of a continuous group, i.e. if the
+  equation is unaltered when x and y undergo any transformation of the
+  group, then [f](x, y, y1, y2, ...) or some multiple of it must be a
+  differential invariant of the group. Hence it must be possible to find
+  two independent differential invariants [alpha], ß of the group, such
+  that when these are taken as variables the differential equation takes
+  the form F([alpha], ß, dß/d[alpha], d²ß/d[alpha]², ...) = 0. This
+  equation in [alpha], ß will be of lower order than the original
+  equation, and in general simpler to deal with. Supposing it solved in
+  the form ß = [phi]([alpha]), where for [alpha], ß their values in
+  terms of x, y, y1, y2, ... are written, this new equation, containing
+  arbitrary constants, is necessarily again of lower order than the
+  original equation. The integration of the original equation is thus
+  divided into two steps. This will show how, in the case of an ordinary
+  differential equation, the fact that the equation admits a continuous
+  group of transformations may be taken advantage of for its
+  integration.
+
+  The most important of the applications of continuous groups are to the
+  theory of systems of differential equations, both ordinary and
+  partial; in fact, Lie states that it was with a view to systematizing
+  and advancing the general theory of differential equations that he was
+  led to the development of the theory of continuous groups. It is quite
+  impossible here to give any account of all that Lie and his followers
+  have done in this direction. An entirely new mode of regarding the
+  problem of the integration of a differential equation has been opened
+  up, and in the classification that arises from it all those apparently
+  isolated types of equations which in the older sense are said to be
+  integrable take their proper place. It may, for instance, be mentioned
+  that the question as to whether Monge's method will apply to the
+  integration of a partial differential equation of the second order is
+  shown to depend on whether or not a contact-transformation can be
+  found which will reduce the equation to either [Pd]²z/[Pd]x² = 0 or
+  [Pd]²z/[Pd]x[Pd]y = 0. It is in this direction that further advance in
+  the theory of partial differential equations must be looked for.
+  Lastly, it may be remarked that one of the most thorough discussions
+  of the axioms of geometry hitherto undertaken is founded entirely upon
+  the theory of continuous groups.
+
+
+_Discontinuous Groups._
+
+We go on now to the consideration of discontinuous groups. Although
+groups of finite order are necessarily contained under this general
+head, it is convenient for many reasons to deal with them separately,
+and it will therefore be assumed in the present section that the number
+of operations in the group is not finite. Many large classes of
+discontinuous groups have formed the subject of detailed investigation,
+but a general formal theory of discontinuous groups can hardly be said
+to exist as yet. It will thus be obvious that in considering
+discontinuous groups it is necessary to proceed on different lines from
+those followed with continuous groups, and in fact to deal with the
+subject almost entirely by way of example.
+
+
+    Generating operations.
+
+  The consideration of a discontinuous group as arising from a set of
+  independent generating operations suggests a purely abstract point of
+  view in which any two simply isomorphic groups are indistinguishable.
+  The number of generating operations may be either finite or infinite,
+  but the former case alone will be here considered. Suppose then that
+  S1, S2, ..., S_n is a set of independent operations from which a group
+  G is generated. The general operation of the group will be represented
+  by the symbol S_a^[alpha]S_b^ß ... S_d^[delta], or [Sigma], where a,
+  b, ..., d are chosen from 1, 2, ..., n, and [alpha], ß, ..., [delta]
+  are any positive or negative integers. It may be assumed that no two
+  successive suffixes in [Sigma] are the same, for if b = a, then
+  S_a^[alpha]S_b^ß may be replaced by S_a^([alpha] +ß). If there are no
+  relations connecting the generating operations and the identical
+  operation, every distinct symbol [Sigma] represents a distinct
+  operation of the group. For if [Sigma] = [Sigma]1, or S_a^[alpha]
+  S_b^ß ... S_d^[delta] = S_(a1)^([alpha]1) S_(b1)^(ß1) ...
+  S_(d1)^([delta]1), then S_(d1)^(-[delta]1) ... S_(b1)^(-ß1)
+  S_(a1)^(-[alpha]1) S_a^[alpha] S_b^ß ... S_d^[delta] = 1; and unless a
+  = a1, b = b1, ..., [alpha] = [alpha]1, ß = ß1, ..., this is a relation
+  connecting the generating operations.
+
+  Suppose now that T1, T2, ... are operations of G, and that H is that
+  self-conjugate subgroup of G which is generated by T1, T2, ... and the
+  operations conjugate to them. Then, of the operations that can be
+  formed from S1, S2, ..., S_n, the set [Sigma]H, and no others, reduce
+  to the same operation [Sigma] when the conditions T1 = 1, T2 = 1, ...
+  are satisfied by the generating operations. Hence the group which is
+  generated by the given operations, when subjected to the conditions
+  just written, is simply isomorphic with the factor-group G/H.
+  Moreover, this is obviously true even when the conditions are such
+  that the generating operations are no longer independent. Hence any
+  discontinuous group may be defined abstractly, that is, in regard to
+  the laws of combination of its operations apart from their actual
+  form, by a set of generating operations and a system of relations
+  connecting them. Conversely, when such a set of operations and system
+  of relations are given arbitrarily they define in abstract form a
+  single discontinuous group. It may, of course, happen that the group
+  so defined is a group of finite order, or that it reduces to the
+  identical operation only; but in regard to the general statement these
+  will be particular and exceptional cases.
+
+
+    Properly and improperly discontinuous groups.
+
+  An operation of a discontinuous group must necessarily be specified
+  analytically by a system of equations of the form
+
+    x´_s = [f]_s(x1, x2, ..., x_n; a1, a2, ..., a_r), (s = 1, 2, ..., n),
+
+  and the different operations of the group will be given by different
+  sets of values of the parameters a1, a2, ..., a_r. No one of these
+  parameters is susceptible of continuous variations, but at least one
+  must be capable of taking a number of values which is not finite, if
+  the group is not one of finite order. Among the sets of values of the
+  parameters there must be one which gives the identical transformation.
+  No other transformation makes each of the differences x´1 - x1, x´2 -
+  x2, ..., x´_n - x_n vanish. Let d be an arbitrary assigned positive
+  quantity. Then if a transformation of the group can be found such that
+  the modulus of each of these differences is less than d when the
+  variables have arbitrary values within an assigned range of variation,
+  however small d may be chosen, the group is said to be _improperly_
+  discontinuous. In the contrary case the group is called _properly_
+  discontinuous. The range within which the variables are allowed to
+  vary may clearly affect the question whether a given group is properly
+  or improperly discontinuous. For instance, the group defined by the
+  equation x´ = ax + b, where a and b are any rational numbers, is
+  improperly discontinuous; and the group defined by x´ = x + a, where a
+  is an integer, is properly discontinuous, whatever the range of the
+  variable. On the other hand, the group, to be later considered,
+  defined by the equation x´ = (ax + b)/(cx + d), where a, b, c, d are
+  integers satisfying the relation ad - bc = 1, is properly
+  discontinuous when x may take any complex value, and improperly
+  discontinuous when the range of x is limited to real values.
+
+
+    Linear discontinuous groups.
+
+  Among the discontinuous groups that occur in analysis, a large number
+  may be regarded as arising by imposing limitations on the range of
+  variation of the parameters of continuous groups. If
+
+    x´_s = [f]_s(x1, x2, ..., x_n; a1, a2, ..., a_r), (s = 1, 2, ..., n),
+
+  are the finite equations of a continuous group, and if C with
+  parameters c1, c2, ..., c_r is the operation which results from
+  carrying out A and B with corresponding parameters in succession, then
+  the c's are determined uniquely by the a's and the b's. If the c's are
+  rational functions of the a's and b's, and if the a's and b's are
+  arbitrary rational numbers of a given corpus (see NUMBER), the c's
+  will be rational numbers of the same corpus. If the c's are rational
+  integral functions of the a's and b's, and the latter are arbitrarily
+  chosen integers of a corpus, then the c's are integers of the same
+  corpus. Hence in the first case the above equations, when the a's are
+  limited to be rational numbers of a given corpus, will define a
+  discontinuous group; and in the second case they will define such a
+  group when the a's are further limited to be integers of the corpus. A
+  most important class of discontinuous groups are those that arise in
+  this way from the general linear continuous group in a given set of
+  variables. For n variables the finite equations of this continuous
+  group are
+
+    x´_s = a_(s1)x1 + a_(s2)x2 + ... + a_(sn)x_n, (s = 1, 2, ..., n),
+
+  where the determinant of the a's must not be zero. In this case the
+  c's are clearly integral lineo-linear functions of the a's and b's.
+  Moreover, the determinant of the c's is the product of the determinant
+  of the a's and the determinant of the b's. Hence equations (ii.),
+  where the parameters are restricted to be integers of a given corpus,
+  define a discontinuous group; and if the determinant of the
+  coefficients is limited to the value unity, they define a
+  discontinuous group which is a (self-conjugate) subgroup of the
+  previous one.
+
+  The simplest case which thus presents itself is that in which there
+  are two variables while the coefficients are rational integers. This
+  is the group defined by the equations
+
+    x´ = ax + by, \
+                   >
+    y´ = cx + dy, /
+
+  where a, b, c, d are integers such that ad - bc = 1. To every
+  operation of this group there corresponds an operation of the set
+  defined by
+
+         az + b
+    z´ = ------,
+         cz + d
+
+  in such a way that to the product of two operations of the group there
+  corresponds the product of the two analogous operations of the set.
+  The operations of the set (iv.), where ad - bc = 1, therefore
+  constitute a group which is isomorphic with the previous group. The
+  isomorphism is multiple, since to a single operation of the second set
+  there correspond the two operations of the first for which a, b, c, d
+  and -a, -b, -c, -d are parameters. These two groups, which are of
+  fundamental importance in the theory of quadratic forms and in the
+  theory of modular functions, have been the object of very many
+  investigations.
+
+
+    Discontinuous groups arising from geometrical operations.
+
+  Another large class of discontinuous groups, which have far-reaching
+  applications in analysis, are those which arise in the first instance
+  from purely geometrical considerations. By the combination and
+  repetition of a finite number of geometrical operations such as
+  displacements, projective transformations, inversions, &c., a
+  discontinuous group of such operations will arise. Such a group, as
+  regards the points of the plane (or of space), will in general be
+  improperly discontinuous; but when the generating operations are
+  suitably chosen, the group may be properly discontinuous. In the
+  latter case the group may be represented in a graphical form by the
+  division of the plane (or space) into regions such that no point of
+  one region can be transformed into another point of the same region by
+  any operation of the group, while any given region can be transformed
+  into any other by a suitable transformation. Thus, let ABC be a
+  triangle bounded by three circular arcs BC, CA, AB; and consider the
+  figure produced from ABC by inversions in the three circles of which
+  BC, CA, AB are part. By inversion at BC, ABC becomes an equiangular
+  triangle A´BC. An inversion in AB changes ABC and A´BC into
+  equiangular triangles ABC´ and A´´BC´. Successive inversions at AB and
+  BC then will change ABC into a series of equiangular triangles with B
+  for a common vertex. These will not overlap and will just fill in the
+  space round B if the angle ABC is a submultiple of two right angles.
+  If then the angles of ABC are submultiples of two right angles (or
+  zero), the triangles formed by any number of inversions will never
+  overlap, and to each operation consisting of a definite series of
+  inversions at BC, CA and AB will correspond a distinct triangle into
+  which ABC is changed by the operation. The network of triangles so
+  formed gives a graphical representation of the group that arises from
+  the three inversions in BC, CA, AB. The triangles may be divided into
+  two sets, those, namely, like A´´BC´, which are derived from ABC by an
+  even number of inversions, and those like A´BC or ABC´ produced by an
+  odd number. Each set are interchanged among themselves by any even
+  number of inversions. Hence the operations consisting of an even
+  number of inversions form a group by themselves. For this group the
+  quadrilateral formed by ABC and A´BC constitutes a region, which is
+  changed by every operation of the group into a distinct region (formed
+  of two adjacent triangles), and these regions clearly do not overlap.
+  Their distribution presents in a graphical form the group that arises
+  by pairs of inversions at BC, CA, AB; and this group is generated by
+  the operation which consists of successive inversions at AB, BC and
+  that which consists of successive inversions at BC, CA. The group
+  defined thus geometrically may be presented in many analytical forms.
+  If x, y and x´, y´ are the rectangular co-ordinates of two points
+  which are inverse to each other with respect to a given circle, x´ and
+  y´ are rational functions of x and y, and conversely. Thus the group
+  may be presented in a form in which each operation gives a birational
+  transformation of two variables. If x + iy = z, x´ + iy´ = z´, and if
+  x´, y´ is the point to which x, y is transformed by any even number of
+  inversions, then z´ and z are connected by a linear relation z´ =
+  ([alpha]z + ß)/([gamma]z + [delta]), where [alpha], ß, [gamma],
+  [delta] are constants (in general complex) depending on the circles at
+  which the inversions are taken. Hence the group may be presented in
+  the form of a group of linear transformations of a single variable
+  generated by the two linear transformations z´ = ([alpha]1z +
+  ß1)/([gamma]1z + [delta]1), z´ = ([alpha]2z + ß2)/([gamma]2z +
+  [delta]2), which correspond to pairs of inversions at AB, BC and BC,
+  CA respectively. In particular, if the sides of the triangle are taken
+  to be x = 0, x² + y² -1 = 0, x² + y² + 2x = 0, the generating
+  operations are found to be z´ = z + 1, z´ = -z^(-1); and the group is
+  that consisting of all transformations of the form z´ = (az + b)/(cz +
+  d), where ad - bc = 1, a, b, c, d being integers. This is the group
+  already mentioned which underlies the theory of the elliptic modular
+  functions; a modular function being a function of z which is invariant
+  for some subgroup of finite index of the group in question.
+
+  The triangle ABC from which the above geometrical construction started
+  may be replaced by a polygon whose sides are circles. If each angle is
+  a submultiple of two right angles or zero, the construction is still
+  effective to give a set of non-overlapping regions, which represent
+  graphically the group which arises from pairs of inversions in the
+  sides of the polygon. In their analytical form, as groups of linear
+  transformations of a single variable, the groups are those on which
+  the theory of automorphic functions depends. A similar construction in
+  space, the polygons bounded by circular arcs being replaced by
+  polyhedra bounded by spherical faces, has been used by F. Klein and
+  Fricke to give a geometrical representation for groups which are
+  improperly discontinuous when represented as groups of the plane.
+
+
+    Group of a linear differential equation.
+
+  The special classes of discontinuous groups that have been dealt with
+  in the previous paragraphs arise directly from geometrical
+  considerations. As a final example we shall refer briefly to a class
+  of groups whose origin is essentially analytical. Let
+
+    d^_ny      d^(n-1)y                 dy
+    ----- + P1 -------- + ... + P_(n-1) -- + P_ny = 0
+    dx^_n      dx^(n-1)                 dx
+
+  be a linear differential equation, the coefficients in which are
+  rational functions of x, and let y1, y2, ..., y_n be a linearly
+  independent set of integrals of the equation. In the neighbourhood of
+  a finite value x0 of x, which is not a singularity of any of the
+  coefficients in the equation, these integrals are ordinary
+  power-series in x - x0. If the analytical continuations of y1, y2,
+  ..., y_n be formed for any closed path starting from and returning to
+  x0, the final values arrived at when x0 is again reached will be
+  another set of linearly independent integrals. When the closed path
+  contains no singular point of the coefficients of the differential
+  equation, the new set of integrals is identical with the original set.
+  If, however, the closed path encloses one or more singular points,
+  this will not in general be the case. Let y´1, y´2, ..., y´_n be the
+  new integrals arrived at. Since in the neighbourhood of x0 every
+  integral can be represented linearly in terms of y1, y2, ..., y_n,
+  there must be a system of equations
+
+    y´1 = a11y1 + a12y2 + ... + a_(1n)y_n,
+
+    y´2 = a21y1 + a22y2 + ... + a_(2n)y_n,
+
+     .       .       .       .       .
+
+    y´_n = a_(n1)y1 + a_(n2)y2 + ... + a_(nn)y_n,
+
+  where the a's are constants, expressing the new integrals in terms of
+  the original ones. To each closed path described by x0 there therefore
+  corresponds a definite linear substitution performed on the y's.
+  Further, if S1 and S2 are the substitutions that correspond to two
+  closed paths L1 and L2, then to any closed path which can be
+  continuously deformed, without crossing a singular point, into L1
+  followed by L2, there corresponds the substitution S1S2. Let L1, L2,
+  ..., L_r be arbitrarily chosen closed paths starting from and
+  returning to the same point, and each of them enclosing a single one
+  of the (r) finite singular points of the equation. Every closed path
+  in the plane can be formed by combinations of these r paths taken
+  either in the positive or in the negative direction. Also a closed
+  path which does not cut itself, and encloses all the r singular points
+  within it, is equivalent to a path enclosing the point at infinity and
+  no finite singular point. If S1, S2, S3, ..., S_r are the linear
+  substitutions that correspond to these r paths, then the substitution
+  corresponding to every possible path can be obtained by combination
+  and repetition of these r substitutions, and they therefore generate a
+  discontinuous group each of whose operations corresponds to a definite
+  closed path. The group thus arrived at is called the group of the
+  equation. For a given equation it is unique in type. In fact, the only
+  effect of starting from another set of independent integrals is to
+  transform every operation of the group by an arbitrary substitution,
+  while choosing a different set of paths is equivalent to taking a new
+  set of generating operations. The great importance of the group of the
+  equation in connexion with the nature of its integrals cannot here be
+  dealt with, but it may be pointed out that if all the integrals of the
+  equation are algebraic functions, the group must be a group of finite
+  order, since the set of quantities y1, y2 ..., y_n can then only take
+  a finite number of distinct values.
+
+
+_Groups of Finite Order._
+
+We shall now pass on to groups of finite order. It is clear that here we
+must have to do with many properties which have no direct analogues in
+the theory of continuous groups or in that of discontinuous groups in
+general; those properties, namely, which depend on the fact that the
+number of distinct operations in the group is finite.
+
+  Let S1, S2, S3, ..., S_N denote the operations of a group G of finite
+  order N, S1 being the identical operation. The tableau
+
+    S1,    S2,    S3,    ..., S_N,
+    S1S2,  S2S2,  S3S3,  ..., S_NS2,
+    S1S3,  S2S3,  S3S3,  ..., S_NS3,
+    .      .      .      .      .
+    S1S_N, S2S_N, S3S_N, ..., S_NS_N,
+
+  when in it each compound symbol S_pS_q is replaced by the single
+  symbol S_r that is equivalent to it, is called the multiplication
+  table of the group. It indicates directly the result of multiplying
+  together in an assigned sequence any number of operations of the
+  group. In each line (and in each column) of the tableau every
+  operation of the group occurs just once. If the letters in the tableau
+  are regarded as mere symbols, the operation of replacing each symbol
+  in the first line by the symbol which stands under it in the pth line
+  is a permutation performed on the set of N symbols. Thus to the N
+  lines of the tableau there corresponds a set of N permutations
+  performed on the N symbols, which includes the identical permutation
+  that leaves each unchanged. Moreover, if S_pS_q = S_r, then the result
+  of carrying out in succession the permutations which correspond to the
+  pth and qth lines gives the permutation which corresponds to the rth
+  line. Hence the set of permutations constitutes a group which is
+  simply isomorphic with the given group.
+
+  Every group of finite order N can therefore be represented in concrete
+  form as a transitive group of permutations on N symbols.
+
+
+    Properties of a group which depend on the order.
+
+  The order of any subgroup or operation of G is necessarily finite. If
+  T1(= S1), T2, ..., T_n are the operations of a subgroup H of G, and if
+  [Sigma] is any operation of G which is not contained in H, the set of
+  operations [Sigma]T1, [Sigma]T2, ..., [Sigma]T_n, or [Sigma]H, are all
+  distinct from each other and from the operations of H. If the sets H
+  and [Sigma]H do not exhaust the operations of G, and if [Sigma]´ is an
+  operation not belonging to them, then the operations of the set
+  [Sigma]´H are distinct from each other and from those of H and
+  [Sigma]H. This process may be continued till the operations of G are
+  exhausted. The order n of H must therefore be a factor of the order N
+  of G. The ratio N/n is called the index of the subgroup H. By taking
+  for H the cyclical subgroup generated by any operation S of G, it
+  follows that the order of S must be a factor of the order of G.
+
+  Every operation S is permutable with its own powers. Hence there must
+  be some subgroup H of G of greatest possible order, such that every
+  operation of H is permutable with S. Every operation of H transforms S
+  into itself, and every operation of the set H[Sigma] transforms S into
+  the same operation. Hence, when S is transformed by every operation of
+  G, just N/n distinct operations arise if n is the order of H. These
+  operations, and no others, are conjugate to S within G; they are said
+  to form a set of conjugate operations. The number of operations in
+  every conjugate set is therefore a factor of the order of G. In the
+  same way it may be shown that the number of subgroups which are
+  conjugate to a given subgroup is a factor of the order of G. An
+  operation which is permutable with every operation of the group is
+  called a _self-conjugate_ operation. The totality of the
+  self-conjugate operations of a group forms a self-conjugate Abelian
+  subgroup, each of whose operations is permutable with every operation
+  of the group.
+
+
+    Sylow's theorem.
+
+  An Abelian group contains subgroups whose orders are any given factors
+  of the order of the group. In fact, since every subgroup H of an
+  Abelian group G and the corresponding factor groups G/H are Abelian,
+  this result follows immediately by an induction from the case in which
+  the order contains n prime factors to that in which it contains n + 1.
+  For a group which is not Abelian no general law can be stated as to
+  the existence or non-existence of a subgroup whose order is an
+  arbitrarily assigned factor of the order of the group. In this
+  connexion the most important general result, which is independent of
+  any supposition as to the order of the group, is known as Sylow's
+  theorem, which states that if p^a is the highest power of a prime p
+  which divides the order of a group G, then G contains a single
+  conjugate set of subgroups of order p^a, the number in the set being
+  of the form 1 + kp. Sylow's theorem may be extended to show that if
+  p^a´ is a factor of the order of a group, the number of subgroups of
+  order p^a´ is of the form 1 + kp. If, however, p^a´ is not the highest
+  power of p which divides the order, these groups do not in general
+  form a single conjugate set.
+
+  The importance of Sylow's theorem in discussing the structure of a
+  group of given order need hardly be insisted on. Thus, as a very
+  simple instance, a group whose order is the product p1p2 of two primes
+  (p1 < p2) must have a self-conjugate subgroup of order p2, since the
+  order of the group contains no factor, other than unity, of the form 1
+  + kp2. The same again is true for a group of order p1²p2, unless p1 =
+  2, and p2 = 3.
+
+  There is one other numerical property of a group connected with its
+  order which is quite general. If N is the order of G, and n a factor
+  of N, the number of operations of G, whose orders are equal to or are
+  factors of n, is a multiple of n.
+
+
+    Composition-series of a group.
+
+  As already defined, a composite group is a group which contains one or
+  more self-conjugate subgroups, whose orders are greater than unity. If
+  H is a self-conjugate subgroup of G, the factor-group G/H may be
+  either simple or composite. In the former case G can contain no
+  self-conjugate subgroup K, which itself contains H; for if it did K/H
+  would be a self-conjugate subgroup of G/H. When G/H is simple, H is
+  said to be a maximum self-conjugate subgroup of G. Suppose now that G
+  being a given composite group, G, G1, G2, ..., G_n, 1 is a series of
+  subgroups of G, such that each is a maximum self-conjugate subgroup of
+  the preceding; the last term of the series consisting of the identical
+  operation only. Such a series is called a _composition-series_ of G.
+  In general it is not unique, since a group may have two or more
+  maximum self-conjugate subgroups. A composition-series of a group,
+  however it may be chosen, has the property that the number of terms of
+  which it consists is always the same, while the factor-groups G/G1,
+  G1/G2, ..., G_n differ only in the sequence in which they occur. It
+  should be noticed that though a group defines uniquely the set of
+  factor-groups that occur in its composition-series, the set of
+  factor-groups do not conversely in general define a single type of
+  group. When the orders of all the factor-groups are primes the group
+  is said to be _soluble_.
+
+  If the series of subgroups G, H, K, ..., L, 1 is chosen so that each
+  is the greatest self-conjugate subgroup of G contained in the previous
+  one, the series is called a chief composition-series of G. All such
+  series derived from a given group may be shown to consist of the same
+  number of terms, and to give rise to the same set of factor-groups,
+  except as regards sequence. The factor-groups of such a series will
+  not, however, necessarily be simple groups. From any chief
+  composition-series a composition-series may be formed by interpolating
+  between any two terms H and K of the series for which H/K is not a
+  simple group, a number of terms h1, h2, ..., h_r; and it may be shown
+  that the factor-groups H/h1, h1/h2, ..., h_r/K are all simply
+  isomorphic with each other.
+
+
+    Isomorphism of a group with itself.
+
+  A group may be represented as isomorphic with itself by transforming
+  all its operations by any one of them. In fact, if S_pS_q = S_r, then
+  S^(-1)S_pS · S^(-1)S_qS = S^(-1)S_rS. An isomorphism of the group with
+  itself, established in this way, is called an inner isomorphism. It
+  may be regarded as an operation carried out on the symbols of the
+  operations, being indeed a permutation performed on these symbols. The
+  totality of these operations clearly constitutes a group isomorphic
+  with the given group, and this group is called the group of inner
+  isomorphisms. A group is simply or multiply isomorphic with its group
+  of inner isomorphisms according as it does not or does contain
+  self-conjugate operations other than identity. It may be possible to
+  establish a correspondence between the operations of a group other
+  than those given by the inner isomorphisms, such that if S´ is the
+  operation corresponding to S, then S´_pS´_q = S´_r is a consequence of
+  S_pS_q = S_r. The substitution on the symbols of the operations of a
+  group resulting from such a correspondence is called an outer
+  isomorphism. The totality of the isomorphisms of both kinds
+  constitutes the group of isomorphisms of the given group, and within
+  this the group of inner isomorphisms is a self-conjugate subgroup.
+  Every set of conjugate operations of a group is necessarily
+  transformed into itself by an inner isomorphism, but two or more sets
+  may be interchanged by an outer isomorphism.
+
+  A subgroup of a group G, which is transformed into itself by every
+  isomorphism of G, is called a _characteristic_ subgroup. A series of
+  groups G, G1, G2, ..., 1, such that each is a maximum characteristic
+  subgroup of G contained in the preceding, may be shown to have the
+  same invariant properties as the subgroups of a composition series. A
+  group which has no characteristic subgroup must be either a simple
+  group or the direct product of a number of simply isomorphic simple
+  groups.
+
+
+    Permutation-groups.
+
+  It has been seen that every group of finite order can be represented
+  as a group of permutations performed on a set of symbols whose number
+  is equal to the order of the group. In general such a representation
+  is possible with a smaller number of symbols. Let H be a subgroup of
+  G, and let the operations of G be divided, in respect of H, into the
+  sets H, S2H, S3H, ..., S_mH. If S is any operation of G, the sets SH,
+  SS2H, SS3H, ..., SS_mH differ from the previous sets only in the
+  sequence in which they occur. In fact, if SS_p belong to the set S_qH,
+  then since H is a group, the set SS_pH is identical with the set S_qH.
+  Hence, to each operation S of the group will correspond a permutation
+  performed on the symbols of the m sets, and to the product of two
+  operations corresponds the product of the two analogous permutations.
+  The set of permutations, therefore, forms a group isomorphic with the
+  given group. Moreover, the isomorphism is simple unless for one or
+  more operations, other than identity, the sets all remain unaltered.
+  This can only be the case for S, when every operation conjugate to S
+  belongs to H. In this case H would contain a self-conjugate subgroup,
+  and the isomorphism is multiple.
+
+  The fact that every group of finite order can be represented,
+  generally in several ways, as a group of permutations, gives special
+  importance to such groups. The number of symbols involved in such a
+  representation is called the _degree_ of the group. In accordance with
+  the general definitions already given, a permutation-group is called
+  transitive or intransitive according as it does or does not contain
+  permutations changing any one of the symbols into any other. It is
+  called imprimitive or primitive according as the symbols can or cannot
+  be arranged in sets, such that every permutation of the group changes
+  the symbols of any one set either among themselves or into the symbols
+  of another set. When a group is imprimitive the number of symbols in
+  each set must clearly be the same.
+
+  The total number of permutations that can be performed on n symbols is
+  n!, and these necessarily constitute a group. It is known as the
+  _symmetric_ group of degree n, the only rational functions of the
+  symbols which are unaltered by all possible permutations being the
+  symmetric functions. When any permutation is carried out on the
+  product of the n(n - 1)/2, differences of the n symbols, it must
+  either remain unaltered or its sign must be changed. Those
+  permutations which leave the product unaltered constitute a group of
+  order n!/2, which is called the _alternating_ group of degree n; it is
+  a self-conjugate subgroup of the symmetric group. Except when n = 4
+  the alternating group is a simple group. A group of degree n, which is
+  not contained in the alternating group, must necessarily have a
+  self-conjugate subgroup of index 2, consisting of those of its
+  permutations which belong to the alternating group.
+
+
+    Groups of linear substitutions.
+
+  Among the various concrete forms in which a group of finite order can
+  be presented the most important is that of a group of linear
+  substitutions. Such groups have already been referred to in connexion
+  with discontinuous groups. Here the number of distinct substitutions
+  is necessarily finite; and to each operation S of a group G of finite
+  order there will correspond a linear substitution s, viz.
+
+           __j=m
+    x_i = \      s_(ij)x_j(i, j = 1, 2, ..., m),
+          /__j=1
+
+  on a set of m variables, such that if ST = U, then st = u. The linear
+  substitutions s, t, u, ... then constitute a group g with which G is
+  isomorphic; and whether the isomorphism is simple or multiple g is
+  said to give a "representation" of G as a group of linear
+  substitutions. If all the substitutions of g are transformed by the
+  same substitution on the m variables, the (in general) new group of
+  linear substitutions so constituted is said to be "equivalent" with g
+  as a representation of G; and two representations are called
+  "non-equivalent," or "distinct," when one is not capable of being
+  transformed into the other.
+
+  A group of linear substitutions on m variables is said to be
+  "reducible" when it is possible to choose m´(< m) linear functions of
+  the variables which are transformed among themselves by every
+  substitution of the group. When this cannot be done the group is
+  called "irreducible." It can be shown that a group of linear
+  substitutions, of finite order, is always either irreducible, or such
+  that the variables, when suitably chosen, may be divided into sets,
+  each set being irreducibly transformed among themselves. This being
+  so, it is clear that when the irreducible representations of a group
+  of finite order are known, all representations may be built up.
+
+  It has been seen at the beginning of this section that every group of
+  finite order N can be presented as a group of permutations (i.e.
+  linear substitutions in a limited sense) on N symbols. This group is
+  obviously reducible; in fact, the sum of the symbols remain unaltered
+  by every substitution of the group. The fundamental theorem in
+  connexion with the representations, as an irreducible group of linear
+  substitutions, of a group of finite order N is the following.
+
+  If r is the number of different sets of conjugate operations in the
+  group, then, when the group of N permutations is completely reduced,
+
+  (i.) just r distinct irreducible representations occur:
+
+  (ii.) each of these occurs a number of times equal to the number of
+  symbols on which it operates:
+
+  (iii.) these irreducible representations exhaust all the distinct
+  irreducible representations of the group.
+
+  Among these representations what is called the "identical"
+  representation necessarily occurs, i.e. that in which each operation
+  of the group corresponds to leaving a single symbol unchanged. If
+  these representations are denoted by [Gamma]1, [Gamma]2, ...,
+  [Gamma]_r, then any representation of the group as a group of linear
+  substitutions, or in particular as a group of permutations, may be
+  uniquely represented by a symbol [Sigma][alpha]_i[Gamma]_i, in the
+  sense that the representation when completely reduced will contain the
+  representation [Gamma]_i just [alpha]_i times for each suffix i.
+
+
+    Group characteristics.
+
+  A representation of a group of finite order as an irreducible group of
+  linear substitutions may be presented in an infinite number of
+  equivalent forms. If
+
+    x´_i = [Sigma] s_(ij)x_j (i, j = 1, 2, ..., m),
+
+  is the linear substitution which, in a given irreducible
+  representation of a group of finite order G, corresponds to the
+  operation S, the determinant
+
+    | s11 - [lambda] s12          ... s_(1m)            |
+    | s21            s22-[lambda] ... s_(2m)            |
+    |   .             .           ...   .               |
+    |   .             .           ...   .               |
+    |   .             .           ...   .               |
+    | s_m1           s_2m         ... s_(mm) - [lambda] |
+
+  is invariant for all equivalent representations, when written as a
+  polynomial in [lambda]. Moreover, it has the same value for S and S´,
+  if these are two conjugate operations in G. Of the various invariants
+  that thus arise the most important is s11 + s22 + ... + s_(mm), which
+  is called the "characteristic" of S. If S is an operation of order p,
+  its characteristic is the sum of m pth roots of unity; and in
+  particular, if S is the identical operation its characteristic is m.
+  If r is the number of sets of conjugate operations in G, there is, for
+  each representation of G as an irreducible group, a set of r
+  characteristics: X1, X2, ... X_r, one corresponding to each conjugate
+  set; so that for the r irreducible representations just r such sets of
+  characteristics arise. These are distinct, in the sense that if
+  [Psi]1, [Psi]2, ..., [Psi]_r are the characteristics for a distinct
+  representation from the above, then X_i and [Psi]_i are not equal for
+  all values of the suffix i. It may be the case that the r
+  characteristics for a given representation are all real. If this is so
+  the representation is said to be self-inverse. In the contrary case
+  there is always another representation, called the "inverse"
+  representation, for which each characteristic is the conjugate
+  imaginary of the corresponding one in the original representation. The
+  characteristics are subject to certain remarkable relations. If h_p
+  denotes the number of operations in the pth conjugate set, while
+  X^_i{p}, and X^j{p} are the characteristics of the pth conjugate set
+  in [Gamma]_i and [Gamma]_j, then
+
+     __p=r
+    \      h_p X_p^i X^_p^j = 0 or n,
+    /__p=1
+
+  according to [Gamma]_i and [Gamma]_j are not or are inverse
+  representations, n being the order of G.
+
+  Again
+
+     __i=r
+    \      X_p^i X^_q^i = 0 or n/h_p
+    /__i=1
+
+  according as the pth and qth conjugate sets are not or are inverse;
+  the qth set being called the inverse of the pth if it consists of the
+  inverses of the operations constituting the pth.
+
+
+    Linear homogeneous groups.
+
+  Another form in which every group of finite order can be represented
+  is that known as a linear homogeneous group. If in the equations
+
+    x´_r = a_(r1)x1 + a_(r2)x2 + ... +a_(rm)x_m, (r = 1, 2, ..., m),
+
+  which define a linear homogeneous substitution, the coefficients are
+  integers, and if the equations are replaced by congruences to a finite
+  modulus n, the system of congruences will give a definite operation,
+  provided that the determinant of the coefficients is relatively prime
+  to n. The product of two such operations is another operation of the
+  same kind; and the total number of distinct operations is finite,
+  since there is only a limited number of choices for the coefficients.
+  The totality of these operations, therefore, constitutes a group of
+  finite order; and such a group is known as a _linear homogeneous_
+  group. If n is a prime the order of the group is
+
+    (n^m - 1)(n^m - n) ... (n^m - n^(m-1)).
+
+  The totality of the operations of the linear homogeneous group for
+  which the determinant of the coefficients is congruent to unity forms
+  a subgroup. Other subgroups arise by considering those operations
+  which leave a function of the variables unchanged (mod. n). All such
+  subgroups are known as linear homogeneous groups.
+
+  When the ratios only of the variables are considered, there arises a
+  _linear fractional_ group, with which the corresponding linear
+  homogeneous group is isomorphic. Thus, if p is a prime the totality of
+  the congruences
+
+               az + b
+    z´ [equiv] ------, ad - bc [/=] 0, (mod. p)
+               cz + d
+
+  constitutes a group of order p(p² - 1). This class of groups for
+  various values of p is almost the only one which has been as yet
+  exhaustively analysed. For all values of p except 3 it contains a
+  simple self-conjugate subgroup of index 2.
+
+  A great extension of the theory of linear homogeneous groups has been
+  made in recent years by considering systems of congruences of the form
+
+    x´_r [equiv] a_(r1)x1 + a_(r2)x2 + ... + a_(rm)x_m,
+      (r = 1, 2, ..., m),
+
+  in which the coefficients a_(rs), are integral functions with real
+  integral coefficients of a root of an irreducible congruence to a
+  prime modulus. Such a system of congruences is obviously limited in
+  numbers and defines a group which contains as a subgroup the group
+  defined by the same congruences with ordinary integral coefficients.
+
+
+    Applications.
+
+  The chief application of the theory of groups of finite order is to
+  the theory of algebraic equations. The analogy of equations of the
+  second, third and fourth degrees would give rise to the expectation
+  that a root of an equation of any finite degree could be expressed in
+  terms of the coefficients by a finite number of the operations of
+  addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and the extraction of
+  roots; in other words, that the equation could be solved by radicals.
+  This, however, as proved by Abel and Galois, is not the case: an
+  equation of a higher degree than the fourth in general defines an
+  algebraic irrationality which cannot be expressed by means of
+  radicals, and the cases in which such an equation can be solved by
+  radicals must be regarded as exceptional. The theory of groups gives
+  the means of determining whether an equation comes under this
+  exceptional case, and of solving the equation when it does. When it
+  does not, the theory provides the means of reducing the problem
+  presented by the equation to a normal form. From this point of view
+  the theory of equations of the fifth degree has been exhaustively
+  treated, and the problems presented by certain equations of the sixth
+  and seventh degrees have actually been reduced to normal form.
+
+  Galois (see EQUATION) showed that, corresponding to every irreducible
+  equation of the nth degree, there exists a transitive
+  substitution-group of degree n, such that every function of the roots,
+  the numerical value of which is unaltered by all the substitutions of
+  the group can be expressed rationally in terms of the coefficients,
+  while conversely every function of the roots which is expressible
+  rationally in terms of the coefficients is unaltered by the
+  substitutions of the group. This group is called the group of the
+  equation. In general, if the equation is given arbitrarily, the group
+  will be the symmetric group. The necessary and sufficient condition
+  that the equation may be soluble by radicals is that its group should
+  be a soluble group. When the coefficients in an equation are rational
+  integers, the determination of its group may be made by a finite
+  number of processes each of which involves only rational arithmetical
+  operations. These processes consist in forming resolvents of the
+  equation corresponding to each distinct type of subgroup of the
+  symmetric group whose degree is that of the equation. Each of the
+  resolvents so formed is then examined to find whether it has rational
+  roots. The group corresponding to any resolvent which has a rational
+  root contains the group of the equation; and the least of the groups
+  so found is the group of the equation. Thus, for an equation of the
+  fifth degree the various transitive subgroups of the symmetric group
+  of degree five have to be considered. These are (i.) the alternating
+  group; (ii.) a soluble group of order 20; (iii.) a group of order 10,
+  self-conjugate in the preceding; (iv.) a cyclical group of order 5,
+  self-conjugate in both the preceding. If x0, x1, x2, x3, x4 are the
+  roots of the equation, the corresponding resolvents may be taken to be
+  those which have for roots (i.) the square root of the discriminant;
+  (ii.) the function (x0x1 + x1x2 + x2x3 + x3x4 + x4x0)(x0x2 + x2x4 +
+  x4x1 + x1x3 + x3x0); (iii.) the function x0x1 + x1x2+ x2x3 + x3x4 +
+  x4x0; and (iv.) the function x0²x1 + x1²x2 + x2²x3 + x3²x4 + x4²x0.
+  Since the groups for which (iii.) and (iv.) are invariant are
+  contained in that for which (ii.) is invariant, and since these are
+  the only soluble groups of the set, the equation will be soluble by
+  radicals only when the function (ii.) can be expressed rationally in
+  terms of the coefficients. If
+
+    (x0x1 + x1x2 + x2x3 + x3x4 + x4x0)(x0x2 + x2x4 + x4x1 + x1x3 + x3x0)
+
+  is known, then clearly x0x1 + x1x2 + x2x3 + x3x4 + x4x0 can be
+  determined by the solution of a quadratic equation. Moreover, the sum
+  and product (x0 + [epsilon]x1 + [epsilon]²x2 + [epsilon]³x3 +
+  [epsilon]^4x4)^5 and (x0 + [epsilon]^4x1+[epsilon]^3x2 + [epsilon]²x3
+  + [epsilon]x4)^5 can be expressed rationally in terms of x0x1 + x1x2 +
+  x2x3 + x3x4 + x4x0, [epsilon], and the symmetric functions; [epsilon]
+  being a fifth root of unity. Hence (x0 + [epsilon]x1 + [epsilon]²x2 +
+  [epsilon]³x3 + [epsilon]^4X4)^5 can be determined by the solution of a
+  quadratic equation. The roots of the original equation are then
+  finally determined by the extraction of a fifth root. The problem of
+  reducing an equation of the fifth degree, when not soluble by
+  radicals, to a normal form, forms the subject of Klein's _Vorlesungen
+  über das Ikosaeder_. Another application of groups of finite order is
+  to the theory of linear differential equations whose integrals are
+  algebraic functions. It has been already seen, in the discussion of
+  discontinuous groups in general, that the groups of such equations
+  must be groups of finite order. To every group of finite order which
+  can be represented as an irreducible group of linear substitutions on
+  n variables will correspond a class of irreducible linear differential
+  equations of the nth order whose integrals are algebraic. The complete
+  determination of the class of linear differential equations of the
+  second order with all their integrals algebraic, whose group has the
+  greatest possible order, viz. 120, has been carried out by Klein.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Continuous groups: Lie and Engel, _Theorie der
+  Transformationsgruppen_ (Leipzig, vol. i., 1888; vol. ii., 1890; vol.
+  iii., 1893); Lie and Scheffers, _Vorlesungen über gewöhnliche
+  Differentialgleichungen mit bekannten infinitesimalen
+  Transformationen_ (Leipzig, 1891); _Idem, Vorlesungen über
+  continuierliche Gruppen_ (Leipzig, 1893); _Idem, Geometrie der
+  Berührungstransformationen_ (Leipzig, 1896); Klein and Schilling,
+  _Höhere Geometrie_, vol. ii. (lithographed) (Göttingen, 1893, for both
+  continuous and discontinuous groups). Campbell, _Introductory Treatise
+  on Lie's Theory of Finite Continuous Transformation Groups_ (Oxford,
+  1903). Discontinuous groups: Klein and Fricke, _Vorlesungen über die
+  Theorie der elliptischen Modulfunktionen_ (vol. i., Leipzig, 1890)
+  (for a full discussion of the modular group); _Idem, Vorlesungen über
+  die Theorie der automorphen Funktionen_ (vol. i., Leipzig, 1897; vol.
+  ii. pt. i., 1901) (for the general theory of discontinuous groups);
+  Schoenflies, _Krystallsysteme und Krystallstruktur_ (Leipzig, 1891)
+  (for discontinuous groups of motions); Groups of finite order: Galois,
+  _[OE]uvres mathématiques_ (Paris, 1897, reprint); Jordan, _Traité des
+  substitutions et des équations algébriques_ (Paris, 1870); Netto,
+  _Substitutionentheorie und ihre Anwendung auf die Algebra_ (Leipzig,
+  1882; Eng. trans. by Cole, Ann Arbor, U.S.A., 1892); Klein,
+  _Vorlesungen über das Ikosaeder_ (Leipzig, 1884; Eng. trans. by
+  Morrice, London, 1888); H. Vogt, _Leçons sur la résolution algébrique
+  des équations_ (Paris, 1895); Weber, _Lehrbuch der Algebra_
+  (Braunschweig, vol. i., 1895; vol. ii., 1896; a second edition
+  appeared in 1898); Burnside, _Theory of Groups of Finite Order_
+  (Cambridge, 1897); Bianchi, _Teoria dei gruppi di sostituzioni e delle
+  equazioni algebriche_ (Pisa, 1899); Dickson, _Linear Groups with an
+  Exposition of the Galois Field Theory_ (Leipzig, 1901); De Séguier,
+  _Éléments de la théorie des groupes abstraits_ (Paris, 1904), A
+  summary with many references will be found in the _Encyklopädie der
+  mathematischen Wissenschaften_ (Leipzig, vol. i., 1898, 1899).
+       (W. Bu.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The word "group," which appears first in English in the sense of
+    an assemblage of figures in an artistic design, picture, &c., is
+    adapted from the Fr. _groupe_, which is to be referred to the
+    Teutonic word meaning "knot," "mass," "bunch," represented in English
+    by "crop" (q.v.). The technical mathematical sense is not older than
+    1870.
+
+
+
+
+GROUSE, a word of uncertain origin,[1] now used generally by
+ornithologists to include all the "rough-footed" Gallinaceous birds, but
+in common speech applied almost exclusively, when used alone, to the
+_Tetrao scoticus_ of Linnaeus, the _Lagopus scoticus_ of modern
+systematists--more particularly called in English the red grouse, but
+till the end of the 18th century almost invariably spoken of as the
+Moor-fowl or Moor-game. The effect which this species is supposed to
+have had on the British legislature, and therefore on history, is well
+known, for it was the common belief that parliament always rose when the
+season for grouse-shooting began (August 12th); while according to the
+_Orkneyinga Saga_ (ed. Jonaeus, p. 356; ed. Anderson, p. 168) events of
+some importance in the annals of North Britain followed from its pursuit
+in Caithness in the year 1157.
+
+The red grouse is found on moors from Monmouthshire and Derbyshire
+northward to the Orkneys, as well as in most of the Hebrides. It
+inhabits similar situations throughout Wales and Ireland, but it does
+not naturally occur beyond the limits of the British Islands,[2] and is
+the only species among birds peculiar to them. The word "species" may in
+this case be used advisedly (since the red grouse invariably "breeds
+true," it admits of an easy diagnosis, and it has a definite
+geographical range); but scarcely any zoologist can doubt of its common
+origin with the willow-grouse, _Lagopus albus_ (_L. subalpinus_ or _L.
+saliceti_ of some authors), that inhabits a subarctic zone from Norway
+across the continents of Europe and Asia, as well as North America from
+the Aleutian Islands to Newfoundland. The red grouse indeed is rarely or
+never found away from the heather on which chiefly it subsists; while
+the willow-grouse in many parts of the Old World seems to prefer the
+shrubby growth of berry-bearing plants (_Vaccinium_ and others) that,
+often thickly interspersed with willows and birches, clothes the higher
+levels or the lower mountain-slopes, and it flourishes in the New World
+where heather scarcely exists, and a "heath" in its strict sense is
+unknown. It is true that the willow-grouse always becomes white in
+winter, which the red grouse never does; but in summer there is a
+considerable resemblance between the two species, the cock willow-grouse
+having his head, neck and breast of nearly the same rich chestnut-brown
+as his British representative, and, though his back be lighter in
+colour, as is also the whole plumage of his mate, than is found in the
+red grouse, in other respects the two species are precisely alike. No
+distinction can be discovered in their voice, their eggs, their build,
+nor in their anatomical details, so far as these have been investigated
+and compared.[3] Moreover, the red grouse, restricted as is its range,
+varies in colour not inconsiderably according to locality.
+
+[Illustration: Red Grouse.]
+
+Though the red grouse does not, after the manner of other members of the
+genus _Lagopus_, become white in winter, Scotland possesses a species of
+the genus which does. This is the ptarmigan, _L. mutus_ or _L. alpinus_,
+which differs far more in structure, station and habits from the red
+grouse than that does from the willow-grouse, and in Scotland is far
+less abundant, haunting only the highest and most barren mountains. It
+is said to have formerly inhabited both Wales and England, but there is
+no evidence of its appearance in Ireland. On the continent of Europe it
+is found most numerously in Norway, but at an elevation far above the
+growth of trees, and it occurs on the Pyrenees and on the Alps. It also
+inhabits northern Russia. In North America, Greenland and Iceland it is
+represented by a very nearly allied form--so much so indeed that it is
+only at certain seasons that the slight difference between them can be
+detected. This form is the _L. rupestris_ of authors, and it would
+appear to be found also in Siberia (_Ibis_, 1879, p. 148). Spitzbergen
+is inhabited by a large form which has received recognition as _L.
+hemileucurus_, and the northern end of the chain of the Rocky Mountains
+is tenanted by a very distinct species, the smallest and perhaps the
+most beautiful of the genus, _L. leucurus_, which has all the feathers
+of the tail white.
+
+[Illustration: Ptarmigan.]
+
+[Illustration: Blackcock.]
+
+The bird, however, to which the name of grouse in all strictness belongs
+is probably the _Tetrao tetrix_ of Linnaeus--the blackcock and greyhen,
+as the sexes are respectively called. It is distributed over most of the
+heath-country of England, except in East Anglia, where attempts to
+introduce it have been only partially successful. It also occurs in
+North Wales and very generally throughout Scotland, though not in
+Orkney, Shetland or the Outer Hebrides, nor in Ireland. On the continent
+of Europe it has a very wide range, and it extends into Siberia. In
+Georgia its place is taken by a distinct species, on which a Polish
+naturalist (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1875, p. 267) has conferred the name
+of _T. mlokosiewiczi_. Both these birds have much in common with their
+larger congener the capercally and its eastern representative.
+
+The species of the genus _Bonasa_, of which the European _B. sylvestris_
+is the type, does not inhabit the British Islands. It is perhaps the
+most delicate game-bird that comes to table. It is the _gelinotte_ of
+the French, the _Haselhuhn_ of Germans, and _Hjerpe_ of Scandinavians.
+Like its transatlantic congener _B. umbellus_, the ruffed grouse or
+birch-partridge (of which there are two other local forms, _B.
+umbelloides_ and _B. sabinii_), it is purely a forest-bird. The same may
+be said of the species of _Canace_, of which two forms are found in
+America, _C. canadensis_, the spruce-partridge, and _C. franklini_, and
+also of the Siberian _C. falcipennis_. Nearly allied to these birds is
+the group known as _Dendragapus_, containing three large and fine forms
+_D. obscurus_, _D. fuliginosus_, and _D. richardsoni_--all peculiar to
+North America. Then there are _Centrocercus urophasianus_, the sage-cock
+of the plains of Columbia and California, and _Pedioecetes_, the
+sharp-tailed grouse, with its two forms, _P. phasianellus_ and _P.
+columbianus_, while finally _Cupidonia_, the prairie-hen, also with two
+local forms, _C. cupido_ and _C. pallidicincta_, is a bird that in the
+United States of America possesses considerable economic value, enormous
+numbers being consumed there, and also exported to Europe.
+
+  The various sorts of grouse are nearly all figured in Elliot's
+  _Monograph of the Tetraoninae_, and an excellent account of the
+  American species is given in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway's _North
+  American Birds_ (iii. 414-465). See also SHOOTING.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] It seems first to occur (O. Salusbury Brereton, _Archaeologia_,
+    iii. 157) as "grows" in an ordinance for the regulation of the royal
+    household dated "apud Eltham, mens. Jan. 22 Hen. VIII.," i.e. 1531,
+    and considering the locality must refer to black game. It is found in
+    an Act of Parliament 1 Jac. I. cap. 27, § 2, i.e. 1603, and, as
+    reprinted in the _Statutes at Large_, stands as now commonly spelt,
+    but by many writers or printers the final e was omitted in the 17th
+    and 18th centuries. In 1611 Cotgrave had "Poule griesche. A
+    Moore-henne; the henne of the Grice [in ed. 1673 "Griece"] or
+    Mooregame" (_Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues, s.v.
+    Poule_). The most likely derivation seems to be from the old French
+    word _griesche_, _greoche_ or _griais_ (meaning speckled, and cognate
+    with _griseus_, grisly or grey), which was applied to some kind of
+    partridge, or according to Brunetto Latini (_Trés._ p. 211) to a
+    quail, "porce que ele fu premiers trovée en Grece." The Oxford
+    Dictionary repudiates the possibility of "grouse" being a spurious
+    singular of an alleged plural "grice," and, with regard to the
+    possibility of "grows" being a plural of "grow," refers to Giraldus
+    Cambrensis (c. 1210), _Topogr. Hib. opera_ (Rolls) v. 47: "gallinae
+    campestres, quas vulgariter _grutas_ vocant."
+
+  [2] It was successfully, though with much trouble, introduced by Mr
+    Oscar Dickson on a tract of land near Gottenburg in Sweden (_Svenska
+    Jägarförbundets Nya Tidskrift_, 1868, p. 64 _et alibi_).
+
+  [3] A very interesting subject for discussion would be whether
+    _Lagopus scoticus_ or _L. albus_ has varied most from the common
+    stock of both. Looking to the fact that the former is the only
+    species of the genus which does not assume white clothing in winter,
+    an evolutionist might at first deem the variation greatest in its
+    case; but then it must be borne in mind that the species of _Lagopus_
+    which turn white differ in that respect from all other groups of the
+    family _Tetraonidae_. Furthermore every species of _Lagopus_ (even
+    _L. leucurus_, the whitest of all) has its first set of _remiges_
+    coloured brown. These are dropped when the bird is about half-grown,
+    and in all the species but _L. scoticus_ white _remiges_ are then
+    produced. If therefore the successive phases assumed by any animal in
+    the course of its progress to maturity indicate the phases through
+    which the species has passed, there may have been a time when all the
+    species of _Lagopus_ wore a brown livery even when adult, and the
+    white dress donned in winter has been imposed upon the wearers by
+    causes that can be easily suggested. The white plumage of the birds
+    of this group protects them from danger during the snows of a
+    protracted winter. But the red grouse, instead of perpetuating
+    directly the more ancient properties of an original _Lagopus_ that
+    underwent no great seasonal change of plumage, may derive its
+    ancestry from the widely-ranging willow-grouse, which in an epoch
+    comparatively recent (in the geological sense) may have stocked
+    Britain, and left descendants that, under conditions in which the
+    assumption of a white garb would be almost fatal to the preservation
+    of the species, have reverted (though doubtless with some
+    modifications) to a comparative immutability essentially the same as
+    that of the primal _Lagopus_.
+
+
+
+
+GROVE, SIR GEORGE (1820-1900), English writer on music, was born at
+Clapham on the 13th of August 1820. He was articled to a civil engineer,
+and worked for two years in a factory near Glasgow. In 1841 and 1845 he
+was employed in the West Indies, erecting lighthouses in Jamaica and
+Bermuda. In 1849 he became secretary to the Society of Arts, and in 1852
+to the Crystal Palace. In this capacity his natural love of music and
+enthusiasm for the art found a splendid opening, and he threw all the
+weight of his influence into the task of promoting the best music of all
+schools in connexion with the weekly and daily concerts at Sydenham,
+which had a long and honourable career under the direction of Mr
+(afterwards Sir) August Manns. Without Sir George Grove that eminent
+conductor would hardly have succeeded in doing what he did to encourage
+young composers and to educate the British public in music. Grove's
+analyses of the Beethoven symphonies, and the other works presented at
+the concerts, set the pattern of what such things should be; and it was
+as a result of these, and of the fact that he was editor of _Macmillan's
+Magazine_ from 1868 to 1883, that the scheme of his famous _Dictionary
+of Music and Musicians_, published from 1878 to 1889 (new edition,
+edited by J. A. Fuller Maitland, 1904-1907), was conceived and executed.
+His own articles in that work on Beethoven, Mendelssohn and Schubert are
+monuments of a special kind of learning, and that the rest of the book
+is a little thrown out of balance owing to their great length is hardly
+to be regretted. Long before this he had contributed to the _Dictionary
+of the Bible_, and had promoted the foundation of the Palestine
+Exploration Fund. On a journey to Vienna, undertaken in the company of
+his lifelong friend, Sir Arthur Sullivan, the important discovery of a
+large number of compositions by Schubert was made, including the music
+to _Rosamunde_. When the Royal College of Music was founded in 1882 he
+was appointed its first director, receiving the honour of knighthood. He
+brought the new institution into line with the most useful European
+conservatoriums. On the completion of the new buildings in 1894 he
+resigned the directorship, but retained an active interest in the
+institution to the end of his life. He died at Sydenham on the 28th of
+May 1900.
+
+  His life, a most interesting one, was written by Mr Charles Graves.
+      (J. A. F. M.)
+
+
+
+
+
+GROVE, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT (1811-1896), English judge and man of science,
+was born on the 11th of July 1811 at Swansea, South Wales. After being
+educated by private tutors, he went to Brasenose College, Oxford, where
+he took an ordinary degree in 1832. Three years later he was called to
+the bar at Lincoln's Inn. His health, however, did not allow him to
+devote himself strenuously to practice, and he occupied his leisure with
+scientific studies. About 1839 he constructed the platinum-zinc voltaic
+cell that bears his name, and with the aid of a number of these
+exhibited the electric arc light in the London Institution, Finsbury
+Circus. The result was that in 1840 the managers appointed him to the
+professorship of experimental philosophy, an office which he held for
+seven years. His researches dealt very largely with electro-chemistry
+and with the voltaic cell, of which he invented several varieties. One
+of these, the Grove gas-battery, which is of special interest both
+intrinsically and as the forerunner of the secondary batteries now in
+use for the "storage" of electricity, was based on his observation that
+a current is produced by a couple of platinum plates standing in
+acidulated water and immersed, the one in hydrogen, the other in oxygen.
+At one of his lectures at the Institution he anticipated the electric
+lighting of to-day by illuminating the theatre with incandescent
+electric lamps, the filaments being of platinum and the current supplied
+by a battery of his nitric acid cells. In 1846 he published his famous
+book on _The Correlation of Physical Forces_, the leading ideas of which
+he had already put forward in his lectures: its fundamental conception
+was that each of the forces of nature--light, heat, electricity, &c.--is
+definitely and equivalently convertible into any other, and that where
+experiment does not give the full equivalent, it is because the initial
+force has been dissipated, not lost, by conversion into other
+unrecognized forces. In the same year he received a Royal medal from the
+Royal Society for his Bakerian lecture on "Certain phenomena of voltaic
+ignition and the decomposition of water into its constituent gases." In
+1866 he presided over the British Association at its Nottingham meeting
+and delivered an address on the continuity of natural phenomena. But
+while he was thus engaged in scientific research, his legal work was not
+neglected, and his practice increased so greatly that in 1853 he became
+a Q.C. One of the best-known cases in which he appeared as an advocate
+was that of William Palmer, the Rugeley poisoner, whom he defended. In
+1871 he was made a judge of the Common Pleas in succession to Sir Robert
+Collier, and remained on the bench till 1887. He died in London on the
+1st of August 1896.
+
+  A selection of his scientific papers is given in the sixth edition of
+  _The Correlation of Physical Forces_, published in 1874.
+
+
+
+
+GROVE (O.E. _graf_, cf. O.E. _groefa_, brushwood, later "greave"; the
+word does not appear in any other Teutonic language, and the _New
+English Dictionary_ finds no Indo-European root to which it can be
+referred; Skeat considers it connected with "grave," to cut, and finds
+the original meaning to be a glade cut through a wood), a small group or
+cluster of trees, growing naturally and forming something smaller than a
+wood, or planted in particular shapes or for particular purposes, in a
+park, &c. Groves have been connected with religious worship from the
+earliest times, and in many parts of India every village has its sacred
+group of trees. For the connexion of religion with sacred groves see
+TREE-WORSHIP.
+
+  The word "grove" was used by the authors of the Authorized Version of
+  the Bible to translate two Hebrew words: (1) _'eshel_, as in Gen. xxi.
+  33, and 1 Sam. xxii. 6; this is rightly given in the Revised Version
+  as "tamarisk"; (2) _asherah_ in many places throughout the Old
+  Testament. Here the translators followed the Septuagint [Greek: alsos]
+  and the Vulgate _lucus_. The _'[)a]shéráh_ was a wooden post erected
+  at the Canaanitish places of worship, and also by the altars of
+  Yahweh. It may have represented a tree.
+
+
+
+
+GROZNYI, a fortress and town of Russia, North Caucasia, in the province
+of Terek, on the Zunzha river, 82 m. by rail N.E. of Vladikavkaz, on the
+railway to Petrovsk. There are naphtha wells close by. The
+fortifications were constructed in 1819. Pop. (1897) 15,599.
+
+
+
+
+GRUB, the larva of an insect, a caterpillar, maggot. The word is formed
+from the verb "to grub," to dig, break up the surface of the ground,
+and clear of stumps, roots, weeds, &c. According to the _New English
+Dictionary_, "grub" may be referred to an ablaut variant of the Old
+Teutonic _grab_-, to dig, cf. "grave." Skeat (_Etym. Dict._ 1898) refers
+it rather to the root seen in "grope," "grab," &c., the original meaning
+"to search for." The earliest quotation of the slang use of the word in
+the sense of food in the _New English Dictionary_ is dated 1659 from
+_Ancient Poems, Ballads_, &c., Percy Society Publications.
+"Grub-street," as a collective term for needy hack-writers, dates from
+the 17th century and is due to the name of a street near Moorfields,
+London, now Milton Street, which was as Johnson says "much inhabited by
+writers of small histories, dictionaries and temporary poems."
+
+
+
+
+GRUBER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1774-1851), German critic and literary
+historian, was born at Naumburg on the Saale, on the 29th of November
+1774. He received his education at the town school of Naumburg and the
+university of Leipzig, after which he resided successively at Göttingen,
+Leipzig, Jena and Weimar, occupying himself partly in teaching and
+partly in various literary enterprises, and enjoying in Weimar the
+friendship of Herder, Wieland and Goethe. In 1811 he was appointed
+professor at the university of Wittenberg, and after the division of
+Saxony he was sent by the senate to Berlin to negotiate the union of the
+university of Wittenberg with that of Halle. After the union was
+effected he became in 1815 professor of philosophy at Halle. He was
+associated with Johann Samuel Ersch in the editorship of the great work
+_Allgemeine Encyklopädie der Wissenschaften und Künste_; and after the
+death of Ersch he continued the first section from vol. xviii. to vol.
+liv. He also succeeded Ersch in the editorship of the _Allgemeine
+Literaturzeitung_. He died on the 7th of August 1851.
+
+  Gruber was the author of a large number of works, the principal of
+  which are _Charakteristik Herders_ (Leipzig, 1805), in conjunction
+  with Johann T. L. Danz (1769-1851), afterwards professor of theology
+  at Jena; _Geschichte des menschlichen Geschlechts_ (2 vols., Leipzig,
+  1806); _Wörterbuch der altklassischen Mythologie_ (3 vols., Weimar,
+  1810-1815); _Wielands Leben_ (2 parts, Weimar, 1815-1816), and
+  _Klopstocks Leben_ (Weimar, 1832). He also edited Wieland's _Sämtliche
+  Werke_ (Leipzig, 1818-1828).
+
+
+
+
+GRUMBACH, WILHELM VON (1503-1567), German adventurer, chiefly known
+through his connexion with the so-called "Grumbach feuds" (_Grumbachsche
+Händel_), the last attempt of the German knights to destroy the power of
+the territorial princes. A member of an old Franconian family, he was
+born on the 1st of June 1503, and having passed some time at the court
+of Casimir, prince of Bayreuth (d. 1527), fought against the peasants
+during the rising in 1524 and 1525. About 1540 Grumbach became
+associated with Albert Alcibiades, the turbulent prince of Bayreuth,
+whom he served both in peace and war. After the conclusion of the peace
+of Passau in 1552, Grumbach assisted Albert in his career of plunder in
+Franconia and was thus able to take some revenge upon his enemy,
+Melchior von Zobel, bishop of Würzburg. As a landholder Grumbach was a
+vassal of the bishops of Würzburg, and had held office at the court of
+Conrad of Bibra, who was bishop from 1540 to 1544. When, however, Zobel
+was chosen to succeed Conrad the harmonious relations between lord and
+vassal were quickly disturbed. Unable to free himself and his associates
+from the suzerainty of the bishop by appealing to the imperial courts he
+decided to adopt more violent measures, and his friendship with Albert
+was very serviceable in this connexion. Albert's career, however, was
+checked by his defeat at Sievershausen in July 1553 and his subsequent
+flight into France, and the bishop took advantage of this state of
+affairs to seize Grumbach's lands. The knight obtained an order of
+restitution from the imperial court of justice (_Reichskammergericht_),
+but he was unable to carry this into effect; and in April 1558 some of
+his partisans seized and killed the bishop. Grumbach declared he was
+innocent of this crime, but his story was not believed, and he fled to
+France. Returning to Germany he pleaded his cause in person before the
+diet at Augsburg in 1559, but without success. Meanwhile he had found a
+new patron in John Frederick, duke of Saxony, whose father, John
+Frederick, had been obliged to surrender the electoral dignity to the
+Albertine branch of his family. Chafing under this deprivation the duke
+listened readily to Grumbach's plans for recovering the lost dignity,
+including a general rising of the German knights and the deposition of
+Frederick II., king of Denmark. Magical charms were employed against the
+duke's enemies, and communications from angels were invented which
+helped to stir up the zeal of the people. In 1563 Grumbach attacked
+Würzburg, seized and plundered the city and compelled the chapter and
+the bishop to restore his lands. He was consequently placed under the
+imperial ban, but John Frederick refused to obey the order of the
+emperor Maximilian II. to withdraw his protection from him. Meanwhile
+Grumbach sought to compass the assassination of the Saxon elector,
+Augustus; proclamations were issued calling for assistance; and
+alliances both without and within Germany were concluded. In November
+1566 John Frederick was placed under the ban, which had been renewed
+against Grumbach earlier in the year, and Augustus marched against
+Gotha. Assistance was not forthcoming, and a mutiny led to the
+capitulation of the town. Grumbach was delivered to his foes, and, after
+being tortured, was executed at Gotha on the 18th of April 1567.
+
+  See F. Ortloff, _Geschichte der Grumbachschen Händel_ (Jena,
+  1868-1870), and J. Voigt, _Wilhelm von Grumbach und seine Händel_
+  (Leipzig, 1846-1847).
+
+
+
+
+GRUMENTUM, an ancient town in the centre of Lucania, 33 m. S. of
+Potentia by the direct road through Anxia, and 52 m. by the Via
+Herculia, at the point of divergence of a road eastward to Heraclea. It
+seems to have been a native Lucanian town, not a Greek settlement. In
+215 B.C. the Carthaginian general Hanno was defeated under its walls,
+and in 207 B.C. Hannibal made it his headquarters. In the Social War it
+appears as a strong fortress, and seems to have been held by both sides
+at different times. It became a colony, perhaps in the time of Sulla, at
+latest under Augustus, and seems to have been of some importance. Its
+site, identified by Holste from the description of the martyrdom of St
+Laverius, is a ridge on the right bank of the Aciris (Agri) about 1960
+ft. above sea-level, ½ m. below the modern Saponara, which lies much
+higher (2533 ft.). Its ruins (all of the Roman period) include those of
+a large amphitheatre (arena 205 by 197 ft.), the only one in Lucania,
+except that at Paestum. There are also remains of a theatre.
+Inscriptions record the repair of its town walls and the construction of
+_thermae_ (of which remains were found) in 57-51 B.C., the construction
+in 43 B.C., of a portico, remains of which may be seen along an ancient
+road, at right angles to the main road, which traversed Grumentum from
+S. to N.
+
+  See F. P. Caputi in _Notizie degli scavi_ (1877), 129, and G. Patroni,
+  ibid. (1897) 180.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+GRÜN. HANS BALDUNG (c. 1470-1545), commonly called Grün, a German
+painter of the age of Dürer, was born at Gmünd in Swabia, and spent the
+greater part of his life at Strassburg and Freiburg in Breisgau. The
+earliest pictures assigned to him are altarpieces with the monogram H.
+B. interlaced, and the date of 1496, in the monastery chapel of
+Lichtenthal near Baden. Another early work is a portrait of the emperor
+Maximilian, drawn in 1501 on a leaf of a sketch-book now in the
+print-room at Carlsruhe. The "Martyrdom of St Sebastian" and the
+"Epiphany" (Berlin Museum), fruits of his labour in 1507, were painted
+for the market-church of Halle in Saxony. In 1509 Grün purchased the
+freedom of the city of Strassburg, and resided there till 1513, when he
+moved to Freiburg in Breisgau. There he began a series of large
+compositions, which he finished in 1516, and placed on the high altar of
+the Freiburg cathedral. He purchased anew the freedom of Strassburg in
+1517, resided in that city as his domicile, and died a member of its
+great town council 1545.
+
+Though nothing is known of Grün's youth and education, it may be
+inferred from his style that he was no stranger to the school of which
+Dürer was the chief. Gmünd is but 50 m. distant on either side from
+Augsburg and Nuremberg. Grün prints were often mistaken for those of
+Dürer; and Dürer himself was well acquainted with Grün's woodcuts and
+copper-plates in which he traded during his trip to the Netherlands
+(1520). But Grün's prints, though Düreresque, are far below Dürer, and
+his paintings are below his prints. Without absolute correctness as a
+draughtsman, his conception of human form is often very unpleasant,
+whilst a questionable taste is shown in ornament equally profuse and
+"baroque." Nothing is more remarkable in his pictures than the pug-like
+shape of the faces, unless we except the coarseness of the extremities.
+No trace is apparent of any feeling for atmosphere or light and shade.
+Though Grün has been commonly called the Correggio of the north, his
+compositions are a curious medley of glaring and heterogeneous colours,
+in which pure black is contrasted with pale yellow, dirty grey, impure
+red and glowing green. Flesh is a mere glaze under which the features
+are indicated by lines. His works are mainly interesting because of the
+wild and fantastic strength which some of them display. We may pass
+lightly over the "Epiphany" of 1507, the "Crucifixion" of 1512, or the
+"Stoning of Stephen" of 1522, in the Berlin Museum. There is some force
+in the "Dance of Death" of 1517, in the museum of Basel, or the
+"Madonna" of 1530, in the Liechtenstein Gallery at Vienna. Grün's best
+effort is the altarpiece of Freiburg, where the "Coronation of the
+Virgin," and the "Twelve Apostles," the "Annunciation, Visitation,
+Nativity and Flight into Egypt," and the "Crucifixion," with portraits
+of donors, are executed with some of that fanciful power which Martin
+Schön bequeathed to the Swabian school. As a portrait painter he is well
+known. He drew the likeness of Charles V., as well as that of
+Maximilian; and his bust of Margrave Philip in the Munich Gallery tells
+us that he was connected with the reigning family of Baden as early as
+1514. At a later period he had sittings from Margrave Christopher of
+Baden, Ottilia his wife, and all their children, and the picture
+containing these portraits is still in the grand-ducal gallery at
+Carlsruhe. Like Dürer and Cranach, Grün became a hearty supporter of the
+Reformation. He was present at the diet of Augsburg in 1518, and one of
+his woodcuts represents Luther under the protection of the Holy Ghost,
+which hovers over him in the shape of a dove.
+
+
+
+
+GRÜNBERG, a town of Germany, in Prussian Silesia, beautifully situated
+between two hills on an affluent of the Oder, and on the railway from
+Breslau to Stettin via Küstrin, 36 m. N.N.W. of Glogau. Pop. (1905)
+20,987. It has a Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches, a modern
+school and a technical (textiles) school. There are manufactures of
+cloth, paper, machinery, straw hats, leather and tobacco. The prosperity
+of the town depends chiefly on the vine culture in the neighbourhood,
+from which, besides the exportation of a large quantity of grapes, about
+700,000 gallons of wine are manufactured annually.
+
+
+
+
+GRUNDTVIG, NIKOLAI FREDERIK SEVERIN (1783-1872), Danish poet, statesman
+and divine, was born at the parsonage of Udby in Zealand on the 8th of
+September 1783. In 1791 he was sent to live at the house of a priest in
+Jutland, and studied at the free school of Aarhuus until he went up to
+the university of Copenhagen in 1800. At the close of his university
+life he made Icelandic his special study, until in 1805 he took the
+position of tutor in a house on the island of Langeland. The next three
+years were spent in the study of Shakespeare, Schiller and Fichte. His
+cousin, the philosopher Henrik Steffens, had returned to Copenhagen in
+1802 full of the teaching of Schelling and his lectures and the early
+poetry of Öhlenschläger opened the eyes of Grundtvig to the new era in
+literature. His first work, _On the Songs in the Edda_, attracted no
+attention. Returning to Copenhagen in 1808 he achieved greater success
+with his _Northern Mythology_, and again in 1809-1811 with a long epic
+poem, the _Decline of the Heroic Life in the North_. The boldness of the
+theological views expressed in his first sermon in 1810 offended the
+ecclesiastical authorities, and he retired to a country parish as his
+father's assistant for a while. From 1812 to 1817 he published five or
+six works, of which the _Rhyme of Roskilde_ is the most remarkable. From
+1816 to 1819 he was editor of a polemical journal entitled _Dannevirke_,
+and in 1818 to 1822 appeared his Danish paraphrases (6 vols.) of Saxo
+Grammaticus and Snorri. During these years he was preaching against
+rationalism to an enthusiastic congregation in Copenhagen, but he
+accepted in 1821 the country living of Praestö, only to return to the
+metropolis the year after. In 1825 he published a pamphlet, _The
+Church's Reply_, against H. N. Clausen, who was professor of theology in
+the university of Copenhagen. Grundtvig was publicly prosecuted and
+fined, and for seven years he was forbidden to preach, years which he
+spent in publishing a collection of his theological works, in paying two
+visits to England, and in studying Anglo-Saxon. In 1832 he obtained
+permission to preach again, and in 1839 he became priest of the
+workhouse church of Vartov hospital, Copenhagen, a post he continued to
+hold until his death. In 1837-1841 he published _Songs for the Danish
+Church_, a rich collection of sacred poetry; in 1838 he brought out a
+selection of early Scandinavian verse; in 1840 he edited the Anglo-Saxon
+poem of the _Phoenix_, with a Danish translation. He visited England a
+third time in 1843. From 1844 until after the first German war Grundtvig
+took a very prominent part in politics. In 1861 he received the titular
+rank of bishop, but without a see. He went on writing occasional poems
+till 1866, and preached in the Vartov every Sunday until a month before
+his death. His preaching attracted large congregations, and he soon had
+a following. His hymn-book effected a great change in Danish church
+services, substituting the hymns of the national poets for the slow
+measures of the orthodox Lutherans. The chief characteristic of his
+theology was the substitution of the authority of the "living word" for
+the apostolic commentaries, and he desired to see each congregation a
+practically independent community. His patriotism was almost a part of
+his religion, and he established popular schools where the national
+poetry and history should form an essential part of the instruction. His
+followers are known as Grundtvigians. He was married three times, the
+last time in his seventy-sixth year. He died on the 2nd of September
+1872. Grundtvig holds a unique position in the literature of his
+country; he has been styled the Danish Carlyle. He was above all things
+a man of action, not an artist; and the formless vehemence of his
+writings, which have had a great influence over his own countrymen, is
+hardly agreeable or intelligible to a foreigner. The best of his
+poetical works were published in a selection (7 vols., 1880-1889) by his
+eldest son, Svend Hersleb Grundtvig (1824-1883), who was an authority on
+Scandinavian antiquities, and made an admirable collection of old Danish
+poetry (_Danmarks gamle Folkeviser_, 1853-1883, 5 vols.; completed in
+1891 by A. Olrik).
+
+  His correspondence with Ingemann was edited by S. Grundtvig (1882);
+  his correspondence with Christian Molbech by L. Schröder (1888); see
+  also F. Winkel Horn, _Grundtvigs Liv og Gjerning_ (1883); and an
+  article by F. Nielsen in Bricka's _Dansk Biografisk Lexikon_.
+
+
+
+
+GRUNDY, SYDNEY (1848-   ), English dramatist, was born at Manchester on
+the 23rd of March 1848, son of Alderman Charles Sydney Grundy. He was
+educated at Owens College, Manchester, and was called to the bar in
+1869, practising in Manchester until 1876. His farce, _A Little Change_,
+was produced at the Haymarket Theatre in 1872. He became well known as
+an adapter of plays, among his early successes in this direction being
+_The Snowball_ (Strand Theatre, 1879) from _Oscar, ou le mari qui trompe
+sa femme_ by MM. Scribe and Duvergne, and _In Honour Bound_ (1880) from
+Scribe's _Une Chaîne_. In 1887 he made a popular success with _The Bells
+of Haslemere_, written with Mr H. Pettitt and produced at the Adelphi.
+In 1889-1890 he produced two ingenious original comedies, _A White Lie_
+(Court Theatre) and _A Fool's Paradise_ (Gaiety Theatre), which had been
+played two years earlier at Greenwich as _The Mouse-Trap_. These were
+followed by _Sowing the Wind_ (Comedy, 1893), _An Old Jew_ (Garrick,
+1894), and by an adaptation of Octave Feuillet's _Montjoye as A Bunch of
+Violets_ (Haymarket, 1894). In 1894 he produced _The New Woman_ and _The
+Slaves of the Ring_; in 1895, _The Greatest of These_, played by Mr and
+Mrs Kendal at the Garrick Theatre; _The Degenerates_ (Haymarket, 1899),
+and _A Debt of Honour_ (St James's 1900). Among Mr Grundy's most
+successful adaptations were the charming _Pair of Spectacles_ (Garrick,
+1890) from _Les Petits Oiseaux_ of MM. Labiche and Delacour. Others
+were _A Village Priest_ (Haymarket, 1890) from _Le Secret de la
+terreuse_, a melodrama by MM. Busnach and Cauvin; _A Marriage of
+Convenience_ (Haymarket, 1897) from _Un Mariage de Louis XV_, by Alex.
+Dumas, père, _The Silver Key_ (Her Majesty's, 1897) from his _Mlle de
+Belle-isle_, and _The Musqueteers_ (1899) from the same author's novel;
+_Frocks and Frills_ (Haymarket, 1902) from the _Doigts de fées_ of MM.
+Scribe and Legouvé; _The Garden of Lies_ (St James's Theatre, 1904) from
+Mr Justus Miles Forman's novel; _Business is Business_ (His Majesty's
+Theatre, 1905), a rather free adaptation from Octave Mirbeau's _Les
+Affaires sont les affaires_; and _The Diplomatists_ (Royalty Theatre,
+1905) from _La Poudre aux yeux_, by Labiche.
+
+
+
+
+GRUNDY, MRS, the name of an imaginary English character, who typifies
+the disciplinary control of the conventional "proprieties" of society
+over conduct, the tyrannical pressure of the opinion of neighbours on
+the acts of others. The name appears in a play of Thomas Morton, _Speed
+the Plough_ (1798), in which one of the characters, Dame Ashfield,
+continually refers to what her neighbour Mrs Grundy will say as the
+criterion of respectability. Mrs Grundy is not a character in the play,
+but is a kind of "Mrs Harris" to Dame Ashfield.
+
+
+
+
+GRUNER, GOTTLIEB SIGMUND (1717-1778), the author of the first connected
+attempt to describe in detail the snowy mountains of Switzerland. His
+father, Johann Rudolf Gruner (1680-1761), was pastor of Trachselwald, in
+the Bernese Emmenthal (1705), and later (1725) of Burgdorf, and a great
+collector of information relating to historical and scientific matters;
+his great _Thesaurus topographico-historicus totius ditionis Bernensis_
+(4 vols. folio, 1729-1730) still remains in MS., but in 1732 he
+published a small work entitled _Deliciae urbis Bernae_, while he
+possessed an extensive cabinet of natural history objects. Naturally
+such tastes had a great influence on the mind of his son, who was born
+at Trachselwald, and educated by his father and at the Latin school at
+Burgdorf, not going to Berne much before 1736, when he published a
+dissertation on the use of fire by the heathen. In 1739 he qualified as
+a notary, in 1741 became the archivist of Hesse-Homburg, and in 1743
+accompanied Prince Christian of Anhalt-Schaumburg to Silesia and the
+university of Halle. He returned to his native land before 1749, when he
+obtained a post at Thorberg, being transferred in 1764 to Landshut and
+Fraubrunnen. It was in 1760 that he published in 3 vols. at Berne his
+chief work, _Die Eisgebirge des Schweizerlandes_ (bad French translation
+by M. de Kéralio, Paris, 1770). The first two volumes are filled by a
+detailed description of the snowy Swiss mountains, based not so much on
+personal experience as on older works, and a very large number of
+communications received by Gruner from numerous friends; the third
+volume deals with glaciers in general, and their various properties.
+Though in many respects imperfect, Gruner's book sums up all that was
+known on the subject in his day, and forms the starting-point for later
+writers. The illustrations are very curious and interesting. In 1778 he
+republished (nominally in London, really at Berne) much of the
+information contained in his larger work, but thrown into the form of
+letters, supposed to be written in 1776 from various spots, under the
+title of _Reisen durch die merkwürdigsten Gegenden Helvetiens_ (2
+vols.).     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GRÜNEWALD, MATHIAS. The accounts which are given of this German painter,
+a native of Aschaffenburg, are curiously contradictory. Between 1518 and
+1530, according to statements adopted by Waagen and Passavant, he was
+commissioned by Albert of Brandenburg, elector and archbishop of Mainz,
+to produce an altarpiece for the collegiate church of St Maurice and
+Mary Magdalen at Halle on the Saale; and he acquitted himself of this
+duty with such cleverness that the prelate in after years caused the
+picture to be rescued from the Reformers and brought back to
+Aschaffenburg. From one of the churches of that city it was taken to the
+Pinakothek of Munich in 1836. It represents St Maurice and Mary Magdalen
+between four saints, and displays a style so markedly characteristic,
+and so like that of Lucas Cranach, that Waagen was induced to call
+Grünewald Cranach's master. He also traced the same hand and technical
+execution in the great altarpieces of Annaberg and Heilbronn, and in
+various panels exhibited in the museums of Mainz, Darmstadt,
+Aschaffenburg, Vienna and Berlin. A later race of critics, declining to
+accept the statements of Waagen and Passavant, affirm that there is no
+documentary evidence to connect Grünewald with the pictures of Halle and
+Annaberg, and they quote Sandrart and Bernhard Jobin of Strassburg to
+show that Grünewald is the painter of pictures of a different class.
+They prove that he finished before 1516 the large altarpiece of
+Issenheim, at present in the museum of Colmar, and starting from these
+premises they connect the artist with Altdorfer and Dürer to the
+exclusion of Cranach. That a native of the Palatinate should have been
+asked to execute pictures for a church in Saxony can scarcely be
+accounted strange, since we observe that Hans Baldung (Grün) was
+entrusted with a commission of this kind. But that a painter of
+Aschaffenburg should display the style of Cranach is strange and indeed
+incredible, unless vouched for by first-class evidence. In this case
+documents are altogether wanting, whilst on the other hand it is beyond
+the possibility of doubt, even according to Waagen, that the altarpiece
+of Issenheim is the creation of a man whose teaching was altogether
+different from that of the painter of the pictures of Halle and
+Annaberg. The altarpiece of Issenheim is a fine and powerful work,
+completed as local records show before 1516 by a Swabian, whose
+distinguishing mark is that he followed the traditions of Martin
+Schongauer, and came under the influence of Altdorfer and Dürer. As a
+work of art the altarpiece is important, being a poliptych of eleven
+panels, a carved central shrine covered with a double set of wings, and
+two side pieces containing the Temptation of St Anthony, the hermits
+Anthony and Paul in converse, the Virgin adored by Angels, the
+Resurrection, the Annunciation, the Crucifixion, St Sebastian, St
+Anthony, and the Marys wailing over the dead body of Christ. The author
+of these compositions is also the painter of a series of monochromes
+described by Sandrart in the Dominican convent, and now in part in the
+Saalhof at Frankfort, and a Resurrection in the museum of Basel,
+registered in Amerbach's inventory as the work of Grünewald.
+
+
+
+
+GRUTER (or GRUYTÈRE), JAN (1560-1627), a critic and scholar of Dutch
+parentage by his father's side and English by his mother's, was born at
+Antwerp on the 3rd of December 1560. To avoid religious persecution his
+parents while he was still young came to England; and for some years he
+prosecuted his studies at Cambridge, after which he went to Leiden,
+where he graduated M. A. In 1586 he was appointed professor of history
+at Wittenberg, but as he refused to subscribe the _formula concordiae_
+he was unable to retain his office. From 1589 to 1592 he taught at
+Rostock, after which he went to Heidelberg, where in 1602 he was
+appointed librarian to the university. He died at Heidelberg on the 20th
+of September 1627.
+
+  Gruter's chief works were his _Inscriptiones antiquae totius orbis
+  Romani_ (2 vols., Heidelberg, 1603), and _Lampas, sive fax artium
+  liberalium_ (7 vols., Frankfort, 1602-1634).
+
+
+
+
+GRUYÈRE (Ger. _Greyerz_), a district in the south-eastern portion of the
+Swiss canton of Fribourg, famed for its cattle and its cheese, and the
+original home of the "Ranz des Vaches," the melody by which the herdsmen
+call their cows home at milking time. It is composed of the middle reach
+(from Montbovon to beyond Bulle) of the Sarine or Saane valley, with its
+tributary glens of the Hongrin (left), the Jogne (right) and the Trême
+(left), and is a delightful pastoral region (in 1901 it contained 17,364
+cattle). It forms an administrative district of the canton of Fribourg,
+its population in 1900 being 23,111, mainly French-speaking and
+Romanists. From Montbovon (11 m. by rail from Bulle) there are mountain
+railways leading S.W. past Les Avants to Montreux (14 m.), and E. up the
+Sarine valley past Château d'Oex to Saanen or Gessenay (14 m.), and by a
+tunnel below a low pass to the Simme valley and Spiez on the Lake of
+Thun. The modern capital of the district is the small town of Bulle
+[Ger. _Boll_], with a 13th-century castle and in 1900 3330 inhabitants,
+French-speaking and Romanists. But the historical capital is the very
+picturesque little town of _Gruyères_ (which keeps its final "s" in
+order to distinguish it from the district), perched on a steep hill
+(S.E. of Bulle) above the left bank of the Sarine, and at a height of
+2713 ft. above the sea-level. It is only accessible by a rough carriage
+road, and boasts of a very fine old castle, at the foot of which is the
+solitary street of the town, which in 1900 had 1389 inhabitants.
+
+The castle was the seat of the counts of the Gruyère, who are first
+mentioned in 1073. The name is said to come from the word _gruyer_,
+meaning the officer of woods and forests, but the counts bore the
+canting arms of a crane (_grue_), which are seen all over the castle and
+the town. That valiant family ended (in the legitimate line) with Count
+Michel (d. 1575) whose extravagance and consequent indebtedness
+compelled him in 1555 to sell his domains to Bern and Fribourg. Bern
+took the upper Sarine valley (it still keeps Saanen at its head, but in
+1798 lost the Pays d'En-Haut to the canton du Léman, which in 1803
+became the canton of Vaud). Fribourg took the rest of the county, which
+it added to Bulle and Albeuve (taken in 1537 from the bishop of
+Lausanne), and to the lordship of Jaun in the Jaun or Jogne valley
+(bought in 1502-1504 from its lords), in order to form the present
+administrative district of Gruyère, which is not co-extensive with the
+historical county of that name.
+
+  See the materials collected by J. J. Hisely and published in
+  successive vols. of the _Mémoires et documents de la suisse romande
+  ... introa. à l'hist._ (1851); Histoire (2 vols., 1855-1857); and
+  Monuments de l'histoire (2 vols., 1867-1869); K. V. von Bonstetten,
+  _Briefe über ein schweiz. Hirtenland_ (1781) (Eng. trans., 1784); J.
+  Reichlen, _La Gruyère illustrée_ (1890), seq.; H. Raemy, _La Gruyère_
+  (1867); and _Les Alpes fribourgeoises_, by many authors (Lausanne,
+  1908).     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GRYNAEUS (or GRYNER), JOHANN JAKOB (1540-1617), Swiss Protestant divine,
+was born on the 1st of October 1540 at Bern. His father, Thomas
+(1512-1564), was for a time professor of ancient languages at Basel and
+Bern, but afterwards became pastor of Röteln in Baden. He was nephew of
+the more eminent Simon Grynaeus (q.v.). Johann was educated at Basel,
+and in 1559 received an appointment as curate to his father. In 1563 he
+proceeded to Tübingen for the purpose of completing his theological
+studies, and in 1565 he returned to Röteln as successor to his father.
+Here he felt compelled to abjure the Lutheran doctrine of the Lord's
+Supper, and to renounce the _formula concordiae_. Called in 1575 to the
+chair of Old Testament exegesis at Basel, he became involved in
+unpleasant controversy with Simon Sulzer and other champions of Lutheran
+orthodoxy; and in 1584 he was glad to accept an invitation to assist in
+the restoration of the university of Heidelberg. Returning to Basel in
+1586, after Simon Sulzer's death, as _antistes_ or superintendent of the
+church there and as professor of the New Testament, he exerted for
+upwards of twenty-five years a considerable influence upon both the
+church and the state affairs of that community, and acquired a wide
+reputation as a skilful theologian of the school of Ulrich Zwingli.
+Amongst other labours he helped to reorganize the gymnasium in 1588.
+Five years before his death he became totally blind, but continued to
+preach and lecture till his death on the 13th of August 1617.
+
+  His many works include commentaries on various books of the Old and
+  New Testament, _Theologica theoremata el problemata_ (1588), and a
+  collection of patristic literature entitled _Monumenta S. patrum
+  orthodoxographa_ (2 vols., fol., 1569).
+
+
+
+
+GRYNAEUS, SIMON (1493-1541), German scholar and theologian of the
+Reformation, son of Jacob Gryner, a Swabian peasant, was born in 1493 at
+Vehringen, in Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. He adopted the name Grynaeus
+from the epithet of Apollo in Virgil. He was a schoolfellow with
+Melanchthon at Pforzheim, whence he went to the university of Vienna,
+distinguishing himself there as a Latinist and Grecian. His appointment
+as rector of a school at Buda was of no long continuance; his views
+excited the zeal of the Dominicans and he was thrown into prison.
+Gaining his freedom at the instance of Hungarian magnates, he visited
+Melanchthon at Wittenberg, and in 1524 became professor of Greek at the
+university of Heidelberg, being in addition professor of Latin from
+1526. His Zwinglian view of the Eucharist disturbed his relations with
+his Catholic colleagues. From 1526 he had corresponded with
+Oecolampadius, who in 1529 invited him to Basel, which Erasmus had just
+left. The university being disorganized, Grynaeus pursued his studies,
+and in 1531 visited England for research in libraries. A commendatory
+letter from Erasmus gained him the good offices of Sir Thomas More. He
+returned to Basel charged with the task of collecting the opinions of
+continental reformers on the subject of Henry VIII.'s divorce, and was
+present at the death of Oecolampadius (Nov. 24, 1531). He now, while
+holding the chair of Greek, was appointed extraordinary professor of
+theology, and gave exegetical lectures on the New Testament. In 1534
+Duke Ulrich called him to Württemberg in aid of the reformation there,
+as well as for the reconstitution of the university of Tübingen, which
+he carried out in concert with Ambrosius Blarer of Constanz. Two years
+later he had an active hand in the so-called First Helvetic Confession
+(the work of Swiss divines at Basel in January 1536); also in the
+conferences which urged the Swiss acceptance of the Wittenberg Concord
+(1536). At the Worms conference (1540) between Catholics and Protestants
+he was the sole representative of the Swiss churches, being deputed by
+the authorities of Basel. He was carried off suddenly in his prime by
+the plague at Basel on the 1st of August 1541. A brilliant scholar, a
+mediating theologian, and personally of lovable temperament, his
+influence was great and wisely exercised. Erasmus and Calvin were among
+his correspondents. His chief works were Latin versions of Plutarch,
+Aristotle and Chrysostom.
+
+His son SAMUEL (1539-1599) was professor of jurisprudence at Basel. His
+nephew THOMAS (1512?-1564) was professor at Basel and minister in Baden,
+and left four distinguished sons of whom JOHANN JAKOB (1540-1617) was a
+leader in the religious affairs of Basel. The last of the direct
+descendants of Simon Grynaeus was his namesake SIMON (1725-1799),
+translator into German of French and English anti-deistical works, and
+author of a version of the Bible in modern German (1776).
+
+  See Bayle's _Dictionnaire_; W. T. Streuber in Hauck's
+  _Realencyklopädie_ (1899); and for bibliography, Streuber's _S.
+  Grynaei epistolae_ (1847).     (A. Go.*)
+
+
+
+
+GRYPHIUS, ANDREAS (1616-1664), German lyric poet and dramatist, was born
+on the 11th of October 1616, at Grossglogau in Silesia, where his father
+was a clergyman. The family name was Greif, latinized, according to the
+prevailing fashion, as Gryphius. Left early an orphan and driven from
+his native town by the troubles of the Thirty Years' War, he received
+his schooling in various places, but notably at Fraustadt, where he
+enjoyed an excellent classical education. In 1634 he became tutor to the
+sons of the eminent jurist Georg von Schönborn (1579-1637), a man of
+wide culture and considerable wealth, who, after filling various
+administrative posts and writing many erudite volumes on law, had been
+rewarded by the emperor Ferdinand II. with the title and office of
+imperial count-palatine (_Pfalzgraf_). Schönborn, who recognized
+Gryphius's genius, crowned him _poëta laureatus_, gave him the diploma
+of master of philosophy, and bestowed on him a patent of nobility,
+though Gryphius never used the title. A month later, on the 23rd of
+December 1637, Schönborn died; and next year Gryphius went to continue
+his studies at Leiden, where he remained six years, both hearing and
+delivering lectures. Here he fell under the influence of the great Dutch
+dramatists, Pieter Cornelissen Hooft (1581-1647) and Joost van den
+Vondel (1587-1679), who largely determined the character of his later
+dramatic works. After travelling in France, Italy and South Germany,
+Gryphius settled in 1647 at Fraustadt, where he began his dramatic work,
+and in 1650 was appointed syndic of Glogau, a post he held until his
+death on the 16th of July 1664. A short time previously he had been
+admitted under the title of "The Immortal" into the _Fruchtbringende
+Gesellschaft_, a literary society, founded in 1617 by Ludwig, prince of
+Anhalt-Köthen on the model of the Italian academies.
+
+Gryphius was a man of morbid disposition, and his melancholy
+temperament, fostered by the misfortunes of his childhood, is largely
+reflected in his lyrics, of which the most famous are the
+_Kirchhofsgedanken_ (1656). His best works are his comedies, one of
+which, _Absurda Comica, oder Herr Peter Squentz_ (1663), is evidently
+based on the comic episode of Pyramus and Thisbe in _The Midsummer
+Night's Dream_. _Die geliebte Dornrose_ (1660), which is written in a
+Silesian dialect, contains many touches of natural simplicity and grace,
+and ranks high among the comparatively small number of German dramas of
+the 17th century. _Horribilicribrifax_ (1663), founded on the _Miles
+gloriosus_ of Plautus, is a rather laboured attack on pedantry. Besides
+these three comedies, Gryphius wrote five tragedies. In all of them his
+tendency is to become wild and bombastic, but he had the merit of at
+least attempting to work out artistically conceived plans, and there are
+occasional flashes both of passion and of imagination. His models seem
+to have been Seneca and Vondel. He had the courage, in _Carolus
+Stuardus_ (1649) to deal with events of his own day; his other tragedies
+are _Leo Armenius_ (1646); _Katharina von Georgien_ (1657), _Cardenio
+und Celinde_ (1657) and _Papinianus_ (1663). No German dramatic writer
+before him had risen to so high a level, nor had he worthy successors
+until about the middle of the 18th century.
+
+  A complete edition of Gryphius's dramas and lyric poetry has been
+  published by H. Palm in the series of the Stuttgart Literarische
+  Verein (3 vols., 1878, 1882, 1884). Volumes of selected works will be
+  found in W. Muller's _Bibliothek der deutschen Dichter des 17ten
+  Jahrhunderts_ (1822) and in J. Tittmann's _Deutsche Dichter des 17ten
+  Jahrhunderts_ (1870). There is also a good selection by H. Palm in
+  Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_.
+
+  See O. Klopp, _Andreas Gryphius als Dramatiker_ (1851); J. Hermann,
+  _Über Andreas Gryphius_ (1851); T. Wissowa, _Beiträge zur Kenntnis von
+  Andreas Gryphius' Leben und Schriften_ (1876); J. Wysocki, _Andreas
+  Gryphius et la tragédie allemande au XVII^e siècle_; and V.
+  Mannheimer, _Die Lyrik des Andreas Gryphius_ (1904).
+
+
+
+
+GUACHARO (said to be an obsolete Spanish word signifying one that cries,
+moans or laments loudly), the Spanish-American name of what English
+writers call the oil-bird, the _Steatornis caripensis_ of
+ornithologists, a very remarkable bird, first described by Alexander von
+Humboldt (_Voy. aux rég. équinoxiales_ i. 413, Eng. trans. iii. 119;
+_Obs. Zoologie_ ii. 141, pl. xliv.) from his own observation and from
+examples obtained by Aimé J. A. Bonpland, on the visit of those two
+travellers, in September 1799, to a cave near Caripé (at that time a
+monastery of Aragonese Capuchins) some forty miles S.E. of Cumaná on the
+northern coast of South America. A few years later it was discovered,
+says Latham (_Gen. Hist. Birds_, 1823, vii. 365), to inhabit Trinidad,
+where it appears to bear the name of _Diablotin_;[1] but by the receipt
+of specimens procured at Sarayacu in Peru, Cajamarca in the Peruvian
+Andes, and Antioquia in Colombia (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1878, pp. 139,
+140; 1879, p. 532), its range has been shown to be much greater than had
+been supposed. The singularity of its structure, its curious habits, and
+its peculiar economical value have naturally attracted no little
+attention from zoologists. First referring it to the genus
+_Caprimulgus_, its original describer soon saw that it was no true
+goatsucker. It was subsequently separated as forming a subfamily, and
+has at last been regarded as the type of a distinct family,
+_Steatornithidae_--a view which, though not put forth till 1870 (_Zool.
+Record_, vi. 67), seems now to be generally deemed correct. Its
+systematic position, however, can scarcely be considered settled, for
+though on the whole its predominating alliance may be with the
+_Caprimulgidae_, nearly as much affinity may be traced to the
+_Strigidae_, while it possesses some characters in which it differs from
+both (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1873, pp. 526-535). About as big as a crow,
+its plumage exhibits the blended tints of chocolate-colour and grey,
+barred and pencilled with dark-brown or black, and spotted in places
+with white, that prevail in the two families just named. The beak is
+hard, strong and deeply notched, the nostrils are prominent, and the
+gape is furnished with twelve long hairs on each side. The legs and toes
+are comparatively feeble, but the wings are large. In habits the
+guacharo is wholly nocturnal, slumbering by day in deep and dark caverns
+which it frequents in vast numbers. Towards evening it arouses itself,
+and, with croaking and clattering which has been likened to that of
+castanets, it approaches the exit of its retreat, whence at nightfall it
+issues in search of its food, which, so far as is known, consists
+entirely of oily nuts or fruits, belonging especially to the genera
+_Achras_, _Aiphanas_, _Laurus_ and _Psichotria_, some of them sought, it
+would seem, at a very great distance, for Funck (_Bull. Acad. Sc.
+Bruxelles_ xi. pt. 2, pp. 371-377) states that in the stomach of one he
+obtained at Caripé he found the seed of a tree which he believed did not
+grow nearer than 80 leagues. The hard, indigestible seed swallowed by
+the guacharo are found in quantities on the floor and the ledges of the
+caverns it frequents, where many of them for a time vegetate, the plants
+thus growing being etiolated from want of light, and, according to
+travellers, forming a singular feature of the gloomy scene which these
+places present. The guacharo is said to build a bowl-like nest of clay,
+in which it lays from two to four white eggs, with a smooth but
+lustreless surface, resembling those of some owls. The young soon after
+they are hatched become a perfect mass of fat, and while yet in the nest
+are sought by the Indians, who at Caripé, and perhaps elsewhere, make a
+special business of taking them and extracting the oil they contain.
+This is done about midsummer, when by the aid of torches and long poles
+many thousands of the young birds are slaughtered, while their parents
+in alarm and rage hover over the destroyers' heads, uttering harsh and
+deafening cries. The grease is melted over fires kindled at the cavern's
+mouth, run into earthen pots, and preserved for use in cooking as well
+as for the lighting of lamps. It is said to be pure and limpid, free
+from any disagreeable taste or smell, and capable of being kept for a
+year without turning rancid. In Trinidad the young are esteemed s great
+delicacy for the table by many, though some persons object to their
+peculiar scent, which resembles that of a cockroach (_Blatta_), and
+consequently refuse to eat them. The old birds also, according to E. C.
+Taylor (_Ibis_, 1864, p. 90), have a strong crow-like odour. But one
+species of the genus _Steatornis_ is known.
+
+  In addition to the works above quoted valuable information about this
+  curious bird may be found under the following references: L'Herminier,
+  _Ann. Sc. Nat._ (1836), p. 60, and _Nouv. Ann. Mus._ (1838), p. 321;
+  Hautessier, Rev. Zool. (1838), p. 164; J. Müller, _Monatsb. Berl.
+  Acad._ (1841), p. 172, and _Archiv für Anat._ (1862), pp. 1-11; des
+  Murs, _Rev. zool._ (1843), p. 32, and _Ool. Orn._ pp. 260-263;
+  Blanchard, _Ann. Mus._ (1859), xi. pl. 4, fig. 30; König-Warthausen,
+  _Journ. für Orn._ (1868), pp. 384-387; Goering, _Vargasia_ (1869), pp.
+  124-128; Murie, _Ibis_ (1873), pp. 81-86.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Not to be confounded with the bird so called in the French
+    Antilles, which is a petrel (_Oestrelata_).
+
+
+
+
+GUACO, HUACO or GUAO, also Vejuco and Bejuco, terms applied to various
+Central and South American and West Indian plants, in repute for
+curative virtues. The Indians and negroes of Colombia believe the plants
+known to them as guaco to have been so named after a species of kite,
+thus designated in imitation of its cry, which they say attracts to it
+the snakes that serve it principally for food; they further hold the
+tradition that their antidotal qualities were discovered through the
+observation that the bird eats of their leaves, and even spreads the
+juice of the same on its wings, during contests with its prey. The
+disputes that have arisen as to what is "the true guaco" are to be
+attributed mainly to the fact that the names of the American Indians for
+all natural objects are generic, and their genera not always in
+coincidence with those of naturalists. Thus any twining plant with a
+heart-shaped leaf, white and green above and purple beneath, is called
+by them guaco (R. Spruce, in Howard's _Neueva Quinologia_, "Cinchona
+succirubra," p. 22, note). What is most commonly recognized in Colombia
+as guaco, or _Vejuco del guaco_, would appear to be _Mikania Guaco_
+(Humboldt and Bonpland, _Pl. équinox_, ii. 84, pl. 105, 1809), a
+climbing Composite plant of the tribe _Eupatoriaceae_, affecting moist
+and shady situations, and having a much-branched and deep-growing root,
+variegated, serrate, opposite leaves and dull-white flowers, in axillary
+clusters. The whole plant emits a disagreeable odour. It is stated that
+the Indians of Central America, after having "guaconized" themselves,
+i.e. taken guaco, catch with impunity the most dangerous snakes, which
+writhe in their hands as though touched by a hot iron (B. Seemann,
+_Hooker's Journ. of Bot._ v. 76, 1853). The odour alone of guaco has
+been said to cause in snakes a state of stupor and torpidity; and
+Humboldt, who observed that the near approach of a rod steeped in
+guaco-juice was obnoxious to the venomous _Coluber corallinus_, was of
+opinion that inoculation with it imparts to the perspiration an odour
+which makes reptiles unwilling to bite. The drug is not used in modern
+therapeutics.
+
+
+
+
+GUADALAJARA, an inland city of Mexico and capital of the state of
+Jalisco, 275 m. (direct) W.N.W. of the Federal capital, in lat. 20° 41´
+10´´ N., long. 103° 21´ 15´´ W. Pop. (1895) 83,934; (1900) 101,208.
+Guadalajara is served by a short branch of the Mexican Central railway
+from Irapuato. The city is in the Antemarac valley near the Rio Grande
+de Santiago, 5092 ft. above sea-level. Its climate is dry, mild and
+healthy, though subject to sudden changes. The city is well built, with
+straight and well-paved streets, numerous plazas, public gardens and
+shady promenades. Its public services include tramways and electric
+lighting, the Juanacatlán falls of the Rio Grande near the city
+furnishing the electric power. Guadalajara is an episcopal see, and its
+cathedral, built between 1571 and 1618, is one of the largest and most
+elaborately decorated churches in Mexico. The government palace, which
+like the cathedral faces upon the _plaza mayor_, is generally considered
+one of the finest specimens of Spanish architecture in Mexico. Other
+important edifices and institutions are the university, with its schools
+of law and medicine, the mint, built in 1811, the modern national
+college and high schools, a public library of over 28,000 volumes, an
+episcopal seminary, an academy of fine arts, the Teatro Degollado, and
+the large modern granite building of the penitentiary. There are many
+interesting churches and eleven conventual establishments in the city.
+Charitable institutions of a high character are also prominent, among
+which are the Hospicio, which includes an asylum for the aged, infirm,
+blind, deaf and dumb, foundlings and orphans, a primary school for both
+sexes, and a girls' training school, and the Hospital de San Miguel de
+Belen, which is a hospital, an insane asylum, and a school for little
+children. One of the most popular public resorts of the city is the
+_Paseo_, a beautiful drive and promenade extending along both banks of
+the Rio San Juan de Dios for 1¼ m. and terminating in the _alameda_, or
+public garden. The city has a good water-supply, derived from springs
+and brought in through an aqueduct 8 m. long. Guadalajara is surrounded
+by a fertile agricultural district and is an important commercial town,
+but the city is chiefly distinguished as the centre of the iron, steel
+and glass industries of Mexico. It is also widely known for the artistic
+pottery manufactured by the Indians of the city and of its suburb, San
+Pedro. Among other prominent industries are the manufacture of cotton
+and woollen goods, leather, furniture, hats and sweetmeats. Guadalajara
+was founded in 1531 by Nuño de Guzman, and became the seat of a bishop
+in 1549. The Calderon bridge near the city was the scene of a serious
+defeat of the revolutionists under Hidalgo in January 1811. The severe
+earthquake of the 31st of May 1818 partially destroyed the two cathedral
+steeples; and that of the 11th of March 1875 damaged many of the larger
+buildings. The population includes large Indian and mestizo elements.
+
+
+
+
+GUADALAJARA, a province of central Spain, formed in 1833 of districts
+taken from New Castile; bounded on the N. by Segovia, Soria and
+Saragossa, E. by Saragossa and Teruel, S. by Cuenca and W. by Madrid.
+Pop. (1900) 200,186; area, 4676 sq. m. Along the northern frontier of
+Guadalajara rise the lofty Guadarrama mountains, culminating in the
+peaks of La Cebollera (6955 ft.) and Ocejon (6775 ft.); the rest of the
+province, apart from several lower ranges in the east, belongs to the
+elevated plateau of New Castile, and has a level or slightly undulating
+surface, which forms the upper basin of the river Tagus, and is watered
+by its tributaries the Tajuña, Henares, Jarama and Gallo. The climate of
+this region, as of Castile generally, is marked by the extreme severity
+of its winter cold and summer heat; the soil varies very much in
+quality, but is fertile enough in many districts, notably the cornlands
+of the Alcarria, towards the south. Few of the cork and oak forests
+which formerly covered the mountains have escaped destruction; and the
+higher tracts of land are mainly pasture for the sheep and goats which
+form the principal wealth of the peasantry. Grain, olive oil, wine,
+saffron, silk and flax are produced, but agriculture makes little
+progress, owing to defective communications and unscientific farming. In
+1903, the only minerals worked were common salt and silver, and the
+total output of the mines was valued at £25,000. Deposits of iron, lead
+and gold also exist and were worked by the Romans; but their
+exploitation proved unprofitable when renewed in the 19th century. Trade
+is stagnant and the local industries are those common to almost all
+Spanish towns and villages, such as the manufacture of coarse cloth and
+pottery. The Madrid-Saragossa railway traverses the province for 70 m.;
+the roads are ill-kept and insufficient. Guadalajara (11,144) is the
+capital, and the only town with more than 5000 inhabitants; Molina de
+Aragon, a fortified town built at the foot of the Parameras de Molina
+(2500-3500 ft.), and on the right bank of the Gallo, a tributary of the
+Tagus, is of some importance as an agricultural centre. Siguënza, on the
+railway, is an episcopal city, with a fine Romanesque cathedral dating
+from the 11th century. It is probably the ancient _Segontia_, founded in
+218 B.C. by refugees from Saguntum. The population of the province,
+which numbers only 42 per sq. m., decreased slightly between 1870 and
+1900, and extreme poverty compels many families to emigrate (see also
+CASTILE).
+
+
+
+
+GUADALAJARA, the capital of the Spanish province of Guadalajara, on the
+left bank of the river Henares, and on the Madrid-Saragossa railway, 35
+m. E.N.E. of Madrid. Pop. (1900) 11,144. Guadalajara is a picturesque
+town, occupying a somewhat sterile plain, 2100 ft. above the sea. A
+Roman aqueduct and the Roman foundations of the bridge built in 1758
+across the Henares bear witness to its antiquity. Under Roman and
+Visigothic rule it was known as _Arriaca_ or _Caraca_; its present name,
+which sometimes appears in medieval chronicles as _Godelfare_,
+represents the _Wad-al-hajarah_, or "Valley of Stones," of the Moors,
+who occupied the town from 714 until 1081, when it was captured by Alvar
+Yañez de Minaya, a comrade of the more famous Cid. The church of Santa
+Maria contains the image of the "Virgin of Battles," which accompanied
+Alphonso VI. of Castile (1072-1109) on his campaigns against the Moors;
+and there are several other ancient and interesting churches in
+Guadalajara, besides two palaces, dating from the 15th century, and
+built with that blend of Christian and Moorish architecture which
+Spaniards call the _Mudéjar_ style. The more important of these is the
+palace of the ducal house del Infantado, formerly owned by the Mendoza
+family, whose _panteon_, or mausoleum, added between 1696 and 1720 to
+the 13th-century church of San Francisco, is remarkable for the rich
+sculpture of its tombs. The town and provincial halls date from 1585,
+and the college of engineers was originally built by Philip V., early in
+the 18th century, as a cloth factory. Manufactures of soap, leather,
+woollen fabrics and bricks have superseded the original cloth-weaving
+industry for which Guadalajara was long celebrated; there is also a
+considerable trade in agricultural produce.
+
+
+
+
+GUADALQUIVIR (ancient _Baetis_, Moorish _Wadi al Kebir_, "the Great
+River"), a river of southern Spain. What is regarded as the main stream
+rises 4475 ft. above sea-level between the Sierra de Cazorla and Sierra
+del Pozo, in the province of Jaen. It does not become a large river
+until it is joined by the Guadiana Menor (Guadianamenor) on the left,
+and the Guadalimar on the right. Lower down it receives many
+tributaries, the chief being the Genil or Jenil, from the left. The
+general direction of the river is west by south, but a few miles above
+Seville it changes to south by west. Below Coria it traverses the series
+of broad fens known as Las Marismas, the greatest area of swamp in the
+Iberian Peninsula. Here it forms two subsidiary channels, the western 31
+m., the eastern 12 m. long, which rejoin the main stream on the borders
+of the province of Cadiz. Below Sanlúcar the river enters the Atlantic
+after a total course of 360 m. It drains an area of 21,865 sq. m. Though
+the shortest of the great rivers of the peninsula, it is the only one
+which flows at all seasons with a full stream, being fed in winter by
+the rains, in summer by the melted snows of the Sierra Nevada. In the
+time of the Moors it was navigable up to Cordova, but owing to the
+accumulation of silt in its lower reaches it is now only navigable up to
+Seville by vessels of 1200 to 1500 tons.
+
+
+
+
+GUADELOUPE, a French colony in the West Indies, lying between the
+British islands of Montserrat on the N., and Dominica on the S., between
+15° 59´ and 16° 20´ N. and 61° 31´ and 61° 50´ W. It consists of two
+entirely distinct islands, separated by a narrow arm of the sea, Rivière
+Salée (Salt river), varying from 100 ft. to 400 ft. in width and
+navigable for small vessels. The western island, a rugged mass of
+ridges, peaks and lofty uplands, is called Basse-Terre, while the
+eastern and smaller island, the real low-land, is known as Grande-Terre.
+A sinuous ridge runs through Basse-Terre from N. to S. In the north-west
+rises the peak of Grosse Montagne (2370 ft.), from which sharp spurs
+radiate in all directions; near the middle of the west coast are the
+twin heights of Les Mamelles (2536 ft. and 2368 ft.). Farther south the
+highest elevation is attained in La Soufrière (4900 ft.). In 1797 this
+volcano was active, and in 1843 its convulsions laid several towns in
+ruins; but a few thermal springs and solfataras emitting vapour are now
+its only signs of activity. The range terminates in the extreme south in
+the jagged peak of Caraibe (2300 ft.). Basse-Terre is supremely
+beautiful, its cloud-capped mountains being clothed with a mantle of
+luxuriant vegetation. On Grande-Terre the highest elevation is only 450
+ft., and this island is the seat of extensive sugar plantations. It
+consists of a plain composed mainly of limestone and a conglomerate of
+sand and broken shells known as _maconne de bon dieu_, much used for
+building. The bay between the two sections of Guadeloupe on the north is
+called Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin, that on the south being Petit Cul-de-Sac
+Marin. Basse-Terre (364 sq. m.) is 28 m. long by 12 m. to 15 m. wide;
+Grande-Terre (255 sq. m.) is 22 m. long from N. to S., of irregular
+shape, with a long peninsula, Chateaux Point, stretching from the
+south-eastern extremity. Basse-Terre is watered by a considerable number
+of streams, most of which in the rainy season are liable to sudden
+floods (locally called _galions_), but Grande-Terre is practically
+destitute of springs, and the water-supply is derived almost entirely
+from ponds and cisterns.
+
+The west half of the island consists of a foundation of old eruptive
+rocks upon which rest the recent accumulations of the great volcanic
+cones, together with mechanical deposits derived from the denudation of
+the older rocks. Grande-Terre on the other hand, consists chiefly of
+nearly horizontal limestones lying conformably upon a series of fine
+tuffs and ashes, the whole belonging to the early part of the Tertiary
+system (probably Eocene and Oligocene). Occasional deposits of marl and
+limestone of late Pliocene age rest unconformably upon these older beds;
+and near the coast there are raised coral reefs of modern date.
+
+The mean annual temperature is 78° F., and the minimum 61° F., and the
+maximum 101° F. From July to November heavy rains fall, the annual
+average on the coast being 86 in., while in the interior it is much
+greater. Guadeloupe is subject to terrible storms. In 1825 a hurricane
+destroyed the town of Basse-Terre, and Grand Bourg in Marie Galante
+suffered a like fate in 1865. The soil is rich and fruitful, sugar
+having long been its staple product. The other crops include cereals,
+cocoa, cotton, manioc, yams and rubber; tobacco, vanilla, coffee and
+bananas are grown, but in smaller quantities. Over 30% of the total area
+is under cultivation, and of this more than 50% is under sugar. The
+centres of this industry are St Anne, Pointe-à-Pitre and Le Moule, where
+there are well-equipped _usines_, and there is also a large _usine_ at
+Basse-Terre. The forests, confined to the island of Basse-Terre, are
+extensive and rich in valuable woods, but, being difficult of access,
+are not worked. Salt and sulphur are the only minerals extracted, and in
+addition to the sugar _usines_, there are factories for the making of
+rum, liqueurs, chocolate, besides fruit-canning works and tanneries.
+France takes most of the exports; and next to France, the United States,
+Great Britain and India are the countries most interested in the import
+trade.
+
+The inhabitants of Guadeloupe consist of a few white officials and
+planters, a few East Indian immigrants from the French possessions in
+India, and the rest negroes and mulattoes. These mulattoes are famous
+for their grace and beauty of both form and feature. The women greatly
+outnumber the men, and there is a very large percentage of illegitimate
+births. Pop. (1900) 182,112.
+
+The governor is assisted by a privy council, a director of the interior,
+a procurator-general and a paymaster, and there is also an elected
+legislative council of 30 members. The colony forms a department of
+France and is represented in the French parliament by a senator and two
+deputies. Political elections are very eagerly contested, the mulatto
+element always striving to gain the preponderance of power.
+
+The seat of government, of the Apostolic administration and of the court
+of appeal is at Basse-Terre (7762), which is situated on the south-west
+coast of the island of that name. It is a picturesque, healthy town
+standing on an open roadstead. Pointe-à-Pitre (17,242), the largest
+town, lies in Grande-Terre near the mouth of the Rivière Salée. Its
+excellent harbour has made it the chief port and commercial capital of
+the colony. Le Moule (10,378) on the east coast of Grande-Terre does a
+considerable export trade in sugar, despite its poor harbour. Of the
+other towns, St Anne (9497), Morne à l'Eau (8442), Petit Canal (6748),
+St François (5265), Petit Bourg (5110) and Trois Rivières (5016), are
+the most important.
+
+Round Guadeloupe are grouped its dependencies, namely, La Desirade, 6 m.
+E., a narrow rugged island 10 sq. m. in area; Marie Galante 16 m. S.E.
+Les Saintes, a group of seven small islands, 7 m. S., one of the
+strategic points of the Antilles, with a magnificent and strongly
+fortified naval harbour; St Martin, 142 m. N.N.W.; and St Bartholomew,
+130 m. N.N.W.
+
+_History._--Guadeloupe was discovered by Columbus in 1493, and received
+its name in honour of the monastery of S. Maria de Guadalupe at
+Estremadura in Spain. In 1635 l'Olive and Duplessis took possession of
+it in the name of the French Company of the Islands of America, and
+l'Olive exterminated the Caribs with great cruelty. Four chartered
+companies were ruined in their attempts to colonize the island, and in
+1674 it passed into the possession of the French crown and long remained
+a dependency of Martinique. After unsuccessful attempts in 1666, 1691
+and 1703, the British captured the island in 1759, and held it for four
+years. Guadeloupe was finally separated from Martinique in 1775, but it
+remained under the governor of the French Windward Islands. In 1782
+Rodney defeated the French fleet near the island, and the British again
+obtained possession in April 1794, but in the following summer they were
+driven out by Victor Hugues with the assistance of the slaves whom he
+had liberated for the purpose. In 1802 Bonaparte, then first consul,
+sent an expedition to the island in order to re-establish slavery, but,
+after a heroic defence, many of the negroes preferred suicide to
+submission. During the Hundred Days in 1810, the British once more
+occupied the island, but, in spite of its cession to Sweden by the
+treaty of 1813 and a French invasion in 1814, they did not withdraw till
+1816. Between 1816 and 1825 the code of laws peculiar to the island was
+introduced. Municipal institutions were established in 1837; and slavery
+was finally abolished in 1848.
+
+
+
+
+GUADET, MARGUERITE ÉLIE (1758-1794), French Revolutionist, was born at
+St Émilion near Bordeaux on the 20th of July 1758. When the Revolution
+broke out he had already gained a reputation as a brilliant advocate at
+Bordeaux. In 1790 he was made administrator of the Gironde and in 1791
+president of the criminal tribunal. In this year he was elected to the
+Legislative Assembly as one of the brilliant group of deputies known
+subsequently as Girondins or Girondists. As a supporter of the
+constitution of 1791 he joined the Jacobin club, and here and in the
+Assembly became an eloquent advocate of all the measures directed
+against real or supposed traitors to the constitution. He bitterly
+attacked the ministers of Louis XVI., and was largely instrumental in
+forcing the king to accept the Girondist ministry of the 15th of March
+1792. He was an ardent advocate of the policy of forcing Louis XVI.
+into harmony with the Revolution; moved (May 3) for the dismissal of the
+king's non-juring confessor, for the banishment of all non-juring
+priests (May 16), for the disbandment of the royal guard (May 30), and
+the formation in Paris of a camp of _fédérés_ (June 4). He remained a
+royalist, however, and with Gensonné and Vergniaud even addressed a
+letter to the king soliciting a private interview. Whatever negotiations
+may have resulted, however, were cut short by the insurrection of the
+10th of August. Guadet, who presided over the Assembly during part of
+this fateful day, put himself into vigorous opposition to the
+insurrectionary Commune of Paris, and it was on his motion that on the
+30th of August the Assembly voted its dissolution--a decision reversed
+on the following day. In September Guadet was returned by a large
+majority as deputy to the Convention. At the trial of Louis XVI. he
+voted for an appeal to the people and for the death sentence, but with a
+respite pending appeal. In March 1793 he had several conferences with
+Danton, who was anxious to bring about a _rapprochement_ between the
+Girondists and the Mountain during the war in La Vendée, but he
+unconditionally refused to join hands with the man whom he held
+responsible for the massacres of September. Involved in the fall of the
+Girondists, and his arrest being decreed on the 2nd of June 1793, he
+fled to Caen, and afterwards hid in his father's house at St Émilion. He
+was discovered and taken to Bordeaux, where, after his identity had been
+established, he was guillotined on the 17th of June 1794.
+
+  See J. Guadet, _Les Girondins_ (Paris, 1889); and F. A. Aulard, _Les
+  Orateurs de la législative et de la convention_ (Paris, 2nd ed.,
+  1906).
+
+
+
+
+GUADIANA (anc. _Anas_, Moorish _Wadi Ana_), a river of Spain and
+Portugal. The Guadiana was long believed to rise in the lowland known as
+the Campo de Montiel, where a chain of small lakes, the Lagunas de
+Ruidera (partly in Ciudad Real, partly in Albacete), are linked together
+by the Guadiana Alto or Upper Guadiana. This stream flows north-westward
+from the last lake and vanishes underground within 3 m. of the river
+Zancara or Giguela. About 22 m. S.W. of the point of disappearance, the
+Guadiana Alto was believed to re-emerge in the form of several large
+springs, which form numerous lakes near the Zancara and are known as the
+"eyes of the Guadiana" (_los ojos de Guadiana_). The stream which
+connects them with the Zancara is called the Guadiana Bajo or Lower
+Guadiana. It is now known that the Guadiana Alto has no such course, but
+flows underground to the Zancara itself, which is the true "Upper
+Guadiana." The Zancara rises near the source of the Júcar, in the east
+of the tableland of La Mancha; thence it flows westward, assuming the
+name of Guadiana near Ciudad Real, and reaching the Portuguese frontier
+6 m. S.W. of Badajoz. In piercing the Sierra Morena it forms a series of
+foaming rapids, and only begins to be navigable at Mertola, 42 m. from
+its mouth. From the neighbourhood of Badajoz it forms the boundary
+between Spain and Portugal as far as a point near Monsaraz, where it
+receives the small river Priega Muñoz on the left, and passes into
+Portuguese territory, with a southerly direction. At Pomarão it again
+becomes a frontier stream and forms a broad estuary 25 m. long. It
+enters the Gulf of Cadiz between the Portuguese town of Villa Real de
+Santo Antonio and the Spanish Ayamonte, after a total course of 510 m.
+Its mouth is divided by sandbanks into many channels. The Guadiana
+drains an area of 31,940 sq. m. Its principal tributaries are the Zujar,
+Jabalón, Matachel and Ardila from the left; the Bullaque, Ruecas, Botoa,
+Degebe and Cobres from the right.
+
+The GUADIANA MENOR (or _Guadianamenor_, i.e. "Lesser Guadiana") rises in
+the Sierra Nevada, receives two large tributaries, the Fardes from the
+right and Barbata from the left, and enters the Guadalquivir near Ubeda,
+after a course of 95 m.
+
+
+
+
+GUADIX, a city of southern Spain, in the province of Granada; on the
+left bank of the river Guadix, a subtributary of the Guadiana Menor, and
+on the Madrid-Valdepeñas-Almería railway. Pop. (1900) 12,652. Guadix
+occupies part of an elevated plateau among the northern foothills of the
+Sierra Nevada. It is surrounded by ancient walls, and was formerly
+dominated by a Moorish castle, now in ruins. It is an episcopal see of
+great antiquity, but its cathedral, built in the 18th century on the
+site of a mosque, possesses little architectural merit. The city was
+once famous for its cutlery; but its modern manufactures (chiefly
+earthenware, hempen goods, and hats) are inconsiderable. It has some
+trade in wool, cotton, flax, corn and liqueurs. The warm mineral springs
+of Graena, much frequented during the summer, are 6 m. W. Guadix el
+Viejo, 5 m. N.W., was the Roman _Acci_, and, according to tradition, the
+seat of the first Iberian bishopric, in the 2nd century. After 711 it
+rose to some importance as a Moorish fortress and trading station, and
+was renamed _Wad Ash_, "Water of Life." It was surrendered without a
+siege to the Spaniards, under Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1489.
+
+
+
+
+GUADUAS, a town of the department of Cundinamarca, Colombia, 53 m. N.W.
+of Bogotá on the old road between that city and the Magdalena river port
+of Honda. Pop. (1900, estimate) 9000, chiefly Indians or of mixed blood.
+It stands in a narrow and picturesque valley formed by spurs of the
+Eastern Cordillera, and on a small stream bearing the same name, which
+is that of the South American bamboo (_guaduas_), found in great
+abundance along its banks. Sugar-cane and coffee are cultivated in the
+vicinity, and fruits of various kinds are produced in great abundance.
+The elevation of the town is 3353 ft. above the sea, and it has a
+remarkably uniform temperature throughout the whole year. Guaduas has a
+pretty church facing upon its _plaza_, and an old monastery now used for
+secular purposes. The importance of the town sprang from its position on
+the old _camino real_ between Bogotá and Honda, an importance that has
+passed away with the completion of the railway from Girardot to the
+Bogotá plateau. Guaduas was founded in 1614.
+
+
+
+
+GUAIACUM, a genus of trees of the natural order _Zygophyllaceae_. The
+guaiacum or lignum-vitae tree (Ger. _Guajakbaum_, _Franzosenbaum_,
+_Pockenholzbaum_; Fr. _Gayac_, _Gaïac_), _G. officinale_, is a native of
+the West Indies and the north coast of South America, where it attains a
+height of 20 to 30 ft. Its branches are numerous, flexuous and knotted;
+the leaves opposite and pinnate, with caducous (falling early) stipules,
+and entire, glabrous, obovate or oval leaflets, arranged in 2 or, more
+rarely, 3 pairs; the flowers are in axillary clusters (cymes), and have
+5 oval pubescent sepals, 5 distinct pale-blue petals three times the
+length of the sepals, 10 stamens, and a 2-celled superior ovary. The
+fruit is about ¾ in. long, with a leathery pericarp, and contains in
+each of its two cells a single seed (see fig.). _G. sanctum_ grows in
+the Bahamas and Cuba, and at Key West in Florida. It is distinguished
+from _G. officinale_ by its smaller and narrow leaflets, which are in 4
+to 5 pairs, by its shorter and glabrous sepals, and 5-celled and
+5-winged fruit. _G. arboreum_, the guaiacum tree of Colombia, is found
+in the valley of the Magdalena up to altitudes 800 metres (2625 ft.)
+above sea-level, and reaches considerable dimensions. Its wood is of a
+yellow colour merging into green, and has an almost pulverulent
+fracture; the flowers are yellow and conspicuous; and the fruit is dry
+and 4-winged.
+
+The lignum vitae of commerce, so named on account of its high repute as
+a medicinal agent in past times, when also it was known as _lignum
+sanctum_ and _lignum Indicum_, _lignum guaycanum_, or simply _guayacan_,
+is procured from _G. officinale_, and in smaller amount from _G.
+sanctum_. It is exported in large logs or blocks, generally divested of
+bark, and presents in transverse section very slightly marked concentric
+rings of growth, and scarcely any traces of pith; with the aid of a
+magnifying glass the medullary rays are seen to be equidistant and very
+numerous. The outer wood, the sapwood or alburnum, is of a pale yellow
+hue, and devoid of resin; the inner, the heartwood or duramen, which is
+by far the larger proportion, is of a dark greenish-brown, contains in
+its pores 26% of resin, and has a specific gravity of 1.333, and
+therefore sinks in water on which the alburnum floats. Owing to the
+diagonal and oblique arrangement of the successive layers of its fibres,
+the wood cannot be split; and on account of its hardness, density and
+durability it is much valued for the manufacture of ships' pulleys,
+rulers, skittle-balls, mallets and other articles.
+
+[Illustration: From Bentley & Trimen's _Medicinal Plants_, by permission
+of J. & A. Churchill.
+
+Guaiacum or Lignum Vitae, _Guaiacum officinale_ shoot-bearing leaves and
+flowers. 1, Fruit; 2, Vertical section of fruit, showing the solitary
+pendulous seed in each chamber. All about ½ natural size.]
+
+Chips or turnings of the heartwood of _G. officinale_ (_guaiaci lignum_)
+are employed in the preparation of the _liquor sarsae compositus
+concentratus_ of British pharmacy. They may be recognized by being
+either yellow of greenish-brown in colour, and by turning bluish-green
+when treated with nitric acid, or when heated with corrosive sublimate,
+and green with solution of chloride of lime. They are occasionally
+adulterated with boxwood shavings. Lignum vitae is imported chiefly from
+St Domingo, the Bahamas and Jamaica.
+
+  The bark was formerly used in medicine; it contains much calcium
+  oxalate, and yields on incineration 23% of ash. Guaiacum resin, the
+  _guaiaci resina_ of pharmacopoeias, is obtained from the wood as an
+  exudation from natural fissures or from incisions; by heating billets
+  about 3 ft. in length, bored to permit of the outflow of the resin; or
+  by boiling chips and raspings in water to which salt has been added to
+  raise the temperature of ebullition. It occurs in rounded or oval
+  tears, commonly coated with a greyish-green dust, and supposed to be
+  the produce of _G. sanctum_, or in large brownish or greenish-brown
+  masses, translucent at the edges; fuses at 85° C.; is brittle, and has
+  a vitreous fracture, and a slightly balsamic odour, increased by
+  pulverization and by heat; and is at first tasteless when chewed, but
+  produces subsequently a sense of heat in the throat. It is readily
+  soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, creosote, oil of cloves and
+  solutions of caustic alkalies; and its solution gives a blue colour
+  with gluten, raw potato parings and the roots of horse-radish, carrot
+  and various other plants. The alcoholic tincture becomes green with
+  sodium hypochlorite, and with nitric acid turns in succession green,
+  blue and brown. With glycerin it gives a clear solution, and with
+  nitrous ether a bluish-green gelatinous mass. It is blued by various
+  oxidizing agents, e.g. ozone, and, as Schönbein discovered, by the
+  juice of certain fungi. The chief constituents are three distinct
+  resins, _guaiaconic acid_, C19H20O5 (70%), _guaiac acid_, which is
+  closely allied to benzoic acid, and _guaiaretic acid_. Like all
+  resins, these are insoluble in water, soluble in alkalies, but
+  precipitated on neutralization of the alkaline solution.
+
+  Guaiacum wood was first introduced into Europe by the Spaniards in
+  1508, and Nicolaus Poll, writing in 1517 (see Luisinus, _De morbo
+  gallico_, p. 210, Ven., 1566), states that some three thousand persons
+  in Spain had already been restored to health by it. The virtues of the
+  resin, however, were not known until a later period, and in Thomas
+  Paynel's translation (_Of the Wood called Guaiacum_, &c., p. 9, ed. of
+  1540) of Ulrich von Hutten's treatise _De morbi gallici curatione per
+  administrationem ligni guaiaci_ (1519) we read of the wood: "There
+  followeth fro it, whan it bourneth a gomme, which we yet knowe not,
+  for what pourpose it serueth." Flückiger and Hanbury
+  (_Pharmacographia_, p. 95) state that the first edition of the _London
+  Pharmacopoeia_ in which they find the resin mentioned is that of 1677.
+  The decoction of the wood was administered in gout, the stone, palsy,
+  leprosy, dropsy, epilepsy, and other diseases, but principally in the
+  "morbus gallicus," or syphilis, for which it was reckoned a certain
+  specific, insomuch that at first "the physitions wolde not allowe it,
+  perceyuynge that theyr profite wolde decay therby" (Paynel, _op. cit._
+  p. 8). Minute instructions are given in old works as to the mode of
+  administering guaiacum. The patient was confined in a closed and
+  heated chamber, was placed on the lowest possible diet, and, after
+  liberal purgation, was made twice a day to drink a milk-warm decoction
+  of the wood. The use of salt was specially to be avoided. A decoction
+  of 1 lb. of guaiacum was held to be sufficient for the four first days
+  of the treatment. The earlier opinions as to the efficacy of guaiacum
+  came to be much modified in the course of time, and Dr Pearson
+  (_Observations on the Effects of Various Articles of the Mat. Med. in
+  the Cure of Lues Venerea_, c. i., 2nd ed., 1807) says:--"I never saw
+  one single instance in which the powers of this medicine eradicated
+  the venereal virus." He found its beneficial effects to be most marked
+  in cases of secondary symptoms. Guaiacum resin is given medicinally in
+  doses of 5-15 grains. Its important preparations in the British
+  Pharmacopoeia are the _mistura guiaci_ (dose ½-1 oz.), the ammoniated
+  tincture of guaiacum (dose ½-1 drachm), in which the resin is
+  dissolved by means of ammonia, and the trochiscus or lozenge,
+  containing 3 grains of the resin. This lozenge is undoubtedly of value
+  when given early in cases of sore throat, especially of rheumatic
+  origin. Powdered guaiacum is also used.
+
+  Guaiacum resin differs pharmacologically from other resins in being
+  less irritant, so that it is absorbed from the bowel and exerts remote
+  stimulant actions, notably upon the skin and kidneys. It affects the
+  bronchi but slightly, since it contains no volatile oil.
+
+  The drug is useful both in acute and chronic sore throat, the mixture,
+  according to Sir Lauder Brunton, being more effective than the
+  tincture. The aperient action, which it exerts less markedly than
+  other members of its class, renders it useful in the treatment of
+  chronic constipation. Sir Alfred Garrod has urged the claims of this
+  drug in the treatment of chronic gout. Both in this disease and in
+  other forms of chronic arthritis guaiacum may be given in combination
+  with iodides, which it often enables the patient to tolerate. Guaiacum
+  is not now used in the treatment of syphilis.
+
+  The tincture of guaiacum is universally used as a test for the
+  presence of blood, or rather of haemoglobin, the red colouring matter
+  of the blood, in urine or other secretions. This test was first
+  suggested by Dr John Day of Geelong, Australia. A _single drop_ of the
+  tincture should be added to, say, an inch of urine in a test-tube. The
+  resin is at once precipitated, yielding a milky fluid. If "ozonic
+  ether"--an ethereal solution of hydrogen peroxide--be now poured
+  gently into the test-tube, a deep blue coloration is produced along
+  the line of contact if haemoglobin be present. The reaction is due to
+  the oxidation of the resin by the peroxide of hydrogen--such oxidation
+  occurring only if haemoglobin be present to act as an oxygen-carrier.
+
+
+
+
+GUALDO TADINO (anc. _Tadinum_, 1 m. to the W.), a town and episcopal see
+of Umbria, Italy, 1755 ft. above sea-level, in the province of Perugia,
+22 m. N. of Foligno by rail. Pop. (1901), town, 4440; commune, 10,756.
+The suffix Tadino distinguishes it from Gualdo in the province of
+Macerata, and Gualdo Cattaneo, S.W. of Foligno. The cathedral has a good
+rose-window and possesses, like several of the other churches,
+15th-century paintings by Umbrian artists, especially works by Niccolò
+Alunno. The town is still surrounded by walls. The ancient Tadinum lay 1
+m. to the W. of the modern town. It is mentioned in the Eugubine tablets
+(see IGUVIUM) as a hostile city against which imprecations are directed.
+In its neighbourhood Narses defeated and slew Totila in 552. No ruins
+are now visible, though they seem to have been extant in the 17th
+century. The new town seems to have been founded in 1237. It was at
+first independent, but passed under Perugia in 1292, and later became
+dependent on the duchy of Spoleto.
+
+
+
+
+GUALEGUAY, a flourishing town and river port of the province of Entre
+Rios, Argentine Republic, on the Gualeguay river, 32 m. above its
+confluence with the Ibicuy branch of the Paraná, and about 120 m. N.N.W.
+of Buenos Aires. Pop. (1895) 7810. The Gualeguay is the largest of the
+Entre Rios rivers, traversing almost the whole length of the province
+from N. to S., but it is of but slight service in the transportation of
+produce except the few miles below Gualeguay, whose port, known as
+Puerto Ruiz, is 7 m. lower down stream. A steam tramway connects the
+town and port, and a branch line connects with Entre Rios railways at
+the station of Tala. The principal industry in this region is that of
+stock-raising, and there is a large exportation of cattle, jerked beef,
+hides, tallow, mutton, wool and sheep-skins. Wood and charcoal are also
+exported to Buenos Aires. The town was founded in 1783.
+
+
+
+
+GUALEGUAYCHÚ, a prosperous commercial and industrial town and port of
+the province of Entre Rios, Argentine Republic, on the left bank of the
+Gualeguaychú river, 11 m. above its confluence with the Uruguay, and 120
+m. N. of Buenos Aires. Pop. (1892, est.) 14,000. It is the chief town of
+a department of the same name, the largest in the province. A bar at the
+mouth of the river prevents the entrance of larger vessels and compels
+the transfer of cargoes to and from lighters. The town is surrounded by
+a rich grazing country, and exports cattle, jerked beef, mutton, hides,
+pelts, tallow, wool and various by-products. A branch line running N.
+connects with the Entre Rios railways at Basavilbaso. The town was
+founded in 1783.
+
+
+
+
+GUALO, CARDINAL (fl. 1216), was sent to England by Pope Innocent III. in
+1216. He supported John with all the weight of papal authority. After
+John's death he crowned the infant Henry III. and played an active part
+in organizing resistance to the rebels led by Louis of France,
+afterwards king Louis VIII. As representing the pope, the suzerain of
+Henry, he claimed the regency and actually divided the chief power with
+William Marshal, earl of Pembroke. He proclaimed a crusade against Louis
+and the French, and, after the peace of Lambeth, he forced Louis to make
+a public and humiliating profession of penitence (1217). He punished the
+rebellious clergy severely, and ruled the church with an absolute hand
+till his departure from England in 1218. Gualo's character has been
+severely criticized by English writers; but his chief offence seems to
+have been that of representing unpopular papal claims.
+
+
+
+
+GUAM (Span. _Guajan_; _Guahan_, in the native Chamorro), the largest and
+most populous of the Ladrone or Mariana Islands, in the North Pacific,
+in 13° 26´ N. lat. and 144° 39´ E. long., about 1823 m. E. by S. of Hong
+Kong, and about 1450 m. E. of Manila. Pop. (1908) about 11,360, of whom
+363 were foreigners, 140 being members of the U.S. naval force. Guam
+extends about 30 m. from N.N.E. to S.S.W., has an average width of about
+6½ m., and has an area of 207 sq. m. The N. portion is a plateau from
+300 to 600 ft. above the sea, lowest in the interior and highest along
+the E. and W. coast, where it terminates abruptly in bluffs and
+headlands; Mt Santa Rosa, toward the N. extremity, has an elevation of
+840 ft. A range of hills from 700 to nearly 1300 ft. in height traverses
+the S. portion from N. to S. a little W. of the middle--Mt Jumullong
+Mangloc, the highest peak, has an elevation of 1274 ft. Between the foot
+of the steep W. slope of these hills and the sea is a belt of rolling
+lowlands and to the E. the surface is broken by the valleys of five
+rivers with a number of tributaries, has a general slope toward the sea,
+and terminates in a coast-line of bluffs. Apra (formerly San Luis
+d'Apra) on the middle W. coast is the only good harbour; it is about 3½
+m. across, has a depth of 4-27 fathoms, and is divided into an inner and
+an outer harbour by a peninsula and an island. It serves as a naval
+station and as a port of transit between America and the Philippines, at
+which army transports call monthly. Deer, wild hog, duck, curlew, snipe
+and pigeon are abundant game, and several varieties of fish are caught.
+Some of the highest points of the island are nearly bare of vegetation,
+and the more elevated plateau surface is covered with sword grass, but
+in the valleys and on the lower portions of the plateaus there is
+valuable timber. The lowlands have a rich soil; in lower parts of the
+highlands raised coralliferous limestone with a light covering of soil
+appears, and in the higher parts the soil is entirely of clay and silt.
+The climate is agreeable and healthy. From December to June the N.E.
+trade winds prevail and the rainfall is relatively light; during the
+other six months the monsoon blows and produces the rainy season.
+Destructive typhoons and earthquakes sometimes visit Guam. The island is
+thought to possess little if any mineral wealth, with the possible
+exception of coal. Only a small part of Guam is under cultivation, and
+most of this lies along the S.W. coast, its chief products being
+cocoanuts, rice, sugar, coffee and cacao. A United States Agricultural
+Experiment Station in Guam (at Agaña) was provided for in 1908.
+
+The inhabitants are of the Chamorro (Indonesian) stock, strongly
+intermixed with Philippine Tagals and Spaniards; their speech is a
+dialect of Malay, corrupted by Tagal and Spanish. There are very few
+full-blood Chamorros. The aboriginal native was of a very dark mahogany
+or chocolate colour. A majority of the total number of natives live in
+Agaña. The natives are nearly all farmers, and most of them are poor,
+but their condition has been improved under American rule. Public
+schools have been established; in 1908 the enrolment was 1700. On the
+island there is a small colony of lepers, segregated only after American
+occupation. Gangrosa is a disease said to be peculiar to Guam and the
+neighbouring islands; it is due to a specific bacillus and usually
+destroys the nasal septum. The victims of this disease also are
+segregated. There is a good general hospital.
+
+Agaña (or San Ignacio de Agaña) is the capital and principal town; under
+the Spanish régime it was the capital of the Ladrones. It is about 5 m.
+N.E. of Piti, the landing-place of Apra harbour and port of entry, with
+which it is connected by an excellent road. Agaña has paved streets and
+sewer and water systems. Other villages, all small, are Asan, Piti,
+Sumay, Umata, Merizo and Inarajan. Guam is governed by a "naval
+governor," an officer of the U.S. navy who is commandant of the naval
+station. The island is divided into four administrative districts, each
+with an executive head called a gobernadorcillo (commissioner), and
+there are a court of appeals, a court of first instance and courts of
+justices of the peace. Peonage was abolished in the island by the United
+States in February 1900. Telegraphic communication with the Caroline
+Islands was established in 1905; in 1908 there were four cables ending
+at the relay station at Sumay on the Shore of Apra harbour.
+
+Guam was discovered by Magellan in 1521, was occupied by Spain in 1688,
+was captured by the United States cruiser "Charleston" in June 1899, and
+was ceded to the United States by the Treaty of Paris on the 10th of
+December 1898.
+
+  See _A List of Books (with References to Periodicals) on Samoa and
+  Guam_ (1901; issued by the Library of Congress); L. M. Cox, "The
+  Island of Guam," in _Bulletin of the American Geographical Society_,
+  vol. 36 (New York, 1904); Gen. Joseph Wheeler, _Report on the Island
+  of Guam_, June 1900 (War Department, Document No. 123); F. W.
+  Christian, _The Caroline Islands_ (London, 1899); an account of the
+  flora of Guam by W. E. Safford in the publications of the National
+  Herbarium (Smithsonian Institution); and the reports of the naval
+  governor.
+
+
+
+
+GUAN, a word apparently first introduced into the ornithologist's
+vocabulary about 1743 by Edwards,[1] who said that a bird he figured
+(_Nat. Hist. Uncommon Birds_, pl. xiii.) was "so called in the West
+Indies," and the name has hence been generally applied to all the
+members of the subfamily _Penelopinae_, which are distinguished from the
+kindred subfamily _Cracinae_ or curassows by the broad postacetabular
+area of the pelvis as pointed out by Huxley (_Proc. Zool. Society_,
+1868, p. 297) as well as by their maxilla being wider than it is high,
+with its culmen depressed, the crown feathered, and the nostrils
+bare--the last two characters separating the _Penelopinae_ from the
+_Oreophasinae_, which form the third subfamily of the _Cracidae_,[2] a
+family belonging to that taxonomer's division _Peristeropodes_ of the
+order _Gallinae_.
+
+The _Penelopinae_ have been separated into seven genera, of which
+_Penelope_ and _Ortalis_, containing respectively about sixteen and
+nineteen species, are the largest, the others numbering from one to
+three only. Into their minute differences it would be useless to enter:
+nearly all have the throat bare of feathers, and from that of many of
+them hangs a wattle; but one form, _Chamaepetes_, has neither of these
+features, and _Stegnolaema_, though wattled, has the throat clothed.
+With few exceptions the guans are confined to the South-American
+continent; one species of _Penelope_ is however found in Mexico (e.g. at
+Mazatlan), _Pipile cumanensis_ inhabits Trinidad as well as the
+mainland, while three species of _Ortalis_ occur in Mexico or Texas, and
+one, which is also common to Venezuela, in Tobago. Like curassows, guans
+are in great measure of arboreal habit. They also readily become tame,
+but all attempts to domesticate them in the full sense of the word have
+wholly failed, and the cases in which they have even been induced to
+breed and the young have been reared in confinement are very few. Yet it
+would seem that guans and curassows will interbreed with poultry
+(_Ibis_, 1866, p. 24; _Bull. Soc. Imp. d'Acclimatation_, 1868, p. 559;
+1869, p. 357), and what is more extraordinary is that in Texas the
+hybrids between the chiacalacca (_Ortalis vetula_) and the domestic fowl
+are asserted to be far superior to ordinary game-cocks for fighting
+purposes.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Edwards also gives "quan" as an alternative spelling, and this
+    may be nearer the original form, since we find Dampier in 1676
+    writing (Voy. ii. pt. 2, p. 66) of what was doubtless an allied if
+    not the same bird as the "quam." The species represented by Edwards
+    does not seem to have been identified.
+
+  [2] See the excellent _Synopsis_ by Sclater and Salvin in the
+    _Proceedings of the Zoological Society_ for 1870 (pp. 504-544), while
+    further information on the Cracinae was given by Sclater in the
+    _Transactions_ of the same society (ix. pp. 273-288, pls. xl.-liii.).
+    Some additions have since been made to the knowledge of the family,
+    but none of very great importance.
+
+
+
+
+GUANABACOA (an Indian name meaning "site of the waters"), a town of
+Cuba, in Havana province, about 6 m. E. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 14,368.
+Guanabacoa is served by railway to Havana, with which it is connected by
+the Regla ferry across the bay. It is picturesquely situated amid woods,
+on high hills which furnish a fine view. There are medicinal springs in
+the town, and deposits of liquid bitumen in the neighbouring hills. The
+town is essentially a residence suburb of the capital, and has some
+rather pretty streets and squares and some old and interesting churches
+(including Nuestra Señora de la Asuncion, 1714-1721). Just outside the
+city is the church of Potosi with a famous "wonder-working" shrine and
+image. An Indian pueblo of the same name existed here before 1555, and a
+church was established in 1576. Already at the end of the 17th century
+Guanabacoa was the fashionable summer residence of Havana. It enjoyed
+its greatest popularity in this respect from the end of the 18th to the
+middle of the 19th century. It was created a _villa_ with an
+_ayuntamiento_ (city council) in 1743. In 1762 its fort, the Little
+Morro, on the N. shore near Cojimar (a bathing beach, where the Key West
+cable now lands), was taken by the English.
+
+
+
+
+GUANACO, sometimes spelt Huanaca, the larger of the two wild
+representatives in South America of the camel tribe; the other being the
+vicugña. The guanaco (_Lama huanacus_), which stands nearly 4 ft. at the
+shoulder, is an elegant creature, with gracefully curved neck and long
+slender legs, the hind-pair of the latter bearing two naked patches or
+callosities. The head and body are covered with long soft hair of a fawn
+colour above and almost pure white beneath. Guanaco are found throughout
+the southern half of South America, from Peru in the north to Cape Horn
+in the south, but occur in greatest abundance in Patagonia. They live in
+herds usually of from six to thirty, although these occasionally contain
+several hundreds, while solitary individuals are sometimes met. They are
+exceedingly timid, and therefore wary and difficult of approach; like
+many other ruminants, however, their curiosity sometimes overcomes their
+timidity, so as to bring them within range of the hunter's rifle. Their
+cry is peculiar, being something between the belling of a deer and the
+neigh of a horse. The chief enemies of the guanaco are the Patagonian
+Indians and the puma, as it forms the principal food of both. Its flesh
+is palatable although wanting in fat, while its skin forms the chief
+clothing material of the Patagonians. Guanaco are readily domesticated,
+and in this state become very bold and will attack man, striking him
+from behind with both knees. In the wild state they never defend
+themselves, and if approached from different points, according to the
+Indian fashion of hunting, get completely bewildered and fall an easy
+prey. They take readily to the water, and have been observed swimming
+from one island to another, while they have been seen drinking
+salt-water. They have a habit of depositing their droppings during
+successive days on the same spot--a habit appreciated by the Peruvian
+Indians, who use those deposits for fuel. Guanaco also have favourite
+localities in which to die, as appears from the great heaps of their
+bones found in particular spots.
+
+[Illustration: Head of Guanaco.]
+
+
+
+
+GUANAJAY, a town of western Cuba, in Pinar del Rio province, about 36 m.
+(by rail) S.W. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 6400. Guanajay is served by the W.
+branch of the United railways of Havana, of which it is the W. terminus.
+The town lies among hills, has an excellent climate, and in colonial
+times was (like Holguín) an acclimatization station for troops fresh
+from Spain; it now has considerable repute as a health resort. The
+surrounding country is a fertile sugar and tobacco region. Guanajay has
+always been important as a distributing point in the commerce of the
+western end of the island. It was an ancient pueblo, of considerable
+size and importance as early as the end of the 18th century.
+
+
+
+
+GUANAJUATO, or GUANAXUATO, an inland state of Mexico, bounded N. by
+Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi, E. by Querétaro, S. by Michoacan and W.
+by Jalisco. Area, 11,370 sq. m. It is one of the most densely populated
+states of the republic; pop. (1895) 1,047,817; (1900) 1,061,724. The
+state lies wholly within the limits of the great central plateau of
+Mexico, and has an average elevation of about 6000 ft. The surface of
+its northern half is broken by the Sierra Gorda and Sierra de
+Guanajuato, but its southern half is covered by fertile plains largely
+devoted to agriculture. It is drained by the Rio Grande de Lerma and its
+tributaries, which in places flow through deeply eroded valleys. The
+climate is semi-tropical and healthy, and the rainfall is sufficient to
+insure good results in agriculture and stock-raising. In the warm
+valleys sugar-cane is grown, and at higher elevations Indian corn,
+beans, barley and wheat. The southern plains are largely devoted to
+stock-raising. Guanajuato has suffered much from the destruction of its
+forests, but there remain some small areas on the higher elevations of
+the north. The principal industry of the state is mining, the mineral
+wealth of the mountain ranges of the north being enormous. Among its
+mineral products are silver, gold, tin, lead, mercury, copper and opals.
+Silver has been extracted since the early days of the Spanish conquest,
+over $800,000,000 having been taken from the mines during the subsequent
+three and a half centuries. Some of the more productive of these mines,
+or groups of mines, are the Veta Madre (mother lode), the San Bernabé
+lode, and the Rayas mines of Guanajuato, and the La Valenciana mine, the
+output of which is said to have been $226,000,000 between 1766 and 1826.
+The manufacturing establishments include flour mills, tanneries and
+manufactories of leather, cotton and woollen mills, distilleries,
+foundries and potteries. The Mexican Central and the Mexican National
+railway lines cross the state from N. to S., and the former operates a
+short branch from Silao to the state capital and another westward from
+Irapuato to Guadalajara. The capital is Guanajuato, and other important
+cities and towns are León, or León de las Aldamas; Celaya (pop. 25,565
+in 1900), an important railway junction 22 m. by rail W. from Querétaro,
+and known for its manufactures of broadcloth, saddlery, soap and
+sweetmeats; Irapuato (18,593 in 1900), a railway junction and commercial
+centre, 21 m. S. by W. of Guanajuato; Silao (15,355), a railway junction
+and manufacturing town (woollens and cottons), 14 m. S.W. of Guanajuato;
+Salamanca (13,583). on the Mexican Central railway and Lerma river, 25
+m. S. by E. of Guanajuato, with manufactures of cottons and porcelain;
+Allende (10,547), a commercial town 30 m. E. by S. of Guanajuato, with
+mineral springs; Valle de Santiago (12,660). 50 m. W. by S. of
+Querétaro; Salvatierra (10,393), 60 m. S.E. of Guanajuato; Cortazar
+(8633); La Luz (8318), in a rich mining district; Pénjamo (8262); Santa
+Cruz (7239); San Francisco del Rincón (10,904), 39 m. W. of Guanajuato
+in a rich mining district; and Acambaro (8345), a prosperous town of the
+plain, 76 m. S.S.E. of Guanajuato.
+
+
+
+
+GUANAJUATO, or SANTA FÉ DE GUANAJUATO, a city of Mexico and capital of
+the above state, 155 m. (direct) N.W. of the Federal capital, on a small
+tributary of the Rio Grande de Lerma or Santiago. Pop. (1895) 39,404;
+(1900) 41,486. The city is built in the Cañada de Marfil at the junction
+of three ravines about 6500 ft. above the sea, and its narrow, tortuous
+streets rise steeply as they follow the ravines upward to the mining
+villages clustered about the opening of the mines in the hillsides.
+Guanajuato is sometimes described as a collection of mining villages;
+but in addition there is the central city with its crowded winding
+streets, its substantial old Spanish buildings, its fifty ore-crushing
+mills and busy factories and its bustling commercial life. Enclosing the
+city are the steep, barren mountain sides honeycombed with mines. The
+climate is semi-tropical and is considered healthy. The noteworthy
+public buildings and institutions are an interesting old Jesuit church
+with arches of pink stone and delicate carving, eight monasteries, the
+government palace, a mint dating from 1812, a national college, the fine
+Teatro Juárez, and the Pantheon, or public cemetery, with catacombs
+below. The Alhóndiga de Granaditas, originally a public granary, was
+used as a fort during the War of Independence, and is celebrated as the
+scene of the first battle (1810) in that long struggle. Among the
+manufactures are cottons, prints, soaps, chemicals, pottery and
+silverware, but mining is the principal interest and occupation of the
+population. The silver mines of the vicinity were long considered the
+richest in Mexico, the celebrated Veta Madre (mother lode) even being
+described as the richest in the world; and Guanajuato has the largest
+reduction works in Mexico. The railway outlet for the city consists of a
+short branch of the Mexican Central, which joins the trunk line at
+Silao. Guanajuato was founded in 1554. It attained the dignity of a city
+in 1741. It was celebrated for its vigorous resistance to the invaders
+at the time of the Spanish conquest, and was repeatedly sacked during
+that war.
+
+
+
+
+GUANCHES, GUANCHIS or GUANCHOS (native Guanchinet; _Guan_=person,
+_Chinet_ = Teneriffe,--"man of Teneriffe," corrupted, according to Nuñez
+de la Peña, by Spaniards into Guanchos), the aboriginal inhabitants of
+the Canary Islands. Strictly the Guanches were the primitive inhabitants
+of Teneriffe, where they seem to have preserved racial purity to the
+time of the Spanish conquest, but the name came to be applied to the
+indigenous populations of all the islands. The Guanches, now extinct as
+a distinct people, appear, from the study of skulls and bones
+discovered, to have resembled the Cro-Magnon race of the Quaternary age,
+and no real doubt is now entertained that they were an offshoot of the
+great race of Berbers which from the dawn of history has occupied
+northern Africa from Egypt to the Atlantic. Pliny the Elder, deriving
+his knowledge from the accounts of Juba, king of Mauretania, states that
+when visited by the Carthaginians under Hanno the archipelago was found
+by them to be uninhabited, but that they saw ruins of great buildings.
+This would suggest that the Guanches were not the first inhabitants, and
+from the absence of any trace of Mahommedanism among the peoples found
+in the archipelago by the Spaniards it would seem that this extreme
+westerly migration of Berbers took place between the time of which Pliny
+wrote and the conquest of northern Africa by the Arabs. Many of the
+Guanches fell in resisting the Spaniards, many were sold as slaves, and
+many conformed to the Roman Catholic faith and married Spaniards.
+
+Such remains as there are of their language, a few expressions and the
+proper names of ancient chieftains still borne by certain families,
+connect it with the Berber dialects. In many of the islands signs are
+engraved on rocks. Domingo Vandewalle, a military governor of Las
+Palmas, was the first, in 1752, to investigate these; and it is due to
+the perseverance of D. Aquilino Padran, a priest of Las Palmas, that
+anything about the inscription on the island Hierro has been brought to
+light. In 1878 Dr R. Verneau discovered in the ravines of Las Balos some
+genuine Libyan inscriptions. Without exception the rock inscriptions
+have proved to be Numidic. In two of the islands (Teneriffe and Gomera)
+the Guanche type has been retained with more purity than in the others.
+No inscriptions have been found in these two islands, and therefore it
+would seem that the true Guanches did not know how to write. In the
+other islands numerous Semitic traces are found, and in all of them are
+the rock-signs. From these facts it would seem that the Numidians,
+travelling from the neighbourhood of Carthage and intermixing with the
+dominant Semitic race, landed in the Canary Islands, and that it is they
+who have written the inscriptions at Hierro and Grand Canary.
+
+The political and social institutions of the Guanches varied. In some
+islands hereditary autocracy prevailed; in others the government was
+elective. In Teneriffe all the land belonged to the chiefs who leased it
+to their subjects. In Grand Canary suicide was regarded as honourable,
+and on a chief inheriting, one of his subjects willingly honoured the
+occasion by throwing himself over a precipice. In some islands polyandry
+was practised; in others the natives were monogamous. But everywhere the
+women appear to have been respected, an insult offered any woman by an
+armed man being a capital offence. Almost all the Guanches used to wear
+garments of goat-skins, and others of vegetable fibres, which have been
+found in the tombs of Grand Canary. They had a taste for ornaments,
+necklaces of wood, bone and shells, worked in different designs. Beads
+of baked earth, cylindrical and of all shapes, with smooth or polished
+surfaces, mostly black and red in colour, were chiefly in use. They
+painted their bodies; the _pintaderas_, baked clay objects like seals in
+shape, have been explained by Dr Verneau as having been used solely for
+painting the body in various colours. They manufactured rough pottery,
+mostly without decorations, or ornamented by means of the finger-nail.
+The Guanches' weapons were those of the ancient races of south Europe.
+The polished battle-axe was more used in Grand Canary, while stone and
+obsidian, roughly cut, were commoner in Teneriffe. They had, besides,
+the lance, the club, sometimes studded with pebbles, and the javelin,
+and they seem to have known the shield. They lived in natural or
+artificial caves in their mountains. In districts where cave-dwellings
+were impossible, they built small round houses and, according to the
+Spaniards, they even practised rude fortification. In Palma the old
+people were at their own wish left to die alone. After bidding their
+family farewell they were carried to the sepulchral cave, nothing but a
+bowl of milk being left them. The Guanches embalmed their dead; many
+mummies have been found in an extreme state of desiccation, each
+weighing not more than 6 or 7 lb. Two almost inaccessible caves in a
+vertical rock by the shore 3 m. from Santa Cruz (Teneriffe) are said
+still to contain bones. The process of embalming seems to have varied.
+In Teneriffe and Grand Canary the corpse was simply wrapped up in goat
+and sheep skins, while in other islands a resinous substance was used to
+preserve the body, which was then placed in a cave difficult of access,
+or buried under a tumulus. The work of embalming was reserved for a
+special class, women for female corpses, men for male. Embalming seems
+not to have been universal, and bodies were often simply hidden in caves
+or buried.
+
+Little is known of the religion of the Guanches. They appear to have
+been a distinctly religious race. There was a general belief in a
+supreme being, called Acoran, in Grand Canary, Achihuran in Teneriffe,
+Eraoranhan in Hierro, and Abora in Palma. The women of Hierro worshipped
+a goddess called Moneiba. According to tradition the male and female
+gods lived in mountains whence they descended to hear the prayers of the
+people. In other islands the natives venerated the sun, moon, earth and
+stars. A belief in an evil spirit was general. The demon of Teneriffe
+was called Guayota and lived in the peak of Teyde, which was the hell
+called Echeyde. In times of drought the Guanches drove their flocks to
+consecrated grounds, where the lambs were separated from their mothers
+in the belief that their plaintive bleatings would melt the heart of the
+Great Spirit. During the religious feasts all war and even personal
+quarrels were stayed.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--S. Berthelot, _Antiquités canariennes_ (Paris, 1839);
+  Baker Webb and S. Berthelot, _Histoire naturelle des îles Canaries_
+  (Paris, 1839); Paul Broca, _Revue d'anthropologie_, iv. (1874);
+  General L. L. C. Faidherbe, _Quelque mots sur l'ethnologie de
+  l'archipel canarien_ (Paris, 1875); Chil y Naranjo, _Estudios
+  historicos, climatologicos y Patologicos de las Islas Canarias_ (Las
+  Palmas, 1876-1889); "De la pluralité des races humaines de l'archipel
+  canarien," _Bull. Soc. Anthrop. Paris_, 1878; "Habitations et
+  sépultures des anciens habitants des îles Canaries," _Revue
+  d'anthrop._, 1879; R. Verneau, "Sur les Sémites aux îles Canaries,"
+  and "Sur les anciens habitants de la Isleta, Grande Canarie," _Bull.
+  Soc. Anthrop. Paris_, 1881; _Rapport sur une mission scientifique dans
+  l'archipel canarien_ (Paris, 1887); _Cinq années de séjour aux îles
+  Canaries_ (Paris, 1891); H. Meyer, _Die Insel Tenerife_ (Leipzig,
+  1896), "Über die Urbewohner der canarischen Inseln," in _Adolf Bastian
+  Festschrift_ (Berlin, 1896); F. von Luschan, _Anhang über eine
+  Schädelsammlung von den canarischen Inseln_; R. Virchow, "Schädel mit
+  Carionecrosis der Sagittalgegend," _Verhandlungen der Berliner
+  Anthrop. Gesellschaft_ (1896); G. Sergi, _The Mediterranean Race_
+  (London, 1901); _The Guanches of Tenerife ..._, by Alonso de Espinosa,
+  translated by Sir Clements Markham, with bibliography (Hakluyt
+  Society, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+GUANIDINE, CN3H5 or HN:C(NH2)2, the amidine of amidocarbonic acid. It
+occurs in beet juice. It was first prepared in 1861 by A. Strecker, who
+oxidized guanine with hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate. It may
+be obtained synthetically by the action of ammonium iodide on cyanamide,
+CN·NH2 + NH4I=CN3H5·HI·; by heating ortho-carbonic esters with ammonia
+to 150° C.; but best by heating ammonium thiocyanate to 180°-190° C.,
+when the thiourea first formed is converted into guanidine thiocyanate,
+2CS(NH2)2=HN:C(NH2)2·HCNS+H2S. It is a colourless crystalline solid,
+readily soluble in water and alcohol; it deliquesces on exposure to air.
+It has strong basic properties, absorbs carbon dioxide readily, and
+forms well-defined crystalline salts. Baryta water hydrolyses it to
+urea. By direct union with glycocoll acid, it yields glycocyamine,
+NH2·(HN):C·NH·CH2·CO2H, whilst with methyl glycocoll (sarcosine) it
+forms creatine, NH2·(NH):C·N(CH3)·CH2·CO2H.
+
+  Many derivatives of guanidine were obtained by J. Thiele (_Ann._,
+  1892, 270, p. 1; 1893, 273, p. 133; _Ber._, 1893, 26, pp. 2598, 2645).
+  By the action of nitric acid on guanidine in the presence of sulphuric
+  acid, nitroguanidine, HN:C(NH2)·NH·NO2 (a substance possessing acid
+  properties) is obtained; from which, by reduction with zinc dust,
+  amidoguanidine, HN:C(NH2)·NH·NH2, is formed. This amidoguanidine
+  decomposes on hydrolysis with the formation of semicarbazide,
+  NH2·CO·NH·NH2, which, in its turn, breaks down into carbon dioxide,
+  ammonia and hydrazine. Amidoguanidine is a body of hydrazine type, for
+  it reduces gold and silver salts and yields a benzylidine derivative.
+  On oxidation with potassium permanganate, it gives
+  azodicarbondiamidine nitrate, NH2·(HN):C·N:N·C:(NH)·NH2·2HNO3, which,
+  when reduced by sulphuretted hydrogen, is converted into the
+  corresponding hydrazodicarbondiamidine, NH2·(HN):C·NH·NH·C:(NH)·NH2.
+  By the action of nitrous acid on a nitric acid solution of
+  amidoguanidine, diazoguanidine nitrate, NH2·(HN):C·NH·N2·NO3, is
+  obtained. This diazo compound is decomposed by caustic alkalis with
+  the formation of cyanamide and hydrazoic acid,
+  CH4N5·NO3=N3H+CN·NH2+HNO3, whilst acetates and carbonates convert it
+  into amidotetrazotic acid,
+
+           N--N.
+         //
+    H2N·C    ||.
+         \\
+          NH--N
+
+  Amidotetrazotic acid yields addition compounds with amines, and by the
+  further action of nitrous acid yields a very explosive derivative,
+  diazotetrazol, CN6. By fusing guanidine with urea, dicyandiamidine
+  H2N·(HN):C·NH·CO·NH2, is formed.
+
+
+
+
+GUANO (a Spanish word from the Peruvian _huanu_, dung), the excrement of
+birds, found as large deposits on certain islands off the coast of Peru,
+and on others situated in the Southern ocean and off the west coast of
+Africa. The large proportions of phosphorus in the form of phosphates
+and of nitrogen as ammonium oxalate and urate renders it a valuable
+fertilizer. Bat's guano, composed of the excrement of bats, is found in
+certain caves in New Zealand and elsewhere; it is similar in composition
+to Peruvian guano. (See MANURES AND MANURING.)
+
+
+
+
+GUANTA, a port on the Caribbean coast of the state of Bermúdez,
+Venezuela, 12 m. N.E. of Barcelona, with which it is connected by rail.
+It dates from the completion of the railway to the coal mines of
+Naricual and Capiricual nearly 12 m. beyond Barcelona, and was created
+for the shipment of coal. The harbour is horseshoe-shaped, with its
+entrance, 1998 ft. wide, protected by an island less than 1 m. off the
+shore. The entrance is easy and safe, and the harbour affords secure
+anchorage for large vessels, with deep water alongside the iron railway
+wharf. These advantages have made Guanta the best port on this part of
+the coast, and the trade of Barcelona and that of a large inland
+district have been transferred to it. A prominent feature in its trade
+is the shipment of live cattle. Among its exports are sugar, coffee,
+cacáo, tobacco and fruit.
+
+
+
+
+GUANTÁNAMO, the easternmost important town of the S. coast of Cuba, in
+the province of Santiago, about 40 m. E. of Santiago. Pop. (1907)
+14,559. It is situated by the Guazo (or Guaso) river, on a little open
+plain between the mountains. The beautiful, land-locked harbour, 10 m.
+long from N. to S. and 4 m. wide in places, has an outer and an inner
+basin. The latter has a very narrow entrance, and 2 to 2.5 fathoms depth
+of water. From the port of Caimanera to the city of Guantánamo, 13 m.
+N., there is a railway, and the city has railway connexion with
+Santiago. Guantánamo is one of the two ports leased by Cuba to the
+United States for a naval station. It is the shipping-port and centre of
+a surrounding coffee-, sugar- and lime-growing district. In 1741 an
+English force under Admiral Edward Vernon and General Thomas Wentworth
+landed here to attack Santiago. They named the harbour Cumberland bay.
+After their retreat fortifications were begun. The history of the region
+practically dates, however, from the end of the 18th century, when it
+gained prosperity from the settlement of French refugees from Santo
+Domingo; the town, as such, dates only from 1822. Almost all the old
+families are of French descent, and French was the language locally most
+used as late as the last third of the 19th century. In recent years,
+especially since the Spanish-American War of 1898, the region has
+greatly changed socially and economically. Guantánamo was once a
+fashionable summer residence resort for wealthy Cubans.
+
+
+
+
+GUARANA (so called from the Guaranis, an aboriginal American tribe), the
+plant _Paullinia Cupana_ (or _P. sorbilis_) of the natural order
+_Sapindaceae_, indigenous to the north and west of Brazil. It has a
+smooth erect stem; large pinnate alternate leaves, composed of 5
+oblong-oval leaflets; narrow panicles of short-stalked flowers; and
+ovoid or pyriform fruit about as large as a grape, and containing
+usually one seed only, which is shaped like a minute horse-chestnut.
+What is commonly known as guarana, guarana bread or Brazilian cocoa, is
+prepared from the seeds as follows. In October and November, at which
+time they become ripe, the seeds are removed from their capsules and
+sun-dried, so as to admit of the ready removal by hand of the white
+aril; they are next ground in a stone mortar or deep dish of hard
+sandstone; the powder, moistened by the addition of a small quantity of
+water, or by exposure to the dews, is then made into a paste with a
+certain proportion of whole or broken seeds, and worked up sometimes
+into balls, but usually into rolls not unlike German sausages, 5 to 8
+in. in length, and 12 to 16 oz. in weight. After drying by artificial or
+solar heat, the guarana is packed between broad leaves in sacks or
+baskets. Thus prepared, it is of extreme hardness, and has a brown hue,
+a bitter astringent taste, and an odour faintly resembling that of
+roasted coffee. An inferior kind, softer and of a lighter colour, is
+manufactured by admixture of cocoa or cassava. Rasped or grated into
+sugar and water, guarana forms a beverage largely consumed in S.
+America. Its manufacture, originally confined to the Mauhés Indians, has
+spread into various parts of Brazil.
+
+  The properties of guarana as a nervous stimulant and restorative are
+  due to the presence of what was originally described as a new
+  principle and termed guaranine, but is now known to be identical with
+  caffeine or theine. Besides this substance, which is stated to exist
+  in it in the form of tannate, guarana yields on analysis the glucoside
+  saponin, with tannin, starch, gum, three volatile oils, and an acrid
+  green fixed oil (Fournier, _Journ. de Pharm._ vol. xxxix., 1861, p.
+  291).
+
+
+
+
+GUARANIS, a tribe and stock of South American Indians, having their home
+in Paraguay, Uruguay and on the Brazilian coast. The Guaranis had
+developed some civilization before the arrival of the Spaniards, and
+being a peaceable people quickly submitted. They form to-day the chief
+element in the populations of Paraguay and Uruguay. Owing to its
+patronage by the Jesuit missionaries the Guarani language became a
+widespread medium of communication, and in a corrupted form is still
+the common language in Paraguay.
+
+
+
+
+GUARANTEE (sometimes spelt "guarantie" or "guaranty"; an O. Fr. form of
+"warrant," from the Teutonic word which appears in German as _wahren_,
+to defend or make safe and binding), a term more comprehensive and of
+higher import than either "warrant" or "security," and designating
+either some international treaty whereby claims, rights or possessions
+are secured, or more commonly a mere private transaction, by means of
+which one person, to obtain some trust, confidence or credit for
+another, engages to be answerable for him.
+
+In English law, a guarantee is a contract to answer for the payment of
+some debt, or the performance of some duty, by a third person who is
+_primarily_ liable to such payment or performance. It is a _collateral_
+contract, which does not extinguish the original liability or obligation
+to which it is accessory, but on the contrary is itself rendered null
+and void should the latter fail, as without a principal there can be no
+accessory. The liabilities of a surety are in law dependent upon those
+of the principal debtor, and when the latter cease the former do so
+likewise (_per_ Collins, L.J., in _Stacey_ v. _Hill_, 1901, 1 K.B., at
+p. 666; see _per_ Willes, J., in _Bateson_ v. _Gosling_, 1871, L.R. 7
+C.P., at p. 14), except in certain cases where the discharge of the
+principal debtor is by operation of law (see _In re Fitzgeorge--ex parte
+Robson_, 1905, 1 K.B. p. 462). If, therefore, persons wrongly suppose
+that a third person is liable to one of them, and a guarantee is given
+on that erroneous supposition, it is invalid _ab initio_, by virtue of
+the _lex contractûs_, because its foundation (which was that another was
+taken to be liable) has failed (_per_ Willes, J., in _Mountstephen_ v.
+_Lakeman_, L.R. 7 Q.B. p. 202). According to various existing codes
+civil, a suretyship, in respect of an obligation "non-valable," is null
+and void save where the invalidity is the result of personal incapacity
+of the principal debtor (Codes Civil, France and Belgium, 2012; Spain,
+1824; Portugal, 822; Italy, 1899; Holland, 1858; Lower Canada, 1932). In
+some countries, however, the mere personal incapacity of a son under age
+to borrow suffices to vitiate the guarantee of a loan made to him
+(Spain, 1824; Portugal, 822, s. 2, 1535, 1536). The Egyptian codes
+sanction guarantees expressly entered into "in view of debtor's want of
+legal capacity" to contract a valid principal obligation (Egyptian
+Codes, Mixed Suits, 605; Native Tribunals, 496). The Portuguese code
+(art. 822, s. 1) retains the surety's liability, in respect of an
+invalid principal obligation, until the latter has been legally
+rescinded.
+
+The giver of a guarantee is called "the surety," or "the guarantor"; the
+person to whom it is given "the creditor," or "the guarantee"; while the
+person whose payment or performance is secured thereby is termed "the
+principal debtor," or simply "the principal." In America, but not
+apparently elsewhere, there is a recognized distinction between "a
+surety" and "a guarantor"; the former being usually bound with the
+principal, at the same time and on the same consideration, while the
+contract of the latter is his own separate undertaking, in which the
+principal does not join, and in respect of which he is not to be held
+liable, until due diligence has been exerted to compel the principal
+debtor to make good his default. There is no privity of contract between
+the surety and the principal debtor, for the surety contracts with the
+creditor, and they do not constitute in law one person, and are not
+jointly liable to the creditor (_per_ Baron Parke in _Bain_ v. _Cooper_,
+1 Dowl. R. (N.S.) 11, 14).
+
+No special phraseology is necessary to the formation of a guarantee; and
+what really distinguishes such a contract from one of insurance is not
+any essential difference between the two forms of words _insurance_ and
+_guarantee_, but the substance of the contract entered into by the
+parties in each particular case (_per_ Romer, L.J., in _Seaton_ v.
+_Heath_--_Seaton_ v. _Burnand_, 1899, 1 Q.B. 782, 792, C.A.; _per_
+Vaughan Williams, L.J., in _In re Denton's Estate Licenses Insurance
+Corporation and Guarantee Fund Ltd._ v. _Denton_, 1904, 2 Ch., at p.
+188; and see _Dane_ v. _Mortgage Insurance Corporation_, 1894, 1 Q.B. 54
+C.A.) In this connexion it may be mentioned that the different kinds of
+suretyships have been classified as follows: (1) Those in which there is
+an agreement to constitute, for a particular purpose, the relation of
+principal and surety, to which agreement the creditor thereby secured is
+a party; (2) those in which there is a similar agreement between the
+principal and surety only, to which the creditor is a stranger; and (3)
+those in which, without any such contract of suretyship, there is a
+primary and a secondary liability of two persons for one and the same
+debt, the debt being, as between the two, that of one of those persons
+only, and not equally of both, so that the other, if he should be
+compelled to pay it, would be entitled to reimbursement from the person
+by whom (as between the two) it ought to have been paid (_per_ Earl of
+Selborne, L.C., _in Duncan Fox and Co._ v. _North and South Wales Bank_,
+6 App. Cas., at p. 11). According to several codes civil sureties are
+made divisible into conventional, legal and judicial (Fr. and Bel.,
+2015, 2040 et seq.; Spain, 1823; Lower Canada, 1930), while the Spanish
+code further divides them into gratuitous and for valuable consideration
+(art. 1, 823).
+
+In England the common-law requisites of a guarantee in no way differ
+from those essential to the formation of any other contract. That is to
+say, they comprise the mutual assent of two or more parties, competency
+to contract, and, unless the guarantee be under seal, valuable
+consideration. An offer to guarantee is not binding until it has been
+accepted, being revocable till then by the party making it. Unless,
+however, as sometimes happens, the offer contemplates an express
+acceptance, one may be implied, and it may be a question for a jury
+whether an offer of guarantee has in fact been accepted. Where the
+surety's assent to a guarantee has been procured by fraud of the person
+to whom it is given, there is no binding contract. Such fraud may
+consist of suppression or concealment or misrepresentation. There is
+some conflict of authorities as to what facts must be spontaneously
+disclosed to the surety by the creditor, but it may be taken that the
+rule on the subject is less stringent than that governing insurances
+upon marine, life and other risks (_The North British Insurance Co._ v.
+_Lloyd_, 10 Exch. 523), though formerly this was denied (_Owen_ v.
+_Homan_, 3 Mac. & G. 378, 397). Moreover, even where the contract relied
+upon is in the form of a policy guaranteeing the solvency of a surety
+for another's debt, and is therefore governed by the doctrine of
+_uberrima_ fides, only such facts as are really material to the risk
+undertaken need be spontaneously disclosed (_Seaton_ v.
+_Burnand_--_Burnand_ v. _Seaton_, 1900, A.C. 135). As regards the
+competency of the parties to enter into a contract of guarantee, this
+may be affected by insanity or intoxication of the surety, if known to
+the creditor, or by disability of any kind. The ordinary disabilities
+are those of infants and married women--now in England greatly mitigated
+as regards the latter by the Married Women's Property Acts, 1870 to
+1893, which enable a married woman to contract, as a _feme sole_, to the
+extent of her separate property. Every guarantee not under seal must
+according to English law have a consideration to support it, though the
+least spark of one suffices (_per_ Wilmot, J., in _Pillan_ v. _van
+Mierop and Hopkins_, 3 Burr., at p. 1666; _Haigh_ v. _Brooks_, 10 A. &
+E. 309; _Barrell_ v. _Trussell_, 4 Taunt. 117), which, as in other
+cases, may consist either of some right, interest, profit or benefit
+accruing to the one party, or some forbearance, detriment, loss or
+responsibility given, suffered or undertaken by the other. In some
+guarantees the consideration is entire--as where, in consideration of a
+lease being granted, the surety becomes answerable for the performance
+of the covenants; in other cases it is fragmentary, i.e. supplied from
+time to time--as where a guarantee is given to secure the balance of a
+running account at a banker's, or a balance of a running account for
+goods supplied (_per_ Lush, L.J., in _Lloyd's_ v. _Harper_, 16 Ch. Div.,
+at p. 319). In the former case, the moment the lease is granted there is
+nothing more for the lessor to do, and such a guarantee as that of
+necessity runs on throughout the duration of the lease and is
+irrevocable. In the latter case, however, unless the guarantee
+stipulates to the contrary, the surety may at any time terminate his
+liability under the guarantee as to _future_ advances, &c. The
+consideration for a guarantee must not be _past_ or _executed_, but on
+the other hand it need not comprise a direct benefit or advantage to
+either the surety or the creditor, but may solely consist of anything
+done, or any promise made, for the benefit of the principal debtor. It
+is more frequently _executory_ than _concurrent_, taking the form either
+of forbearance to sue the principal debtor, or of a future advance of
+money or supply of goods to him.
+
+By the Indian Contract Act 1872, sect. 127, it is provided that the
+consideration for a guarantee may consist of anything done or any
+promise made for the benefit of the principal debtor by the creditor.
+Total failure of the consideration stipulated for by the party giving a
+guarantee will prevent its being enforced, as will also the existence of
+an illegal consideration. Though in all countries the mutual assent of
+two or more parties is essential to the formation of any contract (see
+e.g. Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 1108; Port. 643, 647 et seq.; Spain,
+1258, 1261; Italy, 1104; Holl. 1356; Lower Canada, 984), a consideration
+is not everywhere regarded as a necessary element (see Pothier's _Law of
+Obligations_, Evans's edition, vol. ii. p. 19). Thus in Scotland a
+contract may be binding without a consideration to support it (Stair i.
+10. 7).
+
+The statutory requisites of a guarantee are, in England, prescribed by
+(1) the Statute of Frauds, which, with reference to guarantees, provides
+that "no action shall be brought whereby to charge the defendant upon
+any special promise to answer for the debt, default or miscarriages of
+another person, unless the agreement upon which such action shall be
+brought, or some memorandum or note thereof, shall be in writing and
+signed by the party to be charged therewith, or some other person
+thereunto by him lawfully authorized," and (2) Lord Tenterden's Act (9
+Geo. IV. c. 14), which by § 6 enacts that "no action shall be brought
+whereby to charge any person upon or by reason of any representation or
+assurance made or given concerning or relating to the character,
+conduct, credit, ability, trade or dealings of any other person, to the
+intent or purpose that such other person may obtain credit, money or
+goods upon" (i.e. "upon credit," see _per_ Parke, B., in _Lyde_ v.
+_Barnard_, 1 M. & W., at p. 104), "unless such representation or
+assurance be made in writing signed by the party to be charged
+therewith." This latter enactment, which applies to incorporated
+companies as well as to individual persons (_Hirst_ v. _West Riding
+Union Banking Co._, 1901, 2 K.B. 560 C.A.), was rendered necessary by an
+evasion of the 4th section of the Statute of Frauds, accomplished by
+treating the special promise to answer for another's debt, default or
+miscarriage, when not in writing, as required by that section, as a
+false and fraudulent representation concerning another's credit,
+solvency or honesty, in respect of which damages, as for a tort, were
+held to be recoverable (_Pasley_ v. _Freeman_, 3 T.R. 51). In Scotland,
+where, it should be stated, a guarantee is called a "cautionary
+obligation," similar enactments to those just specified are contained in
+§ 6 of the Mercantile Law Amendment Act (Scotland) 1856, while in the
+Irish Statute of Frauds (7 Will. III. c. 12) there is a provision (§ 2)
+identical with that found in the English Statute of Frauds. In India a
+guarantee may be either oral or written (Indian Contract Act, § 126),
+while in the Australian colonies, Jamaica and Ceylon it must be in
+writing. The German code civil requires the surety's promise to be
+verified by writing where he has not executed the principal obligation
+(art. 766), and the Portuguese code renders a guarantee provable by all
+the modes established by law for the proof of the principal contract
+(art. 826). According to most codes civil now in force a guarantee like
+any other contract can usually be made verbally in the presence of
+witnesses and in certain cases (where for instance considerable sums of
+money are involved) _sous signature privée_ or else by judicial or
+notarial instrument (see Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 1341; Spain, 1244;
+Port. 2506, 2513; Italy, 1341 et seq.; Pothier's _Law of Obligations_,
+Evans's ed. i. 257; Burge on _Suretyship_, p. 19; van der Linden's
+_Institutes of Holland_, p. 120); the French and Belgian Codes,
+moreover, provide that suretyship is not to be presumed but must always
+be expressed (art. 2015).
+
+The Statute of Frauds does not invalidate a verbal guarantee, but
+renders it unenforceable by action. It may therefore be available in
+support of a defence to an action, and money paid under it cannot be
+recovered. An indemnity is not a guarantee within the statute, unless it
+contemplates the primary liability of a third person. It need not,
+therefore, be in writing when it is a mere promise to become liable for
+a debt, whenever the person to whom the promise is made should become
+liable (_Wildes_ v. _Dudlow_, L.R. 19 Eq. 198; _per_ Vaughan Williams,
+L.J. in _Harburg India-Rubber Co._ v. _Martin_, 1902, 1 K.B. p. 786;
+_Guild_ v. _Conrad_, 1894, 2 Q.B. 885 C.A.). Neither does the statute
+apply to the promise of a _del credere_ agent, which binds him, in
+consideration of the higher commission he receives, to make no sales on
+behalf of his principal except to persons who are absolutely solvent,
+and renders him liable for any loss that may result from the
+non-fulfilment of his promise. A promise to _give_ a guarantee is,
+however, within the statute, though not one to _procure_ a guarantee.
+
+The general principles which determine what are guarantees within the
+Statute of Frauds, as deduced from a multitude of decided cases, are
+briefly as follows: (1) the primary liability of a third person must
+exist or be contemplated as the foundation of the contract (_Birkmyr_ v.
+_Darnell_, 1 Sm. L.C. 11th ed. p. 299; _Mountstephen_ v. _Lakeman_, L.R.
+7 Q.B. 196; L.R. 7 H.L. 17); (2) the promise must be made to the
+creditor; (3) there must be an absence of all liability on the part of
+the surety independently of his express promise of guarantee; (4) the
+main object of the transaction between the parties to the guarantee must
+be the fulfilment of a third party's obligation (see _Harburg
+India-rubber Comb Co._ v. _Martin_, 1902, 1 K.B. 778, 786); and (5) the
+contract entered into must not amount to a sale by the creditor to the
+promiser of a security for a debt or of the debt itself (see de Colyar's
+_Law of Guarantees and of Principal and Surety_, 3rd ed. pp. 65-161,
+where these principles are discussed in detail by the light of decided
+cases there cited).
+
+As regards the kind of note or memorandum of the guarantee that will
+satisfy the Statute of Frauds, it is now provided by § 3 of the
+Mercantile Law Amendment Act 1856, that "no special promise to be made,
+by any person after the passing of this act, to answer for the debt,
+default or miscarriage of another person, being in writing and signed by
+the party to be charged therewith, or some other person by him thereunto
+lawfully authorized, shall be deemed invalid to support an action, suit
+or other proceeding, to charge the person by whom such promise shall
+have been made, by reason only that the consideration for such promise
+does not appear in writing or by necessary inference from a written
+document." Prior to this enactment, which is not retrospective in its
+operation, it was held in many cases that as the Statute of Frauds
+requires "the agreement" to be in writing, all parts thereof were
+required so to be, including the consideration moving to, as well as the
+promise by, the party to be charged (_Wain_ v. _Walters_, 5 East, 10;
+_Sounders_ v. _Wakefield_, 4 B. & Ald. 595). These decisions, however,
+proved to be burdensome to the mercantile community, especially in
+Scotland and the north of England, and ultimately led to the alteration
+of the law, so far as guarantees are concerned, by means of the
+enactment already specified. Any writing embodying the terms of the
+agreement between the parties, and signed by the party to be charged, is
+sufficient; and the idea of agreement need not be present to the mind of
+the person signing (_per_ Lindley, L.J., in _In re_ Hoyle--_Hoyle_ v.
+_Hoyle_, 1893, 1 Ch., at p. 98). It is, however, necessary that the
+names of the contracting parties should appear somewhere in writing;
+that the party to be charged, or his agent, should sign the memorandum
+or note of agreement, or else should sign another paper referring
+thereto; and that, when the note or memorandum is made, a complete
+agreement shall exist. Moreover, the memorandum must have been made
+before action brought, though it need not be contemporaneous with the
+agreement itself. As regards the stamping of the memorandum or note of
+agreement, a guarantee cannot, in England, be given in evidence unless
+properly stamped (Stamp Act 1891). A guarantee for the payment of goods,
+however, requires no stamp, being within the exception contained in the
+first schedule of the act. Nor is it necessary to stamp a written
+representation or assurance as to character within 9 Geo. IV. c. 14,
+_supra_. If under seal, a guarantee requires sometimes an _ad valorem_
+stamp and sometimes a ten-shilling stamp; in other cases a sixpenny
+stamp generally suffices; and, on certain prescribed terms, the stamps
+can be affixed any time after execution (Stamp Act 1891, § 15, amended
+by § 15 of the Finance Act 1895).
+
+
+  Extent of surety's liability.
+
+The liability incurred by a surety under his guarantee depends upon its
+terms, and is not necessarily co-extensive with that of the principal
+debtor. It is, however, obvious that as the surety's obligation is
+merely accessory to that of the principal it cannot as such exceed it
+(de Colyar, _Law of Guarantees_, 3rd ed. p. 233; Burge, _Suretyship_, p.
+5). By the Roman law, if there were any such excess the surety's
+obligation was rendered _wholly_ void and not merely void _pro tanto_.
+By many existing codes civil, however, a guarantee which imposes on the
+surety a greater liability than that of the principal is not thereby
+invalidated, but the liability is merely reducible to that of the
+principal (Fr. and Bel. 2013; Port. 823; Spain, 1826; Italy, 1900;
+Holland, 1859; Lower Canada, 1933). By sec. 128 of the Indian Contract
+Act 1872 the liability of the surety is, unless otherwise provided by
+contract, coextensive with that of the principal. Where the liability of
+the surety is _less_ extensive in amount than that of the principal
+debtor, difficult questions have arisen in England and America as to
+whether the surety is liable only for _part_ of the debt equal to the
+limit of his liability, or, up to such limit, for the _whole_ debt
+(_Ellis_ v. _Emmanuel_, 1 Ex. Div. 157; _Hobson_ v. _Bass_, 6 Ch. App.
+792; Brandt, _Suretyship_, sec. 219). The surety cannot be made liable
+except for a loss sustained by reason of the default guaranteed against.
+Moreover, in the case of a joint and several guarantee by several
+sureties, unless all sign it none are liable thereunder (_National Pro.
+Bk. of England_ v. _Brackenbury_, 1906, 22 _Times_ L.R. 797). It was
+formerly considered in England to be the duty of the party taking a
+guarantee to see that it was couched in language enabling the party
+giving it to understand clearly to what extent he was binding himself
+(_Nicholson_ v. _Paget_, 1 C. & M. 48, 52). This view, however, can no
+longer be sustained, it being now recognized that a guarantee, like any
+other contract, must, in cases of ambiguity, be construed against the
+party bound thereby and in favour of the party receiving it (_Mayer_ v.
+_Isaac_, 6 M. & W. 605, 612; _Wood_ v. _Priestner_, L.R. 2 Exch. 66,
+71). The surety is not to be changed beyond the limits prescribed by his
+contract, which must be construed so as to give effect to what may
+fairly be inferred to have been the intention of the parties, from what
+they themselves have expressed in writing. In cases of doubtful import,
+recourse to parol evidence is permissible, to explain, but not to
+contradict, the written evidence of the guarantee. As a general rule,
+the surety is not liable if the principal debt cannot be enforced,
+because, as already explained, the obligation of the surety is merely
+accessory to that of the principal debtor. It has never been actually
+decided in England whether this rule holds good in cases where the
+principal debtor is an infant, and on that account is not liable to the
+creditor. Probably in such a case the surety might be held liable by
+estoppel (see _Kimball_ v. _Newell_, 7 Hill (N.Y.) 116). When directors
+guarantee the performance by their company of a contract which is ultra
+vires, and therefore not binding on the latter, the directors'
+suretyship liability is, nevertheless, enforceable against them
+(_Yorkshire Railway Waggon Co._ v. _Maclure_, 21 Ch. D. 309 C.A.).
+
+It is not always easy to determine for how long a time liability under a
+guarantee endures. Sometimes a guarantee is limited to a single
+transaction, and is obviously intended to be security against one
+specific default only. On the other hand, it as often happens that it is
+not exhausted by one transaction on the faith of it, but extends to a
+series of transactions, and remains a standing security until it is
+revoked, either by the act of the parties or else by the death of the
+surety. It is then termed a continuing guarantee. No fixed rules of
+interpretation determine whether a guarantee is a continuing one or
+not, but each case must be judged on its individual merits; and
+frequently, in order to achieve a correct construction, it becomes
+necessary to examine the surrounding circumstances, which often reveal
+what was the subject-matter which the parties contemplated when the
+guarantee was given, and likewise what was the scope and object of the
+transaction between them. Most continuing guarantees are either ordinary
+mercantile securities, in respect of advances made or goods supplied to
+the principal debtor or else bonds for the good behaviour of persons in
+public or private offices or employments. With regard to the latter
+class of continuing guarantees, the surety's liability is, generally
+speaking, revoked by any change in the constitution of the persons to or
+for whom the guarantee is given. On this subject it is now provided by
+section 18 of the Partnership Act 1890, which applies to Scotland as
+well as England, that "a continuing guarantee or cautionary obligation
+given either to a firm or to a third person in respect of the
+transactions of a firm, is, in the absence of agreement to the contrary,
+revoked as to future transactions by any change in the constitution of
+the firm to which, or of the firm in respect of the transactions of
+which the guaranty or obligation was given." This section, like the
+enactment it replaces, namely, sec. 4 of the Mercantile Law Amendment
+Act 1856, is mainly declaratory of the English common law, as embodied
+in decided cases, which indicate that the changes in the persons to or
+for whom a guarantee is given may consist either of an increase in their
+number, of a diminution thereof caused by death or retirement from
+business, or of the incorporation or consolidation of the persons to
+whom the guarantee is given. In this connexion it may be stated that the
+Government Offices (Security) Act 1875, which has been amended by the
+Statute Law Revision Act 1883, contains certain provisions with regard
+to the acceptance by the heads of public departments of guarantees given
+by companies for the due performance of the duties of an office or
+employment in the public service, and enables the Commissioners of His
+Majesty's Treasury to vary the character of any security, for good
+behaviour by public servants, given after the passing of the act.
+
+Before the surety can be rendered liable on his guarantee, the principal
+debtor must have made default. When, however, this has occurred, the
+creditor, in the absence of express agreement to the contrary, may sue
+the surety, without even informing him of such default having taken
+place, or requiring him to pay, and before proceeding against the
+principal debtor or resorting to securities for the debt received from
+the latter. In those countries where the municipal law is based on the
+Roman civil law, sureties usually possess the right (which may, however,
+be renounced by them) originally conferred by the Roman law, of
+compelling the creditor to insist on the goods, &c. (if any) of the
+principal debtor being first "discussed," i.e. appraised and sold, and
+appropriated to the liquidation of the debt guaranteed (see Codes Civil,
+Fr. and Bel. 2021 et seq.; Spain, 1830, 1831; Port. 830; Germany, 771,
+772, 773; Holland, 1868; Italy, 1907; Lower Canada, 1941-1942; Egypt
+[mixed suits] 612; _ibid._ [native tribunals] 502), before having
+recourse to the sureties. This right, according to a great American
+jurist (Chancellor Kent in _Hayes_ v. _Ward_, 4 Johns. New York, Ch.
+Cas. p. 132), "accords with a common sense of justice and the natural
+equity of mankind." In England this right has never been fully
+recognized. Neither does it prevail in America nor, since the passing of
+the Mercantile Law Amendment Act (Scotland) 1856, s. 8, is it any longer
+available in Scotland where, prior to the last-named enactment, the
+benefit of discussion, as it is termed, existed. In England, however,
+before any demand for payment has been made by the creditor on the
+surety, the latter can, as soon as the principal debtor has made
+default, compel the creditor, on giving him an indemnity against costs
+and expenses, to sue the principal debtor if the latter be solvent and
+able to pay (_per_ A. L. Smith, L.J., in _Rouse_ v. _Bradford Banking
+Company_, 1894, 2 Ch. 75; _per_ Lord Eldon in _Wright_ v. _Simpson_, 6
+Ves., at p. 733), and a similar remedy is also open to the surety in
+America (see Brandt on _Suretyship_, par. 205, p. 290) though in
+neither of these countries nor in Scotland can one of several sureties,
+when sued for the whole guaranteed debt by the creditor, compel the
+latter to divide his claim amongst all the solvent sureties, and reduce
+it to the share and proportion of each surety. However, this _beneficium
+divisionis_, as it is called in Roman law, is recognized by many
+existing codes (Fr. and Bel. 2025-2027; Spain, 1837; Portugal, 835-836;
+Germany, 426; Holland, 1873-1874; Italy, 1911-1912; Lower Canada, 1946;
+Egypt [mixed suits], 615, 616).
+
+The usual mode in England of enforcing liability under a guarantee is by
+action in the High Court or in the county court. It is also permissible
+for the creditor to obtain redress by means of a set-off or
+counter-claim, in an action brought against him by the surety. On the
+other hand, the surety may now, in any court in which the action on the
+guarantee is pending, avail himself of any set-off which may exist
+between the principal debtor and the creditor. Moreover, if one of
+several sureties for the same debt is sued by the creditor or his
+guarantee, he can, by means of a proceeding termed a third-party notice,
+claim contribution from his co-surety towards the common liability.
+Independent proof of the surety's liability under his guarantee must
+always be given at the trial; as the creditor cannot rely either on
+admissions made by the principal debtor, or on a judgment or award
+obtained against him (_Ex parte Young In re Kitchin_, 17 Ch. Div. 668).
+Should the surety become bankrupt either before or after default has
+been made by the principal debtor, the creditor will have to prove
+against his estate. This right of proof is now in England regulated by
+the 37th section of the Bankruptcy Act, 1883, which is most
+comprehensive in its terms.
+
+
+  Rights of sureties.
+
+A person liable as a surety for another under a guarantee possesses
+various rights against him, against the person to whom the guarantee is
+given, and also against those who may have become co-sureties in respect
+of the same debt, default or miscarriage. As regards the surety's rights
+against the principal debtor, the latter may, where the guarantee was
+made with his consent but not otherwise (see _Hodgson_ v. _Shaw_, 3 Myl.
+& K. at p. 190), after he has made default, be compelled by the surety
+to exonerate him from liability by payment of the guaranteed debt (_per_
+Sir W. Grant, M.R., in _Antrobus_ v. _Davidson_, 3 Meriv. 569, 579;
+_per_ Lindley, L.J., in _Johnston_ v. _Salvage Association_, 19 Q.B.D.
+460, 461; and see _Wolmershausen_ v. _Gullick_, 1893, 2 Ch. 514). The
+moment, moreover, the surety has himself paid any portion of the
+guaranteed debt, he is entitled to rank as a creditor for the amount so
+paid, and to compel repayment thereof. In the event of the principal
+debtor's bankruptcy, the surety can in England, if the creditor has not
+already proved in respect of the guaranteed debt, prove against the
+bankrupt's estate, not only in respect of payments made before the
+bankruptcy of the principal debtor, but also, it seems, in respect of
+the contingent liability to pay under the guarantee (see _Ex parte
+Delmar re Herepath_, 1889, 38 W.R. 752), while if the creditor has
+already proved, the surety who has paid the guaranteed debt has a right
+to all dividends received by the creditor from the bankrupt in respect
+thereof, and to stand in the creditor's place as to future dividends.
+This right is, however, often waived by the guarantee stipulating that,
+until the creditor has received full payment of all sums over and above
+the guaranteed debt, due to him from the principal debtor, the surety
+shall not participate in any dividends distributed from the bankrupt's
+estate amongst his creditors. As regards the rights of the surety
+against the creditor, they are in England exercisable even by one who in
+the first instance was a principal debtor, but has since become a
+surety, by arrangement with his creditor, duly notified to the creditor,
+though not even sanctioned by him. This was decided by the House of
+Lords in the case of _Rouse_ v. _The Bradford Banking Co._, 1894, A.C.
+586, removing a doubt created by the previous case of _Swire_ v.
+_Redman_, 1 Q.B.D. 536, which must now be treated as overruled. The
+surety's principal right against the creditor entitles him, after
+payment of the guaranteed debt, to the benefit of all securities,
+whether known to him (the surety) or not, which the creditor held
+against the principal debtor; and where, by default or _laches_ of the
+creditor, such securities have been lost, or rendered otherwise
+unavailable, the surety is discharged _pro tanto_. This right, which is
+_not_ in abeyance till the surety is called on to pay (_Dixon_ v.
+_Steel_, 1901, 2 Ch. 602), extends to all securities, whether satisfied
+or not, given before or after the contract of suretyship was entered
+into. On this subject the Mercantile Law Amendment Act, 1856, § 5,
+provides that "every person who being surety for the debt or duty of
+another, or being liable with another for any debt or duty, shall pay
+such debt or perform such duty, shall be entitled to have assigned to
+him, or to a trustee for him, every judgment, specialty, or other
+security, which shall be held by the creditor in respect of such debt or
+duty, whether such judgment, specialty, or other security shall or shall
+not be deemed at law to have been satisfied by the payment of the debt
+or performance of the duty, and such person shall be entitled to stand
+in the place of the creditor, and to use all the remedies, and, if need
+be, and upon a proper indemnity, to use the name of the creditor, in any
+action or other proceeding at law or in equity, in order to obtain from
+the principal debtor, or any co-surety, co-contractor, or co-debtor, as
+the case may be, indemnification for the advances made and loss
+sustained by the person who shall have so paid such debt or performed
+such duty; and such payment or performance so made by such surety shall
+not be pleadable in bar of any such action or other proceeding by him,
+provided always that no co-surety, co-contractor, or co-debtor shall be
+entitled to recover from any other co-surety, co-contractor, or
+co-debtor, by the means aforesaid, more than the just proportion to
+which, as between those parties themselves, such last-mentioned person
+shall be justly liable." This enactment is so far retrospective that it
+applies to a contract made before the act, where the breach thereof, and
+the payment by the surety, have taken place subsequently. The right of
+the surety to be subrogated, on payment by him of the guaranteed debt,
+to all the rights of the creditor against the principal debtor is
+recognized in America (_Tobin_ v. _Kirk_, 80 New York S.C.R. 229), and
+many other countries (Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 2029; Spain, 1839; Port.
+839; Germany, 774; Holland, 1877; Italy, 1916; Lower Canada, 2959; Egypt
+[mixed suits], 617; _ibid._ [native tribunals], 505).
+
+As regards the rights of the surety against a co-surety, he is entitled
+to contribution from him in respect of their common liability. This
+particular right is not the result of any contract, but is derived from
+a general equity, on the ground of equality of burden and benefit, and
+exists whether the sureties be bound jointly, or jointly and severally,
+and by the same, or different, instruments. There is, however, no right
+of contribution where each surety is severally bound for a given portion
+only of the guaranteed debt; nor in the case of a surety for a surety;
+(see _In re Denton's Estate_, 1904, 2 Ch. 178 C.A.); nor where a person
+becomes a surety jointly with another and at the latter's request.
+Contribution may be enforced, either before payment, or as soon as the
+surety has paid more than his share of the common debt (_Wolmershausen_
+v. _Gullick_, 1803, 2 Ch. 514); and the amount recoverable is now always
+regulated by the number of solvent sureties, though formerly this rule
+only prevailed in equity. In the event of the bankruptcy of a surety,
+proof can be made against his estate by a co-surety for any excess over
+the latter's contributive share. The right of contribution is not the
+only right possessed by co-sureties against each other, but they are
+also entitled to the benefit of all securities which have been taken by
+any one of them as an indemnity against the liability incurred for the
+principal debtor. The Roman law did not recognize the right of
+contribution amongst sureties. It is, however, sanctioned by many
+existing codes (Fr. and Bel. 2033; Germany, 426, 474; Italy, 1920;
+Holland, 1881; Spain, 1844; Port. 845; Lower Canada, 1955; Egypt [mixed
+suits], 618, _ibid._ [native tribunals], 506), and also by the Indian
+Contract Act 1872, ss. 146-147.
+
+The discharge of a surety from liability under his guarantee may be
+accomplished In various ways, he being regarded, especially in England
+and America, as a "favoured debtor" (_per_ Turner, L.J., in _Wheatley_
+v. _Bastow_, 7 De G. M. & G. 279, 280; _per_ Earl of Selborne, L.C., in
+_In re Sherry--London and County Banking Co._ v. _Terry_, 25 Ch. D., at
+p. 703; and see Brandt on _Suretyship_, secs. 79, 80). Thus, fraud
+subsequent to the execution of the guarantee (as where, for example, the
+creditor connives at the principal debtor's default) will certainly
+discharge the surety. Again, a material alteration made by the creditor
+in the instrument of guarantee after its execution may also have this
+effect. The most prolific ground of discharge, however, is usually
+traceable to causes originating in the creditor's laches or conduct, the
+governing principle being that if the creditor violates any rights which
+the surety possessed when he entered into the suretyship, even though
+the damage be nominal only, the guarantee cannot be enforced. On this
+subject it suffices to state that the surety's discharge may be
+accomplished (1) by a variation of the terms of the contract between the
+creditor and the principal debtor, or of that subsisting between the
+creditor and the surety (see _Rickaby_ v. _Lewis_, 22 T.L.R. 130); (2)
+by the creditor taking a new security from the principal debtor in lieu
+of the original one; (3) by the creditor discharging the principal
+debtor from liability; (4) by the creditor binding himself to give time
+to the principal debtor for payment of the guaranteed debt; or (5) by
+loss of securities received by the creditor in respect of the guaranteed
+debt.
+
+In this connexion It may be stated in general terms that whatever
+extinguishes the principal obligation necessarily determines that of the
+surety (which is accessory thereto), not only in England but elsewhere
+also (Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 2034, 2038; Spain, 1847; Port. 848;
+Lower Canada, 1956; 1960; Egypt [mixed suits], 622, _ibid._ [native
+tribunals], 509; Indian Contract Act 1872, sec. 134), and that, by most
+of the codes civil now in force, the surety is discharged by _laches_ or
+conduct of the creditor inconsistent with the surety's rights (see Fr.
+and Bel. 2037; Spain, 1852; Port. 853; Germany, 776; Italy, 1928; Egypt
+[mixed suits], 623), though it may be mentioned that the rule prevailing
+in England, Scotland, America and India which releases the surety from
+liability where the creditor, by binding contract with the principal,
+extends without the surety's consent the time for fulfilling the
+principal obligation, while recognized by two existing codes civil
+(Spain, 1851; Port. 852), is rejected by the majority of them (Fr. and
+Bel. 2039; Holland, 1887; Italy, 1930; Lower Canada, 1961; Egypt [mixed
+suits], 613; _ib._ [native tribunals], 503); (and see Morice, _English
+and Dutch Law_, p. 96; van der Linden, _Institutes of Holland_, pp.
+120-121). A revocation of the contract of suretyship by act of the
+parties, or in certain cases by the death of the surety, may also
+operate to discharge the surety. The death of a surety does not _per se_
+determine the guarantee, but, save where from its nature the guarantee
+is irrevocable by the surety himself, it can be revoked by express
+notice after his death, or, it would appear, by the creditor becoming
+affected with constructive notice thereof; except where, under the
+testator's will, the executor has the option of continuing the
+guarantee, in which case the executor should, it seems, specifically
+withdraw the guarantee in order to determine it. Where one of a number
+of joint and several sureties dies, the future liability of the
+survivors under the guarantee continues, at all events until it has been
+determined by express notice. Moreover, when three persons joined in a
+guarantee to a bank, and their liability thereunder was not expressed to
+be several, it was held that the death of one surety did not determine
+the liability of the survivors. In such a case, however, the estate of
+the deceased surety would be relieved from liability.
+
+The Statutes of Limitation bar the right of action on guarantees under
+seal after twenty years, and on other guarantees after six years, from
+the date when the creditor might have sued the surety.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--De Colyar, _Law of Guarantees and of Principal and
+  Surety_ (3rd ed., 1897); American edition, by J. A. Morgan (1875);
+  Throop, _Validity of Verbal Agreements_; Fell, _Guarantees_ (2nd
+  ed.); Theobald, _Law of Principal and Surety_; Brandt, _Law of
+  Suretyships and Guarantee_; article by de Colyar in _Journal of
+  Comparative Legislation_ (1905), on "Suretyship from the Standpoint of
+  Comparative Jurisprudence."     (H. A. de C.)
+
+
+
+
+GUARATINGUETÁ, a city of Brazil In the eastern part of the state of São
+Paulo, 124 m. N.E. of the city of São Paulo. Pop. (1890) of the
+municipality, which includes a large rural district and the villages of
+Apparecida and Roseira, 30,690. The city, which was founded in 1651,
+stands on a fertile plain 3 m. from the Parahyba river, and is the
+commercial centre of one of the oldest agricultural districts of the
+state. The district produces large quantities of coffee, and some sugar,
+Indian corn and beans. Cattle and pigs are raised. The city dwellings
+are for the most part constructed of rough wooden frames covered with
+mud, called _taipa_ by the natives, and roofed with curved tiles. The
+São Paulo branch of the Brazilian Central railway passes through the
+city, by which it is connected with Rio de Janeiro on one side and São
+Paulo and Santos on the other.
+
+
+
+
+GUARDA, an episcopal city and the capital of an administrative district
+bearing the same name, and formerly in the province of Beira, Portugal;
+on the Guarda-Abrantes and Lisbon-Villar Formoso railways. Pop. (1900)
+6124. Guarda is situated 3370 ft. above sea-level, at the north-eastern
+extremity of the Serra da Estrella, overlooking the fertile valley of
+the river Côa. It is surrounded by ancient walls, and contains a ruined
+castle, a fine 16th-century cathedral and a sanatorium for consumptives.
+Its industries comprise the manufacture of coarse cloth and the sale of
+grain, wine and live stock. In 1199 Guarda was founded, on the site of
+the Roman Lencia Oppidana, by Sancho I. of Portugal, who intended it, as
+its name implies, to be a "guard" against Moorish invasion. The
+administrative district of Guarda coincides with north-eastern Beira;
+pop. (1900), 261,630; area, 1065 sq. m.
+
+
+
+
+GUARDI, FRANCESCO (1712-1793), Venetian painter, was a pupil of
+Canaletto, and followed his style so closely that his pictures are very
+frequently attributed to his more celebrated master. Nevertheless, the
+diversity, when once perceived, is sufficiently marked--Canaletto being
+more firm, solid, distinct, well-grounded, and on the whole the higher
+master, while Guardi is noticeable for spirited touch, sparkling colour
+and picturesquely sketched figures--in these respects being fully equal
+to Canaletto. Guardi sometimes coloured Canaletto's designs. He had
+extraordinary facility, three or four days being enough for producing an
+entire work. The number of his performances is large in proportion to
+this facility and to the love of gain which characterized him. Many of
+his works are to be found in England and seven in the Louvre.
+
+
+
+
+GUARDIAN, one who guards or defends another, a protector. The O. Fr.
+_guarden_, _garden_, mod. _gardien_, from _guarder_, _garder_, is of
+Teutonic origin, from the base _war-_, to protect, cf. O.H. Ger.
+_warten_, and Eng. "ward"; thus "guardian" and "warden" are
+etymologically identical, as are "guard" and "ward"; cf. the use of the
+correlatives "guardian" and "ward," i.e. a minor, or person incapable of
+managing his affairs, under the protection or in the custody of a
+guardian. For the position of guardians of the poor see POOR LAW, and
+for the legal relations between a guardian and his ward see INFANT,
+MARRIAGE and ROMAN LAW.
+
+
+
+
+GUARDS, AND HOUSEHOLD TROOPS. The word _guard_ is an adaptation of the
+Fr. _guarde_, mod. _garde_, O. Ger. _ward_; see GUARDIAN. The practice
+of maintaining bodyguards is of great antiquity, and may indeed be
+considered the beginning of organized armies. Thus there is often no
+clear distinction between the inner ring of personal defenders and the
+select corps of trained combatants who are at the chief's entire
+disposal. Famous examples of corps that fell under one or both these
+headings are the "Immortals" of Xerxes, the Mamelukes, Janissaries, the
+_Huscarles_ of the Anglo-Saxon kings, and the Russian Strelitz
+(_Stryeltsi_). In modern times the distinction of function is better
+marked, and the fighting men who are more intimately connected with the
+sovereign than the bulk of the army can be classified as to duties into
+"Household Troops," who are in a sense personal retainers, and
+"Guards," who are a _corps d'élite_ of combatants. But the dividing line
+is not so clear as to any given body of troops. Thus the British
+Household Cavalry is part of the combatant army as well as the
+sovereign's escort.
+
+The oldest of the household or bodyguard corps in the United Kingdom is
+the King's Bodyguard of the _Yeomen of the Guard_ (q.v.), formed at his
+accession by Henry VII. The "nearest guard," the personal escort of the
+sovereign, is the "King's Bodyguard of the Honourable Corps of
+_Gentlemen-at-Arms_," created by Henry VIII. at his accession in 1509.
+Formed possibly on the pattern of the "Pensionnaires" of the French
+kings--retainers of noble birth who were the predecessors of the _Maison
+du Roi_ (see below)--the new corps was originally called "the
+Pensioners." The importance of such guards regiments in the general
+development of organized armies is illustrated by a declaration of the
+House of Commons, made in 1674, that the militia, the pensioners and the
+Yeomen of the Guard were the only lawful armed forces in the realm. But
+with the rise of the professional soldier and the corresponding disuse
+of arms by the nobles and gentry, the Gentlemen-at-Arms (a title which
+came into use in James II.'s time, though it did not become that of the
+corps until William IV.'s) retaining their noble character, became less
+and less military. Burke attempted without success in 1782 to restrict
+membership to officers of the army and navy, but the necessity of giving
+the corps an effective military character became obvious when, on the
+occasion of a threatened Chartist riot, it was called upon to do duty as
+an armed body at St James's Palace. The corps was reconstituted on a
+purely military basis in 1862, and from that date only military officers
+of the regular services who have received a war decoration are eligible
+for appointment. The office of captain, however, is political, the
+holder (who is always a peer) vacating it on the resignation of the
+government of which he is a member. The corps consists at present of
+captain, lieutenant, standard bearer, clerk of the cheque (adjutant),
+sub-officer and 39 gentlemen-at-arms. The uniform consists of a scarlet
+swallow-tailed coat and blue overalls, with gold epaulettes, brass
+dragoon helmet with drooping white plume and brass box-spurs, these last
+contrasting rather forcibly with the partizan, an essentially infantry
+weapon, that they carry.
+
+  _The Royal Company of Archers._--The king's bodyguard for Scotland was
+  constituted in its present form in the year 1670, by an act of the
+  privy council of Scotland. An earlier origin has been claimed for the
+  company, some connecting it with a supposed archer guard of the kings
+  of Scotland. In the above-mentioned year, 1676, the minutes of the
+  Royal Company begin by stating, that owing to "the noble and usefull
+  recreation of archery being for many years much neglected, several
+  noblemen and gentlemen did associate themselves in a company for
+  encouragement thereof ... and did apply to the privy council for their
+  approbation ... which was granted." For about twenty years at the end
+  of the 17th century, perhaps owing to the adhesion of the majority to
+  the Stuart cause, its existence seems to have been suspended. But in
+  1703 a new captain-general, Sir George Mackenzie, Viscount Tarbat,
+  afterwards earl of Cromarty (1630-1714), was elected, and he procured
+  for the company a new charter from Queen Anne. The rights and
+  privileges renewed or conferred by this charter were to be held of the
+  crown for the _reddendo_ of a pair of barbed arrows. This _reddendo_
+  was paid to George IV. at Holyrood in 1822, to Queen Victoria in 1842
+  and to King Edward VII. in 1903. The history of the Royal Company
+  since 1703 has been one of great prosperity. Large parades were
+  frequently held, and many distinguished men marched in the ranks.
+  Several of the leading insurgents in 1745 were members, but the
+  company was not at that time suspended in any way.
+
+  In 1822 when King George IV. visited Scotland, it was thought
+  appropriate that the Royal Company should act as his majesty's
+  bodyguard during his stay, especially as there was a tradition of a
+  former archer bodyguard. They therefore performed the duties usually
+  assigned to the gentlemen-at-arms. When Queen Victoria visited the
+  Scottish capital in 1842, the Royal Company again did duty; the last
+  time they were called out in her reign in their capacity of royal
+  bodyguard was in 1860 on the occasion of the great volunteer review in
+  the Queen's Park, Edinburgh. They acted in the same capacity when King
+  Edward VII. reviewed the Scottish Volunteers there on the 18th of
+  September 1905.
+
+  King George IV. authorized the company to take, in addition to their
+  former name, that of "The King's Body Guard for Scotland," and
+  presented to the captain-general a gold stick, thus constituting the
+  company part of the royal household. In virtue of this stick the
+  captain-general of the Royal Company takes his place at a coronation
+  or similar pageant immediately behind the gold stick of England. The
+  lieutenants-general of the company have silver sticks; and the
+  council, which is the executive body of the company, possess seven
+  ebony ones. George IV. further appointed a full dress uniform to be
+  worn by members of the company at court, when not on duty as guards,
+  in which latter case the ordinary field dress is used. The court dress
+  is green with green velvet facings, gold epaulettes and lace, crimson
+  silk sash, and cocked hat with green plume. The officers wear a gold
+  sash in place of a crimson one, and an _aiguillette_ on the left
+  shoulder. All ranks wear swords. The field dress at present consists
+  of a dark-green tunic, shoulder-wings and gauntleted cuffs and
+  trousers trimmed with black and crimson; a bow-case worn as a sash, of
+  the same colour as the coat, black waistbelt with sword, and Balmoral
+  bonnet with thistle ornament and eagle's feather. The officers of the
+  company are the captain-general, 4 captains, 4 lieutenants, 4 ensigns,
+  12 brigadiers and adjutant.
+
+Corps of the gentlemen-at-arms or yeoman type do not of course count as
+combatant troops--if for no other reason at least because they are armed
+with the weapons of bygone times. Colonel Clifford Walton states in his
+_History of the British Standing Army_ that neither the Yeomen of the
+Guard nor the Pensioners were ever subject to martial law. The British
+guards and household troops that are armed, trained and organized as
+part of the army are the _Household Cavalry_ and the _Foot Guards_.
+
+The Household Cavalry consists at the present day of three regiments,
+and has its origin, as have certain of the Foot guard regiments, in the
+ashes of the "New Model" army disbanded at the restoration of Charles
+II. in 1660. In that year the "1st or His Majesty's Own Troop of Guards"
+formed during the king's exile of his cavalier followers, was taken on
+the strength of the army. The 2nd troop was formerly in the Spanish
+service as the "Duke of York's Guards," and was also a cavalier unit. In
+1670, on Monk's death, the original 3rd troop (Monk's Life Guards,
+renamed in 1660 the "Lord General's Troop of Guards") became the 2nd
+(the queen's) troop, and the duke of York's troop the 3rd. In 1685 the
+1st and 2nd troops were styled Life Guards of Horse, and two years later
+the blue-uniformed "Royal Regiment of Horse," a New Model regiment that
+had been disbanded and at once re-raised in 1660, was made a household
+cavalry corps. Later under the colonelcy of the earl of Oxford it was
+popularly called "The Oxford Blues." There were also from time to time
+other troops (e.g. Scots troops 1700-1746) that have now disappeared. In
+1746 the 2nd troop was disbanded, but it was revived in 1788, when the
+two senior corps were given their present title of 1st and 2nd Life
+Guards. From 1750 to 1819 the Blues bore the name of "Royal Horse Guards
+Blue," which in 1819 was changed to "Royal Horse Guards (The Blues)."
+The general distinction between the uniforms of the red Life Guard and
+the blue Horse Guard still exists. The 1st and the 2nd regiments of Life
+Guards wear scarlet tunics with blue collars and cuffs, and the Royal
+Horse Guards blue tunics with scarlet collars and cuffs. All three wear
+steel cuirasses on state occasions and on guard duty. The head-dress is
+a steel helmet with drooping horse-hair plume (white for Life Guards,
+red for Horse Guards). In full dress white buckskin pantaloons and long
+knee boots are worn. Amongst the peculiarities of these _corps d'élite_
+is the survival of the old custom of calling non-commissioned officers
+"corporal of horse" instead of sergeant, and corporal-major instead of
+sergeant-major, the wearing by trumpeters and bandsmen in full dress of
+a black velvet cap, a richly laced coat with a full skirt extending to
+the wearer's knees and long white gaiters. There is little distinction
+between the two Life Guards regiments' uniforms, the most obvious point
+being that the cord running through the white leather pouch belt is red
+for the 1st and blue for the 2nd.
+
+The Foot Guards comprise the Grenadier Guards, the Coldstream Guards,
+the Scots Guards and the Irish Guards, each (except the last) of three
+battalions. The Grenadiers, originally the First Foot Guards, represent
+a royalist infantry regiment which served with the exiled princes in the
+Spanish army and returned at the Restoration in 1660. The Coldstream
+Guards are a New Model regiment, and were originally called the Lord
+General's (Monk's) regiment of Foot Guards. Their popular title, which
+became their official designation in 1670, is derived from the fact that
+the army with which Monk restored the monarchy crossed the Tweed into
+England at the village of Coldstream, and that his troops (which were
+afterwards, except the two units of horse and foot of which Monk himself
+was colonel, disbanded) were called the Coldstreamers. The two
+battalions of Scots Foot Guards, which regiment was separately raised
+and maintained in Scotland after the Restoration, marched to London in
+1686 and 1688 and were brought on to the English Establishment in 1707.
+In George III.'s reign they were known as the Third Guards, and from
+1831 to 1877 (when the present title was adopted) as the Scots Fusilier
+Guards.
+
+The Irish Guards (one battalion) were formed in 1902, after the South
+African War, as a mark of Queen Victoria's appreciation of the services
+rendered by the various Irish regiments of the line.[1] The dress of the
+Foot Guards is generally similar in all four regiments, scarlet tunic
+with blue collars, cuffs and shoulder-straps, blue trousers and high,
+rounded bearskin cap. The regimental distinctions most easily noticed
+are these. The Grenadiers wear a small white plume in the bearskin, the
+Coldstreams a similar red one, the Scots none, the Irish a blue-green
+one. The buttons on the tunic are spaced evenly for the Grenadiers, by
+twos for the Coldstreams, by threes for the Scots and by fours for the
+Irish. The band of the modern cap is red for the Grenadiers, white for
+the Coldstreams, "diced" red and white (chequers) for the Scots and
+green for the Irish. Former privileges of foot guard regiments, such as
+higher brevet rank in the army for their regimental officers, are now
+abolished, but Guards are still subject exclusively to the command of
+their own officers, and the officers of the Foot Guards, like those of
+the Household Cavalry, have special duties at court. Neither the cavalry
+nor the infantry guards serve abroad in peace time as a rule, but in
+1907 a battalion of the Guards, which it was at that time proposed to
+disband, was sent to Egypt. "Guards' Brigades" served in the Napoleonic
+Wars, in the Crimea, in Egypt at various times from 1887 to 1898 and in
+South Africa 1899-1902. The last employment of the Household Cavalry as
+a brigade in war was at Waterloo, but composite regiments made up from
+officers and men of the Life Guards and Blues were employed in Egypt and
+in S. Africa.
+
+  The sovereigns of France had guards in their service in Merovingian
+  times, and their household forces appear from time to time in the
+  history of medieval wars. Louis XI. was, however, the first to
+  regularize their somewhat loose organization, and he did so to such
+  good purpose that Francis I. had no less than 8000 guardsmen
+  organized, subdivided and permanently under arms. The senior unit of
+  the _Gardes du Corps_ was the famous company of Scottish archers
+  (_Compagnie écossaise de la Garde du Corps du Roi_), which was
+  originally formed (1418) from the Scottish contingents that assisted
+  the French in the Hundred Years' War. Scott's _Quentin Durward_ gives
+  a picture of life in the corps as it was under Louis XI. In the
+  following century, however, its regimental history becomes somewhat
+  confused. Two French companies were added by Louis XI. and Francis I.
+  and the _Gardes du Corps_ came to consist exclusively of cavalry.
+  About 1634 nearly all the Scots then serving went into the "regiment
+  d'Hébron" and thence later into the British regular army (see HEPBURN,
+  SIR JOHN). Thereafter, though the titles, distinctions and privileges
+  of the original Archer Guard were continued, it was recruited from
+  native Frenchmen, preference being (at any rate at first) given to
+  those of Scottish descent. At its disbandment in 1791 along with the
+  rest of the _Gardes du Corps_, it contained few, if any, native Scots.
+  There was also, for a short time (1643-1660), an infantry regiment of
+  _Gardes écossaises_.
+
+  In 1671 the title of _Maison Militaire du Roi_ was applied to that
+  portion of the household that was distinctively military. It came to
+  consist of 4 companies of the _Gardes du Corps_, 2 companies of
+  _Mousquetaires_ (cavalry) (formed 1622 and 1660), 1 company of
+  _Chevaux légers_ (1570), 1 of _Gendarmes de la Maison Rouge_, and 1 of
+  _Grenadiers à Cheval_ (1676), with 1 company of _Gardes de la Porte_
+  and one called the _Cent-Suisses_, the last two being semi-military.
+  This large establishment, which did not include all the guard
+  regiments, was considerably reduced by the Count of St Germain's
+  reforms in 1775, all except the _Gardes du Corps_ and the
+  _Cent-Suisses_ being disbanded. The whole of the _Maison du Roi_, with
+  the exception of the semi-military bodies referred to, was cavalry.
+
+  The _Gardes françaises_, formed in 1563, did not form part of the
+  _Maison_. They were an infantry regiment, as were the famous _Gardes
+  suisses_, originally a Swiss mercenary regiment in the Wars of
+  Religion, which was, for good conduct at the combat of Arques,
+  incorporated in the permanent establishment by Henry IV. in 1589 and
+  in the guards in 1615. At the Revolution, contrary to expectation, the
+  French Guards sided openly with the Constitutional movement and were
+  disbanded. The Swiss Guards, however, being foreigners, and therefore
+  unaffected by civil troubles, retained their exact discipline and
+  devotion to the court to the day on which they were sacrificed by
+  their master to the bullets of the Marseillais and the pikes of the
+  mob (August 10, 1792). Their tragic fate is commemorated by the
+  well-known monument called the "Lion of Lucerne," the work of
+  Thorvaldsen, erected near Lucerne in 1821. The "Constitutional,"
+  "Revolutionary" and other guards that were created after the abolition
+  of the _Maison_ and the slaughter of the Swiss are unimportant, but
+  through the "Directory Guards" they form a nominal link between the
+  household troops of the monarchy and the corps which is perhaps the
+  most famous "Guard" in history. The Imperial Guard of Napoleon had its
+  beginnings in an escort squadron called the Corps of Guides, which
+  accompanied him in the Italian campaign of 1796-1797 and in Egypt. On
+  becoming First Consul in 1799 he built up out of this and of the guard
+  of the Directory a small corps of horse and foot, called the Consular
+  Guard, and this, which was more of a fighting unit than a personal
+  bodyguard, took part in the battle of Marengo. The Imperial Guard,
+  into which it was converted on the establishment of the Empire, was at
+  first of about the strength of a division. As such it took part in the
+  Austerlitz and Jena campaigns, but after the conquest of Prussia
+  Napoleon augmented it, and divided it into the "Old Guard" and the
+  "Young Guard." Subsequently the "Middle Guard" was created, and by
+  successive augmentations the corps of the guard had grown to be 57,000
+  strong in 1811-1812 and 81,000 in 1813. It preserved its general
+  character as a _corps d'élite_ of veterans to the last, but from about
+  1813 the "Young Guard" was recruited directly from the best of the
+  annual conscript contingent. The officers held a higher rank in the
+  army than their regimental rank in the Guards. At the first
+  Restoration an attempt was made to revive the _Maison du Roi_, but in
+  the constitutional régime of the second Restoration this semi-medieval
+  form of bodyguard was given up and replaced by the _Garde Royale_, a
+  selected fighting corps. This took part in the short war with Spain
+  and a portion of it fought in Algeria, but it was disbanded at the
+  July Revolution. Louis Philippe had no real guard troops, but the
+  memories of the Imperial Guard were revived by Napoleon III., who
+  formed a large guard corps in 1853-1854. This, however, was open to an
+  even greater degree than Napoleon I.'s guard to the objection that it
+  took away the best soldiers from the line. Since the fall of the
+  Empire in 1870 there have been no guard troops in France. The duty of
+  watching over the safety of the president is taken in the ordinary
+  roster of duty by the troops stationed in the capital. The "Republican
+  Guard" is the Paris gendarmerie, recruited from old soldiers and armed
+  and trained as a military body.
+
+  In _Austria-Hungary_ there are only small bodies of household troops
+  (Archer Body Guard, Trabant Guard, Hungarian Crown Guards, &c.)
+  analogous to the British Gentlemen at Arms or Yeomen of the Guard.
+  Similar forces, the "Noble Guard" and the "Swiss Guard," are
+  maintained in the Vatican. The court troops of Spain are called
+  "halberdiers" and armed with the halbert.
+
+  In _Russia_ the Guard is organized as an army corps. It possesses
+  special privileges, particularly as regards officers' advancement.
+
+  In _Germany_ the distinction between armed retainers and "Guards" is
+  well marked. The army is for practical purposes a unit under imperial
+  control, while household troops ("castle-guards" as they are usually
+  called) belong individually to the various sovereigns within the
+  empire. The "Guards," as a combatant force in the army are those of
+  the king of _Prussia_ and constitute a strong army corps. This has
+  grown gradually from a bodyguard of archers, and, as in Great Britain,
+  the functions of the heavy cavalry regiments of the Guard preserve to
+  some extent the name and character of a body guard (_Gardes du
+  Corps_). The senior foot guard regiment is also personally connected
+  with the royal family. The conversion of a palace-guard to a combatant
+  force is due chiefly to Frederick William I., to whom drill was a
+  ruling passion, and who substituted effective regiments for the
+  ornamental "Trabant Guards" of his father. A further move was made by
+  Frederick the Great in substituting for Frederick William's expensive
+  "giant" regiment of guards a larger number of ordinary soldiers, whom
+  he subjected to the same rigorous training and made a _corps d'élite_.
+  Frederick the Great also formed the Body Guard alluded to above.
+  Nevertheless in 1806 the Guard still consisted only of two cavalry
+  regiments and four infantry regiments, and it was the example of
+  Napoleon's imperial guard which converted this force into a corps of
+  all arms. In 1813 its strength was that of a weak division, but in
+  1860 by slight but frequent augmentations it had come to consist of an
+  army corps, complete with all auxiliary services. A few guard
+  regiments belonging to the minor sovereigns are counted in the line
+  of the German army. In war the Guard is employed as a unit, like other
+  army corps. It is recruited by the assignment of selected young men of
+  each annual contingent, and is thus free from the reproach of the
+  French Imperial Guard, which took the best-trained soldiers from the
+  regiments of the line.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The "Irish Guards" of the Stuarts took the side of James II.,
+    fought against William III. in Ireland and lost their regimental
+    identity in the French service to which the officers and soldiers
+    transferred themselves on the abandonment of the struggle.
+
+
+
+
+GUARD-SHIP, a warship stationed at some port or harbour to act as a
+guard, and in former times in the British navy to receive the men
+impressed for service. She usually was the flagship of the admiral
+commanding on the coast. A guard-boat is a boat which goes the round of
+a fleet at anchor to see that due watch is kept at night.
+
+
+
+
+GUÁRICO, a large inland state of Venezuela created by the territorial
+redivision of 1904, bounded by Aragua and Miranda on the N., Bermúdez on
+the E., Bolívar on the S., and Zamora on the W. Pop. (1905 estimate),
+78,117. It extends across the northern _llanos_ to the Orinoco and Apure
+rivers and is devoted almost wholly to pastoral pursuits, exporting
+cattle, horses and mules, hides and skins, cheese and some other
+products. The capital is Calabozo, and the other principal towns are
+Camaguán (pop. 3648) on the Portugueza river, Guayabal (pop. 3146), on a
+small tributary of the Guárico river, and Zaraza (pop. 14,546) on the
+Unare river, nearly 150 m. S.E. of Carácas.
+
+
+
+
+GUARIENTO, sometimes incorrectly named GUERRIERO, the first Paduan
+painter who distinguished himself. The only date distinctly known in his
+career is 1365, when, having already acquired high renown in his native
+city, he was invited by the Venetian authorities to paint a Paradise,
+and some incidents of the war of Spoleto, in the great council-hall of
+Venice. These works were greatly admired at the time, but have long ago
+disappeared under repaintings. His works in Padua have suffered much. In
+the church of the Eremitani are allegories of the Planets, and, in its
+choir, some small sacred histories in dead colour, such as an Ecce Homo;
+also, on the upper walls, the life of St Augustine, with some other
+subjects. A few fragments of other paintings by Guariento are still
+extant in Padua. In the gallery of Bassano is a Crucifixion, carefully
+executed, and somewhat superior to a merely traditional method of
+handling, although on the whole Guariento must rather be classed in that
+school of art which preceded Cimabue than as having advanced in his
+vestiges; likewise two other works in Bassano, ascribed to the same
+hand. The painter is buried in the church of S. Bernardino, Padua.
+
+
+
+
+GUARINI, CAMILLO-GUARINO (1624-1683), Italian monk, writer and
+architect, was born at Modena in 1624. He was at once a learned
+mathematician, professor of literature and philosophy at Messina, and,
+from the age of seventeen, was architect to Duke Philibert of Savoy. He
+designed a very large number of public and private buildings at Turin,
+including the palaces of the duke of Savoy and the prince of Cacignan,
+and many public buildings at Modena, Verona, Vienna, Prague, Lisbon and
+Paris. He died at Milan in 1683.
+
+
+
+
+GUARINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1537-1612), Italian poet, author of the
+_Pastor fido_, was born at Ferrara on the 10th of December 1537, just
+seven years before the birth of Tasso. He was descended from Guarino da
+Verona. The young Battista studied both at Pisa and Padua, whence he was
+called, when not yet twenty, to profess moral philosophy in the schools
+of his native city. He inherited considerable wealth, and was able early
+in life to marry Taddea de' Bendedei, a lady of good birth. In 1567 he
+entered the service of Alphonso II., duke of Ferrara, thus beginning the
+court career which was destined to prove a constant source of
+disappointment and annoyance to him. Though he cultivated poetry for
+pastime, Guarini aimed at state employment as the serious business of
+his life, and managed to be sent on various embassies and missions by
+his ducal master. There was, however, at the end of the 16th century no
+opportunity for a man of energy and intellectual ability to distinguish
+himself in the petty sphere of Italian diplomacy. The time too had
+passed when the profession of a courtier, painted in such glowing terms
+by Castiglione, could confer either profit or honour. It is true that
+the court of Alphonso presented a brilliant spectacle to Europe, with
+Tasso for titular poet, and an attractive circle of accomplished
+ladies. But the last duke of Ferrara was an illiberal patron, feeding
+his servants with promises, and ever ready to treat them with the
+brutality that condemned the author of the _Gerusalemme liberata_ to a
+madhouse. Guarini spent his time and money to little purpose, suffered
+from the spite and ill-will of two successive secretaries,--Pigna and
+Montecatini,--quarrelled with his old friend Tasso, and at the end of
+fourteen years of service found himself half-ruined, with a large family
+and no prospects. When Tasso was condemned to S. Anna, the duke promoted
+Guarini to the vacant post of court poet. There is an interesting letter
+extant from the latter to his friend Cornelio Bentivoglio, describing
+the efforts he made to fill this place appropriately. "I strove to
+transform myself into another person, and, like a player, reassumed the
+character, costume and feelings of my youth. Advanced in manhood, I
+forced myself to look young; I turned my natural melancholy into
+artificial gaiety, affected loves I did not feel, exchanged wisdom for
+folly, and, in a word, passed from a philosopher into a poet." How
+ill-adapted he felt himself to this masquerade life may be gathered from
+the following sentence: "I am already in my forty-fourth year, the
+father of eight children, two of whom are old enough to be my censors,
+while my daughters are of an age to marry." Abandoning so uncongenial a
+strain upon his faculties, Guarini retired in 1582 to his ancestral
+farm, the Villa Guarina, in the lovely country that lies between the
+Adige and Po, where he gave himself up to the cares of his family, the
+nursing of his dilapidated fortunes and the composition of the _Pastor
+fido_. He was not happy in his domestic lot; for he had lost his wife
+young, and quarrelled with his elder sons about the division of his
+estate. Litigation seems to have been an inveterate vice with Guarini;
+nor was he ever free from legal troubles. After studying his biography,
+the conclusion is forced upon our minds that he was originally a man of
+robust and virile intellect, ambitious of greatness, confident in his
+own powers, and well qualified for serious affairs, whose energies found
+no proper scope for their exercise. Literary work offered but a poor
+sphere for such a character, while the enforced inactivity of court life
+soured a naturally capricious and choleric temper. Of poetry he spoke
+with a certain tone of condescension, professing to practise it only in
+his leisure moments; nor are his miscellaneous verses of a quality to
+secure for their author a very lasting reputation. It is therefore not a
+little remarkable that the fruit of his retirement--a disappointed
+courtier past the prime of early manhood--should have been a dramatic
+masterpiece worthy to be ranked with the classics of Italian literature.
+Deferring a further account of the _Pastor fido_ for the present, the
+remaining incidents of Guarini's restless life may be briefly told. In
+1585 he was at Turin superintending the first public performance of his
+drama, whence Alphonso recalled him to Ferrara, and gave him the office
+of secretary of state. This reconciliation between the poet and his
+patron did not last long. Guarini moved to Florence, then to Rome, and
+back again to Florence, where he established himself as the courtier of
+Ferdinand de' Medici. A dishonourable marriage, pressed upon his son
+Guarino by the grand-duke, roused the natural resentment of Guarini,
+always scrupulous upon the point of honour. He abandoned the Medicean
+court, and took refuge with Francesco Maria of Urbino, the last scion of
+the Montefeltro-della-Rovere house. Yet he found no satisfaction at
+Urbino. "The old court is a dead institution," he writes to a friend;
+"one may see a shadow of it, but not the substance in Italy of to-day.
+Ours is an age of appearances, and one goes a-masquerading all the
+year." This was true enough. Those dwindling deadly-lively little
+residence towns of Italian ducal families, whose day of glory was over,
+and who were waiting to be slowly absorbed by the capacious appetite of
+Austria, were no fit places for a man of energy and independence.
+Guarini finally took refuge in his native Ferrara, which, since the
+death of Alphonso, had now devolved to the papal see. Here, and at the
+Villa Guarina, his last years were passed in study, law-suits, and
+polemical disputes with his contemporary critics, until 1612, when he
+died at Venice in his seventy-fifth year.
+
+The _Pastor fido_ (first published in 1590) is a pastoral drama composed
+not without reminiscences of Tasso's _Aminta_. The scene is laid in
+Arcadia, where Guarini supposes it to have been the custom to sacrifice
+a maiden yearly to Diana. But an oracle has declared that when two
+scions of divine lineage are united in marriage, and a faithful shepherd
+has atoned for the ancient error of a faithless woman, this inhuman rite
+shall cease. The plot turns upon the unexpected fulfilment of this
+prophecy, contrary to all the schemes which had been devised for
+bringing it to accomplishment, and in despite of apparent
+improbabilities of divers kinds. It is extremely elaborate, and,
+regarded as a piece of cunning mechanism, leaves nothing to be desired.
+Each motive has been carefully prepared, each situation amply developed.
+Yet, considered as a play, the _Pastor fido_ disappoints a reader
+trained in the school of Sophocles or Shakespeare. The action itself
+seems to take place off the stage, and only the results of action,
+stationary tableaux representing the movement of the drama, are put
+before us in the scenes. The art is lyrical, not merely in form but in
+spirit, and in adaptation to the requirements of music which demands
+stationary expressions of emotion for development. The characters have
+been well considered, and are exhibited with great truth and vividness;
+the cold and eager hunter Silvio contrasting with the tender and
+romantic Mirtillo, and Corisca's meretricious arts enhancing the pure
+affection of Amarilli. Dorinda presents another type of love so
+impulsive that it prevails over a maiden's sense of shame, while the
+courtier Carino brings the corruption of towns into comparison with the
+innocence of the country. In Carino the poet painted his own experience,
+and here his satire upon the court of Ferrara is none the less biting
+because it is gravely measured. In Corisca he delineated a woman
+vitiated by the same town life, and a very hideous portrait has he
+drawn. Though a satirical element was thus introduced into the _Pastor
+fido_ in order to relieve its ideal picture of Arcadia, the whole play
+is but a study of contemporary feeling in Italian society. There is no
+true rusticity whatever in the drama. This correspondence with the
+spirit of the age secured its success during Guarini's lifetime; this
+made it so dangerously seductive that Cardinal Bellarmine told the poet
+he had done more harm to Christendom by his blandishments than Luther by
+his heresy. Without anywhere transgressing the limits of decorum, the
+_Pastor fido_ is steeped in sensuousness; and the immodesty of its
+pictures is enhanced by rhetorical concealments more provocative than
+nudity. Moreover, the love described is effeminate and wanton, felt less
+as passion than as lust enveloped in a veil of sentiment. We divine the
+coming age of _cicisbei_ and _castrati_. Of Guarini's style it would be
+difficult to speak in terms of too high praise. The thought and
+experience of a lifetime have been condensed in these five acts, and
+have found expression in language brilliant, classical, chiselled to
+perfection. Here and there the taste of the 17th century makes itself
+felt in frigid conceits and forced antitheses; nor does Guarini abstain
+from sententious maxims which reveal the moralist rather than the poet.
+Yet these are but minor blemishes in a masterpiece of diction,
+glittering and faultless like a polished bas-relief of hard Corinthian
+bronze. That a single pastoral should occupy so prominent a place in the
+history of literature seems astonishing, until we reflect that Italy,
+upon the close of the 16th century, expressed itself in the _Pastor
+fido_, and that the influence of this drama was felt through all the art
+of Europe till the epoch of the Revolution. It is not a mere play. The
+sensual refinement proper to an age of social decadence found in it the
+most exact embodiment, and made it the code of gallantry for the next
+two centuries.
+
+  The best edition of the _Pastor fido_ is the 20th, published at Venice
+  (Ciotti) in 1602. The most convenient is that of Barbéra (Florence,
+  1866). For Guarini's miscellaneous _Rime_, the Ferrara edition, in 4
+  vols., 1737, may be consulted. His polemical writings, _Verato primo_
+  and _secondo_, and his prose comedy called _Idropica_, were published
+  at Venice, Florence and Rome, between 1588 and 1614.     (J. A. S.)
+
+
+
+
+GUARINO, also known as VARINUS, and surnamed from his birthplace
+FAVORINUS, PHAVORINUS or CAMERS (c. 1450-1537), Italian lexicographer
+and scholar, was born at Favera near Camerino, studied Greek and Latin
+at Florence under Politian, and afterwards became for a time the pupil
+of Lascaris. Having entered the Benedictine order, he now gave himself
+with great zeal to Greek lexicography; and in 1496 published his
+_Thesaurus cornucopiae et horti Adonidis_, a collection of thirty-four
+grammatical tracts in Greek. He for some time acted as tutor to Giovanni
+dei Medici (afterwards Leo X.), and also held the appointment of keeper
+of the Medicean library at Florence. In 1514 Leo appointed him bishop of
+Nocera. In 1517 he published a translation of the _Apophthegmata_ of
+Joannes Stobaeus, and in 1523 appeared his _Etymologicum magnum, sive
+thesaurus universae linguae Graecae ex multis variisque autoribus
+collectus_, a compilation which has been frequently reprinted, and which
+has laid subsequent scholars under great though not always acknowledged
+obligations.
+
+
+
+
+GUARINO [GUARINUS] DA VERONA (1370-1460), one of the Italian restorers
+of classical learning, was born in 1370 at Verona, and studied Greek at
+Constantinople, where for five years he was the pupil of Manuel
+Chrysoloras. When he set out on his return to Italy he was the happy
+possessor of two cases of precious Greek MSS. which he had been at great
+pains to collect; it is said that the loss of one of these by shipwreck
+caused him such distress that his hair turned grey in a single night. He
+supported himself as a teacher of Greek, first at Verona and afterwards
+in Venice and Florence; in 1436 he became, through the patronage of
+Lionel, marquis of Este, professor of Greek at Ferrara; and in 1438 and
+following years he acted as interpreter for the Greeks at the councils
+of Ferrara and Florence. He died at Ferrara on the 14th of December
+1460.
+
+  His principal works are translations of Strabo and of some of the
+  _Lives_ of Plutarch, a compendium of the Greek grammar of Chrysoloras,
+  and a series of commentaries on Persius, Juvenal, Martial and on some
+  of the writings of Aristotle and Cicero. See Rosmini, _Vita e
+  disciplina di Guarino_ (1805-1806); Sabbadini, _Guarino Veronese_
+  (1885); Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ ii. (1908).
+
+
+
+
+GUARNIERI, or GUARNERIUS, a celebrated family of violin-makers of
+Cremona. The first was Andreas (c. 1626-1698), who worked with Antonio
+Stradivari in the workshop of Nicolo Amati (son of Geronimo). Violins of
+a model original to him are dated from the sign of "St Theresa" in
+Cremona. His son Joseph (1666-c. 1739) made instruments at first like
+his father's, but later in a style of his own with a narrow waist; his
+son, Peter of Venice (b. 1695), was also a fine maker. Another son of
+Andreas, Peter (Pietro Giovanni), commonly known as "Peter of Cremona"
+(b. 1655), moved from Cremona and settled at Mantua, where he too worked
+"sub signo Sanctae Teresae." Peter's violins again showed considerable
+variations from those of the other Guarnieri. Hart, in his work on the
+violin, says, "There is increased breadth between the sound-holes; the
+sound-hole is rounder and more perpendicular; the middle bouts are more
+contracted, and the model is more raised."
+
+The greatest of all the Guarnieri, however, was a nephew of Andreas,
+Joseph del Gesù (1687-1745), whose title originates in the I.H.S.
+inscribed on his tickets. His master was Gaspar di Salo. His conception
+follows that of the early Brescian makers in the boldness of outline and
+the massive construction which aim at the production of tone rather than
+visual perfection of form. The great variety of his work in size, model,
+&c., represents his various experiments in the direction of discovering
+this tone. A stain or sap-mark, parallel with the finger-board on both
+sides, appears on the bellies of most of his instruments. Since the
+middle of the 18th century a great many spurious instruments ascribed to
+this master have poured over Europe. It was not until Paganini played on
+a "Joseph" that the taste of amateurs turned from the sweetness of the
+Amati and the Stradivarius violins in favour of the robuster tone of the
+Joseph Guarnerius. See VIOLIN.
+
+
+
+
+GUASTALLA, a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, in the province of
+Reggio, from which it is 18 m. N. by road, on the S. bank of the Po, 79
+ft. above sea-level. It is also connected by rail with Parma and Mantua
+(via Suzzara). Pop. (1901), 2658 (town); 11,091 (commune). It has
+16th-century fortifications. The cathedral, dating from the 10th
+century, has been frequently restored. Guastalla was founded by the
+Lombards in the 7th century; in the church of the Pieve Pope Paschal II.
+held a council in 1106. In 1307 it was seized by Giberto da Correggio of
+Parma. In 1403 it passed to Guido Torello, cousin of Filippo Maria
+Visconti of Milan. In 1539 it was sold by the last female descendant of
+the Torelli to Ferrante Gonzaga. In 1621 it was made the seat of a
+duchy, but in 1748 it was added to those of Parma and Piacenza, whose
+history it subsequently followed.
+
+
+
+
+GUATEMALA (sometimes incorrectly written GUATIMALA), a name now
+restricted to the republic of Guatemala and to its chief city, but
+formerly given to a captaincy-general of Spanish America, which included
+the fifteen provinces of Chiapas, Suchitepeques, Escuintla, Sonsonate,
+San Salvador, Vera Paz and Peten, Chiquimula, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa
+Rica, Totonicapam, Quezaltenango, Sololá, Chimaltenango and
+Sacatepeques,--or, in other words, the whole of Central America (except
+Panama) and part of Mexico. The name is probably of Aztec origin, and is
+said by some authorities to mean in its native form Quauhtematlan, "Land
+of the Eagle," or "Land of Forest"; others, writing it U-ha-tez-ma-la,
+connect it with the volcano of Agua (i.e. "water"), and interpret it as
+"mountain vomiting water."
+
+The republic of Guatemala is situated between 13° 42´ and 17° 49´ N.,
+and 88° 10´ and 92° 30´ W. (For map, see CENTRAL AMERICA.) Pop. (1903),
+1,842,134; area about 48,250 sq. m. Guatemala is bounded on the W. and
+N. by Mexico, N.E. by British Honduras, E. by the Gulf of Honduras, and
+the republic of Honduras, S.E. by Salvador and S. by the Pacific Ocean.
+The frontier towards Mexico was determined by conventions of the 27th of
+September 1882, the 17th of October 1883, the 1st of April 1895, and the
+8th of May 1899. Starting from the Pacific, it ascends the river
+Suchiate, then follows an irregular line towards the north-east, till it
+reaches the parallel of 17° 49[min] N., along which it runs to the
+frontier of British Honduras. This frontier, by the convention of the
+9th of July 1893, coincides with the meridian of 89° 20[min] W., till it
+meets the river Sarstoon or Sarstun, which it follows eastwards to the
+Gulf of Honduras.
+
+  _Physical Description._--Guatemala is naturally divided into five
+  regions--the lowlands of the Pacific coast, the volcanic mountains of
+  the Sierra Madre, the so-called plateaus immediately north of these,
+  the mountains of the Atlantic versant and the plain of Peten. (1) The
+  coastal plains extend along the entire southern seaboard, with a mean
+  breadth of 50 m., and link together the belts of similar territory in
+  Salvador and the district of Soconusco in Chiapas. Owing to their
+  tropical heat, low elevation above sea-level, and marshy soil, they
+  are thinly peopled, and contain few important towns except the
+  seaports. (2) The precipitous barrier of the Sierra Madre, which
+  closes in the coastal plains on the north, is similarly prolonged into
+  Salvador and Mexico. It is known near Guatemala city as the Sierra de
+  las Nubes, and enters Mexico as the Sierra de Istatan. It forms the
+  main watershed between the Pacific and Atlantic river systems. Its
+  summit is not a well-defined crest, but is often rounded or flattened
+  into a table-land. The direction of the great volcanic cones, which
+  rise in an irregular line above it, is not identical with the main
+  axis of the Sierra itself, except near the Mexican frontier, but has a
+  more southerly trend, especially towards Salvador; here the base of
+  many of the igneous peaks rests among the southern foothills of the
+  range. It is, however, impossible to subdivide the Sierra Madre into a
+  northern and a volcanic chain; for the volcanoes are isolated by
+  stretches of comparatively low country; at least thirteen considerable
+  streams flow down between them, from the main watershed to the sea.
+  Viewed from the coast, the volcanic cones seem to rise directly from
+  the central heights of the Sierra Madre, above which they tower; but
+  in reality their bases are, as a rule, farther south. East of Tacana,
+  which marks the Mexican frontier, and is variously estimated at 13,976
+  ft. and 13,090 ft., and if the higher estimate be correct is the
+  loftiest peak in Central America, the principal volcanoes
+  are--Tajamulco or Tajumulco (13,517 ft.); Santa Maria (12,467 ft.),
+  which was in eruption during 1902, after centuries of quiescence, in
+  which its slopes had been overgrown by dense forests; Atitlán
+  (11,719), overlooking the lake of that name; Acatenango (13,615).
+  which shares the claim of Tacana to be the highest mountain of Central
+  America; Fuego (i.e. "fire," variously estimated at 12,795 ft. and
+  12,582 ft.), which received its name from its activity at the time of
+  the Spanish conquest; Agua (i.e. "water," 12,139 ft.), so named in
+  1541 because it destroyed the former capital of Guatemala with a
+  deluge of water from its flooded crater; and Pacaya (8390), a group of
+  igneous peaks which were in eruption in 1870. (3) The so-called
+  plateaus which extend north of the Sierra Madre are in fact high
+  valleys, rather than table-lands, enclosed by mountains. A better idea
+  of this region is conveyed by the native name Altos, or highlands,
+  although that term includes the northern declivity of the Sierra
+  Madre. The mean elevation is greatest in the west (Altos of
+  Quezaltenango) and least in the east (Altos of Guatemala). A few of
+  the streams of the Pacific slope actually rise in the Altos, and force
+  a way through the Sierra Madre at the bottom of deep ravines. One
+  large river, the Chixoy, escapes northwards towards the Atlantic. (4)
+  The relief of the mountainous country which lies north of the Altos
+  and drains into the Atlantic is varied by innumerable terraces, ridges
+  and underfalls; but its general configuration is admirably compared by
+  E. Reclus with the appearance of "a stormy sea breaking into parallel
+  billows" (_Universal Geography_, ed. E. G. Ravenstein, div. xxxiii.,
+  p. 212). The parallel ranges extend east and west with a slight
+  southerly curve towards their centres. A range called the Sierra de
+  Chama, which, however, changes its name frequently from place to
+  place, strikes eastward towards British Honduras, and is connected by
+  low hills with the Cockscomb Mountains; another similar range, the
+  Sierra de Santa Cruz, continues east to Cape Cocoli between the
+  Polochic and the Sarstoon; and a third, the Sierra de las Minas or, in
+  its eastern portion, Sierra del Mico, stretches between the Polochic
+  and the Motagua. Between Honduras and Guatemala the frontier is formed
+  by the Sierra de Merendon. (5) The great plain of Peten, which
+  comprises about one-third of the whole area of Guatemala, belongs
+  geographically to the Yucatan Peninsula, and consists of level or
+  undulating country, covered with grass or forest. Its population
+  numbers less than two per sq. m., although many districts have a
+  wonderfully fertile soil and abundance of water. The greater part of
+  this region is uncultivated, and only utilized as pasture by the
+  Indians, who form the majority of its inhabitants.
+
+  Guatemala is richly watered. On the western side of the sierras the
+  versant is short, and the streams, while very numerous, are
+  consequently small and rapid; but on the eastern side a number of the
+  rivers attain a very considerable development. The Motagua, whose
+  principal head stream is called the Rio Grande, has a course of about
+  250 m., and is navigable to within 90 m. of the capital, which is
+  situated on one of its confluents, the Rio de las Vacas. It forms a
+  delta on the south of the Gulf of Honduras. Of similar importance is
+  the Polochic, which is about 180 m. in length, and navigable about 20
+  m. above the river-port of Telemán. Before reaching the Golfo Amatique
+  it passes through the Golfo Dulce, or Izabal Lake, and the Golfete
+  Dulce. A vast number of streams, among which are the Chixoy, the
+  Guadalupe, and the Rio de la Pasion, unite to form the Usumacinta,
+  whose noble current passes along the Mexican frontier, and flowing on
+  through Chiapas and Tabasco, falls into the Bay of Campeche. The
+  Chiapas follows a similar course.
+
+  There are several extensive lakes in Guatemala. The Lake of Peten or
+  Laguna de Flores, in the centre of the department of Peten, is an
+  irregular basin about 27 m. long, with an extreme breadth of 13 m. In
+  an island in the western portion stands Flores, a town well known to
+  American antiquaries for the number of ancient idols which have been
+  recovered from its soil. On the shore of the lake is the stalactite
+  cave of Jobitsinal, of great local celebrity; and in its depths,
+  according to the popular legend, may still be discerned the stone
+  image of a horse that belonged to Cortes. The Golfo Dulce is, as its
+  name implies, a fresh-water lake, although so near the Atlantic. It is
+  about 36 m. long, and would be of considerable value as a harbour if
+  the bar at the mouth of the Rio Dulce did not prevent the upward
+  passage of seafaring vessels. As a contrast the Lake of Atitlán (q.v.)
+  is a land-locked basin encompassed with lofty mountains. About 9 m. S.
+  of the capital lies the Lake of Amatitlán (q.v.) with the town of the
+  same name. On the borders of Salvador and Guatemala there is the Lake
+  of Guija, about 20 m. long and 12 broad, at a height of 2100 ft. above
+  the sea. It is connected by the river Ostuma with the Lake of Ayarza
+  which lies about 1000 ft. higher at the foot of the Sierra Madre.
+
+  The geology, fauna and flora of Guatemala are discussed under CENTRAL
+  AMERICA. The bird-life of the country is remarkably rich; one bird of
+  magnificent plumage, the quetzal, quijal or quesal (_Trogon
+  resplendens_), has been chosen as the national emblem.
+
+  _Climate._--The climate is healthy, except on the coasts, where
+  malarial fever is prevalent. The rainy season in the interior lasts
+  from May to October, but on the coast sometimes continues till
+  December. The coldest month is January, and the warmest is May. The
+  average temperatures for these months at places of different
+  altitudes, as given by Dr Karl Sapper, are shown on the following
+  page.
+
+  The average rainfall is very heavy, especially on the Atlantic slope,
+  where the prevailing winds are charged with moisture from the Gulf of
+  Mexico or the Caribbean Sea; at Tual, a high station on the Atlantic
+  slope, it reaches 195 in.; in central Guatemala it is only 27 in.
+  Towards the Atlantic rain often occurs in the dry season, and there is
+  a local saying near the Golfo Dulce that "it rains thirteen months in
+  the year." Fogs are not rare. In Guatemala, as in other parts of
+  Central America (q.v.), each of the three climatic zones, cold,
+  temperate and hot (_tierra fria_, _tierra templada_, _tierra
+  caliente_) has its special characteristics, and it is not easy to
+  generalize about the climate of the country as a whole.
+
+    +----------------+----------+--------------------+
+    |                | Altitude | Fahrenheit Degrees.|
+    |    Locality.   |  (Feet). +--------------------+
+    |                |          |  January. |  May.  |
+    +----------------+----------+-----------+--------+
+    | Puerto Barrios |      6   |    74     |   81   |
+    | Salamá         |   3020   |    68     |   77   |
+    | Campur         |   3050   |    64     |   73   |
+    | Chimax         |   4280   |    61     |   68   |
+    | Guatemala      |   4870   |    60     |   67   |
+    | Quezaltenango  |   7710   |    50     |   62   |
+    +----------------+----------+-----------+--------+
+
+  _Natural Products._--The minerals discovered in Guatemala include
+  gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, mercury, antimony, coal, salt and
+  sulphur; but it is uncertain if many of these exist in quantities
+  sufficient to repay exploitation. Gold is obtained at Las Quebradas
+  near Izabal, silver in the departments of Santa Rosa and Chiquimula,
+  salt in those of Santa Rosa and Alta Vera Paz. During the 17th century
+  gold-washing was carried on by English miners in the Motagua valley,
+  and is said to have yielded rich profits; hence the name of "Gold
+  Coast" was not infrequently given to the Atlantic littoral near the
+  mouth of the Motagua.
+
+  The area of forest has only been seriously diminished in the west, and
+  amounted to 2030 sq. m. in 1904. Besides rubber, it yields many
+  valuable dye-woods and cabinet-woods, such as cedar, mahogany and
+  logwood. Fruits, grain and medicinal plants are obtained in great
+  abundance, especially where the soil is largely of volcanic origin, as
+  in the Altos and Sierra Madre. Parts of the Peten district are equally
+  fertile, maize in this region yielding two hundredfold from unmanured
+  soil. The vegetable products of Guatemala include coffee, cocoa,
+  sugar-cane, bananas, oranges, vanilla, aloes, agave, ipecacuanha,
+  castor-oil, sarsaparilla, cinchona, tobacco, indigo and the wax-plant
+  (_Myrica cerifera_).
+
+_Inhabitants._--The inhabitants of Guatemala, who tend to increase
+rapidly owing to the high birth-rate, low mortality, and low rate of
+emigration, numbered in 1903 1,842,134, or more than one-third of the
+entire population of Central America. Fully 60% are pure Indians, and
+the remainder, classed as _Ladinos_ or "Latins" (i.e. Spaniards in
+speech and mode of life), comprise a large majority of half-castes
+(_mestizos_) and civilized Indians and a smaller proportion of whites.
+It includes a foreign population of about 12,000 Europeans and North
+Americans, among them being many Jews from the west of the United
+States. There are important German agricultural settlements, and many
+colonists from north Italy who are locally called _Tiroleses_, and
+despised by the Indians for their industry and thrift. About half the
+births among the Indians and one-third among the whites are
+illegitimate.
+
+No part of Central America contains a greater diversity of tribes, and
+in 1883 Otto Stoll estimated the number of spoken languages as eighteen,
+although east of the meridian of Lake Amatitlán the native speech has
+almost entirely disappeared and been replaced by Spanish. The Indians
+belong chiefly to the Maya stock, which predominates throughout Peten,
+or to the allied Quiché race which is well represented in the Altos and
+central districts. The Itzas, Mopans, Lacandons, Chols, Pokonchi and the
+Pokomans who inhabit the large settlement of Mixco near the capital, all
+belong to the Maya family; but parts of central and eastern Guatemala
+are peopled by tribes distinct from the Mayas and not found in Mexico.
+In the 16th century the Mayas and Quichés had attained a high level of
+civilization (see CENTRAL AMERICA, _Archaeology_), and at least two of
+the Guatemalan languages, Quiché and Cakchiquel, possess the rudiments
+or the relics of a literature. The Quiché _Popol Vuh_, or "Book of
+History," which was translated into Spanish by the Dominican friar
+Ximenes, and edited with a French version by Brasseur de Bourbourg, is
+an important document for students of the local myths. In appearance the
+various Guatemalan tribes differ very little; in almost all the
+characteristic type of Indian is short but muscular, with low forehead,
+prominent cheek-bones and straight black hair. In character the Indians
+are, as a rule, peaceable, though conscious of their numerical
+superiority and at times driven to join in the revolutions which so
+often disturb the course of local politics; they are often intensely
+religious, but with a few exceptions are thriftless, indolent and
+inveterate gamblers. Their _confradias_, or brotherhoods, each with its
+patron saint and male and female chiefs, exist largely to organize
+public festivals, and to purchase wooden masks, costumes and decorations
+for the dances and dramas in which the Indians delight. These dramas,
+which deal with religious and historical subjects, are of Indian origin,
+and somewhat resemble the mystery-plays of medieval Europe, a
+resemblance heightened by the introduction, due to Spanish missionaries,
+of Christian saints and heroes such as Charlemagne. The Indians are
+devoted to bull-fighting and cock-fighting. Choral singing is a popular
+amusement, and is accompanied by the Spanish guitar and native
+wind-instruments. The Indians have a habit of consuming a yellowish
+edible earth containing sulphur; on pilgrimages they obtain images
+moulded of this earth at the shrines they visit, and eat the images as a
+prophylactic against disease. Maize, beans and bananas, varied
+occasionally with dried meat and fresh pork, form their staple diet;
+drunkenness is common on pay-days and festivals, when large quantities
+of a fiery brandy called _chicha_ are consumed.
+
+  _Chief Towns._--The capital of the republic, Guatemala or Guatemala la
+  Nueva (pop. 1905 about 97,000) and the cities of Quezaltenango
+  (31,000), Totonicapam (28,000), Coban (25,000), Sololá (17,000),
+  Escuintla (12,000), Huehuetanango (12,000), Amatitlán (10,000) and
+  Atitlán (9000) are described under separate headings. All the chief
+  towns except the seaports are situated within the mountainous region
+  where the climate is temperate. Retalhuleu, among the southern
+  foothills of the Sierra Madre, is one of the centres of coffee
+  production, and is connected by rail with the Pacific port of
+  Champerico, a very unhealthy place in the wet season. Both Retalhuleu
+  and Champerico were, like Quezaltenango, Sololá, and other towns,
+  temporarily ruined by the earthquake of the 18th of April 1902. Santa
+  Cruz Quiché, 25 m. N.E. of Totonicapam, was formerly the capital of
+  the Quiché kings, but has now a Ladino population. Livingston, a
+  seaport at the mouth of the Polochic (here called the Rio Dulce), was
+  founded in 1806, and subsequently named after the author of a code of
+  Guatemalan laws; few vestiges remain of the Spanish settlement of
+  Sevilla la Nueva, founded in 1844, and of the English colony of
+  Abbotsville, founded in 1825,--both near Livingston. La Libertad, also
+  called by its Indian name of Sacluc, is the principal town of Peten.
+
+  _Shipping and Communications._--The republic is in regular steam
+  communication on the Atlantic side with New Orleans, New York and
+  Hamburg, by vessels which visit the ports of Barrios (Santo Tomas) and
+  Livingston. On the southern side the ports of San José, Champerico and
+  Ocós are visited by the Pacific mail steamers, by the vessels of a
+  Hamburg company and by those of the South American (Chilean) and the
+  Pacific Steam Navigation Companies. Iztapa, formerly the principal
+  harbour on the south coast, has been almost entirely abandoned since
+  1853. Gualan, on the Motagua, and Panzos, on the Polochic, are small
+  river-ports. The principal towns are connected by wagon roads, towards
+  the construction and maintenance of which each male inhabitant is
+  required to pay two pesos or give four days' work a year. There are
+  coach routes between the capital and Quezaltenango, but over a great
+  portion of the country transport is still on mule-back. All the
+  railway lines have been built since 1875. The main lines are the
+  Southern, belonging to an American company and running from San José
+  to the capital; the Northern, a government line from the capital to
+  Puerto Barrios, which completes the interoceanic railroad; and the
+  Western, from Champerico to Quezaltenango, belonging to a Guatemalan
+  company, but largely under German management. For local traffic there
+  are several lines; one from Iztapa, near San José, to Naranjo, and
+  another from Ocós to the western coffee plantations. On the Atlantic
+  slope transport is effected mainly by river tow-boats from Livingston
+  along the Golfo Dulce and other lakes, and the Polochic river as far
+  as Panzos. The narrow-gauge railway that serves the German plantations
+  in the Vera Paz region is largely owned by Germans.
+
+  Guatemala joined the Postal Union in 1881; but its postal and
+  telegraphic services have suffered greatly from financial
+  difficulties. The telephonic systems of Guatemala la Nueva,
+  Quezaltenango and other cities are owned by private companies.
+
+  _Commerce and Industry._--The natural resources of Guatemala are rich
+  but undeveloped; and the capital necessary for their development is
+  not easily obtained in a country where war, revolution and economic
+  crises recur at frequent intervals, where the premium on gold has
+  varied by no less than 500% in a single year, and where many of the
+  wealthiest cities and agricultural districts have been destroyed by
+  earthquake in one day (18th of April 1902). At the beginning of the
+  19th century, Guatemala had practically no export trade; but between
+  1825 and 1850 cochineal was largely exported, the centre of production
+  being the Amatitlán district. This industry was ruined by the
+  competition of chemical dyes, and a substitute was found in the
+  cultivation of coffee. Guatemala is surpassed only by Brazil and the
+  East Indies in the quantity of coffee it exports. The chief
+  plantations are owned and managed by Germans; more than half of the
+  crop is sent to Germany, while three-fifths of the remainder go to the
+  United States and one-fifth to Great Britain. The average yearly
+  product is about 70,000,000 lb., worth approximately £1,300,000, and
+  subject to an export duty of one gold dollar (4s.) per quintal (101
+  lb.). Sugar, bananas, tobacco and cocoa are also cultivated; but much
+  of the sugar and bananas, most of the cocoa, and all the tobacco are
+  consumed in the country. During the colonial period, the cocoa of
+  western Guatemala and Soconusco was reserved on account of its fine
+  flavour for the Spanish court. The indigo and cotton plantations yield
+  little profit, owing to foreign competition, and have in most cases
+  been converted to other uses. The cultivation of bananas tends to
+  increase, though more slowly than in other Central American countries.
+  Grain, sweet potatoes and beans are grown for home consumption.
+  Cattle-farming is carried on in the high pasture-lands and the plains
+  of Peten; but the whole number of sheep (77,000 in 1900) and pigs
+  (30,000) in the republic is inferior to the number kept in many single
+  English counties. Much of the wool is sold, like the native cotton, to
+  Indian and Ladino women, who manufacture coarse cloth and linen in
+  their homes.
+
+  By the Land Act of 1894 the state domains, except on the coasts and
+  frontiers, were divided into lots for sale. The largest holding
+  tenable by one person under this act was fixed at 50 caballerias, or
+  5625 acres; the price varies from £40 to £80 per caballeria of 112½
+  acres. Free grants of uncultivated land are sometimes made to
+  immigrants (including foreign companies), to persons who undertake to
+  build roads or railways through their allotments, to towns, villages
+  and schools. The condition of the Indians on the plantations is often
+  akin to slavery, owing to the system adopted by some planters of
+  making payments in advance; for the Indians soon spend their earnings,
+  and thus contract debts which can only be repaid by long service.
+
+  In addition to the breweries, rum and brandy distilleries, sugar mills
+  and tobacco factories, which are sometimes worked as adjuncts to the
+  plantations, there are many purely urban industries, such as the
+  manufacture of woollen and cotton goods on a large scale, and
+  manufactures of building material and furniture; but these industries
+  are far less important than agriculture.
+
+  During the five years 1900 to 1904 inclusive, the average value of
+  Guatemalan imports, which consisted chiefly of textiles, iron and
+  machinery, sacks, provisions, flour, beer, wine and spirits, amounted
+  to £776,000; about one-half came from the United States, and nearly
+  one-fourth from the United Kingdom. The exports during the same period
+  had an average value of £1,528,000, and ranked as follows in order of
+  value: coffee (£1,300,000), timber, hides, rubber, sugar, bananas,
+  cocoa.
+
+  _Finance._--Within the republic there are six banks of issue, to which
+  the government is deeply indebted. There is practically neither gold
+  nor silver in circulation, and the value of the bank-notes is so
+  fluctuating that trade is seriously hampered. On the 25th of June
+  1903, the issue of bank-notes without a guarantee was restricted; and
+  thenceforward all banks were compelled to retain gold or silver to the
+  value of 10% of the notes issued in 1904, 20% in 1905 and 30% in 1906.
+  This reform has not, to any appreciable extent, rendered more stable
+  the value of the notes issued. The silver peso, or dollar, of 100
+  centavas is the monetary unit, weighs 25 grammes .900 fine, and has a
+  nominal value of 4s. Being no longer current it has been replaced by
+  the paper peso. The nickel coins include the real (nominal value 6d.),
+  half-real and quarter-real. The metric system of weights and measures
+  has been adopted, but the old Spanish standards remain in general use.
+
+  Of the revenue, about 64% is derived from customs and excise; 9% from
+  property, road, military, slaughter and salt taxes; 1.7% from the
+  gunpowder monopoly; and the remainder from various taxes, stamps,
+  government lands, and postal and telegraph services. The estimated
+  revenue for 1905-1906 was 23,000,000 pesos (about £328,500); the
+  estimated expenditure was 27,317,659 pesos (£390,200), of which
+  £242,800 were allotted to the public debt, £42,000 to internal
+  development and justice, £29,000 to the army and the remainder largely
+  to education. The gold value of the currency peso (75 = £1 in 1903, 70
+  = £1 in 1904, 58 = £1 in 1905) fluctuates between limits so wide that
+  conversion into sterling (especially for a series of years), with any
+  pretension to accuracy, is impracticable. In 1899 the rate of exchange
+  moved between 710% and 206% premium on gold. According to the official
+  statement, the gold debt, which runs chiefly at 4% and is held in
+  Germany and England, amounted to £1,987,905 on the 1st of January
+  1905; the currency debt (note issues, internal loans, &c.) amounted to
+  £704,730; total £2,692,635, a decrease since 1900 of about £300,000.
+
+_Government._--According to the constitution of December 1879 (modified
+in 1885, 1887, 1889 and 1903) the legislative power is vested in a
+national assembly of 69 deputies (1 for every 20,000 inhabitants) chosen
+for 4 years by direct popular vote, under universal manhood suffrage.
+The president of the republic is elected in a similar manner, but for 6
+years, and he is theoretically not eligible for the following term. He
+is assisted by 6 ministers, heads of government departments, and by a
+council of state of 13 members, partly appointed by himself and partly
+by the national assembly.
+
+_Local Government._--Each of the twenty-two departments is administered
+by an official called a _jefe politico_, or political chief, appointed
+by the president, and each is subdivided into municipal districts. These
+districts are administered by one or more _alcaldes_ or mayors, assisted
+by municipal councils, both alcaldes and councils being chosen by the
+people.
+
+_Justice._--The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, consisting
+of a chief justice and four associate justices elected by the people;
+six appeal courts, each with three judges, also elected by the people;
+and twenty-six courts of first instance, each consisting of one judge
+appointed by the president and two by the chief justice of the supreme
+court.
+
+_Religion and Instruction._--The prevailing form of religion is the
+Roman Catholic, but the state recognizes no distinction of creed. The
+establishment of conventual or monastic institutions is prohibited. Of
+the population in 1893, 90% could neither read nor write, 2% could only
+read, and 8% could read and write. Primary instruction is nominally
+compulsory, and, in government schools, is provided at the cost of the
+state. In 1903 there were 1064 government primary schools. There are
+besides about 128 private (occasionally aided) schools of similar
+character, owners of plantations on which there are more than ten
+children being obliged to provide school accommodation. Higher
+instruction is given in two national institutes at the capital, one for
+men with 500 pupils and one for women with 300. At Quezaltenango there
+are two similar institutes, and at Chiquimula there are other two. To
+each of the six there is a school for teachers attached, and within the
+republic there are four other schools for teachers. For professional
+instruction (law, medicine, engineering) there are schools supported by
+private funds, but aided occasionally by the government. Other
+educational establishments are a school of art, a national conservatory
+of music, a commercial college, four trades' schools with more than 600
+pupils and a national library. There is a German school, endowed by the
+German government.
+
+_Defence._--For the white and mixed population military service is
+compulsory; from the eighteenth to the thirtieth year of age in the
+active army, and from the thirtieth to the fiftieth in the reserve. The
+effective force of the active army is 56,900, of the reserve 29,400.
+About 7000 officers and men are kept in regular service. Military
+training is given in all public and most private schools.
+
+_History._--Guatemala was conquered by the Spaniards under Pedro de
+Alvarado between 1522 and 1524. Up to the years 1837-1839 its history
+differs only in minor details from that of the neighbouring states of
+Central America (q.v.). The colonial period was marked by the
+destruction of the ancient Indian civilization, the extermination of
+many entire tribes, and the enslavement of the survivors, who were
+exploited to the utmost for the benefit of Spanish officials and
+adventurers. But although the administration was weak, corrupt and
+cruel, it succeeded in establishing the Roman Catholic religion, and in
+introducing the Spanish language among the Indians and Ladinos, who thus
+obtained a tincture of civilization and ultimately a desire for more
+liberal institutions. The Central American provinces revolted in 1821,
+were annexed to the Mexican empire of Iturbide from 1822 to 1823, and
+united to form a federal republic from 1823 to 1839. In Guatemala the
+Clerical, Conservative or anti-Federal party was supreme; after a
+protracted struggle it overthrew the Liberals or Federalists, and
+declared the country an independent republic, with Rafael Carrera
+(1814-1865) as president. In 1845 an attempt to restore the federal
+union failed; in 1851 Carrera defeated the Federalist forces of Honduras
+and Salvador at La Arada near Chiquimula, and was recognized as the
+pacificator of the republic. In 1851 a new constitution was promulgated,
+and Carrera was appointed president till 1856, a dignity which was in
+1854 bestowed upon him for life. His rivalry with Gerardo Barrios (d.
+1865), president of Salvador, resulted in open war in 1863. At
+Coatepeque the Guatemalans suffered a severe defeat, which was followed
+by a truce. Honduras now joined with Salvador, and Nicaragua and Costa
+Rica with Guatemala. The contest was finally settled in favour of
+Carrera, who besieged and occupied San Salvador and made himself
+dominant also in Honduras and Nicaragua. During the rest of his rule,
+which lasted till his death in April 1865, he continued to act in
+concert with the Clerical party, and endeavoured to maintain friendly
+relations with the European governments. Carrera's successor was General
+Cerna, who had been recommended by him for election. The Liberal party
+began to rise in influence about 1870, and in May 1871 Cerna was
+deposed. The archbishop of Guatemala and the Jesuits were driven into
+exile as intriguers in the interests of the Clericals. Pres. Rufino
+Barrios (1835-1885), elected in 1873, governed the country after the
+manner of a dictator; he expelled the Jesuits, confiscated their
+property and disestablished and disendowed the church. But though he
+encouraged education, promoted railway and other enterprises, and
+succeeded in settling difficulties as to the Mexican boundary, the
+general result of his policy was baneful. Conspiracies against him were
+rife, and in 1884 he narrowly escaped assassination. His ambition was to
+be the restorer of the federal union of the Central American states, and
+when his efforts towards this end by peaceful means failed he had
+recourse to the sword. Counting on the support of Honduras and Salvador,
+he proclaimed himself, in February 1885, the supreme military chief of
+Central America, and claimed the command of all the forces within the
+five states. President Zaldívar, of Salvador, had been his friend, but
+after the issue of the decree of union he entered into a defensive
+alliance with Costa Rica and Nicaragua. In March Barrios invaded
+Salvador, and on the 2nd of April a battle was fought, in which the
+Guatemalan president was killed. He was succeeded by General Manuel
+Barillas. No further effort was made to force on the union, and on the
+16th of April the war was formally ended. Peace, however, only provided
+opportunity for domestic conspiracy, with assassination and revolution
+in view. In 1892 General José Maria Reina Barrios was elected president,
+and in 1897 he was re-elected; but on the 8th of February 1898 he was
+assassinated. Señor Morales, vice-president, succeeded him; but in the
+same year Don Manuel Estrada Cabrera (b. 1857) was elected president for
+the term ending 1905. Cabrera promoted education, commerce and the
+improvement of communications, but his re-election for the term
+1905-1911 caused widespread discontent. He was charged with aiming at a
+dictatorship, with permitting or even encouraging the imprisonment,
+torture and execution without trial of political opponents, with
+maladministration of the finances and with aggression against the
+neighbouring states. A well-armed force, which included a body of
+adventurers from San Francisco (U.S.A.) was organized by General
+Barillas, the ex-president, and invaded Guatemala in March 1906 from
+Mexico, British Honduras and Salvador. Barillas (1845-1907) proclaimed
+his intention of establishing a silver currency, and gained, to a great
+extent, the sympathy of the German and British residents; he had been
+the sole Guatemalan president who had not sought to prolong his own
+tenure of office. Ocós was captured by his lieutenant, General Castillo,
+and the revolution speedily became a war, in which Honduras, Costa Rica
+and Salvador were openly involved against Guatemala, while Nicaragua was
+hostile. But Cabrera held his ground, and even gained several indecisive
+victories. The intervention of President Roosevelt and of President Diaz
+of Mexico brought about an armistice on the 19th of July, and the
+so-called "Marblehead Pact" was signed on the following day on board the
+United States cruiser "Marblehead." Its terms were embodied in a treaty
+signed (28th of September) by representatives of the four belligerent
+states, Nicaragua taking no part in the negotiations. The treaty
+included regulations for the improvement of commerce and navigation in
+the area affected by the war, and provided for the settlement of
+subsequent disputes by the arbitration of the United States and Mexico.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Besides the works cited under CENTRAL AMERICA see the
+  interesting narrative of Thomas Gage, the English missionary, in
+  Juarros, _Compendio de la historia de Guatemala_ (1808-1818, 2 vols.;
+  new ed., 1857), which in Bailly's English translation (London, 1823)
+  long formed the chief authority. See also C. Juan Anino, _La Republica
+  de Guatemala_ (Guatemala, 1894); T. Brigham, _Guatemala, The Land of
+  the Quetzal_ (London, 1887); J. M. Caceres, _Geografia de
+  Centro-America_ (Paris, 1882); G. Lemale, _Guia geografica de los
+  centros de poblacion de la republica de Guatemala_ (Guatemala, 1882);
+  F. A. de Fuentes y Guzman, _Historia de Guatemala o Recordacion
+  Florida_ (Madrid, 1882); A. C. and A. P. Maudslay, _A Glimpse at
+  Guatemala, and some Notes on the Ancient Monuments of Central America_
+  (London, 1899); Gustavo Niederlein, _The Republic of Guatemala_
+  (Philadelphia, 1898); Ramon A. Salazar, _Historia del disenvolvimiento
+  intelectual de Guatemala_, vol. i. (Guatemala, 1897); Otto Stoll,
+  _Reisen und Schilderungen aus den Jahren 1878-1883_ (Leipzig, 1886);
+  J. Mendez, _Guia del immigrante en la republica de Guatemala_
+  (Guatemala, 1895); Karl Sapper, "Grundzüge der physikalischen
+  Geographie von Guatemala," Ergänzungsheft No. 115, _Petermann's
+  Mitteilungen_ (Gotha, 1894); _Anuario de estadistica de la republica
+  de Guatemala_ (Guatemala); _Memoria de la Secretaria de Instruccion
+  Publica_ (Guatemala, 1899); _Handbook of Guatemala_, revised (Bureau
+  of the American Republics, Washington, 1897); _United States Consular
+  Reports_ (Washington); _British Foreign Office Diplomatic and Consular
+  Reports_ (London).
+
+
+
+
+GUATEMALA, or GUATEMALA LA NUEVA (i.e. "New Guatemala," sometimes
+written Nueva Guatemala, and formerly Santiago de los Caballeros de
+Guatemala), the capital of the republic of Guatemala, and until 1821 of
+the Spanish captaincy-general of Guatemala, which comprised Chiapas in
+Mexico and all Central America except Panama. Pop. (1905) about 97,000.
+Guatemala is built more than 5000 ft. above sea-level, in a wide
+table-land traversed by the Rio de las Vacas, or Cow River, so called
+from the cattle introduced here by Spanish colonists in the 16th
+century. Deep ravines mark the edge of the table-land, and beyond it
+lofty mountains rise on every side, the highest peaks being on the
+south, where the volcanic summits of the Sierra Madre exceed 12,000 ft.
+Guatemala has a station on the transcontinental railway from Puerto
+Barrios on the Atlantic (190 m. N.E.) to San José on the Pacific (75 m.
+S. by W.). It is thrice the size of any other city in the republic, and
+has a corresponding commercial superiority. Its archbishop is the
+primate of Central America (excluding Panama). Like most
+Spanish-American towns Guatemala is laid out in wide and regular
+streets, often planted with avenues of trees, and it has extensive
+suburbs. The houses, though usually of only one storey, are solidly and
+comfortably constructed; many of them are surrounded by large gardens
+and courts. Among the open spaces the chief are the Plaza Mayor, which
+contains the cathedral, erected in 1730, the archiepiscopal palace, the
+government buildings, the mint and other public offices; and the more
+modern Reforma Park and Plaza de la Concordia, now the favourite resorts
+of the inhabitants. There are many large schools for both sexes, besides
+hospitals and an orphanage. Many of the principal buildings, such as the
+military academy, were originally convents. The theatre, founded in
+1858, is one of the best in Central America. A museum, founded in 1831,
+is maintained by the Sociedad Economica, which in various ways has done
+great service to the city and the country. There are two fortresses, the
+Castello Matamoros, built by Rafael Carrera (see GUATEMALA [republic]
+under _History_), and the Castello de San José. Water is brought from a
+distance of about 8 m. by two old aqueducts from the towns of Mixco and
+Pinula; fuel and provisions are largely supplied by the Pokoman Indians
+of Mixco. The general prosperity, and to some extent the appearance, of
+Guatemala have procured it the name of the Paris of Central America. It
+is lighted by electricity and has a good telephone service. Its trade is
+chiefly in coffee, but it also possesses cigar factories, wool and
+cotton factories, breweries, tanneries and other industrial
+establishments. The foreign trade is chiefly controlled by Germans.
+
+The first city named Guatemala, now called Ciudad Vieja or "Old City,"
+was founded in 1527 by Pedro de Alvarado, the conqueror of the country,
+on the banks of the Rio Pensativo, and at the foot of the volcano of
+Agua (i.e. "Water"). In 1541 it was overwhelmed by a deluge of water
+from the flooded crater of Agua; and in 1542 Alvarado founded Santiago
+de los Caballeros la Nueva, now Antigua. This city flourished greatly,
+and by the middle of the 18th century had become the most populous place
+in Central America, with 60,000 inhabitants and more than 100 churches
+and convents. But in 1773 it was ruined by an earthquake. It was
+rebuilt, and ultimately became capital of the department of
+Sacatepeques, and a health-resort locally celebrated for its thermal
+springs. But the Guatemalans determined to found a new capital on the
+site occupied by the hamlet of Ermita, 27 m. N.E. Here the third and
+last city of Guatemala was built, and became the seat of government in
+1779. The remarkable regularity of the streets is due to the
+construction of the city on a uniform plan. The wide area covered, and
+the lowness of the houses, were similarly due to an ordinance which, in
+order to minimize the danger from earthquakes, forbade the erection of
+any building more than 20 ft. high. Many of the belfries of convents or
+churches, added after the ordinance had fallen into abeyance, were
+overthrown by the earthquake of 1874, which also destroyed a large part
+of Antigua.
+
+
+
+
+GUATOS, a tribe of South American Indians of the upper Paraguay. They
+are of a European fairness and wear beards. They live almost entirely in
+canoes, building rough shelters in the swamps. They aided the Brazilians
+in the war with Paraguay 1865-70. Very few survive.
+
+
+
+
+GUATUSOS, a tribe of American Indians of Costa Rica. They are an active,
+hardy people, who have always maintained hostility towards the Spaniards
+and retain their independence. From their language they appear to be a
+distinct stock. They were described by old writers as being very fair,
+with flaxen hair, and these reports led to a belief, since exploded,
+that they were European hybrids. There are very few surviving.
+
+
+
+
+GUAVA (from the Mexican _guayaba_), the name applied to the fruits of
+species of _Psidium_, a genus belonging to the natural order
+_Myrtaceae_. The species which produces the bulk of the guava fruits of
+commerce is _Psidium Guajava_, a small tree from 15 to 20 ft. high, a
+native of the tropical parts of America and the West Indies. It bears
+short-stalked ovate or oblong leaves, with strongly marked veins, and
+covered with a soft tomentum or down. The flowers are borne on axillary
+stalks, and the fruits vary much in size, shape and colour, numerous
+forms and varieties being known and cultivated. The variety of which the
+fruits are most valued is that which is sometimes called the white guava
+(_P. Guajava_, var. _pyriferum_). The fruits are pear-shaped, about the
+size of a hen's egg, covered with a thin bright yellow or whitish skin
+filled with soft pulp, also of a light yellowish tinge, and having a
+pleasant sweet-acid and somewhat aromatic flavour. _P. Guajava_, var.
+_pomiferum_, produces a more globular or apple-shaped fruit, sometimes
+called the red guava. The pulp of this variety is mostly of a darker
+colour than the former and not of so fine a flavour, therefore the first
+named is most esteemed for eating in a raw state; both, however, are
+used in the preparation of two kinds of preserve known as guava jelly
+and guava cheese, which are made in the West Indies and imported thence
+to England; the fruits are of much too perishable a nature to allow of
+their importation in their natural state. Both varieties have been
+introduced into various parts of India, as well as in other countries of
+the East, where they have become perfectly naturalized. Though of course
+much too tender for outdoor planting in England, the guava thrives there
+in hothouses or stoves.
+
+_Psidium variabile_ (also known as _P. Cattleyanum_), a tree of from 10
+to 20 ft. high, a native of Brazil (the Araçá or Araçá de Praya), is
+known as the purple guava. The fruit, which is very abundantly produced
+in the axils of the leaves, is large, spherical, of a fine deep claret
+colour; the rind is pitted, and the pulp is soft, fleshy, purplish,
+reddish next the skin, but becoming paler towards the middle and in the
+centre almost or quite white. It has a very agreeable acid-sweet
+flavour, which has been likened to that of a strawberry.
+
+
+
+
+GUAYAMA, a small city and the capital of a municipal district and
+department of the same name, on the southern coast of Porto Rico, 53 m.
+S. of San Juan. Pop. (1899) of the city, 5334; (1910) 8321; (1899) of
+the district, 12,749. The district (156 sq. m.) includes Arroyo and
+Salinas. The city stands about 230 ft. above the sea and has a mild,
+healthy climate. It is connected with Ponce by railway (1910), and with
+the port of Arroyo by an excellent road, part of the military road
+extending to Cayey, and it exports sugar, rum, tobacco, coffee, cattle,
+fruit and other products of the department, which is very fertile. The
+city was founded in 1736, but was completely destroyed by fire in 1832.
+It was rebuilt on a rectangular plan and possesses several buildings of
+note. Drinking-water is brought in through an aqueduct.
+
+
+
+
+GUAYAQUIL, or SANTIAGO DE GUAYAQUIL, a city and port of Ecuador, capital
+of the province of Guayas, on the right bank of the Guayas river, 33 m.
+above its entrance into the Gulf of Guayaquil, in 2° 12´ S., 79° 51´ W.
+Pop. (1890) 44,772; (1897, estimate) 51,000, mostly half-breeds. The
+city is built on a comparatively level _pajonal_ or savanna, extending
+southward from the base of three low hills, called Los Cerros de la
+Cruz, between the river and the partially filled waters of the Estero
+Salado. It is about 30 ft. above sea-level, and the lower parts of the
+town are partially flooded in the rainy season. The old town is the
+upper or northern part, and is inhabited by the poorer classes, its
+streets being badly paved, crooked, undrained, dirty and pestilential.
+The great fire of 1896 destroyed a large part of the old town, and some
+of its insanitary conditions were improved in rebuilding. The new town,
+or southern part, is the business and residential quarter of the better
+classes, but the buildings are chiefly of wood and the streets are
+provided with surface drainage only. Among the public buildings are the
+governor's and bishop's palaces, town-hall, cathedral and 9 churches,
+national college, episcopal seminary and schools of law and medicine,
+theatre, two hospitals, custom-house, and several asylums and charitable
+institutions. Guayaquil is also the seat of a university corporation
+with faculties of law and medicine. A peculiarity of Guayaquil is that
+the upper floors in the business streets project over the walks, forming
+covered arcades. The year is divided into a wet and dry season, the
+former from January to June, when the hot days are followed by nights of
+drenching rain. The mean annual temperature is about 82° to 83° F.;
+malarial and bilious fevers are common, the latter being known as
+"Guayaquil fever," and epidemics of yellow fever are frequent. The dry
+or summer season is considered pleasant and healthy. The water-supply is
+now brought in through iron mains from the Cordilleras 53 m. distant.
+The mains pass under the Guayas river and discharge into a large
+distributing reservoir on one of the hills N. of the city. The city is
+provided with tramway and telephone services, the streets are lighted
+with gas and electricity, and telegraph communication with the outside
+world is maintained by means of the West Coast cable, which lands at the
+small port of Santa Elena, on the Pacific coast, about 65 m. W. of
+Guayaquil. Railway connexion with Quito (290 m.) was established in June
+1908. There is also steamboat connexion with the producing districts of
+the province on the Guayas river and its tributaries, on which boats run
+regularly as far up as Bodegas (80 m.) in the dry season, and for a
+distance of 40 m. on the Daule. For smaller boats there are about 200 m.
+of navigation on this system of rivers. The exports of the province are
+almost wholly transported on these rivers, and are shipped either at
+Guayaquil, or at Puna, its deep-water port, 6½ m. outside the Guayas
+bar, on the E. end of Puna Island. The Guayas river is navigable up to
+Guayaquil for steamers drawing 22 ft. of water; larger vessels anchor at
+Puna, 40 m. from Guayaquil, where cargoes and passengers are transferred
+to lighters and tenders. There is a quay on the river front, but the
+depth alongside does not exceed 18 ft. The principal exports are cacao,
+rubber, coffee, tobacco, hides, cotton, Panama hats, cinchona bark and
+ivory nuts, the value of all exports for the year 1905 being 14,148,877
+_sucres_, in a total of 18,565,668 _sucres_ for the whole republic. In
+1908 the exports were: cacao, about 64,000,000 lb., valued at
+$6,400,000; hides, valued at $135,000; rubber, valued at $235,000;
+coffee, valued at $273,000; and vegetable ivory, valued at $102,000.
+There are some small industries in the city, including a shipyard,
+saw-mills, foundry, sugar refineries, cotton and woollen mills, brewery,
+and manufactures of soap, cigars, chocolate, ice, soda-water and
+liqueurs.
+
+Santiago de Guayaquil was founded on St James's day, the 25th of July
+1535, by Sebastian de Benalcazar, but was twice abandoned before its
+permanent settlement in 1537 by Francesco de Orellana. It was captured
+and sacked several times in the 17th and 18th centuries by pirates and
+freebooters--by Jacob Clark in 1624, by French pirates in 1686, by
+English freebooters under Edward David in 1687, by William Dampier in
+1707 and by Clapperton in 1709. Defensive works were erected in 1730,
+and in 1763, when the town was made a governor's residence, a castle and
+other fortifications were constructed. Owing to the flimsy construction
+of its buildings Guayaquil has been repeatedly burned, the greater fires
+occurring in 1707, 1764, 1865, 1896 and 1899. The city was made the see
+of a bishopric in 1837.
+
+
+
+
+GUAYAS, or EL GUAYAS, a coast province of Ecuador, bounded N. by Manabí
+and Pichincha, E. by Los Rios, Cañar and Azuay, S. by El Oro and the
+Gulf of Guayaquil, and W. by the same gulf, the Pacific Ocean and the
+province of Manabí. Pop. (1893, estimate) 98,100; area, 11,504 sq. m. It
+is very irregular in form and comprises the low alluvial districts
+surrounding the Gulf of Guayaquil between the Western Cordilleras and
+the coast. It includes (since 1885) the Galápagos Islands, lying 600 m.
+off the coast. The province of Guayas is heavily forested and traversed
+by numerous rivers, for the most part tributaries of the Guayas river,
+which enters the gulf from the N. This river system has a drainage area
+of about 14,000 sq. m. and an aggregate of 200 m. of navigable channels
+in the rainy season. Its principal tributaries are the Daule and
+Babahoyo or Chimbo (also called Bodegas), and of the latter the Vinces
+and Yaguachi. The climate is hot, humid and unhealthy, bilious and
+malarial fevers being prevalent. The rainfall is abundant and the soil
+is deep and fertile. Agriculture and the collection of forest products
+are the chief industries. The staple products are cacao, coffee,
+sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco and rice. The cultivation of cacao is the
+principal industry, the exports forming about one-third the world's
+supply. Stock-raising is also carried on to a limited extent. Among
+forest products are rubber, cinchona bark, toquilla fibre and ivory
+nuts. The manufacture of so-called Panama hats from the fibre of the
+toquilla palm (commonly called _jipijapa_, after a town in Manabí famous
+for this industry) is a long-established domestic industry among the
+natives of this and other coast provinces, the humidity of the climate
+greatly facilitating the work of plaiting the delicate straws, which
+would be broken in a dry atmosphere. Guayas is the chief industrial and
+commercial province of the republic, about nineteen-twentieths of the
+commerce of Ecuador passing through the port of its capital, Guayaquil.
+There are no land transport routes in the province except the Quito &
+Guayaquil railway, which traverses its eastern half. The sluggish river
+channels which intersect the greater part of its territory afford
+excellent facilities for transporting produce, and a large number of
+small boats are regularly engaged in that traffic. There are no large
+towns in Guayas other than Guayaquil. Durán, on the Guayas river
+opposite Guayaquil, is the starting point of the Quito railway and
+contains the shops and offices of that line. The port of Santa Elena on
+a bay of the same name, about 65 m. W. of Guayaquil, is a landing-point
+of the West Coast cable, and a port of call for some of the regular
+steamship lines. Its exports are chiefly Panama hats and salt.
+
+
+
+
+GUAYCURUS, a tribe of South American Indians on the Paraguay. The name
+has been used generally of all the mounted Indians of Gran Chaco. The
+Guaycurus are a wild, fierce people, who paint their bodies and go
+naked. They are fearless horsemen and are occupied chiefly in cattle
+rearing.
+
+
+
+
+GUAYMAS, or SAN JOSÉ DE GUAYMAS, a seaport of Mexico, in the state of
+Sonora, on a small bay opening into the Gulf of California a few miles
+W. of the mouth of the Yaqui river, in lat. 27° 58´ N., long. 110° 58´
+W. Pop. (1900) 8648. The harbour is one of the best on the W. coast of
+Mexico, and the port is a principal outlet for the products of the large
+state of Sonora. The town stands on a small, arid plain, nearly shut in
+by mountains, and has a very hot, dry climate. It is connected with the
+railways of the United States by a branch of the Southern Pacific from
+Benson, Arizona, and is 230 m. S. by W. of the frontier town of Nogales,
+where that line enters Mexico. The exports include gold, silver, hides
+and pearls.
+
+
+
+
+GUBBIO (anc. _Iguvium_, q.v.; med. _Eugubium_), a town and episcopal see
+of Umbria, Italy, in the province of Perugia, from which it is 23 m.
+N.N.E. by road; by rail it is 13 m. N.W. of Fossato di Vico (on the line
+between Foligno and Ancona) and 70 m. E.S.E. of Arezzo. Pop. (1901) 5783
+(town); 26,718 (commune). Gubbio is situated at the foot and on the
+steep slopes of Monte Calvo, from 1568 to 1735 ft. above sea-level, at
+the entrance to the gorge which ascends to Scheggia, probably on the
+site of the ancient Umbrian town. It presents a markedly medieval
+appearance. The most prominent building is the Palazzo dei Consoli, on
+the N. side of the Piazza della Signoria; it is a huge Gothic edifice
+with a tower, erected in 1332-1346, according to tradition, by Matteo di
+Giovanello of Gubbio, the name of Angelo da Orvieto occurs on the arch
+of the main door, but his work may be limited to the sculptures of this
+arch. It has two stories above the ground floor, and, being on the slope
+of the hill, is, like the whole piazza, raised on arched substructures.
+On the S. side of the piazza is the Palazzo Pretorio, or della Podestà,
+begun in 1349 and now the municipal palace. It contains the famous
+_Tabulae Iguvinae_, and a collection of paintings of the Umbrian school,
+of furniture and of majolica. On the E. side is the modern Palazzo
+Ranghiasci-Brancaleone, which until 1882 contained fine collections, now
+dispersed. Above the Piazza della Signoria, at the highest point of the
+town, is the Palazzo Ducale, erected by the dukes of Urbino in
+1474-1480; the architect was, in all probability, Lucio da Laurana, to
+whom is due the palace at Urbino, which this palace resembles,
+especially in its fine colonnaded court. The Palazzo Beni, lower down,
+belongs to a somewhat earlier period of the 15th century. Pope Martin V.
+lodged here for a few days in 1420. The Palazzo Accoramboni, on the
+other hand, is a Renaissance structure, with a fine entrance arch. Here
+Vittoria Accoramboni was born in 1557. Opposite the Palazzo Ducale is
+the cathedral, dedicated to SS. Mariano e Jacopo, a structure of the
+12th century, with a façade, adorned with contemporary sculptures,
+partly restored in 1514-1550. The interior contains some good pictures
+by Umbrian artists, a fine episcopal throne in carved wood, and a fine
+Flemish cope given by Pope Marcellus II. (1555) in the sacristy. The
+exterior of the Gothic church of S. Francesco, in the lower part of the
+town, built in 1259, preserves its original style, but the interior has
+been modernized; and the same fate has overtaken the Gothic churches of
+S. Maria Nuova and S. Pietro. S. Agostino, on the other hand, has its
+Gothic interior better preserved. The whole town is full of specimens of
+medieval architecture, the pointed arch of the 13th century being
+especially prevalent. A remarkable procession takes place in Gubbio on
+the 15th of May in each year, in honour of S. Ubaldo, when three
+colossal wooden pedestals, each over 30 ft. high, and crowned by statues
+of SS. Ubaldo, Antonio and Giorgio, are carried through the town, and
+then, in a wild race, up to the church of S. Ubaldo on the mountain-side
+(2690 ft.). See H. M. Bower, _The Elevation and Procession of the Ceri
+at Gubbio_ (Folk-lore Society, London, 1897).
+
+After its reconstruction with the help of Narses (see IGUVIUM) the town
+remained subject to the exarchs of Ravenna, and, after the destruction
+of the Lombard kingdom in 774, formed part of the donation of
+Charlemagne to the pope. In the 11th century the beginnings of its
+independence may be traced. In the struggles of that time it was
+generally on the Ghibelline side. In 1151 it repelled an attack of
+several neighbouring cities, and formed from this time a republic
+governed by consuls. In 1155 it was besieged by the emperor Frederick
+I., but saved by the intervention of its bishop, S. Ubaldo, and was
+granted privileges by the emperor. In 1203 it had its first podestà,
+and from this period dates the rise of its importance. In 1387, after
+various political changes, it surrendered to Antonio da Montefeltro of
+Urbino, and remained under the dominion of the dukes of Urbino until, in
+1624, the whole duchy was ceded to the pope.
+
+Gubbio was the birthplace of Oderisio, a famous miniature painter
+(1240-1299), mentioned by Dante as the honour of his native town
+(_Purg._ xi. 80 "_l'onor d'Agobbio_"), but no authentic works by him
+exist. In the 14th and 15th centuries a branch of the Umbrian school of
+painting flourished here, the most famous masters of which were Guido
+Palmerucci (1280-1345?) and several members of the Nelli family,
+particularly Ottaviano (d. 1444), whose best work is the "Madonna del
+Belvedere" in S. Maria Nuova at Gubbio (1404), extremely well preserved,
+with bright colouring and fine details. Another work by him is the group
+of frescoes including a large "Last Judgment," and scenes from the life
+of St Augustine, in the church of S. Agostino, discovered in 1902 under
+a coating of whitewash. These painters seem to have been influenced by
+the contemporary masters of the Sienese school.
+
+Gubbio occupies a far more important place in the history of majolica.
+In a decree of 1438 a _vasarius vasorum pictorum_ is mentioned, who
+probably was not the first of his trade. The art was brought to
+perfection by Giorgio Andreoli, whose father had emigrated hither from
+Pavia, and who in 1498 became a citizen of Gubbio. The works by his hand
+are remarkable for their ruby tint, with a beautiful metallic lustre;
+but only one small tazza remains in Gubbio itself. His art was carried
+on by his sons, Cencio and Ubaldo, but was afterwards lost, and only
+recovered in 1853 by Angelico Fabbri and Luigi Carocci.
+
+Two miles outside Porta Metauro to the N.E. is the Bottaccione, a large
+water reservoir, constructed in the 12th or 14th century; the water is
+collected in the bed of a stream by a massive dam.
+
+  See A. Colasanti, _Gubbio_ (Bergamo, 1905); L. McCracken, _Gubbio_
+  (London, 1905).     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+GUBEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, at the confluence
+of the Lubis with the Neisse, 28 m. S.S.E. of Frankfort-on-Oder, at the
+junction of railways to Breslau, Halle and Forst. Pop. (1875) 23,704;
+(1905) 36,666. It possesses three Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic
+church, a synagogue, a gymnasium, a modern school, a museum and a
+theatre. The principal industries are the spinning and weaving of wool,
+dyeing, tanning, and the manufacture of pottery ware, hats, cloth, paper
+and machinery. The vine is cultivated in the neighbourhood to some
+extent, and there is also some trade in fruit and vegetables. Guben is
+of Wendish origin. It is mentioned in 1207 and received civic rights in
+1235. It was surrounded by walls in 1311, about which time it came into
+the possession of the margrave of Brandenburg, from whom it passed to
+Bohemia in 1368. It was twice devastated by the Hussites, and in 1631
+and 1642 it was occupied by the Swedes. By the peace of Prague in 1635
+it came into the possession of the elector of Saxony, and in 1815 it
+was, with the rest of Lower Lusatia, united to Prussia.
+
+
+
+
+GUBERNATIS, ANGELO DE, COUNT (1840-   ), Italian man of letters, was born
+at Turin and educated there and at Berlin, where he studied philology.
+In 1862 he was appointed professor of Sanskrit at Florence, but having
+married a cousin of the Socialist Bakunin and become interested in his
+views he resigned his appointment and spent some years in travel. He was
+reappointed, however, in 1867; and in 1891 he was transferred to the
+university of Rome. He became prominent both as an orientalist, a
+publicist and a poet. He founded the _Italia letteraria_ (1862), the
+_Rivista orientale_ (1867), the _Civitta italiana_ and _Rivista europea_
+(1869), the _Bollettino italiano degli studii orientali_ (1876) and the
+_Revue internationale_ (1883), and in 1887 became director of the
+_Giornale della società asiatica_. In 1878 he started the _Dizionario
+biografico degli scrittori contemporanei_. His Oriental and mythological
+works include the _Piccola enciclopedia indiana_ (1867), the _Fonti
+vediche_ (1868), a famous work on zoological mythology (1872), and
+another on plant mythology (1878). He also edited the encyclopaedic
+_Storia universale della letteratura_ (1882-1885). His work in verse
+includes the dramas _Cato_, _Romolo_, _Il re Nala_, _Don Rodrigo_,
+_Savitri_, &c.
+
+
+
+
+GUDBRANDSDAL, a district in the midlands of southern Norway, comprising
+the upper course of the river Lougen or Laagen from Lillehammer at the
+head of Lake Mjösen to its source in Lake Lesjekogen and tributary
+valleys. Lillehammer, the centre of a rich timber district, is 114 m. N.
+of Christiania by rail. The railway continues through the well-wooded
+and cultivated valley to Otta (70 m.). Several tracks run westward into
+the wild district of the Jotunheim. From Otto good driving routes run
+across the watershed and descend the western slope, where the scenery is
+incomparably finer than in Gudbrandsdal itself--(a) past Sörum, with the
+13th-century churches of Vaagen and Lom (a fine specimen of the
+Stavekirke or timber-built church), Aanstad and Polfos, with beautiful
+falls of the Otta river, to Grotlid, whence roads diverge to Stryn on
+the Nordfjord, and to Marok on the Geirangerfjord; (b) past Domaas (with
+branch road north to Stören near Trondhjem, skirting the Dovrefjeld),
+over the watershed formed by Lesjekogen Lake, which drains in both
+directions, and down through the magnificent Romsdal.
+
+
+
+
+GUDE (GUDIUS), MARQUARD (1635-1689), German archaeologist and classical
+scholar, was born at Rendsburg in Holstein on the 1st of February 1635.
+He was originally intended for the law, but from an early age showed a
+decided preference for classical studies. In 1658 he went to Holland in
+the hope of finding work as a teacher of classics, and in the following
+year, through the influence of J. F. Gronovius, he obtained the post of
+tutor and travelling companion to a wealthy young Dutchman, Samuel
+Schars. During his travels Gude seized the opportunity of copying
+inscriptions and MSS. At the earnest request of his pupil, who had
+become greatly attached to him, Gude refused more than one professional
+appointment, and it was not until 1671 that he accepted the post of
+librarian to Duke Christian Albert of Holstein-Gottorp. Schars, who had
+accompanied Gude, died in 1675, and left him the greater part of his
+property. In 1678 Gude, having quarrelled with the duke, retired into
+private life; but in 1682 he entered the service of Christian V. of
+Denmark as counsellor of the Schleswig-Holstein chancellery, and
+remained in it almost to the time of his death on the 26th of November
+1689. Gude's great life-work, the collection of Greek and Latin
+inscriptions, was not published till 1731. Mention may also be made of
+his _editio princeps_ (1661) of the treatise of Hippolytus the Martyr on
+Antichrist, and of his notes on Phaedrus (with four new fables
+discovered by him) published in P. Burmann's edition (1698).
+
+  His correspondence (ed. P. Burmann, 1697) is the most important
+  authority for the events of Gude's life, besides containing valuable
+  information on the learning of the times. See also J. Moller, _Cimbria
+  literata_, iii., and C. Bursian in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_,
+  x.
+
+
+
+
+GUDEMAN, ALFRED (1862-   ), American classical scholar, was born in
+Atlanta, Georgia, on the 26th of August 1862. He graduated at Columbia
+University in 1883 and studied under Hermann Diels at the University of
+Berlin. From 1890 to 1893 he was reader in classical philology at Johns
+Hopkins University, from 1893 to 1902 professor in the University of
+Pennsylvania, and from 1902 to 1904 professor in Cornell University. In
+1904 he became a member of the corps of scholars preparing the Wölfflin
+_Thesaurus linguae Latinae_--a unique distinction for an American
+Latinist, as was the publication of his critical edition, with German
+commentary, of Tacitus' _Agricola_ in 1902 by the Weidmannsche
+Buchhandlung of Berlin. He wrote _Latin Literature of the Empire_ (2
+vols., _Prose and Poetry_, 1898-1899), a _History of Classical
+Philology_ (1902) and _Sources of Plutarch's Life of Cicero_ (1902); and
+edited Tacitus' _Dialogus de oratoribus_ (text with commentary, 1894 and
+1898) and _Agricola_ (1899; with _Germania_, 1900), and Sallust's
+_Catiline_ (1903).
+
+
+
+
+GUDGEON (_Gobio fluviatilis_), a small fish of the Cyprinid family. It
+is nearly related to the barbel, and has a small barbel or fleshy
+appendage at each corner of the mouth. It is the _gobione_ of Italy,
+_goujon_ of France (whence adapted in M. English as _gojon_), and
+_Grässling_ or _Gründling_ of Germany. Gudgeons thrive in streams and
+lakes, keeping to the bottom, and seldom exceeding 8 in. in length. In
+China and Japan there are varieties differing only slightly from the
+common European type.
+
+
+
+
+GUDRUN (KUDRUN), a Middle High German epic, written probably in the
+early years of the 13th century, not long after the _Nibelungenlied_,
+the influence of which may be traced upon it. It is preserved in a
+single MS. which was prepared at the command of Maximilian I., and was
+discovered as late as 1820 in the Castle of Ambras in Tirol. The author
+was an unnamed Austrian poet, but the story itself belongs to the cycle
+of sagas, which originated on the shores of the North Sea. The epic
+falls into three easily distinguishable parts--the adventures of King
+Hagen of Ireland, the romance of Hettel, king of the Hegelingen, who
+woos and wins Hagen's daughter Hilde, and lastly, the more or less
+parallel story of how Herwig, king of Seeland, wins, in opposition to
+her father's wishes, Gudrun, the daughter of Hettel and Hilde. Gudrun is
+carried off by a king of Normandy, and her kinsfolk, who are in pursuit,
+are defeated in a great battle on the island of Wülpensand off the Dutch
+coast. The finest parts of the epic are those in which Gudrun, a
+prisoner in the Norman castle, refuses to become the wife of her captor,
+and is condemned to do the most menial work of the household. Here,
+thirteen years later, Herwig and her brother Ortwin find her washing
+clothes by the sea; on the following day they attack the Norman castle
+with their army and carry out the long-delayed retribution.
+
+The epic of _Gudrun_ is not unworthy to stand beside the greater
+_Nibelungenlied_, and it has been aptly compared with it as the
+_Odyssey_ to the _Iliad_. Like the _Odyssey_, Gudrun is an epic of the
+sea, a story of adventure; it does not turn solely round the conflict of
+human passions; nor is it built up round one all-absorbing,
+all-dominating idea like the _Nibelungenlied_. Scenery and incident are
+more varied, and the poet has an opportunity for a more lyric
+interpretation of motive and character. _Gudrun_ is composed in stanzas
+similar to those of the _Nibelungenlied_, but with the essential
+difference that the last line of each stanza is identical with the
+others, and does not contain the extra accented syllable characteristic
+of the _Nibelungen_ metre.
+
+  _Gudrun_ was first edited by von der Hagen in vol. i. of his
+  _Heldenbuch_ (1820). Subsequent editions by A. Ziemann and A. J.
+  Vollmer followed in 1837 and 1845. The best editions are those by K.
+  Bartsch (4th ed., 1880), who has also edited the poem for Kürschner's
+  _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_ (vol. 6, 1885), by B. Symons (1883) and
+  by E. Martin (2nd ed., 1901). L. Ettmüller first applied Lachmann's
+  ballad-theory to the poem (1841), and K. Müllenhoff (_Kudrun, die
+  echten Teile des Gedichts_, 1845) rejected more than three-quarters of
+  the whole as "not genuine." There are many translations of the epic
+  into modern German, the best known being that of K. Simrock (15th ed.,
+  1884). A translation into English by M. P. Nichols appeared at Boston,
+  U.S.A., in 1889.
+
+  See K. Bartsch, _Beiträge zur Geschichte und Kritik der Kudrun_
+  (1865); H. Keck, _Die Gudrunsage_ (1867); W. Wilmanns, _Die
+  Entwickelung der Kudrundichtung_ (1873); A. Fécamp, _Le Poème de
+  Gudrun, ses origines, sa formation et son histoire_ (1892); F. Panzer,
+  _Hilde-Gudrun_ (1901). For later versions and adaptations of the saga
+  see O. Benedict, _Die Gudrunsage in der neueren Literatur_ (1902.)
+
+
+
+
+GUÉBRIANT, JEAN BAPTISTE BUDES, COMTE DE (1602-1643), marshal of France,
+was born at Plessis-Budes, near St Brieuc, of an old Breton family. He
+served first in Holland, and in the Thirty Years' War he commanded from
+1638 to 1639 the French contingent in the army of his friend Bernard of
+Saxe-Weimar, distinguishing himself particularly at the siege of
+Breisach in 1638. Upon the death of Bernard he received the command of
+his army, and tried, in conjunction with J. Baner (1596-1641), the
+Swedish general, a bold attack upon Regensburg (1640). His victories of
+Wolfenbüttel on the 29th of June 1641 and of Kempen in 1642 won for him
+the marshal's bâton. Having failed in an attempt to invade Bavaria in
+concert with Torstensson he seized Rottweil, but was mortally wounded
+there on the 17th of November 1643.
+
+  A biography was published by Le Laboureur, _Histoire du mareschal de
+  Guébriant_, in 1656. See A. Brinzinger in _Württembergische
+  Vierteljahrschrift für Landesgeschichte_ (1902).
+
+
+
+
+
+GUELDER ROSE, so called from Guelderland, its supposed source, termed
+also marsh elder, rose elder, water elder (Ger. _Wasserholder_,
+_Schneeball_; Fr. _viorne-obier_, _l'obier d'Europe_), known botanically
+as _Viburnum Opulus_, a shrub or small tree of the natural order
+Caprifoliaceae, a native of Britain, and widely distributed in the
+temperate and colder parts of Europe, Asia and North America. It is
+common in Ireland, but rare in Scotland. In height it is from 6 to 12
+ft., and it thrives best in moist situations. The leaves are smooth, 2
+to 3 in. broad, with 3 to 5 unequal serrate lobes, and glandular
+stipules adnate to the stalk. In autumn the leaves change their normal
+bright green for a pink or crimson hue. The flowers, which appear in
+June and July, are small, white, and arranged in cymes 2 to 4 in. in
+diameter. The outer blossoms in the wild plant have an enlarged corolla,
+¾ in. in diameter, and are devoid of stamens or pistils; in the common
+cultivated variety all the flowers are sterile and the inflorescence is
+globular, hence the term "snowball tree" applied to the plant, the
+appearance of which at the time of flowering has been prettily described
+by Cowper in his _Winter Walk at Noon_. The guelder rose bears juicy,
+red, elliptical berries, 1/3 in. long, which ripen in September, and
+contain each a single compressed seed. In northern Europe these are
+eaten, and in Siberia, after fermentation with flour, they are distilled
+for spirit. The plant has, however, emetic, purgative and narcotic
+properties; and Taylor (_Med. Jurisp._ i. 448, 2nd ed., 1873) has
+recorded an instance of the fatal poisoning of a child by the berries.
+Both they and the bark contain valerianic acid. The woody shoots of the
+guelder rose are manufactured into various small articles in Sweden and
+Russia. Another member of the genus, _Viburnum_, _Lantana_, wayfaring
+tree, is found in dry copses and hedges in England, except in the north.
+
+
+
+
+GUELPH, a city of Ontario, Canada, 45 m. W. of Toronto, on the river
+Speed and the Grand Trunk and Canadian Pacific railways. Pop. (1901)
+11,496. It is the centre of a fine agricultural district, and exports
+grain, fruit and live-stock in large quantities. It contains, in
+addition to the county and municipal buildings, the Ontario Agricultural
+College, which draws students from all parts of North and South America.
+The river affords abundant water-power for flour-mills, saw-mills,
+woollen-mills and numerous factories, of which agricultural implements,
+sewing machines and musical instruments are the chief.
+
+
+
+
+GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES. These names are doubtless Italianized forms of
+the German words Welf and Waiblingen, although one tradition says that
+they are derived from Guelph and Gibel, two rival brothers of Pistoia.
+Another theory derives Ghibelline from Gibello, a word used by the
+Sicilian Arabs to translate Hohenstaufen. However, a more popular story
+tells how, during a fight around Weinsberg in December 1140 between the
+German king Conrad III. and Welf, count of Bavaria, a member of the
+powerful family to which Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony and Bavaria,
+belonged, the soldiers of the latter raised the cry "Hie Welf!" to which
+the king's troops replied with "Hie Waiblingen!" this being the name of
+one of Conrad's castles. But the rivalry between Welf and Hohenstaufen,
+of which family Conrad was a member, was anterior to this event, and had
+been for some years a prominent fact in the history of Swabia and
+Bavaria, although its introduction into Italy--in a slightly modified
+form, however--only dates from the time of the Italian expeditions of
+the emperor Frederick I. It is about this time that the German
+chronicler, Otto of Freising, says, "Duae in Romano orbe apud Galliae
+Germaniaeve fines famosae familiae actenus fuere, una Heinricorum de
+Gueibelinga, alia Guelforum de Aldorfo, altera imperatores, altera
+magnos duces producere solita." Chosen German king in 1152, Frederick
+was not only the nephew and the heir of Conrad, he was related also to
+the Welfs; yet, although his election abated to some extent the rivalry
+between Welf and Hohenstaufen in Germany, it opened it upon a larger and
+fiercer scale in Italy.
+
+During the long and interesting period covered by Frederick's Italian
+campaigns, his enemies, prominent among whom were the cities of the
+Lombard League, became known as Welfs, or Guelphs, while his partisans
+seized upon the rival term of Waiblingen, or Ghibelline, and the
+contest between these two parties was carried on with a ferocity unknown
+even to the inhabitants of southern Germany. The distracted state of
+northern Italy, the jealousies between various pairs of towns, the
+savage hatred between family and family, were some of the causes which
+fed this feud, and it reached its height during the momentous struggle
+between Frederick II. and the Papacy in the 13th century. The story of
+the contest between Guelph and Ghibelline, however, is little less than
+the history of Italy in the middle ages. At the opening of the 13th
+century it was intensified by the fight for the German and imperial
+thrones between Philip, duke of Swabia, a son of Frederick I., and the
+Welf, Otto of Brunswick, afterwards the emperor Otto IV., a fight waged
+in Italy as well as in Germany. Then, as the heir of Philip of Swabia
+and the rival of Otto of Brunswick, Frederick II. was forced to throw
+himself into the arms of the Ghibellines, while his enemies, the popes,
+ranged themselves definitely among the Guelphs, and soon Guelph and
+Ghibelline became synonymous with supporter of pope and emperor.
+
+After the death of Frederick II. in 1250 the Ghibellines looked for
+leadership to his son and successor, the German king, Conrad IV., and
+then to his natural son, Manfred, while the Guelphs called the French
+prince, Charles of Anjou, to their aid. But the combatants were nearing
+exhaustion, and after the execution of Conradin, the last of the
+Hohenstaufen, in 1268, this great struggle began to lose force and
+interest. Guelph and Ghibelline were soon found representing local and
+family rather than papal and imperial interests; the names were taken
+with little or no regard for their original significance, and in the
+15th century they began to die out of current politics. However, when
+Louis XII. of France conquered Milan at the beginning of the 16th
+century the old names were revived; the French king's supporters were
+called Guelphs and the friends of the emperor Maximilian I. were
+referred to as Ghibellines.
+
+The feud of Guelph and Ghibelline penetrated within the walls of almost
+every city of northern Italy, and the contest between the parties, which
+practically makes the history of Florence during the 13th century, is
+specially noteworthy. First one side and then the other was driven into
+exile; the Guelph defeat at the battle of Monte Aperto in 1260 was
+followed by the expulsion of the Ghibellines by Charles of Anjou in
+1266, and on a smaller scale a similar story may be told of many other
+cities (see FLORENCE).
+
+The Guelph cause was buttressed by an idea, yet very nebulous, of
+Italian patriotism. Dislike of the German and the foreigner rather than
+any strong affection for the Papacy was the feeling which bound the
+Guelph to the pope, and so enabled the latter to defy the arms of
+Frederick II. The Ghibelline cause, on the other hand, was aided by the
+dislike of the temporal power of the pope and the desire for a strong
+central authority. This made Dante a Ghibelline, but the hopes of this
+party, kindled anew by the journey of Henry VII. to Italy in 1310, were
+extinguished by his departure. J. A. Symonds thus describes the
+constituents of the two parties: "The Guelph party meant the burghers of
+the consular Communes, the men of industry and commerce, the upholders
+of civil liberty, the friends of democratic expansion. The Ghibelline
+party included the naturalized nobles, the men of arms and idleness, the
+advocates of feudalism, the politicians who regarded constitutional
+progress with disfavour. That the banner of the church floated over the
+one camp, while the standard of the empire rallied to itself the hostile
+party, was a matter of comparatively superficial moment." In another
+passage the same writer thus describes the sharp and universal division
+between Guelph and Ghibelline: "Ghibellines wore the feathers in their
+caps upon one side, Guelphs upon the other. Ghibellines cut fruit at
+table crosswise, Guelphs straight down ... Ghibellines drank out of
+smooth and Guelphs out of chased goblets. Ghibellines wore white and
+Guelphs red roses." It is interesting to note that while Dante was a
+Ghibelline, Petrarch was a Guelph.
+
+  See J. A. Symonds, _The Renaissance in Italy_, vol. i. (1875).
+
+
+
+
+
+GUENEVERE (Lat. _Guanhumara_; Welsh, _Gwenhwyfar_; O. Eng. _Gaynore_),
+in Arthurian romance the wife of King Arthur. Geoffrey of Monmouth, who
+calls her Guanhumara, makes her a Roman lady, but the general tradition
+is that she was of Cornish birth and daughter to King Leodegrance. Wace,
+who, while translating Geoffrey, evidently knew, and used, popular
+tradition, combines these two, asserting that she was of Roman parentage
+on the mother's side, but cousin to Cador of Cornwall by whom she was
+brought up. The tradition relating to Guenevere is decidedly confused
+and demands further study. The Welsh triads know no fewer than three
+Gwenhwyfars; Giraldus Cambrensis, relating the discovery of the royal
+tombs at Glastonbury, speaks of the body found as that of Arthur's
+second wife; the prose _Merlin_ gives Guenevere a bastard half-sister of
+the same name, who strongly resembles her; and the _Lancelot_ relates
+how this lady, trading on the likeness, persuaded Arthur that she was
+the true daughter of Leodegrance, and the queen the bastard interloper.
+This episode of the false Guenevere is very perplexing.
+
+To the majority of English readers Guenevere is best known in connexion
+with her liaison with Lancelot, a story which, in the hands of Malory and
+Tennyson, has assumed a form widely different from the original
+conception, and at once more picturesque and more convincing. In the
+French romances Lancelot is a late addition to the Arthurian cycle, his
+birth is not recorded till long after the marriage of Arthur and
+Guenevere, and he is at least twenty years the junior of the queen. The
+relations between them are of the most conventional and courtly
+character, and are entirely lacking in the genuine dramatic passion which
+marks the love story of Tristan and Iseult. The _Lancelot-Guenevere_
+romance took form and shape in the artificial atmosphere encouraged by
+such patronesses of literature as Eleanor of Aquitaine and her daughter
+Marie, Comtesse de Champagne (for whom Chrétien de Troyes wrote his
+_Chevalier de la Charrette_), and reflects the low social morality of a
+time when love between husband and wife was declared impossible. But
+though Guenevere has changed her lover, the tradition of her infidelity
+is of much earlier date and formed a part of the primitive Arthurian
+legend. Who the original lover was is doubtful; the _Vita Gildae_ relates
+how she was carried off by Melwas, king of Aestiva Regis, to Glastonbury,
+whither Arthur, at the head of an army, pursued the ravisher. A fragment
+of a Welsh poem seems to confirm this tradition, which certainly lies at
+the root of her later abduction by Meleagaunt. In the _Lanzelet_ of
+Ulrich von Zatzikhoven the abductor is Falerîn. The story in these forms
+represents an other-world abduction. A curious fragment of Welsh
+dialogues, printed by Professor Rhys in his _Studies on the Arthurian
+Legend_, appears to represent Kay as the abductor. In the
+pseudo-Chronicles and the romances based upon them the abductor is
+Mordred, and in the chronicles there is no doubt that the lady was no
+unwilling victim. On the final defeat of Mordred she retires to a
+nunnery, takes the veil, and is no more heard of. Wace says
+emphatically--
+
+  _Ne fu oie ne véue,
+  Ne fu trovée, ne séue
+  Por la vergogne del mesfait
+  Et del pecié qu ele avoit fait_ (11. 13627-30).
+
+Layamon, who in his translation of Wace treats his original much as Wace
+treated Geoffrey, says that there was a tradition that she had drowned
+herself, and that her memory and that of Mordred were hateful in every
+land, so that none would offer prayer for their souls. On the other hand
+certain romances, e.g. the _Perceval_, give her an excellent character.
+The truth is probably that the tradition of his wife's adultery and
+treachery was a genuine part of the Arthurian story, which, neglected
+for a time, was brought again into prominence by the social conditions
+of the courts for which the later romances were composed; and it is in
+this later and conventionalized form that the tale has become familiar
+to us (see also LANCELOT).
+
+  See _Studies on the Arthurian Legend_ by Professor Rhys; _The Legend
+  of Sir Lancelot_, Grimm Library, xii., Jessie L. Weston; _Der
+  Karrenritter_, ed. Professor Foerster.     (J. L. W.)
+
+
+
+
+GUENON (from the French, = one who grimaces, hence an ape), the name
+applied by naturalists to the monkeys of the African genus
+_Cercopithecus_, the Ethiopian representative of the Asiatic macaques,
+from which they differ by the absence of a posterior heel to the last
+molar in the lower jaw.
+
+
+
+
+GUÉRET, a town of central France, capital of the department of Creuse,
+situated on a mountain declivity 48 m. N.E. of Limoges on the Orleans
+railway. Pop. (1906), town, 6042; commune (including troops, &c.), 8058.
+Apart from the Hôtel des Monneyroux (used as prefecture), a picturesque
+mansion of the 15th and 16th centuries, with mansard roofs and mullioned
+windows, Guéret has little architectural interest. It is the seat of a
+prefect and a court of assizes, and has a tribunal of first instance, a
+chamber of commerce and lycées and training colleges, for both sexes.
+The industries include brewing, saw-milling, leather-making and the
+manufacture of basket-work and wooden shoes, and there is trade in
+agricultural produce and cattle. Guéret grew up round an abbey founded
+in the 7th century, and in later times became the capital of the
+district of Marche.
+
+
+
+
+GUEREZA, the native name of a long-tailed, black and white Abyssinian
+monkey, _Colobus guereza_ (or _C. abyssinicus_), characterized by the
+white hairs forming a long pendent mantle. Other east African monkeys
+with a similar type of colouring, which, together with the wholly black
+west African _C. satanas_, collectively constitute the subgenus
+_Guereza_, may be included under the same title; and the name may be
+further extended to embrace all the African thumbless monkeys of the
+genus _Colobus_. These monkeys are the African representatives of the
+Indo-Malay langurs (_Semnopithecus_), with which they agree in their
+slender build, long limbs and tail, and complex stomachs, although
+differing by the rudimentary thumb. The members of the subgenus
+_Guereza_ present a transition from a wholly black animal (_C. satanas_)
+to one (_C. caudatus_) in which the sides of the face are white, and the
+whole flanks, as well as the tail, clothed with a long fringe of pure
+white hairs.
+
+
+
+
+GUERICKE, HEINRICH ERNST FERDINAND (1803-1878), German theologian, was
+born at Wettin in Saxony on the 25th of February 1803 and studied
+theology at Halle, where he was appointed professor in 1829. He greatly
+disliked the union between the Lutheran and the Reformed churches, which
+had been accomplished by the Prussian government in 1817, and in 1833 he
+definitely threw in his lot with the Old Lutherans. In 1835 he lost his
+professorship, but he regained it in 1840. Among his works were a Life
+of _August Hermann Francke_ (1827, Eng. trans. 1837), _Church History_
+(1833, Eng. trans. by W. T. Shedd, New York, 1857-1863), _Allgemeine
+christliche Symbolik_ (1839). In 1840 he helped to found the
+_Zeitschrift für die gesammte lutherische Theologie und Kirche_, and he
+died at Halle on the 4th of February 1878.
+
+
+
+
+GUERICKE, OTTO VON (1602-1686), German experimental philosopher, was
+born at Magdeburg, in Prussian Saxony, on the 20th of November 1602.
+Having studied law at Leipzig, Helmstadt and Jena, and mathematics,
+especially geometry and mechanics, at Leiden, he visited France and
+England, and in 1636 became engineer-in-chief at Erfurt. In 1627 he was
+elected alderman of Magdeburg, and in 1646 mayor of that city and a
+magistrate of Brandenburg. His leisure was devoted to scientific
+pursuits, especially in pneumatics. Incited by the discoveries of
+Galileo, Pascal and Torricelli, he attempted the creation of a vacuum.
+He began by experimenting with a pump on water placed in a barrel, but
+found that when the water was drawn off the air permeated the wood. He
+then took a globe of copper fitted with pump and stopcock, and
+discovered that he could pump out air as well as water. Thus he became
+the inventor of the air-pump (1650). He illustrated his discovery before
+the emperor Ferdinand III. at the imperial diet which assembled at
+Regensburg in 1654, by the experiment of the "Magdeburg hemispheres."
+Taking two hollow hemispheres of copper, the edges of which fitted
+nicely together, he exhausted the air from between them by means of his
+pump, and it is recorded that thirty horses, fifteen back to back, were
+unable to pull them asunder until the air was readmitted. Besides
+investigating other phenomena connected with a vacuum, he constructed an
+electrical machine which depended on the excitation of a rotating ball
+of sulphur; and he made successful researches in astronomy, predicting
+the periodicity of the return of comets. In 1681 he gave up office, and
+retired to Hamburg, where he died on the 11th of May 1686.
+
+  His principal observations are given in his work, _Experimenta nova,
+  ut vocant, Magdeburgica de vacuo spatio_ (Amsterdam, 1672). He is also
+  the author of a _Geschichte der Belagerung und Eroberung von
+  Magdeburg_. See F. W. Hoffmann, _Otto von Guericke_ (Magdeburg, 1874).
+
+
+
+
+GUÉRIDON, a small table to hold a lamp or vase, supported by a tall
+column or a human or mythological figure. This piece of furniture, often
+very graceful and elegant, originated in France towards the middle of
+the 17th century. In the beginning the table was supported by a negro or
+other exotic figure, and there is some reason to believe that it took
+its name from the generic appellation of the young African groom or
+"tiger," who was generally called "Guéridon," or as we should say in
+English "Sambo." The swarthy figure and brilliant costume of the "Moor"
+when reproduced in wood and picked out in colours produced a very
+striking effect, and when a small table was supported on the head by the
+upraised hands the idea of passive service was suggested with
+completeness. The guéridon is still occasionally seen in something
+approaching its original form; but it had no sooner been introduced than
+the artistic instinct of the French designer and artificer converted it
+into a far worthier object. By the death of Louis XIV. there were
+several hundreds of them at Versailles, and within a generation or two
+they had taken an infinity of forms--columns, tripods, termini and
+mythological figures. Some of the simpler and more artistic forms were
+of wood carved with familiar decorative motives and gilded. Silver,
+enamel, and indeed almost any material from which furniture can be made,
+have been used for their construction. A variety of small "occasional"
+tables are now called in French _guéridons_.
+
+
+
+
+GUÉRIN, JEAN BAPTISTE PAULIN (1783-1855), French painter, was born at
+Toulon, on the 25th of March 1783, of poor parents. He learnt, as a lad,
+his father's trade of a locksmith, whilst at the same time he followed
+the classes of the free school of art. Having sold some copies to a
+local amateur, Guérin started for Paris, where he came under the notice
+of Vincent, whose counsels were of material service. In 1810 Guérin made
+his first appearance at the Salon with some portraits, which had a
+certain success. In 1812 he exhibited "Cain after the murder of Abel"
+(formerly in Luxembourg), and, on the return of the Bourbons, was much
+employed in works of restoration and decoration at Versailles. His "Dead
+Christ" (Cathedral, Baltimore) obtained a medal in 1817, and this
+success was followed up by a long series of works, of which the
+following are the more noteworthy: "Christ on the knees of the Virgin"
+(1819); "Anchises and Venus" (1822) (formerly in Luxembourg); "Ulysses
+and Minerva" (1824) (Musée de Rennes); "the Holy Family" (1829)
+(Cathedral, Toulon); and "Saint Catherine" (1838) (St Roch). In his
+treatment of subject, Guérin attempted to realize rococo graces of
+conception, the liveliness of which was lost in the strenuous effort to
+be correct. His chief successes were attained by portraits, and those of
+Charles Nodier and the Abbé Lamennais became widely popular. He died on
+the 19th of January 1855.
+
+
+
+
+GUÉRIN, PIERRE NARCISSE, BARON (1774-1833), French painter, was born at
+Paris on the 13th of May 1774. Becoming a pupil of Jean Baptiste
+Regnault, he carried off one of the three "grands prix" offered in 1796,
+in consequence of the competition not having taken place since 1793. The
+_pension_ was not indeed re-established, but Guérin fulfilled at Paris
+the conditions imposed upon a _pensionnaire_, and produced various
+works, one of which brought him prominently before the public. This
+work, "Marcus Sextus" (Louvre), exhibited at the Salon of 1799, excited
+wild enthusiasm, partly due to the subject,--a victim of Sulla's
+proscription returning to Rome to find his wife dead and his house in
+mourning--in which an allusion was found to the actual situation of the
+_émigrés_. Guérin on this occasion was publicly crowned by the president
+of the Institute, and before his departure for Rome (on the
+re-establishment of the École under Suvée) a banquet was given to him by
+the most distinguished artists of Paris. In 1800, unable to remain in
+Rome on account of his health, he went to Naples, where he painted the
+"Grave of Amyntas." In 1802 Guérin produced "Phaedra and Hippolytus"
+(Louvre); in 1810, after his return to Paris, he again achieved a great
+success with "Andromache and Pyrrhus" (Louvre); and in the same year
+also exhibited "Cephalus and Aurora" (Collection Sommariva) and
+"Bonaparte and the Rebels of Cairo" (Versailles). The Restoration
+brought to Guérin fresh honours; he had received from the first consul
+in 1803 the cross of the Legion of Honour, and in 1815 Louis XVIII.
+named him Academician. The success of Guérin's "Hippolytus" of
+"Andromache," of "Phaedra" and of "Clytaemnestra" (Louvre) had been
+ensured by the skilful selection of highly melodramatic situations,
+treated with the strained and pompous dignity proper to the art of the
+first empire; in "Aeneas relating to Dido the disasters of Troy"
+(Louvre), which appeared side by side with "Clytaemnestra" at the Salon
+of 1817, the influence of the Restoration is plainly to be traced. In
+this work Guérin sought to captivate the public by an appeal to those
+sensuous charms which he had previously rejected, and by the
+introduction of picturesque elements of interest. But with this work
+Guérin's public successes came to a close. He was, indeed, commissioned
+to paint for the Madeleine a scene from the history of St Louis, but his
+health prevented him from accomplishing what he had begun, and in 1822
+he accepted the post of director of the École de Rome, which in 1816 he
+had refused. On returning to Paris in 1828, Guérin, who had previously
+been made chevalier of the order of St Michel, was ennobled. He now
+attempted to complete "Pyrrhus and Priam," a work which he had begun at
+Rome, but in vain; his health had finally broken down, and in the hope
+of improvement he returned to Italy with Horace Vernet. Shortly after
+his arrival at Rome Baron Guérin died, on the 6th of July 1833, and was
+buried in the church of La Trinità de' Monti by the side of Claude
+Lorraine.
+
+  A careful analysis and criticism of his principal works will be found
+  in Meyer's _Geschichte der französischen Malerei_.
+
+
+
+
+GUÉRIN DU CAYLA, GEORGES MAURICE DE (1810-1839), French poet, descended
+from a noble but poor family, was born at the chateau of Le Cayla in
+Languedoc, on the 4th of August 1810. He was educated for the church at
+a religious seminary at Toulouse, and then at the Collège Stanislas,
+Paris, after which he entered the society at La Chesnaye in Brittany,
+founded by Lamennais. It was only after great hesitation, and without
+being satisfied as to his religious vocation, that under the influence
+of Lamennais he joined the new religious order in the autumn of 1832;
+and when, in September of the next year, Lamennais, who had come under
+the displeasure of Rome, severed connexion with the society, Maurice de
+Guérin soon followed his example. Early in the following year he went to
+Paris, where he was for a short time a teacher at the College Stanislas.
+In November 1838 he married a Creole lady of some fortune; but a few
+months afterwards he was attacked by consumption and died on the 19th of
+July 1839. In the _Revue des deux mondes_ for May 15th, 1840, there
+appeared a notice of Maurice de Guérin by George Sand, to which she
+added two fragments of his writings--one a composition in prose entitled
+the _Centaur_, and the other a short poem. His _Reliquiae_ (2 vols.,
+1861), including the _Centaur_, his journal, a number of his letters and
+several poems, was edited by G. S. Trébutien, and accompanied with a
+biographical and critical notice by Sainte-Beuve; a new edition, with
+the title _Journal, lettres et poèmes_, followed in 1862; and an English
+translation of it was published at New York in 1867. Though he was
+essentially a poet, his prose is more striking and original than his
+poetry. Its peculiar and unique charm arises from his strong and
+absorbing passion for nature, a passion whose intensity reached almost
+to adoration and worship, but in which the pagan was more prominent than
+the moral element. According to Sainte-Beuve, "no French poet or
+painter has rendered so well the feeling for nature--the feeling not so
+much for details as for the ensemble and the divine universality, the
+feeling for the origin of things and the sovereign principle of life."
+
+The name of EUGÉNIE DE GUÉRIN (1805-1848), the sister of Maurice, cannot
+be omitted from any notice of him. Her _Journals_ (1861, Eng. trans.,
+1865) and her _Lettres_ (1864, Eng. trans., 1865) indicated the
+possession of gifts of as rare an order as those of her brother, though
+of a somewhat different kind. In her case mysticism assumed a form more
+strictly religious, and she continued to mourn her brother's loss of his
+early Catholic faith. Five years older than he, she cherished a love for
+him which was blended with a somewhat motherly anxiety. After his death
+she began the collection and publication of the scattered fragments of
+his writings. She died, however, on the 31st of May 1848, before her
+task was completed.
+
+  See the notices by George Sand and Sainte-Beuve referred to above;
+  Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_ (vol. xii.) and _Nouveaux Lundis_
+  (vol. iii.); G. Merlet, _Causeries sur les femmes et les livres_
+  (Paris, 1865); Selden, _L'Esprit des femmes de notre temps_ (Paris,
+  1864); Marelle, _Eugénie et Maurice de Guérin_ (Berlin, 1869); Harriet
+  Parr, _M. and E. de Guérin, a monograph_ (London, 1870); and Matthew
+  Arnold's essays on Maurice and Eugénie de Guérin, in his _Essays in
+  Criticism_.
+
+
+
+
+GUERNIERI, or WERNER, a celebrated mercenary captain who lived about the
+middle of the 14th century. He was a member of the family of the dukes
+of Urslingen, and probably a descendant of the dukes of Spoleto. From
+1340 to 1343 he was in the service of the citizens of Pisa, but
+afterwards he collected a troop of adventurers which he called the Great
+Company, and with which he plundered Tuscany and Lombardy. He then
+entered the service of Louis I. the Great, king of Hungary and Poland,
+whom he assisted to obtain possession of Naples; but when dismissed from
+this service his ravages became more terrible than ever, culminating in
+the dreadful sack of Anagni in 1358, shortly after which Guernieri
+disappeared from history. He is said to have worn a breastplate with the
+inscription, "The enemy of God, of pity and of mercy."
+
+
+
+
+GUERNSEY (Fr. _Guernesey_), one of the Channel Islands, belonging to
+Britain, the second in size and westernmost of the important members of
+the group. Its chief town, St Peter Port, on the east coast, is in 2°
+33´ W., 49° 27´ N., 74 m. S. of Portland Bill on the English coast, and
+30 m. from the nearest French coast to the east. The island, roughly
+triangular in form, is 9¼ m. long from N.E. to S.W. and has an extreme
+breadth of 5¼ m. and an area of 15,691 acres or 24.5 sq. m. Pop. (1901),
+40,446, the density being thus 162 per sq. m.
+
+The surface of the island rises gradually from north to south, and
+reaches its greatest elevation at Haut Nez (349 ft.) above Point Icart
+on the south coast. The coast scenery, which forms one of the principal
+attractions to the numerous summer visitors to the island, is finest on
+the south. This coast, between Jerbourg and Pleinmont Points,
+respectively at the south-eastern and south-western corners of the
+island, is bold, rocky and indented with many exquisite little bays. Of
+these the most notable are Moulin Huet, Saint's, and Petit Bot, all in
+the eastern half of the south coast. The cliffs, however, culminate in
+the neighbourhood of Pleinmont. Picturesque caves occur at several
+points, such as the Creux Mahie. On the west coast there is a succession
+of larger bays--Rocquaine Perelle, Vazon, and Cobo. Off the first lies
+Lihou Island, the Hanois and other islets, and all three bays are sown
+with rocks. The coast, however, diminishes in height, until at the
+north-eastern extremity of the island the land is so low across the Vale
+or Braye du Val, from shore to shore, that the projection of L'Ancresse
+is within a few feet of being isolated. The east coast, on which,
+besides the town and harbour of St Peter Port, is that of St Sampson,
+presents no physical feature of note. The interior of the island is
+generally undulating, and gains in beauty from its rich vegetation.
+Picturesque glens descend upon some of the southern bays (the two
+converging upon Petit Bot are notable), and the high-banked paths,
+arched with foliage, which follow the small rills down to Moulin Huet
+Bay, are much admired under the name of water-lanes.
+
+The soil is generally light sandy loam, overlying an angular gravel
+which rests upon the weathered granite. This soil requires much manure,
+and a large proportion of the total area (about three-fifths) is under
+careful cultivation, producing a considerable amount of grain, but more
+famous for market-gardening. Vegetables and potatoes are exported, with
+much fruit, including grapes and flowers. Granite is quarried and
+exported from St Sampson, and the fisheries form an important industry.
+
+For administrative purposes Guernsey is united with Alderney, Sark, Herm
+and the adjacent islets to form the bailiwick of Guernsey, separate from
+Jersey. The peculiar constitution, machinery of administration and
+justice, finance, &c., are considered under the heading CHANNEL ISLANDS.
+Guernsey is divided into the ten parishes of St Peter Port, St Sampson,
+Vale, Câtel, St Saviour, St Andrew, St Martin, Forest, St Peter du Bois
+and Torteval. The population of St Peter Port in 1901 was 18,264; of the
+other parishes that of St Sampson was 5614 and that of Vale 5082. The
+population of the bailiwick of Guernsey nearly doubled between 1821 and
+1901, and that of the island increased from 35,243 in 1891 to 40,446 in
+1901. The island roads are excellent, Guernsey owing much in this
+respect to Sir John Doyle (d. 1834), the governor whose monument stands
+on the promontory of Jerbourg. Like Jersey and the neighbouring part of
+France, Guernsey retains considerable traces of early habitation in
+cromlechs and menhirs, of which the most notable is the cromlech in the
+north at L'Ancresse. As regards ecclesiastical architecture, all the
+parish churches retain some archaeological interest. There is good
+Norman work in the church of St Michael, Vale, and the church of St
+Peter Port is a notable building of various periods from the early 14th
+century. Small remains of monastic buildings are seen at Vale and on
+Lihou Island.
+
+
+
+
+GUERRAZZI, FRANCESCO DOMENICO (1804-1873), Italian publicist, born at
+Leghorn, was educated for the law at Pisa, and began to practise in his
+native place. But he soon took to politics and literature, under the
+influence of Byron, and his novel, the _Battagli di Benevento_ (1827),
+brought him into notice. Mazzini made his acquaintance, and with Carlo
+Bini they started a paper, the _Indicatore_, at Leghorn in 1829, which
+was quickly suppressed. Guerrazzi himself had to endure several terms of
+imprisonment for his activity in the cause of Young Italy, and it was in
+Portoferrato in 1834 that he wrote his most famous novel _Assidio di
+Firenze_. He was the most powerful Liberal leader at Leghorn, and in
+1848 became a minister, with some idea of exercising a moderating
+influence in the difficulties with the grand-duke of Tuscany. In 1849,
+when the latter fled, he was first one of the triumvirate with Mazzini
+and Montanelli, and then dictator, but on the restoration he was
+arrested and imprisoned for three years. His _Apologia_ was published in
+1852. Released from prison, he was exiled to Corsica, but subsequently
+was restored and was for some time a deputy at Turin (1862-1870), dying
+of apoplexy at Leghorn on the 25th of September 1873. He wrote a number
+of other works besides the novels already mentioned, notably _Isabella
+Orsini_ (1845) and _Beatrice Cenci_ (1854), and his _Opere_ were
+collected at Milan (1868).
+
+  See the _Life and Works_ by Bosio (1877), and Carducci's edition of
+  his letters (1880).
+
+
+
+
+GUERRERO, a Pacific coast state of Mexico, bounded N.W. by Michoacan, N.
+by Mexico (state) and Morelos, N.E. and E. by Puebla and Oaxaca, and S.
+and W. by the Pacific. Area, 24,996 sq. m. Pop., largely composed of
+Indians and mestizos (1895), 417,886; (1900) 479,205. The state is
+roughly broken by the Sierra Madre and its spurs, which cover its entire
+surface with the exception of the low coastal plain (averaging about 20
+m. in width) on the Pacific. The valleys are usually narrow, fertile and
+heavily forested, but difficult of access. The state is divided into two
+distinct zones--the _tierras calientes_ of the coast and lower river
+courses where tropical conditions prevail, and the _tierras templadas_
+of the mountain region where the conditions are subtropical. The latter
+is celebrated for its agreeable and healthy climate, and for the variety
+and character of its products. The principal river of the state is the
+Rio de las Balsas or Mescala, which, having its source in Tlaxcala,
+flows entirely across the state from W. to E., and then southward to the
+Pacific on the frontier of Michoacan. This river is 429 m. long and
+receives many affluents from the mountainous region through which it
+passes, but its course is very precipitous and its mouth obstructed by
+sand bars. The agricultural products include cotton, coffee, tobacco and
+cereals, and the forests produce rubber, vanilla and various textile
+fibres. Mining is undeveloped, although the mineral resources of the
+state include silver, gold, mercury, lead, iron, coal, sulphur and
+precious stones. The capital, Chilpancingo, or Chilpancingo de los
+Bravos (pop. 7497 in 1900), is a small town in the Sierra Madre about
+110 m. from the coast and 200 m. S. of the Federal capital. It is a
+healthy well-built town on the old Acapulco road, is lighted by
+electricity and is temporarily the western terminus of the Interoceanic
+railway from Vera Cruz. It is celebrated in the history of Mexico as the
+meeting-place of the revolutionary congress of 1813, which issued a
+declaration of independence. Chilpancingo was badly damaged by an
+earthquake in January 1902, and again on the 16th of April 1907. Other
+important towns of the state are Tixtla, or Tixtla de Guerrero, formerly
+the capital (pop. 6316 in 1900), 3 m. N.E. of Chilpancingo; Chilapa
+(8256 in 1895), the most populous town of the state, partially destroyed
+by a hurricane in 1889, and again by the earthquake of 1907; Iguala
+(6631 in 1895); and Acapulco. Guerrero was organized as a state in 1849,
+its territory being taken from the states of Mexico, Michoacan and
+Puebla.
+
+
+
+
+GUERRILLA (erroneously written "guerilla," being the diminutive of the
+Span. _guerra_, war), a term currently used to denote war carried on by
+bands in any irregular and unorganized manner. At the Hague Conference
+of 1899 the position of irregular combatants was one of the subjects
+dealt with, and the rules there adopted were reaffirmed at the
+Conference of 1907. They provide that irregular bands in order to enjoy
+recognition as belligerent forces shall (a) have at their head a person
+responsible for his subordinates, (b) wear some fixed distinctive badge
+recognizable at a distance, (c) carry arms openly, and (d) conform in
+their operations to the laws and customs of war. The rules, however,
+also provide that in case of invasion the inhabitants of a territory who
+on the approach of the invading enemy spontaneously take up arms to
+resist it, shall be regarded as belligerent troops if they carry arms
+openly and respect the laws and customs of war, although they may not
+have had time to become organized in accordance with the above
+provisions. These rules were borrowed almost word for word from the
+project drawn up at the Brussels international conference of 1874,
+which, though never ratified, was practically incorporated in the army
+regulations issued by the Russian government in connexion with the war
+of 1877-78.     (T. Ba.)
+
+
+
+
+GUERRINI, OLINDO (1845-   ), Italian poet, was born at Sant' Alberto,
+Ravenna, and after studying law took to a life of letters, becoming
+eventually librarian at Bologna University. In 1877 he published
+_Postuma_, a volume of _canzoniere_, under the name of Lorenzo
+Stechetti, following this with _Polemica_ (1878), _Canti popolari
+romagnoli_ (1880) and other poetical works, and becoming known as the
+leader of the "verist" school among Italian lyrical writers.
+
+
+
+
+GUESDE, JULES BASILE (1845-   ), French socialist, was born in Paris on
+the 11th of November 1845. He had begun his career as a clerk in the
+French Home Office, but at the outbreak of the Franco-German War he was
+editing _Les Droits de l'homme_ at Montpellier, and had to take refuge
+at Geneva in 1871 from a prosecution instituted on account of articles
+which had appeared in his paper in defence of the Commune. In 1876 he
+returned to France to become one of the chief French apostles of Marxian
+collectivism, and was imprisoned for six months in 1878 for taking part
+in the first Parisian International Congress. He edited at different
+times _Les Droits de l'homme_, _Le Cri du peuple_, _Le Socialiste_, but
+his best-known organ was the weekly _Égalité_. He had been in close
+association with Paul Lafargue, and through him with Karl Marx, whose
+daughter he married. It was in conjunction with Marx and Lafargue that
+he drew up the programme accepted by the national congress of the Labour
+party at Havre in 1880, which laid stress on the formation of an
+international labour party working by revolutionary methods. Next year
+at the Reims congress the orthodox Marxian programme of Guesde was
+opposed by the "possibilists," who rejected the intransigeant attitude
+of Guesde for the opportunist policy of Benoît Malon. At the congress of
+St-Étienne the difference developed into separation, those who refused
+all compromise with a capitalist government following Guesde, while the
+opportunists formed several groups. Guesde took his full share in the
+consequent discussion between the Guesdists, the Blanquists, the
+possibilists, &c. In 1893 he was returned to the Chamber of Deputies for
+Lille (7th circonscription) with a large majority over the Christian
+Socialist and Radical candidates. He brought forward various proposals
+in social legislation forming the programme of the Labour party, without
+reference to the divisions among the Socialists, and on the 20th of
+November 1894 succeeded in raising a two days' discussion of the
+collectivist principle in the Chamber. In 1902 he was not re-elected,
+but resumed his seat in 1906. In 1903 there was a formal reconciliation
+at the Reims congress of the sections of the party, which then took the
+name of the Socialist party of France. Guesde, nevertheless, continued
+to oppose the opportunist policy of Jaurès, whom he denounced for
+supporting one bourgeois party against another. His defence of the
+principle of freedom of association led him, incongruously enough, to
+support the religious Congregations against Émile Combes. Besides his
+numerous political and socialist pamphlets he published in 1901 two
+volumes of his speeches in the Chamber of Deputies entitled _Quatre ans
+de lutte de classe 1893-1898_.
+
+
+
+
+GUEST, EDWIN (1800-1880), English antiquary, was born in 1800. He was
+educated at King Edward's school, Birmingham, and at Caius College,
+Cambridge, where he graduated as eleventh wrangler, subsequently
+becoming a fellow of his college. Called to the bar in 1828, he devoted
+himself, after some years of legal practice, to antiquarian and literary
+research. In 1838 he published his exhaustive _History of English
+Rhythms_. He also wrote a very large number of papers on Roman-British
+history, which, together with a mass of fresh material for a history of
+early Britain, were published posthumously under the editorship of Dr
+Stubbs under the title _Origines Celticae_ (1883). In 1852 Guest was
+elected master of Caius College, becoming LL.D. in the following year,
+and in 1854-1855 he was vice-chancellor of Cambridge University. Guest
+was a fellow of the Royal Society, and an honorary member of the Society
+of Antiquaries. He died on the 23rd of November 1880.
+
+
+
+
+GUEST (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. _Gast_, and Swed.
+_gäst_; cognate with Lat. _hostis_, originally a stranger, hence enemy;
+cf. "host"), one who receives hospitality in the house of another, his
+"host"; hence applied to a parasite.
+
+
+
+
+GUETTARD, JEAN ÉTIENNE (1715-1786), French naturalist and mineralogist,
+was born at Étampes, on the 22nd of September 1715. In boyhood he gained
+a knowledge of plants from his grandfather, who was an apothecary, and
+later he qualified as a doctor in medicine. Pursuing the study of botany
+in various parts of France and other countries, he began to take notice
+of the relation between the distribution of plants and the soils and
+subsoils. In this way his attention came to be directed to minerals and
+rocks. In 1746 he communicated to the Academy of Sciences in Paris a
+memoir on the distribution of minerals and rocks, and this was
+accompanied by a map on which he had recorded his observations. He thus,
+as remarked by W. D. Conybeare, "first carried into execution the idea,
+proposed by [Martin] Lister years before, of geological maps." In the
+course of his journeys he made a large collection of fossils and figured
+many of them, but he had no clear ideas about the sequence of strata. He
+made observations also on the degradation of mountains by rain, rivers
+and sea; and he was the first to ascertain the existence of former
+volcanoes in the district of Auvergne. He died in Paris on the 7th of
+January 1786.
+
+  His publications include: _Observations sur les plantes_ (2 vols.,
+  1747); _Histoire de la découverte faite en France de matières
+  semblables à celles dont la porcelaine de la Chine est composée_
+  (1765); _Mémoires sur différentes parties des sciences et arts_ (5
+  vols., 1768-1783); _Mémoire sur la minéralogie du Dauphiné_ (2 vols.,
+  1779). See _The Founders of Geology_, by Sir A. Geikie (1897).
+
+
+
+
+GUEUX, LES, or "THE BEGGARS," a name assumed by the confederacy of
+nobles and other malcontents, who in 1566 opposed Spanish tyranny in the
+Netherlands. The leaders of the nobles, who signed a solemn league known
+as "the Compromise," by which they bound themselves to assist in
+defending the rights and liberties of the Netherlands against the civil
+and religious despotism of Philip II., were Louis, count of Nassau, and
+Henry, count of Brederode. On the 5th of April 1566 permission was
+obtained for the confederates to present a petition of grievances,
+called "the Request," to the regent, Margaret, duchess of Parma. About
+250 nobles marched to the palace accompanied by Louis of Nassau and
+Brederode. The regent was at first alarmed at the appearance of so large
+a body, but one of her councillors, Berlaymont by name, was heard to
+exclaim, "What, madam, is your highness afraid of these beggars (_ces
+gueux_)?" The appellation was not forgotten. At a great feast held by
+some 300 confederates at the Hôtel Culemburg three days later, Brederode
+in a speech declared that if need be they were all ready to become
+"beggars" in their country's cause. The words caught on, and the hall
+resounded with loud cries of "_Vivent les gueux!_" The name became
+henceforward a party appellation. The patriot party adopted the emblems
+of beggarhood, the wallet and the bowl, as trinkets to be worn on their
+hats or their girdles, and a medal was struck having on one side the
+head of Philip II., on the other two clasped hands with the motto
+"_Fidèle au roy, jusques à porter la besace_." The original league of
+"Beggars" was short-lived, crushed by the iron hand of Alva, but its
+principles survived and were to be ultimately triumphant.
+
+In the year 1569 the prince of Orange, who had now openly placed himself
+at the head of the party of revolt, granted letters of marque to a
+number of vessels manned by crews of desperadoes drawn from all
+nationalities. These fierce corsairs under the command of a succession
+of daring and reckless leaders--the best-known of whom is William de la
+Marek, lord of Lumey--were called "_Gueux de mer_," or "Sea Beggars." At
+first they were content with plundering both by sea and land and
+carrying their booty to the English ports where they were able to refit
+and replenish their stores. This went on till 1572, when Queen Elizabeth
+suddenly refused to admit them to her harbours. Having no longer any
+refuge, the Sea Beggars in desperation made an attack upon Brill, which
+they seized by surprise in the absence of the Spanish garrison on the
+1st of April 1572. Encouraged by their unhoped-for success, they now
+sailed to Flushing, which was also taken by a _coup de main._ The
+capture of these two towns gave the signal for a general revolt of the
+northern Netherlands, and is regarded as the real beginning oí the War
+of Dutch Independence.
+
+
+
+
+GUEVARA, ANTONIO DE (c. 1490-1544), Spanish chronicler and moralist,
+was a native of the province of Alava, and passed some of his earlier
+years at the court of Isabella, queen of Castile. In 1528 he entered the
+Franciscan order, and afterwards accompanied the emperor Charles V.
+during his journeys to Italy and other parts of Europe. After having
+held successively the offices of court preacher, court historiographer,
+bishop of Guadix and bishop of Mondoñedo, he died in 1544. His earliest
+work, entitled _Reloj de principes_, published at Valladolid in 1529,
+and, according to its author, the fruit of eleven years' labour, is a
+didactic novel, designed, after the manner of Xenophon's _Cyropaedia_,
+to delineate, in a somewhat ideal way for the benefit of modern
+sovereigns, the life and character of an ancient prince, Marcus
+Aurelius, distinguished for wisdom and virtue. It was often reprinted in
+Spanish; and before the close of the century had also been translated
+into Latin, Italian, French and English, an English translation being
+by J. Bourchier (London, 1546) and another being by T. North. It is
+difficult now to account for its extraordinary popularity, its thought
+being neither just nor profound, while its style is stiff and affected.
+It gave rise to a literary controversy, however, of great bitterness and
+violence, the author having ventured without warrant to claim for it an
+historical character, appealing to an imaginary "manuscript in
+Florence." Other works of Guevara are the _Decada de los Césares_
+(Valladolid, 1539), or "Lives of the Ten Roman Emperors," in imitation
+of the manner of Plutarch and Suetonius; and the _Epistolas familiares_
+(Valladolid, 1539-1545), sometimes called "The Golden Letters," often
+printed in Spain, and translated into all the principal languages of
+Europe. They are in reality a collection of stiff and formal essays
+which have long ago fallen into merited oblivion. Guevara, whose
+influence upon the Spanish prose of the 16th century was considerable,
+also wrote _Libro de los inventores del arte de marear_ (Valladolid,
+1539, and Madrid, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+GUEVARA, LUIS VELEZ DE (1579-1644), Spanish dramatist and novelist, was
+born at Écija on the 1st of August 1579. After graduating as a sizar at
+the university of Osuna in 1596, he joined the household of Rodrigo de
+Castro, cardinal-archbishop of Seville, and celebrated the marriage of
+Philip II. in a poem signed "Velez de Santander," a name which he
+continued to use till some years later. He appears to have served as a
+soldier in Italy and Algiers, returning to Spain in 1602 when he entered
+the service of the count de Saldaña, and dedicated himself to writing
+for the stage. He died at Madrid on the 10th of November 1644. He was
+the author of over four hundred plays, of which the best are _Reinar
+despues de morir_, _Más pesa el rey que la sangre_, _La Luna de la
+Sierra_ and _El Diablo está en Cantillana_; but he is most widely known
+as the author of _El Diablo cojuelo_ (1641), a fantastic novel which
+suggested to Le Sage the idea of his _Diable boiteux_.
+
+
+
+
+GUGLIELMI, PIETRO (1727-1804), Italian composer, was born at Massa
+Carrara in May 1727, and died in Rome on the 19th of November 1804. He
+received his first musical education from his father, and afterwards
+studied under Durante at the Conservatorio di Santa Maria di Loreto at
+Naples. His first operatic work, produced at Turin in 1755, established
+his reputation, and soon his fame spread beyond the limits of his own
+country, so that in 1762 he was called to Dresden to conduct the opera
+there. He remained for some years in Germany, where his works met with
+much success, but the greatest triumphs were reserved for him in
+England. He went to London, according to Burney, in 1768, but according
+to Florimo in 1772, returning to Naples in 1777. He still continued to
+produce operas at an astounding rate, but was unable to compete
+successfully with the younger masters of the day. In 1793 he became
+_maestro di cappella_ at St Peter's, Rome. He was a very prolific
+composer of Italian comic opera, and there is in most of his scores a
+vein of humour and natural gaiety not surpassed by Cimarosa himself. In
+serious opera he was less successful. But here also he shows at least
+the qualities of a competent musician. Considering the enormous number
+of his works, his unequal workmanship and the frequent instances of
+mechanical and slip-shod writing in his music need not surprise us. The
+following are among the most celebrated of his operas: _I Due Gemelli_,
+_La Serva inamorata_, _La Pastorella nobile_, _La Bella Peccatrice_,
+_Rinaldo_, _Artaserse_, _Didone_ and _Enea e Lavinia_. He also wrote
+oratorios and miscellaneous pieces of orchestral and chamber music. Of
+his eight sons two at least acquired fame as musicians--Pietro Carlo
+(1763-1827), a successful imitator of his father's operatic style, and
+Giacomo, an excellent singer.
+
+
+
+
+GUIANA (_Guyana_, _Guayana_[1]), the general name given in its widest
+acceptation to the part of South America lying to the north-east from 8°
+40´ N. to 3° 30´ S. and from 50° W. to 68° 30´ W. Its greatest length,
+from Cabo do Norte to the confluence of the Rio Xie and Rio Negro, is
+about 1250 m., its greatest breadth, from Barima Point in the mouth of
+the Orinoco to the confluence of the Rio Negro and Amazon, 800 m. Its
+area is roughly 690,000 sq. m. Comprised in this vast territory are
+Venezuelan (formerly Spanish) Guiana, lying on both sides of the Orinoco
+and extending S. and S.W. to the Rio Negro and Brazilian settlements;
+British Guiana, extending from Venezuela to the left bank of the
+Corentyn river; Dutch Guiana (or Surinam), from the Corentyn to the
+Maroni river; French Guiana (or Cayenne), from the Maroni to the Oyapock
+river;[2] Brazilian (formerly Portuguese) Guiana, extending from the
+southern boundaries of French, Dutch, British and part of Venezuelan
+Guiana, to the Amazon and the Negro. Of these divisions the first and
+last are now included in Venezuela and Brazil respectively; British,
+Dutch and French Guiana are described in order below, and are alone
+considered here.
+
+[Illiustration: Map of Guiana.]
+
+In their physical geography the three Guianas present certain common
+characteristics. In each the principal features are the rivers and their
+branch streams. In each colony the northern portion consists of a
+fluviomarine deposit extending inland and gradually rising to a height
+of 10 to 15 ft. above the sea. This alluvial plain varies in width from
+50 m. to 18 m. and is traversed by ridges of sand and shells, roughly
+parallel to what is now the coast, indicating the trend of former shore
+lines. By the draining and diking of these lands the plantations have
+been formed along the coast and up the rivers. These low lands are
+attached to a somewhat higher plateau, which towards the coast is
+traversed by numerous huge sand-dunes and inland by ranges of hills
+rising in places to as much as 2000 ft. The greater part of this belt of
+country, in which the auriferous districts principally occur, is covered
+with a dense growth of jungle and high forest, but savannahs, growing
+only a long wiry grass and poor shrubs, intrude here and there, being in
+the S.E. much nearer to the coast than in the N.W. The hinterlands
+consist of undulating open savannahs rising into hills and mountains,
+some grass-covered, some in dense forest.
+
+  _Geology_[3].--Guiana is formed almost entirely of gneiss and
+  crystalline schists penetrated by numerous dikes of diorite, diabase,
+  &c. The gold of the placer deposits appears to be derived, not from
+  quartz reefs, but from the schists and intrusive rocks, the selvages
+  of the diabase dikes sometimes containing as much as 5 oz. of gold to
+  the ton. In British Guiana a series of conglomerates, red and white
+  sandstone and red shale, rests upon the gneiss and forms the
+  remarkable table-topped mountains Roraima, Kukenaam, &c. The beds are
+  horizontal, and according to Brown and Sawkins, three layers of
+  greenstone, partly intrusive and partly contemporaneous, are
+  interstratified with the sedimentary deposits. The age of these beds
+  is uncertain, but they evidently correspond with the similar series
+  which occurs in Brazil, partly Palaeozoic and partly Cretaceous. In
+  Dutch Guiana there are a few small patches supposed to belong to the
+  Cretaceous period. Along the coast, and in the lower parts of the
+  river valleys, are deposits which are mainly Quaternary but may also
+  include beds of Tertiary age.
+
+_History._--The coast of Guiana was sighted by Columbus in 1498 when he
+discovered the island of Trinidad and the peninsula of Paria, and in the
+following year by Alonzo de Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci; and in 1500
+Vincente Yañez Pinzon ventured south of the equator, and sailing
+north-west along the coast discovered the Amazon; he is believed to have
+also entered some of the other rivers of Guiana, one of which, now
+called Oyapock, is marked on early maps as Rio Pinzon. Little, however,
+was known of Guiana until the fame of the fabled golden city Manoa or El
+Dorado tempted adventurers to explore its rivers and forests. From
+letters of these explorers found in captured ships, Sir Walter Raleigh
+was induced to ascend the Orinoco in search of El Dorado in 1595, to
+send Lawrence Keymis on the same quest in the following year, and in
+1617 to try once again, with the same intrepid lieutenant, an expedition
+fraught with disaster for both of them. As early as 1580 the Dutch had
+established a systematic trade with the Spanish main, but so far as is
+known their first voyage to Guiana was in 1598. By 1613 they had three
+or four settlements on the coast of Demerara and Essequibo, and in about
+1616 some Zeelanders settled on a small island, called by them _Kyk ober
+al_ ("see over all"), in the confluence of the Cuyuni and Mazaruni
+rivers. While the Dutch traders were struggling for a footing in
+Essequibo and Demerara, English and French traders were endeavouring to
+form settlements on the Oyapock river, in Cayenne and in Surinam, and by
+1652 the English had large interests in the latter and the French in
+Cayenne. In 1663 Charles II. issued letters patent to Lord Willoughby of
+Parham and Lawrence Hyde, second son of the earl of Clarendon, granting
+them the district between the Copenam and Maroni rivers, a province
+described as extending from E. to W. some 120 m. This colony was,
+however, formally ceded to the Netherlands in 1667 by the peace of
+Breda, Great Britain taking possession of New York. Meanwhile the Dutch
+West India Company, formed in 1621, had taken possession of Essequibo,
+over which colony it exercised sovereign rights until 1791. In 1624 a
+Dutch settlement was effected in the Berbice river, and from this grew
+Berbice, for a long time a separate and independent colony. In 1657 the
+Zeelanders firmly established themselves in the Pomeroon, Moruca and
+Demerara rivers, and by 1674 the Dutch were colonizing all the territory
+now known as British and Dutch Guiana. The New Dutch West Indian
+Company, founded in that year to replace the older company which had
+failed, received Guiana by charter from the states-general in 1682. In
+the following year the company sold one-third of their territory to the
+city of Amsterdam, and another third to Cornelis van Aerssens, lord of
+Sommelsdijk. The new owners and the company incorporated themselves as
+the Chartered Society of Surinam, and Sommelsdijk agreed to fill the
+post of governor of the colony at his own expense. The lucrative trade
+in slaves was retained by the West Indian Company, but the society could
+import them on its own account by paying a fine to the company.
+Sommelsdijk's rule was wise and energetic. He repressed and pacified the
+Indian tribes, erected forts and disciplined the soldiery, constructed
+the canal which bears his name, established a high court of justice and
+introduced the valuable cultivation of the cocoa-nut. But on the 17th of
+June 1688 he was massacred in a mutiny of the soldiers. The "third"
+which Sommelsdijk possessed was offered by his widow to William III. of
+England, but it was ultimately purchased by the city of Amsterdam for
+700,000 fl. The settlements in Essequibo progressed somewhat slowly, and
+it was not until immigration was attracted in 1740 by offers to
+newcomers of free land and immunity for a decade from taxation that
+anything like a colony could be said to exist there. In 1732 Berbice
+placed itself under the protection of the states-general of Holland and
+was granted a constitution, and in 1773 Demerara, till then a dependency
+of Essequibo, was constituted as a separate colony. In 1781 the three
+colonies, Demerara, Essequibo and Berbice, were captured by British
+privateers, and were placed by Rodney under the governor of Barbados,
+but in 1782 they were taken by France, then an ally of the Netherlands,
+and retained until the peace of 1783, when they were restored to
+Holland. In 1784 Essequibo and Demerara were placed under one governor,
+and Georgetown--then called Stabroek--was fixed on as the seat of
+government. The next decade saw a series of struggles between the
+colonies and the Dutch West India company, which ended in the company
+being wound up and in the three colonies being governed directly by the
+states-general. In 1796 the British again took possession, and retained
+the three colonies until the peace of Amiens in 1802, when they were
+once again restored to Holland, only to be recaptured by Great Britain
+in 1803, in which year the history proper of British Guiana began.
+
+
+  British Guiana.
+
+I. BRITISH GUIANA, the only British possession in S. America, was
+formally ceded in 1814-1815. The three colonies were in 1831
+consolidated into one colony divided into three counties, Berbice
+extending from the Corentyn river to the Abary creek, Demerara from the
+Abary to the Boerasirie creek, Essequibo from the Boerasirie to the
+Venezuelan frontier. This boundary-line between British Guiana and
+Venezuela was for many years the subject of dispute. The Dutch, while
+British Guiana was in their possession, claimed the whole watershed of
+the Essequibo river, while the Venezuelans asserted that the Spanish
+province of Guayana had extended up to the left bank of the Essequibo.
+In 1840 Sir Robert Schomburgk had suggested a demarcation, afterwards
+known as the "Schomburgk line"; and subsequently, though no agreement
+was arrived at, certain modifications were made in this British claim.
+In 1886 the government of Great Britain declared that it would
+thenceforward exercise jurisdiction up to and within a boundary known as
+"the modified Schomburgk line." Outposts were located at points on this
+line, and for some years Guianese police and Venezuelan soldiers faced
+one another across the Amacura creek in the Orinoco mouth and at Yuruan
+up the Cuyuni river. In 1897 the dispute formed the subject of a message
+to congress from the president of the United States, and in consequence
+of this intervention the matter was submitted to an international
+commission, whose award was issued at Paris in 1899 (see VENEZUELA). By
+this decision neither party gained its extreme claim, the line laid down
+differing but little from the original Schomburgk line. The demarcation
+was at once undertaken by a joint commission appointed by Venezuela and
+British Guiana and was completed in 1904. It was not found practicable,
+owing to the impassable nature of the country, to lay down on earth that
+part of the boundary fixed by the Paris award between the head of the
+Wenamu creek and the summit of Mt. Roraima, and the boundary
+commissioners suggested a deviation to follow the watersheds of the
+Caroni, Cuyuni and Mazaruni rivers, a suggestion accepted by the two
+governments. In 1902 the delimitation of the boundary between British
+Guiana and Brazil was referred to the arbitration of the king of Italy,
+and by his reward, issued in June 1904, the substantial area in dispute
+was conceded to British Guiana. The work of demarcation has since been
+carried out.
+
+_Towns, &c._--The capital of British Guiana is Georgetown, at the mouth
+of the Demerara river, on its right bank, with a population of about
+50,000. New Amsterdam, on the right bank of the Berbice river, has a
+population of about 7500. Each possesses a mayor and town council, with
+statutory powers to impose rates. There are nineteen incorporated
+villages, and ten other locally governed areas known as country
+districts, the affairs of which are controlled by local authorities,
+known as village councils and country authorities respectively.
+
+_Population._--The census of 1891 gave the population of British Guiana
+as 278,328. There was no census taken in 1901. By official estimates the
+population at the end of 1904 was 301,923. Of these some 120,000 were
+negroes and 124,000 East Indians; 4300 were Europeans, other than
+Portuguese, estimated at about 11,600, and some 30,000 of mixed race.
+The aborigines--Arawaks, Caribs, Wapisianas, Warraws, &c.--who numbered
+about 10,000 in 1891, are now estimated at about 6500. In 1904 the
+birth-rate for the whole colony was 30.3 per 1000 and the death-rate
+28.8.
+
+  _Physical Geography._--The surface features of British Guiana may be
+  divided roughly into four regions: first, the alluvial seaboard, flat
+  and below the level of high-water; secondly, the forest belt, swampy
+  along the rivers but rising into undulating lands and hills between
+  them; thirdly, the savannahs in and inland of the forest belt,
+  elevated table-lands, grass-covered and practically treeless; and
+  fourthly, the mountain ranges. The eastern portion of the colony, from
+  the source of its two largest rivers, the Corentyn and Essequibo, is a
+  rough inclined plain, starting at some 900 ft. above sea-level at the
+  source of the Takutu in the west, but only some 400 at that of the
+  Corentyn in the west, and sloping down gradually to the low alluvial
+  flats about 3 ft. below high-water line. The eastern part is generally
+  forested; the western is an almost level savannah, with woodlands
+  along the rivers. The northern portion of British Guiana, the
+  alluvial flats alluded to already, consists of a fluviomarine deposit
+  extending inland from 25 m. to 30 m., gradually rising to about 12 ft.
+  above high-water mark and ending against beds of sandy clay, the
+  residua of igneous rocks decomposed _in situ_, which form an extensive
+  undulating region rising to 150 ft. above the sea and stretching back
+  to the forest-covered hills. Roughly parallel to the existing
+  coast-line are narrow reefs of sand and sea-shells, which are dunes
+  indicating the trend of former limits of the sea, and still farther
+  back are the higher "sand hills," hills of granite or diabase with a
+  thick stratum of coarse white sand superimposed. From the coast-line
+  seawards the ocean deepens very gradually, and at low tide extensive
+  flats of sand and of mixed clay and sand (called locally "caddy") are
+  left bare, these flats being at times covered with a deposit of thin
+  drift mud.
+
+  Two great parallel mountain systems cross the colony from W. to E.,
+  the greater being that of the Pacaraima and Merumé Mts., and the
+  lesser including the Kanuku Mts. (2000 ft.), while the Acarai Mts., a
+  densely-wooded range rising to 2500 ft., form the southern boundary of
+  British Guiana and the watershed between the Essequibo and the Amazon.
+  These mountains rise generally in a succession of terraces and broad
+  plateaus, with steep or even sheer sandstone escarpments. They are
+  mostly flat-topped, and their average height is about 3500 ft. The
+  Pacaraima Mts., however, reach 8635 ft. at Roraima, and the latter
+  remarkable mountain rises as a perpendicular wall of red rock 1500 ft.
+  in height springing out of the forest-clad slopes below the summit,
+  and was considered inaccessible until in December 1884 Messrs im Thurn
+  and Perkins found a ledge by which the top could be reached. The
+  summit is a table-land some 12 sq. m. in area. Mt. Kukenaam is of
+  similar structure and also rises above 8500 ft. Other conspicuous
+  summits (about 7000 ft.) are Iwalkarima, Eluwarima, Ilutipu and
+  Waiakapiapu. The southern portion of the Pacaraima range comprises
+  rugged hills and rock-strewn valleys, but to the N., where the
+  sandstone assumes the table-shaped form, there are dense forests, and
+  the scenery is of extraordinary grandeur. Waterfalls frequently
+  descend the cliffs from a great height (nearly 2000 ft. sheer at
+  Roraima and Kukenaam). The sandstone formation can be traced from the
+  northern Pacaraima range on the N.W. to the Corentyn in the S.E. It is
+  traversed in places by dikes and sills of diabase or dolerite, while
+  bosses of more or less altered gabbro rise through it. The surface of
+  a large part of the colony is composed of gneiss, and of gneissose
+  granite, which is seen in large water-worn bosses in the river beds.
+  Intrusive granite is of somewhat rare occurrence; where found, it
+  gives rise to long low rolls of hilly country and to cataracts in the
+  rivers. Extensive areas of the country consist of quartz-porphyry,
+  porphyrites and felstone, and of more or less schistose rocks derived
+  from them. These rocks are closely connected with the gneissose
+  granites and gneiss, and there are reasons for believing that the
+  latter are the deep-seated portions of them and are only visible where
+  they have been exposed by denudation. Long ranges of hills, varying in
+  elevation from a few hundreds to from 2000 ft. to 3000 ft., traverse
+  the plains of the gneissose districts. These are caused either by old
+  intrusions of diabase and gabbro which have undergone modifications,
+  or by later ones of dolerite. These ranges are of high importance, as
+  the rocks comprising them are the main source of gold in British
+  Guiana.
+
+  _Rivers._--The principal physical features of British Guiana are its
+  rivers and their branches, which form one vast network of waterways
+  all over it, and are the principal, indeed practically the only,
+  highways inland from the coast. Chief among them are the Waini, the
+  Essequibo, and its tributaries the Mazaruni and Cuyuni, the Demerara,
+  the Berbice and the Corentyn. The Essequibo rises in the Acarai Mts.,
+  in 0° 41´ N. and about 850 ft. above the sea, and flows northwards for
+  about 600 m. until it discharges itself into the ocean by an estuary
+  nearly 15 m. in width. In this estuary are several large and fertile
+  islands, on four of which sugar used to be grown. Now but one,
+  Wakenaam, can boast of a factory. The Essequibo can be entered only by
+  craft drawing less than 20 ft. and is navigable for these vessels for
+  not more than 50 m., its subsequent course upwards being frequently
+  broken by cataracts and rapids. Some 7 m. below the first series of
+  rapids it is joined by the Mazaruni, itself joined by the Cuyuni some
+  4 m. farther up. It has a remarkable course from its source in the
+  Merume Mountains, about 2400 ft. above the sea. It flows first south,
+  then west, north-west, north, and finally south-east to within 20 m.
+  of its own source, forming many fine falls, and its course thereafter
+  is still very tortuous. In 4° N. and 58° W., the Essequibo is joined
+  by the Rupununi, which, rising in a savannah at the foot of the
+  Karawaimento Mts., has a northerly and easterly course of fully 200 m.
+  In 3° 37´ N. the Awaricura joins the Rupununi, and by this tributary
+  the Pirara, a tributary of the Amazon, may be reached,--an example of
+  the interesting series of _itabos_ connecting nearly all S. American
+  rivers with one another. Another large tributary of the Essequibo is
+  the Potaro, on which, at 1130 ft. above sea-level and in 5° 8´ N. and
+  59° 19´ W., is the celebrated Kaieteur fall, discovered in 1870 by Mr
+  C. Barrington Brown while engaged on a geological survey. This fall is
+  produced by the river flowing from a tableland of sandstone and
+  conglomerate into a deep valley 822 ft. below. For the first 741 ft.
+  the water falls as a perpendicular column, thence as a sloping
+  cataract to the still reach below. The river 200 yds. above the fall
+  is about 400 ft. wide, while the actual waterway of the fall itself
+  varies from 120 ft. in dry weather to nearly 400 ft. in rainy seasons.
+  The Kaieteur, which it took Mr Brown a fortnight to reach from the
+  coast, can now be reached on the fifth day from Georgetown. Among
+  other considerable tributaries of the Essequibo are the Siparuni,
+  Burro-Burro, Rewa, Kuyuwini and Kassi-Kudji. The Demerara river, the
+  head-waters of which are known only to Indians, rises probably near 5°
+  N., and after a winding northerly course of some 200 m. enters the
+  ocean in 6° 50´ N. and 58° 20´ W. A bar of mud and sand prevents the
+  entrance of vessels drawing more than 19 ft. The river is from its
+  mouth, which is nearly 2 m. wide, navigable for 70 m. to all vessels
+  which can enter. The Berbice river rises in about 3° 40´ N., and in 3°
+  53´ N. is within 9 m. of the Essequibo. At its mouth it is about 2½ m.
+  wide, and is navigable for vessels drawing not more than 12 ft. for
+  about 105 m. and for vessels drawing not more than 7 ft. for fully 175
+  m. Thence upwards it is broken by great cataracts. The Canje creek
+  joins the Berbice river close to the sea. The Corentyn river rises in
+  1° 48´ 30´´ N., about 140 m. E. of the Essequibo, and flowing
+  northwards enters the Atlantic by an estuary some 14 m. wide. The
+  divide between its head-waters and those of streams belonging to the
+  Amazon system is only some 400 ft. in elevation. It is navigable for
+  about 150 m., some of the reaches being of great width and beauty. The
+  upper reaches are broken by a series of great cataracts, some of
+  which, until the discovery of Kaieteur, were believed to be the
+  grandest in British Guiana. Among other rivers are the Pomeroon,
+  Moruca and Barima, while several large streams or creeks fall directly
+  into the Atlantic, the largest being the Abary, Mahaicony and Mahaica,
+  between Berbice and Demerara, and the Boerasirie between Demerara and
+  Essequibo. The colour of the water of the rivers and creeks is in
+  general a dark brown, caused by the infusion of vegetable matter, but
+  where the streams run for a long distance through savannahs they are
+  of a milky colour.
+
+  _Climate._--The climate is, as tropical countries go, not unhealthy.
+  Malarial fevers are common but preventible; and phthisis is prevalent,
+  not because the climate is unsuitable to sufferers from pulmonary
+  complaints, but because of the ignorance of the common people of the
+  elementary principles of hygiene, an ignorance which the state is
+  endeavouring to lessen by including the teaching of hygiene in the
+  syllabus of the primary schools. The temperature is uniform on the
+  coast for the ten months from October to July, the regular N.E. trade
+  winds keeping it down to an average of 80° F. In August and September
+  the trades die away and the heat becomes oppressive. In the interior
+  the nights are cold and damp. Hurricanes, indeed even strong gales,
+  are unknown; a tidal wave is an impossibility; and the nature of the
+  soil of the coast lands renders earthquakes practically harmless.
+  Occasionally there are severe droughts, and the rains are sometimes
+  unduly prolonged, but usually the year is clearly divided into two wet
+  and two dry seasons. The long wet season begins in mid-April and lasts
+  until mid-August. The long dry season is from September to the last
+  week in November. December and January constitute the short rainy
+  season, and February and March the short dry season. The rainfall
+  varies greatly in different parts of the colony; on the coast it
+  averages about 80 in. annually.
+
+  _Flora._--The vegetation is most luxuriant and its growth perpetual.
+  Indigenous trees and plants abound in the utmost variety, while many
+  exotics have readily adapted themselves to local conditions. Along the
+  coast is a belt of courida and mangrove--the bark of the latter being
+  used for tanning--forming a natural barrier to the inroads of the sea,
+  but one which--very unwisely--has been in parts almost ruined to allow
+  of direct drainage. The vast forests afford an almost inexhaustible
+  supply of valuable timbers; greenheart and mora, largely used in
+  shipbuilding and for wharves and dock and lock gates; silverbally,
+  yielding magnificent planks for all kinds of boats; and cabinet woods,
+  such as cedar and crabwood. There may be seen great trees, struggling
+  for life one with the other, covered with orchids--some of great
+  beauty and value--and draped with falling _lianas_ and vines. Giant
+  palms fringe the river-banks and break the monotony of the mass of
+  smaller foliage. Many of the trees yield gums, oils and febrifuges,
+  the bullet tree being bled extensively for _balata_, a gum used
+  largely in the manufacture of belting. Valuable varieties of rubber
+  have also been found in several districts, and since early in 1905
+  have attracted the attention of experts from abroad. On the coast
+  plantains, bananas and mangoes grow readily and are largely used for
+  food, while several districts are admirably adapted to the growth of
+  limes. Oranges, pineapples, star-apples, granadillas, guavas are among
+  the fruits; Indian corn, cassava, yams, eddoes, tannias, sweet
+  potatoes and ochroes are among the vegetables, while innumerable
+  varieties of peppers are grown and used in large quantities by all
+  classes. The dainty avocado pear, purple and green, grows readily. In
+  the lagoons and trenches many varieties of water-lilies grow wild, the
+  largest being the famous _Victoria regia_.
+
+  _Fauna._--Guiana is full of wild animals, birds, insects and reptiles.
+  Among the wild animals, one and all nocturnal, are the mipourrie or
+  tapir, manatee, acouri and labba (both excellent eating), sloth,
+  ant-eater, armadillo, several kinds of deer, baboons, monkeys and the
+  puma and jaguar. The last is seen frequently down on the coast,
+  attracted from the forest by the cattle grazing on the front and back
+  pasture lands of the estates. Among the birds may be mentioned the
+  carrion crow (an invaluable scavenger), vicissi and muscovy ducks,
+  snipe, teal, plover, pigeon, the ubiquitous kiskadee or _qu'est que
+  dit_, a species of shrike--his name derived from his shrill call--the
+  canary and the twa-twa, both charming whistlers. These are all found
+  on the coast. In the forest are maam (partridge), maroudi (wild
+  turkey), the beautiful bell-bird with note like a silver gong, the
+  quadrille bird with its tuneful oft-repeated bar, great flocks of
+  macaws and parrots, and other birds of plumage of almost indescribable
+  richness and variety. On the coast the trenches and canals are full of
+  alligators, but the great cayman is found only in the rivers of the
+  interior. Among the many varieties of snakes are huge constricting
+  camoudies, deadly bushmasters, labarrias and rattlesnakes. Among other
+  reptiles are the two large lizards, the salumpenta (an active enemy of
+  the barn-door fowl), and the iguana, whose flesh when cooked resembles
+  tender chicken. The rivers, streams and trenches abound with fishes,
+  crabs and shrimps, the amount of the latter consumed being enormous,
+  running into tons weekly as the coolies use them in their curries and
+  the blacks in their foo-foo.
+
+_Government and Administration._--Executive power is vested in a
+governor, who is advised in all administrative matters by an executive
+council, consisting of five official and three unofficial members
+nominated by the crown. Legislative authority is vested in the Court of
+Policy, consisting of the governor, who presides and without whose
+permission no legislation can be initiated, seven other official members
+and eight elected members. This body has, however, no financial
+authority, all taxation and expenditure being dealt with by the Combined
+Court, consisting of the Court of Policy combined with six financial
+representatives. The elected members of the Court of Policy and the
+financial representatives are elected by their several constituencies
+for five years. Qualification for the Court of Policy is the ownership,
+or possession under lease for a term of twenty-one years, of eighty
+acres of land, of which at least forty acres are under cultivation, or
+of house property to the value of $7500. A financial representative must
+be similarly qualified or be in receipt of a clear income of not less
+than £300 per annum. Every male is entitled to be registered as a voter
+who (in addition to the usual formal qualifications) owns (during six
+months prior to registration) three acres of land in cultivation or a
+house of the annual rental or value of £20; or is a secured tenant for
+not less than three years of six acres of land in cultivation or for one
+year of a house of £40 rental; or has an income of not less than £100
+per annum; or has during the previous twelve months paid £4, 3s. 4d. in
+direct taxation. Residence in the electoral district for six months
+prior to registration is coupled with the last two alternative
+qualifications. Plural voting is legal but no plumping is allowed. The
+combined court is by this constitution, which was granted in 1891,
+allowed the use of all revenues due to the crown in return for a civil
+list voted for a term now fixed at three years. English is the official
+and common language. The Roman-Dutch law, modified by orders-in-council
+and local statutes, governs actions in the civil courts, but the
+criminal law is founded on that of England. Magistrates have in civil
+cases jurisdiction up to £20, while an appeal lies from their decisions
+in any criminal or civil case. The supreme court consists of a chief
+justice and two puisne judges, and has various jurisdictions. The full
+court, consisting of the three judges or any two of them, has
+jurisdiction over all civil matters, but an appeal lies to His Majesty
+in privy council in cases involving £500 and upwards. A single judge
+sits in insolvency, in actions involving not over £520, and in appeals
+from magistrates' decisions. The appeal full court, consisting of three
+judges, sits to hear appeals from decisions of a single judge in the
+limited civil, appellate and insolvency courts. Criminal courts are held
+four times a year in each county, a single judge presiding in each
+court. A court of crown cases reserved is formed by the three judges, of
+whom two form a quorum provided the chief-justice is one of the two.
+There are no imperial troops now stationed in British Guiana, but there
+is a semi-military police force, a small militia and two companies of
+volunteers. The Church of England and the Church of Scotland are both
+established, and grants-in-aid are also given to the Roman Catholic and
+Wesleyan churches and to several other denominations.
+
+  The revenue and expenditure now each amount annually to an average of
+  a little over £500,000. About one-half of the revenue is produced by
+  import duties, and about £90,000 by excise. The public debt on the
+  31st of March 1905 stood at £989,620.
+
+  The system of primary education is denominational and is mainly
+  supported from the general revenue. During 1904-1905, 213 schools
+  received grants-in-aid amounting to £23,500, the average cost per
+  scholar being a little over £1. These grants are calculated on the
+  results of examinations held annually, an allowance varying from 4s.
+  4½d. to 1s. 0½d. being made for each pass in reading, writing,
+  arithmetic, school-garden work, nature study, singing and drill,
+  English, geography, elementary hygiene and sewing. Secondary education
+  is provided in Georgetown at some private establishments, and for boys
+  at Queen's College, an undenominational government institution where
+  the course of instruction is the same as at a public school in
+  England, and the boys are prepared for the Cambridge local
+  examinations, on the result of which annually depend the Guiana
+  scholarship--open to boys and girls, and carrying a university or
+  professional training in England--and two scholarships at Queen's
+  College.
+
+  _Industries and Trade._--At the end of the third decade of the 19th
+  century the principal exports were sugar, rum, molasses, cotton and
+  coffee. In 1830, 9,500,000 lb. of coffee were sent abroad, but after
+  the emancipation of the slaves it almost ceased as an export, and the
+  little that is now grown is practically entirely consumed in the
+  colony. The cultivation of cotton ceased in 1844, and, but for a short
+  revival during the American civil war, has never prospered since.
+  Efforts have been made to resuscitate its growth, but the experiments
+  of the Board of Agriculture have only shown that Sea Island cotton is
+  not adaptable to local conditions, and that no other known variety can
+  as yet be recommended. To-day the principal exports are sugar, rum,
+  molasses, molascuit--a cattle food made from molasses--gold, timber,
+  balata, shingles and cattle. The annual value of the total exports is
+  just under £2,000,000, of which about two-thirds go to Great Britain
+  and British possessions. The cultivation of rice has made great
+  strides in recent years, and, where difficulties of drainage and
+  irrigation can be economically overcome, promises to increase rapidly.
+  In 1873, 32,000,000 lb. of rice were imported, whereas in 1904-1905,
+  the quantity imported having fallen to 20,500,000 lb., there were over
+  18,000 acres under rice cultivation, and exportation, principally to
+  the British West Indies, had commenced. The cultivation of the
+  sugar-cane, and its manufacture into sugar and its by-products, still
+  remains, in spite of numerous fluctuations, the staple industry. The
+  provision of a trustworthy labour supply for the estates is of great
+  importance, and local scarcity has made it necessary since 1840 to
+  import it under a system of indenture. In that year and until 1867,
+  liberated Africans were brought from Rio de Janeiro, Havana, Sierra
+  Leone and St Helena, and in 1845 systematic immigration from India
+  commenced and has since been carried on annually--save in 1849-1850.
+  In 1853 immigration from China was tried, and was carried on by the
+  government from 1859 to 1866, when it ceased owing to a convention
+  arranged at Peking, stipulating that all immigrants should on the
+  expiry of their term of indenture be entitled to be sent back at the
+  expense of the colony, a liability it could not afford to incur. To
+  reduce the cost of supervision and kindred expenses, and consequently
+  of the cane and its manufacture into sugar, the policy of
+  centralization has been universally adopted, and forty-six estates now
+  produce as much sugar as three times that number did in 1875. During
+  recent years Canada has come forward as a large buyer of Guiana's
+  sugar, and in 1904-1905 the same amount went there as to the United
+  States, in each case over 44,000 tons, whereas in 1901-1902 the United
+  States took 85,000 tons and Canada under 8000 tons. Practically all
+  the rum and molascuit go to England, and the molasses to Holland and
+  Portuguese possessions. The lands on the coast and on the river banks
+  up to the sand hills are of marked fertility, and can produce almost
+  any tropical vegetable or fruit. Cultivation, however, save on the
+  sugar, coffee and cocoa estates, and by a few exceptional small
+  farmers, is carried on in a haphazard and half-hearted manner, and the
+  problem of agricultural development is one of great difficulty for the
+  government. Much of the privately-owned land is not beneficially
+  occupied, and in many cases it is not possible even to learn to whom
+  it belongs, and though there are vast tracts of uncultivated crown
+  land where a large farm or a small homestead can be easily and cheaply
+  acquired, the difficulties involved in clearing, draining, and in some
+  cases of protecting it by dams, are prohibitive to all but the
+  exceptionally determined.
+
+  Prospecting for gold began in 1880, and from 1884 to 1893-1894 the
+  output, chiefly from alluvial workings, increased from 250 oz. to
+  nearly 140,000 oz. annually. The industry then received a serious
+  check by the failure of several mines, and for nearly a decade was
+  almost entirely in the hands of the small tributor, known locally as a
+  pork-knocker. There has been some revival, chiefly due to foreign
+  enterprise. At Omai on the Essequibo river a German syndicate worked a
+  large concession on the hydraulic process of placer mining with
+  considerable success, and more recently took to dredging on its
+  flats. In the Puruni (a tributary of the Mazaruni) American
+  capitalists, working the Peters' mine, have established their workings
+  to a considerable depth, besides constructing a road, 60 m. in length,
+  from Kartabo point, at the confluence of the Guyuni and Mazaruni, to
+  the Puruni river opposite the mine. An English syndicate started
+  dredging in the Conawarook, a tributary of the Essequibo. The
+  principal gold districts are on the Essequibo and its tributaries--the
+  chief being the Cuyuni, Mazaruni, Potaro and Conawarook--and on the
+  Barima, Barama and Waini rivers in the north-west district. There have
+  been smaller workings, mostly unsuccessful, in the Demerara and
+  Berbice rivers.
+
+  Diamonds and other precious stones have been found in small
+  quantities, and since 1900 efforts have been made to extend the
+  output, nearly 11,000 carats weight of diamonds being exported in
+  1904. But though the small stones found were of good water, the cost
+  of transport to the diamond fields, on the Mazaruni river, was heavy,
+  and after 1904 the industry declined. Laws dealing with gold and
+  precious stones passed in 1880, 1886 and 1887, and regulations in
+  1899, were codified in 1902 and amended in 1905.
+
+  Timber is cut, and balata and rubber collected, from crown lands by
+  licences issued from the department of Lands and Mines. Wood-cutting,
+  save on concessions held by a local company owning an up-country line
+  of railway connecting the Demerara and Essequibo rivers, is limited to
+  those parts of the forest which are close to the lower stretches of
+  the rivers and creeks, the overland haulage of the heavy logs being
+  both difficult and costly, while transport through the upper reaches
+  of the rivers is impossible on account of the many cataracts and
+  rapids. The average annual value of imports is £1,500,000, of which
+  about two-thirds are from Great Britain and British possessions. Of
+  the vessels trading with the colony, most are under the British flag,
+  the remainder being principally American and Norwegian.
+
+  The money of account is dollars and cents, but, with the exception of
+  the notes of the two local banks, the currency is British sterling.
+  The unit of land measure is the Rhynland rood, roughly equal to 12 ft.
+  4 in. A Rhynland acre contains 300 square roods.
+
+  _Inland Communication, &c._--The public roads extend along the coast
+  from the Corentyn river to some 20 m. N. of the Essequibo mouth on the
+  Aroabisci coast, and for a short distance up each of the principal
+  rivers and creeks entering the sea between these points. A line of
+  railway 60½ m. in length runs from Georgetown to Rosignol on the left
+  bank of the Berbice river opposite New Amsterdam; and another line 15
+  m. long starts from Vreed-en-hoop, on the left bank of the Demerara
+  river opposite Georgetown, and runs to Greenwich Park on the right
+  bank of the Essequibo river some 3 m. from its mouth. A light railway,
+  metre gauge, 18½ m. in length, connects Wismar (on the left bank of
+  the Demerara river some 70 m. from its mouth) with Rockstone (on the
+  right bank of the Essequibo, and above the first series of cataracts
+  in that river). Steamers run daily to and from Georgetown and Wismar,
+  and launches to and from Rockstone and Tumatumari Fall on the Potaro,
+  and all expeditions for the goldfields of the Essequibo and its
+  tributaries above Rockstone travel by this route. Another steamer goes
+  twice a week to Bartica at the confluence of the Essequibo and
+  Mazaruni, and another weekly to Mt. Everard on the Barima, from which
+  termini expeditions start to the other gold and diamond fields.
+  Steamers also run from Georgetown to New Amsterdam and up the Berbice
+  river for about 100 m. Above the termini of these steamer routes all
+  travelling is done in keelless _bateaux_, propelled by paddlers and
+  steered when coming through the rapids at both bow and stern by
+  certificated bowmen and steersmen. Owing to the extreme dangers of
+  this inland travelling, stringent regulations have been framed as to
+  the loading of boats, supply of ropes and qualifications of men in
+  charge, and the shooting of certain falls is prohibited. Voyages
+  up-country are of necessity slow, but the return journey is made with
+  comparatively great rapidity, distances laboriously covered on the
+  up-trip in three days being done easily in seven hours when coming
+  back.
+
+  From England British Guiana is reached in sixteen days by the steamers
+  of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, and in nineteen days by those
+  of the direct line from London and Glasgow. There are also regular
+  services from Canada, the United States, France and Holland.
+
+_History._--When taken over in 1803 the prospects of three British
+colonies were by no means promising, and during the next decade the
+situation became very critical. Owing to the increased output of sugar
+by conquered Dutch and French colonies the English market was glutted
+and the markets of the continent of Europe were not available, Bonaparte
+having closed the ports. The years 1811 and 1812 were peculiarly
+disastrous, especially to those engaged in the manufacture of sugar, and
+at a public meeting held in Georgetown early in the latter year it was
+stated that the produce of the colony ordinarily worth £1,860,000 had on
+account of deteriorated value decreased by fully one-third. At this
+meeting it was resolved to petition the imperial parliament to allow the
+interchange of produce with the United States; a resolution which was
+unfortunately rendered abortive by the outbreak of war between England
+and the States in 1812, the trade of British Guiana being instead
+actually harried by American privateers. In his address to the Combined
+Court on the 20th of October 1812 the governor (General Carmichael)
+stated that a vessel with government stores had been captured by an
+American privateer, and in February 1813 the imperial government sent
+H.M.S. "Peacock" to protect the coast. On the 23rd of that month in
+cruising along the east coast of Demerara the "Peacock" met the American
+privateer "Hornet," and though, after a gallant struggle, in which
+Captain Peake, R.N., was killed, the English ship was sunk with nearly
+all her crew, the colony did not suffer from any further depredations.
+In the following years news of the agitation in England in favour of
+emancipation gradually became known to the slaves and caused
+considerable unrest among them, culminating in 1823 in a serious
+outbreak on the estates on the east coast of Demerara. Negroes,
+demanding their freedom, attacked the houses of several managers, and
+although at most points these attacks were repulsed with but little loss
+on either side, the situation was so serious as to necessitate the
+calling out of the military. The ringleaders were arrested and promptly
+and vigorously dealt with, while a special court-martial was appointed
+to try the Rev. John Smith, of the London Missionary Society, who it was
+alleged had fostered the rising by his teachings to the slave
+congregation at his chapel in Le Ressouvenir. This trial was stigmatized
+as unfair by the missionary party in England, but on the whole appears
+to have been conducted decently by an undoubtedly unbiassed court. It is
+difficult now to form any very definite conclusion. Mr Smith certainly
+had great influence over the slaves, and while his teaching prior to the
+outbreak was at least ill-advised, he made no efforts while the
+disturbances were going on to use his influence on the side of law and
+order; indeed all he could say in his own defence was that he was
+ignorant of what was going on, a statement it is impossible to believe
+to have been strictly veracious. He was found guilty and sentenced to be
+hanged. It is obvious that it was never intended to carry out this
+sentence, and on the 29th of November the governor announced that he
+felt it imperative on him to transmit the findings of the court for His
+Majesty's consideration. The question of Smith's guilt or innocence
+created a great deal of feeling in England, the anti-slavery and
+missionary societies making it a basis for increased agitation in favour
+of the slaves; but the imperial government evidently agreed with the
+colonial executive in holding that he could not be exonerated of grave
+responsibility, as the order of the king was that while the sentence of
+death was remitted Mr Smith was to be dismissed from the colony and to
+enter into a recognizance in £2000 not to return to British Guiana or to
+reside in any other West Indian colony. This order reached Georgetown in
+April 1824, but Mr Smith had died in the city jail on the 6th of
+February of a pulmonary complaint from which he had been suffering for
+some time.
+
+Sir Benjamin d'Urban was governor from April 1824 to May 1833, the
+principal event of his administration being the consolidation in 1831 of
+the three colonies into one colony divided into three counties, Berbice,
+Demerara and Essequibo.
+
+Governor d'Urban was succeeded in June 1833 by Sir James Carmichael
+Smyth, who began his administration by a proclamation to the slaves
+stating that while the king intended to improve their condition, the
+details of his plans were not as yet completed, and warning them against
+impatience or insubordination. When the resolutions foreshadowing
+emancipation, passed by the House of Commons on the 12th of June 1833,
+reached the colony, the planters, to whom the governor's proclamation
+had been most distasteful, were thunderstruck and even the government
+was surprised. Naturally the slaves were wildly jubilant. Emancipation
+brought troublous times through which the governor steered the colony
+with great tact and firmness, serious troubles being nipped in the bud
+solely by his great personality, and the subsequent conflicts with the
+apprentices might have been obviated had he lived longer. He died at
+Camp House on the 4th of March 1838.
+
+In the years following emancipation the colony was in a serious
+condition. The report of a commission in 1850 proved that it was
+virtually ruined, and only by the introduction of immigrants to provide
+a reliable labour supply were the sugar estates saved from total
+extinction. By 1853 the colony had begun to make headway, and Sir Henry
+Barkly, the then governor, was able to state in his speech to the
+Combined Court in January that its progress was in every way
+satisfactory. During Governor Barkly's administration the long series of
+struggles between the legislature and the executive terminated, and when
+he left in May 1853 he did so with the respect and good-will of all
+classes. The strengthening of the labour supply was not effected without
+troubles. In 1847 the negroes in Berbice attacked the persons and
+property of the Portuguese immigrants, the riots spreading to Demerara
+and Essequibo, and not until the military were called out were the
+disturbances quelled. Similar riots in 1862 were only stopped by the
+prompt and firm action of the new governor, Mr (afterwards Sir) Francis
+Hincks, while rows between negroes and Chinese and negroes and East
+Indians were frequent. Gradually, however, things quieted down, and
+until 1883 the estates as a whole did well. In 1884 the price of sugar
+fell so seriously as to make the prospects of the colony very gloomy,
+and for nearly two decades proprietors had to be content with a price
+kept artificially low by bounty-fed beet-sugar, many estates being
+ruined, while those that survived only did so by the application of
+every economy, and by their owners availing themselves of every new
+discovery in the sciences of cultivation and manufacture.
+
+The year 1889 was marked by an outbreak on the part of a section of the
+negro population in Georgetown directed against the Portuguese residents
+there. A Portuguese had murdered his black paramour and had been
+convicted and sentenced to death. The governor commuted the sentence to
+penal servitude for life. Shortly after this a Portuguese stall-holder
+in the market assaulted a small black boy whom he suspected of
+pilfering, the latter having to be taken to a hospital, while the
+former, after being taken to a police station was, through some
+misunderstanding or informality, at once released. Almost immediately
+excitable and unreasoning negroes were rushing about loudly proclaiming
+that the boy was dead, that the Portuguese were allowed to kill black
+people and to go free, and calling on one another to take their own
+revenge. Mobs gathered quickly, attacked individual Portuguese and
+wrecked their shops and houses, and not until the city had been given up
+for two days to scenes of disgraceful disorder were the efforts of the
+police and special constables successful in quelling the disturbances.
+The damage done amounted to several thousands of dollars, the Portuguese
+owners being eventually compensated from general revenue.
+
+In 1884 the dispute as to the boundary with Venezuela became acute. It
+was reported to the colonial government that the government of Venezuela
+had granted to an American syndicate a concession which covered much of
+the territory claimed by Great Britain, and although prompt
+investigation by an agent despatched by the governor did not then
+disclose any trace of interference with British claims, a further visit
+in January 1885, made in consequence of reports that servants of the
+Manoa Company had torn down notices posted by Mr McTurk on his former
+visit, discovered that the British notices had been covered over by
+Venezuelan ones and resulted in the government of Great Britain
+declaring that it would thenceforward exercise jurisdiction up to and
+within a boundary known as "the modified Schomburgk line." Outposts were
+located at points on this line, and for some years Guianese police and
+Venezuelan soldiers faced one another across the Amacura creek in the
+Orinoco mouth and at Yuruan up the Cuyuni river. Guianese officers were,
+however, presumably instructed not actively to oppose acts of aggression
+by the Venezuelan government, for in January 1895 Venezuelan soldiers
+arrested Messrs D. D. Barnes and A. H. Baker, inspectors of police in
+charge at Yuruan station, conveyed them through Venezuela to Caracas,
+eventually allowing them to take steamer to Trinidad. For this act
+compensation was demanded and was eventually paid by Venezuela. The
+diplomatic question as to the boundary--the results of which are stated
+above--was passed out of the hands of the colony; see the account of the
+arbitration under VENEZUELA.
+
+The last two months of 1905 were marked by serious disturbances in
+Georgetown, and in a lesser degree on the east and west banks of the
+Demerara river. On the 29th of November the dock labourers employed on
+the wharves in Georgetown struck for higher wages, and large crowds
+invaded the principal stores in the city, compelling men willing to work
+to desist and in some cases assaulting those who opposed them. By the
+evening of the 30th of November they had got so far out of hand as to
+necessitate the reading of the Riot Act and a proclamation by the
+governor (Sir F. M. Hodgson) forbidding all assemblies. On the morning
+of the 1st of December serious disturbances broke out at Ruimvelt, a
+sugar estate directly south of Georgetown, where the cane-cutters had
+suddenly struck for higher pay, and the police were compelled to fire on
+the mob, killing some and wounding others. All through that day mobs in
+all parts of the city assaulted any white man they met, houses were
+invaded and windows smashed, and on two further occasions the police had
+to fire. At night torrential rains forced the rioters to shelter, and
+enabled the police to get rest, their places being taken by pickets of
+militiamen and special constables. On Saturday, the 2nd of December, the
+police had got the upper hand, and the arrival that night of H.M.S.
+"Sappho" and on Sunday of H.M.S. "Diamond" gave the government complete
+control of the situation. Threatened troubles on the sugar estates on
+the west bank were suppressed by the prompt action of the governor, and
+the arrest of large numbers of the rioters and their immediate trial by
+special courts restored thorough order.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--See Raleigh's _Voyages for the Discovery of Guiana
+  1595-1596_, ("Hakluyt" series); Laurence Keymis' _Relation of the
+  second Voyage to Guiana (1596)_, ("Hakluyt" series); Sir R. H.
+  Schomburgk, _Description of British Guiana_ (London, 1840); C.
+  Waterton, _Wanderings in South America, 1812-1825_ (London, 1828); J.
+  Rodway, _History of British Guiana_ (Georgetown, 1891-1894); H. G.
+  Dalton, History of British Guiana (London, 1855); J. W. Boddam
+  Whetham, _Roraima and British Guiana_ (London, 1879); C. P. Lucas,
+  _Historical Geography of British Colonies_; E. F. im Thurn, _Among the
+  Indians of Guiana_ (London, 1883); _British Guiana Directory_
+  (Georgetown, 1906); G. D. Bayley, _Handbook of British Guiana_
+  (Georgetown, 1909).     (A. G. B.*)
+
+
+  Dutch Guiana.
+
+II. DUTCH GUIANA, or _Surinam_, has an area of about 57,900 sq. m.
+British Guiana bounds it on the west and French on the east (the long
+unsettled question of the French boundary is dealt with in section III.,
+FRENCH GUIANA). The various peoples inhabiting Surinam are distributed
+according to the soil and the products. The Indians (Caribs, Arawaks,
+Warrous) live on the savannahs, or on the upper Nickerie, Coppename and
+Maroni, far from the plantations, cultivating their fields of manioc or
+cassava, and for the rest living by fishing and hunting. They number
+about 2000. The bush negroes (Marrons) dwell between 3° and 4° N., near
+the isles and cataracts. They are estimated at 10,000, and are employed
+in the transport of men and goods to the goldfields, the navigation of
+the rivers in trade with the Indians, and in the transport of wood to
+Paramaribo and the plantations. They are the descendants of runaway
+slaves, and before missionaries had worked among them their paganism
+retained curious traces of their former connexion with Christianity.
+Their chief god was Gran Gado (grand-god), his wife Maria, and his son
+Jesi Kist. Various minor deities were also worshipped, Ampuka the
+bush-god, Toni the water-god, &c. Their language was based on a bastard
+English, mingled with many Dutch, Portuguese and native elements. Their
+chiefs are called _gramman_ or grand man; but the authority of these
+men, and the peculiarities of language and religion, have in great
+measure died out owing to modern intercourse with the Dutch and others.
+The inhabitants of Paramaribo and the plantations comprise a variety of
+races, represented by Chinese, Javanese, coolies from India and the West
+Indies, negroes and about 2000 whites. Of non-Christian immigrants there
+are about 6000 Mahommedans and 12,000 Hindus; and Jews number about
+1200. The total population was given in 1907 as 84,103, exclusive of
+Indians, &c., in the forests. Nearly one-half of this total are in
+Paramaribo and one-half in the districts. The population has shown a
+tendency to move from the districts to the town; thus in 1852 there were
+6000 persons in the town and 32,000 in the districts.
+
+The principal settlements have been made in the lower valley of the
+Surinam, or between that river and the Saramacca on the W. and the
+Commewyne on the E. The Surinam is the chief of a number of large rivers
+which rise in the Tumuc Humac range or the low hills between it and the
+sea, which they enter on the Dutch seaboard, between the Corentyn and
+the Maroni (Dutch _Corantijn_ and _Marowijne_), which form the
+boundaries with British and French territories respectively. Between the
+rivers of Dutch Guiana there are remarkable cross channels available
+during the floods at least. As the Maroni communicates with the Cottica,
+which is in turn a tributary of the Commewyne, a boat can pass from the
+Maroni to Paramaribo; thence by the Sommelsdijk canal it can reach the
+Saramacca; and from the Saramacca it can proceed up the Coppename, and
+by means of the Nickerie find its way to the Corentyn. The rivers are
+not navigable inland to any considerable extent, as their courses are
+interrupted by rapids. The interior of the country consists for the most
+part of low hills, though an extreme height of 3800 ft. is known in the
+Wilhelmina Kette, in the west of the colony, about 3° 50´ to 4° N. The
+hinterland south of this latitude, and that part of the Tumuc Humac
+range along which the Dutch frontier runs, are, however, practically
+unexplored. Like the other territories of Guiana the Dutch colony is
+divided physically into a low coast-land, savannahs and almost
+impenetrable forest.
+
+Meteorological observations have been carried on at five stations
+(Paramaribo, Coronie, Sommelsdijk, Nieuw-Nickerie and Groningen). The
+mean range of temperature for the day, month and year shows little
+variation, being respectively 77.54°-88.38° F., 76.1°-78.62° F. and
+70.52°-90.14° F. The north-east trade winds prevail throughout the year,
+but the rainfall varies considerably; for December and January the mean
+is respectively 8.58 and 9.57 in., for May and June 11.26 and 10.31 in.,
+but for February and March 7.2 and 6.81 in., and for September 2.48 and
+2.0 in. The seasons comprise a long and a short dry season, and a period
+of heavy and of slight rainfall.
+
+  _Products and Trade._--It has been found exceedingly difficult to
+  exploit the produce of the forests. The most important crops and those
+  supplying the chief exports are cocoa, coffee and sugar, all
+  cultivated on the larger plantations, with rice, maize and bananas on
+  the smaller or coast lands. Most of the larger plantations are
+  situated on the lower courses of the Surinam, Commewyne, Nickerie and
+  Cottica, and on the coast lands, rarely in the upper parts. Goldfields
+  lie in the older rocks (especially the slate) of the upper Surinam,
+  Saramacca and Maroni. The first section of a railway designed to
+  connect the goldfields with Paramaribo was opened in 1906. The annual
+  production of gold amounts in value to about £100,000, but has shown
+  considerable fluctuation. Agriculture is the chief means of
+  subsistence. About 42,000 acres are under cultivation. Of 30,000,
+  persons whose occupation is given in official statistics, close upon
+  21,000 are engaged in agriculture or on the plantations, 2400 in
+  gold-mining and only 1000 in trade. The exports increased in value
+  from £200,800 in 1875 to £459,800 in 1899, and imports from £260,450
+  in 1875 to £510,180 in 1899; but the average value of exports over
+  five years subsequently was only £414,000, while that of imports was
+  £531,000.
+
+  _Administration._--The colony is under a governor, who is president of
+  an executive council, which also includes a vice-president and three
+  members nominated by the crown. The legislative body is the states,
+  the members of which are elected for six years by electors, of whom
+  there is one for every 200 holders of the franchise. The colony is
+  divided into sixteen districts. For the administration of justice
+  there are three cantonal courts, two district courts, and the supreme
+  court at Paramaribo, whose president and permanent members are
+  nominated by the crown. The average local revenue (1901-1906) was
+  about £276,000 and the expenditure about £317,000; both fluctuated
+  considerably, and a varying subvention is necessary from the home
+  government (£16,000 in 1902, £60,400 in 1906; the annual average is
+  about £37,000). There are a civic guard of about 1800 men and a
+  militia of 500, with a small garrison.
+
+_History._--The history of the Dutch in Guiana, and the compression of
+their influence within its present limits, belongs to the general
+history of Guiana (above). Surinam and the Dutch islands of the West
+Indies were placed under a common government in 1828, the governor
+residing at Paramaribo, but in 1845 they were separated. Slavery was
+abolished in 1863. Labour then became difficult to obtain, and in 1870 a
+convention was signed between Holland and England for the regulation of
+the coolie traffic, and a Dutch government agent for Surinam was
+appointed at Calcutta. The problem was never satisfactorily solved, but
+the interest of the mother-country in the colony greatly increased
+during the last twenty years of the 19th century, as shown by the
+establishment of the Surinam Association, of the Steam Navigation
+Company's service to Paramaribo, and by the formation of a botanical
+garden for experimental culture at that town, as also by geological and
+other scientific expeditions, and the exhibition at Haarlem in 1898.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Among the older works on Surinam the first rank is held
+  by Jan Jacob Hartsinck's masterly _Beschryving van Guiana, of de Wilde
+  Kust, in Zuid Amerika_ (2 vols., Amsterdam, 1770). Extracts from this
+  work, selected for their bearing upon British boundary questions, were
+  translated and annotated by J. A. J. de Villiers (London, 1897). A
+  valuable _Geschiedenis der Kolonie van Suriname_, by a number of
+  "learned Jews," was published at Amsterdam in 1791 and it was
+  supplemented and so far superseded by Wolbers, _Geschiedenis van
+  Suriname_ (Amsterdam, 1861). See further W. G. Palgrave, _Dutch
+  Guiana_ (London, 1876); A. Kappler, _Surinam, sein Land, &c._
+  (Stuttgart, 1887); Prince Roland Bonaparte, _Les Habitants de Surinam_
+  (Paris, 1884); K. Martin, "Bericht über eine Reise ins Gebiet des
+  Oberen-Surinam," _Bijdragen v. h. Inst. voor Taal Land en
+  Volkenkunde_, i. 1. (The Hague); Westerouen van Meeteren, _La Guyane
+  néerlandaise_ (Leiden, 1884); H. Ten Kate, "Een en ander over
+  Suriname," _Gids_ (1888); G. Verschuur, "Voyages aux trois Guyanes,"
+  _Tour du monde_ (1893). pp. 1, 49, 65; W. L. Loth, _Beknopte
+  Aardrijkskundige beschrijving van Suriname_ (Amsterdam, 1898), and
+  _Tijdschrift van het Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_ (1878), 79, 93; Asch
+  van Wyck, "La Colonie de Surinam," _Les Pays-Bas_ (1898); L. Thompson,
+  _Overzicht der Geschiedenis van Suriname_ (The Hague, 1901);
+  _Catalogus der Nederl. W. I. ten Toonstelling te Haarlem_ (1899);
+  _Guide à travers la section des Indes néerlandaises_, p. 323
+  (Amsterdam, 1899); _Surinaamsche Almanak_ (Paramaribo, annually). For
+  the language of the bush-negroes see Wullschlaegel, _Kurzgefasste
+  neger-englische Grammatik_ (Bautzen, 1854), and _Deutsch
+  neger-englisches Wörterbuch_ (Lobau, 1865).
+
+
+  French Guiana.
+
+III. FRENCH GUIANA (_Guyane_).--This colony is situated between Dutch
+Guiana and Brazil. A delimitation of the territory belonging to France
+and the Netherlands was arrived at in 1891, by decision of the emperor
+of Russia. This question originated in the arrangement of 1836, that the
+river Maroni should form the frontier. It turned on the claim of the Awa
+or the Tapanahoni to be recognized as the main head-stream of the
+Maroni, and the final decision, in indicating the Awa, favoured the
+Dutch. In 1905 certain territory lying between the upper Maroni and the
+Itany, the possession of which had not then been settled, was acquired
+by France by agreement between the French and Dutch governments. The
+question of the exploitation of gold in the Maroni was settled by
+attributing alternate reaches of the river to France and Holland; while
+France obtained the principal islands in the lower Maroni. The
+additional territory thus attached to the French colony amounted to 965
+sq. m. In December 1900 the Swiss government as arbitrators fixed the
+boundary between French Guiana and Brazil as the river Oyapock and the
+watershed on the Tumuc Humac mountains, thus awarding to France about
+3000 of the 100,000 sq. m. which she claimed. This dispute was of
+earlier origin than that with the Dutch; dissensions between the French
+and the Portuguese relative to territory north of the Amazon occurred in
+the 17th century. In 1700 the Treaty of Lisbon made the contested area
+(known as the Terres du Cap du Nord) neutral ground. The treaty of
+Utrecht in 1713 indicated as the French boundary a river which the
+French afterwards claimed to be the Araguary, but the Portuguese
+asserted that the Oyapock was intended. After Brazil had become
+independent the question dragged on until in 1890-1895 there were
+collisions in the contested territory between French and Brazilian
+adventurers. This compelled serious action, and a treaty of arbitration,
+preliminary to the settlement, was signed at Rio de Janeiro in 1897.
+French Guiana, according to official estimate, has an area of about
+51,000 sq. m. The population is estimated at about 30,000; its movement
+is not rapid. Of this total 12,350 live at Cayenne, 10,100 were in the
+communes, 5700 formed the penal population, 1500 were native Indians
+(Galibi, Emerillon, Oyampi) and 500 near Maroni were negroes. Apart from
+Cayenne, which was rebuilt after the great fire of 1888, the centres of
+population are unimportant: Sinnamarie with 1500 inhabitants, Mana with
+1750, Roura with 1200 and Approuague with 1150. In 1892 French Guiana
+was divided into fourteen communes, exclusive of the Maroni district.
+Belonging to the colony are also the three Safety Islands (Royale,
+Joseph and Du Diable--the last notable as the island where Captain
+Dreyfus was imprisoned), the Enfant Perdu Island and the five Remire
+Islands.
+
+  A considerable portion of the low coast land is occupied by marshes,
+  with a dense growth of mangroves or, in the drier parts, with the
+  pinot or wassay palm (_Euterpe oleracea_). Settlements are confined
+  almost entirely to the littoral and alluvial districts. The
+  forest-clad hills of the hinterland do not generally exceed 1500 ft.
+  in elevation; that part of the Tumuc Humac range which forms the
+  southern frontier may reach an extreme elevation of 2600 ft. But the
+  dense tropical forests attract so much moisture from the ocean winds
+  that the highlands are the birthplace of a large number of rivers
+  which in the rainy season especially pour down vast volumes of water.
+  Not less than 15 are counted between the Maroni and the Oyapock.
+  South-eastward from the Maroni the first of importance is the Mana,
+  which is navigable for large vessels 10 m. from its mouth, and for
+  smaller vessels 27 m. farther. Passing the Sinnamary and the Kourou,
+  the Oyock is next reached, near the mouth of which is Cayenne, the
+  capital of the colony, and thereafter the Approuage. All these rivers
+  take their rise in a somewhat elevated area about the middle of the
+  colony; those streams which rise farther south, in the Tumuc Humac
+  hills, are tributaries of the two frontier rivers, the Maroni on the
+  one hand or the Oyapock on the other.
+
+  _Climate and Products._--The rainy season begins in November or
+  December, and lasts till the latter part of June; but there are
+  usually three or four weeks of good weather in March. During the rest
+  of the year there is often hardly a drop of rain for months, but the
+  air is always very moist. At Cayenne the average annual rainfall
+  amounts to fully 130 in., and it is naturally heavier in the interior.
+  During the hotter part of the year--August, September, October--the
+  temperature usually rises to about 86° F., but it hardly ever exceeds
+  88°; in the colder season the mean is 79° and it seldom sinks so low
+  as 70°. Between day and night there is very little thermometric
+  difference. The prevailing winds are the N.N.E. and the S.E.; and the
+  most violent are those of the N.E. During the rainy season the winds
+  keep between N. and E., and during the dry season between S. and E.
+  Hurricanes are unknown. In flora and fauna French Guiana resembles the
+  rest of the Guianese region. Vegetation is excessively rich. Among
+  leguminous trees, which are abundantly represented, the wacapou is the
+  finest of many hardwood trees. Caoutchouc and various palms are also
+  common. The manioc is a principal source of food; rice is an important
+  object of cultivation; and maize, yams, arrowroot, bananas and the
+  bread-fruit are also to be mentioned. Vanilla is one of the common
+  wild plants of the country. The clove tree has been acclimatized, and
+  in the latter years of the empire it formed a good source of wealth;
+  the cinnamon tree was also successfully introduced in 1772, but like
+  that of the pepper-tree and the nutmeg its cultivation is neglected. A
+  very small portion of the territory indeed is devoted to agriculture,
+  although France has paid some attention to the development of this
+  branch of activity. In 1880 a colonial garden was created near
+  Cayenne; since 1894 an experimental garden has been laid out at
+  Baduel. About 8200 acres are cultivated, of which 5400 acres are under
+  cereals and rice, the remaining being under coffee (introduced in
+  1716), cacao, cane and other cultures. The low lands between Cayenne
+  and Oyapock are capable of bearing colonial produce, and the savannahs
+  might support large herds; cereals, root-crops and vegetables might
+  easily be grown on the high grounds, and timber working in the
+  interior should be profitable.
+
+  Gold-mining is the most important industry in the colony. Placers of
+  great wealth have been discovered on the Awa, on the Dutch frontier
+  and at Carsevenne in the territory which formed the subject of the
+  Franco-Brazilian dispute. But wages are high and transport is costly,
+  and the amount of gold declared at Cayenne did not average more than
+  130,550 oz. annually in 1900-1905. Silver and iron have been found in
+  various districts; kaolin is extracted in the plains of Montsinéry;
+  and phosphates have been discovered at several places. Besides
+  gold-workings, the industrial establishments comprise saw-mills,
+  distilleries, brick-works and sugar-works.
+
+  _Trade and Communications._--The commerce in 1885 amounted to £336,000
+  for imports and to £144,000 for exports; in 1897 the values were
+  respectively £373,350 and £286,400, but in 1903, while imports had
+  increased in value only to £418,720, exports had risen to £493,213.
+  The imports consist of wines, flour, clothes, &c.; the chief are gold,
+  phosphates, timber, cocoa and rosewood essence. Cayenne is the only
+  considerable port. One of the drawbacks to the development of the
+  colony is the lack of labour. Native labour is most difficult to
+  obtain, and attempts to utilize convict labour have not proved very
+  successful. Efforts to supply the need by immigration have not done so
+  completely. The land routes are not numerous. The most important are
+  that from Cayenne to Mana by way of Kourou, Sinnamarie and Iracoubo,
+  and that from Cayenne along the coast to Kaw and the mouth of the
+  Approuague. Towards the interior there are only foot-paths, badly
+  made. By water, Cayenne is in regular communication with the Safety
+  Islands (35 m.), and the mouth of the Maroni (80 m.), with Fort de
+  France in the island of Martinique, where travellers meet the mail
+  packet for France, and with Boston (U.S.A.). There is a French cable
+  between Cayenne and Brest.
+
+  _Administration._--The colony is administered by a
+  commissioner-general assisted by a privy council, including the
+  secretary general and chief of the judicial service, the military,
+  penitentiary and administrative departments. In 1879 an elective
+  general council of sixteen members was constituted. There are a
+  tribunal of first instance and a higher tribunal at Cayenne, besides
+  four justices of peace, one of whom has extensive jurisdiction in
+  other places. Of the £256,000 demanded for the colony in the colonial
+  budget for 1906, £235,000 represented the estimated expenditure on the
+  penal settlement, so that the cost of the colony was only about
+  £21,000. The local budget for 1901 balanced at £99,000 and in 1905 at
+  £116,450. Instruction is given in the college of Cayenne and in six
+  primary schools. At the head of the clergy is an apostolic prefect.
+  The armed force consists of two companies of marine infantry, half a
+  battery of artillery, and a detachment of gendarmerie, and comprises
+  about 380 men. The penal settlement was established by a decree of
+  1852. From that year until 1867, 18,000 exiles had been sent to
+  Guiana, but for the next twenty years New Caledonia became the chief
+  penal settlement in the French colonies. But in 1885-1887 French
+  Guiana was appointed as a place of banishment for confirmed criminals
+  and for convicts sentenced to more than eight years' hard labour. A
+  large proportion of these men have been found unfit for employment
+  upon public works.
+
+_History._--The Sieur La Revardière, sent out in 1604 by Henry IV. to
+reconnoitre the country, brought back a favourable report; but the death
+of the king put a stop to the projects of formal colonization. In 1626 a
+small body of traders from Rouen settled on the Sinnamary, and in 1635 a
+similar band founded Cayenne. The Compagnie du Cap Nord, founded by the
+people of Rouen in 1643 and conducted by Poncet de Brétigny, the
+Compagnie de la France Équinoxiale, established in 1645, and the second
+Compagnie de la France Équinoxiale, or Compagnie des Douze Seigneurs,
+established in 1652, were failures, the result of incompetence,
+mismanagement and misfortune. From 1654 the Dutch held the colony for a
+few years. The French Compagnie des Indes Occidentales, chartered in
+1664 with a monopoly of Guiana commerce for forty years, proved hardly
+more successful than its predecessors; but in 1674 the colony passed
+under the direct control of the crown, and the able administration of
+Colbert began to tell favourably on its progress, although in 1686 an
+unsuccessful expedition against the Dutch in Surinam set back the
+advance of the French colony until the close of the century.
+
+The year 1763 was marked by a terrible disaster. Choiseul, the prime
+minister, having obtained for himself and his cousin Praslin a
+concession of the country between the Kourou and the Maroni, sent out
+about 12,000 volunteer colonists, mainly from Alsace and Lorraine. They
+were landed at the mouth of the Kourou, where no preparation had been
+made for their reception, and where even water was not to be obtained.
+Mismanagement was complete; there was (for example) a shop for skates,
+whereas the necessary tools for tillage were wanting. By 1765 no more
+than 918 colonists remained alive, and these were a famished
+fever-stricken band. A long investigation in Paris resulted in the
+imprisonment of the incompetent leaders of the expedition. Several minor
+attempts at colonization in Guiana were made in the latter part of the
+century; but they all seemed to suffer from the same fatal prestige of
+failure. During the revolution band after band of political prisoners
+were transported to Guiana. The fate of the royalists, nearly 600 in
+number, who were exiled on the 18th Fructidor (1797), was especially
+sad. Landed on the Sinnamary without shelter or food, two-thirds of them
+perished miserably. In 1800 Victor Hugues was appointed governor, and he
+managed to put the colony in a better state; but in 1809 his work was
+brought to a close by the invasion of the Portuguese and British.
+
+Though French Guiana was nominally restored to the French in 1814, it
+was not really surrendered by the Portuguese till 1817. Numerous efforts
+were now made to establish the colony firmly, although its past
+misfortunes had prejudiced the public mind in France against it. In 1822
+the first steam sugar mills were introduced; in 1824 an agricultural
+colony (Nouvelle Angoulême) was attempted in the Mana district, which,
+after failure at first, became comparatively successful. The
+emancipation of slaves and the consequent dearth of labour almost ruined
+the development of agricultural resources about the middle of the
+century, but in 1853 a large body of African immigrants was introduced.
+The discovery of gold on the Approuague in 1855 caused feverish
+excitement, and seriously disturbed the economic condition of the
+country.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--A detailed bibliography of French Guiana will be found
+  in Ternaux-Compans, _Notice historique de la Guyane française_ (Paris,
+  1843). Among more recent works, see E. Bassières, _Notice sur la
+  Guyane_, issued on the occasion of the Paris Exhibition (1900);
+  _Publications de la société d'études pour la colonisation de la Guyane
+  française_ (Paris, 1843-1844); H. A. Coudreau, _La France équinoxiale_
+  (1887), _Dialectes indiens de Guyane_ (1891), _Dix ans de Guyane_
+  (1892), and _Chez nos Indiens_ (1893), all at Paris; G. Brousseau,
+  _Les Richesses de la Guyane française_ (Paris, 1901); L. F. Viala,
+  _Les Trois Guyanes_ (Montpellier, 1893).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The origin of the name is somewhat obscure, and has been
+    variously interpreted. But the late Col. G. E. Church supplies the
+    following note, which has the weight of his great authority: "I
+    cannot confirm the suggestion of Schomburgk that Guayaná 'received
+    its name from a small river, a tributary of the Orinoco', supposed to
+    be the Waini or Guainia. In South America, east of the Andes, it was
+    the common custom of any tribe occupying a length of river to call it
+    simply 'the river'; but the other tribes designated any section of it
+    by the name of the people living on its banks. Many streams,
+    therefore, had more than a dozen names. It is probable that no
+    important river had one name alone throughout its course, prior to
+    the time of the Conquest. The radical _wini_, _waini_, _wayni_, is
+    found as a prefix, and very frequently as a termination, to the names
+    of numerous rivers, not only throughout Guayaná but all over the
+    Orinoco and Amazon valleys. For instance, Paymary Indians called the
+    portion of the Purús river which they occupied the _Waini_. It simply
+    means water, or a fountain of water, or a river. The alternative
+    suggestion that Guayaná is an Indian word signifying 'wild coast,' I
+    also think untenable. This term, applied to the north-east frontage
+    of South America between the Orinoco and the Amazon, is found on the
+    old Dutch map of Hartsinck, who calls it 'Guiana Caribania of de
+    Wilde Kust,' a name which must have well described it when, in 1580,
+    some Zealanders, of the Netherlands, sent a ship to cruise along it,
+    from the mouth of the Amazon to that of the Orinoco, and formed the
+    first settlement near the river Pomeroon. The map of Firnao Vaz
+    Dourado, 1564, calls the northern part of South America, including
+    the present British Guiana, 'East Peru.' An anonymous Spanish map,
+    about 1566, gives Guayaná as lying on the east side of the Orinoco
+    just above its mouth. About 1660, Sebastien de Ruesta, cosmographer
+    of the _Casa de Contractacion de Seville_, shows Guayaná covering the
+    British, French and Dutch Guayanás. According to the map of Nicolas
+    de Fer, 1719, a tribe of Guayazis (Guyanas) occupied the south side
+    of the Amazon river, front of the island of Tupinambará, east of the
+    mouth of the Madeira. Aristides Rojas, an eminent Venezuelan scholar,
+    says that the Mariches Indians, near Caracas, inhabited a site called
+    Guayaná long before the discovery of South America by the Spaniards.
+    Coudreau in his _Chez nos Indiens_ mentions that the _Roucouyennes_
+    of Guayaná take their name from a large tree in their forests, 'which
+    appears to be the origin of the name Guayane.' According to Michelana
+    y Rojas, in their report to the Venezuelan government on their
+    voyages in the basin of the Orinoco, 'Guyana derives its name from
+    the Indians who live between the Caroni river and the Sierra de
+    Imataca, called Guayanos.' My own studies of aboriginal South America
+    lead me to support the statement of Michelana y Rojas, but with the
+    following enlargement of it: The Portuguese, in the early part of the
+    16th century, found that the coast and mountain district of Rio de
+    Janeiro, between Cape São Thome and Angra dos Reis, belonged to the
+    formidable _Tamoyos_. South of these, for a distance of about 300 m.
+    of the ocean slope of the coast range, were the _Guayaná_ tribes,
+    called by the early writers _Guianás_, _Goyaná_, _Guayaná_, _Goaná_
+    and, plural, _Goaynázés_, _Goayanázes_ and _Guayanázes_. They were
+    constantly at feud with the _Tamoyos_ and with their neighbours on
+    the south, the _Carijos_, as well as with the vast Tapuya hordes of
+    the Sertão of the interior. Long before the discovery, they had been
+    forced to abandon their beautiful lands, but had recuperated their
+    strength, returned and reconquered their ancient habitat. Meanwhile,
+    however, many of them had migrated northward, some had settled in the
+    _Sertão_ back of Bahia and Pernambuco, others on the middle Amazon
+    and in the valley of the Orinoco, but a large number had crossed the
+    lower Amazon and occupied an extensive area of country to the north
+    of it, about the size of Belgium, along the Tumuchumac range of
+    highlands, and the upper Paron and Maroni rivers, as well as a large
+    district on the northern slope of the above-named range. In their new
+    home they became known as _Roucouyennes_, because, like the
+    Mundurucus of the middle Amazon, they rubbed and painted themselves
+    with _roucou_ or _urucu_ (Bixa Orellana); but other surrounding
+    tribes called them Ouayanás, that is Guayanás--the Gua, so common to
+    the Guarani-Tupi tongue, having become corrupted into _Oua_. Porto
+    Seguro says of the so-called Tupis, 'at other times they gave
+    themselves the name of _Guayá_ or _Guayaná_, which probably means
+    "brothers," from which comes _Guayazes_ and _Guayanazes_.... The
+    latter occupied the country just south of Rio de Janeiro.... The
+    masters of the Capitania of St Vincente called themselves _Guianas_.'
+    Guinila, referring to north-eastern South America (1745), speaks of
+    five missions being formed to civilize the '_Nacion Guayana_.' In
+    view of the above, it may be thought reasonable to assume that the
+    vast territory now known as _Guayaná_ (British, Dutch, French,
+    Brazilian and Venezuelan) derives its name from its aborigines who
+    were found there at the time of the discovery, and whose original
+    home was the region I have indicated."
+
+  [2] This is the boundary generally accepted; but it is in dispute.
+
+  [3] See C. B. Brown and J. G. Sawkins, _Reports on the Physical,
+    Descriptive and Economic Geology of British Guiana_ (London, 1875);
+    C. Velain, "Esquisse géologique de la Guyane française et des bassins
+    du Parou et du Yari (affluents de l'Amazone) d'après les explorations
+    du Dr Crevaux," _Bull. Soc. Géogr._ ser. 7, vol. vi. (Paris, 1885),
+    pp. 453-492 (with geological map); E. Martin, _Geologische Studien
+    über Niederländisch-West-Indien, auf Grund eigener
+    Untersuchungsreisen_ (Leiden, 1888); W. Bergt, "Zur Geologie des
+    Coppename- und Nickerietales in Surinam (Hollandisch-Guyana),"
+    _Samml. d. Geol. Reichsmus._ (Leiden), ser. 2, Bd. ii. Heft 2, pp.
+    93-163 (with 3 maps); and for British Guiana, the official reports on
+    the geology of various districts, by J. B. Harrison, C. W. Anderson,
+    H. I. Perkins, published at Georgetown.
+
+
+
+
+GUIART (or GUIARD), GUILLAUME (d. c. 1316), French chronicler and poet,
+was probably born at Orleans, and served in the French army in Flanders
+in 1304. Having been disabled by a wound he began to write, lived at
+Arras and then in Paris, thus being able to consult the large store of
+manuscripts in the abbey of St Denis, including the _Grandes chroniques
+de France_. Afterwards he appears as a _ménestrel de bouche_. Guiart's
+poem _Branche des royaulx lignages_, was written and then rewritten
+between 1304 and 1307, in honour of the French king Philip IV., and in
+answer to the aspersions of a Flemish poet. Comprising over 21,000
+verses it deals with the history of the French kings from the time of
+Louis VIII.; but it is only really important for the period after 1296
+and for the war in Flanders from 1301 to 1304, of which it gives a
+graphic account, and for which it is a high authority. It was first
+published by J. A. Buchon (Paris, 1828), and again in tome xxii. of the
+_Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France_ (Paris, 1865).
+
+  See A. Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de France_, tome iii.
+  (Paris, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+GUIBERT, or WIBERT (c. 1030-1100), of Ravenna, antipope under the title
+of Clement III. from the 25th of June 1080 until September 1100, was
+born at Parma between 1020 and 1030 of the noble imperialist family,
+Corregio. He entered the priesthood and was appointed by the empress
+Agnes, chancellor and, after the death of Pope Victor II. (1057),
+imperial vicar in Italy. He strove to uphold the imperial authority
+during Henry IV.'s minority, and presided over the synod at Basel (1061)
+which annulled the election of Alexander II. and created in the person
+of Cadalous, bishop of Parma, the antipope Honorius II. Guibert lost the
+chancellorship in 1062. In 1073, through the influence of Empress Agnes
+and the support of Cardinal Hildebrand, he obtained the archbishopric of
+Ravenna and swore fealty to Alexander II. and his successors. He seems
+to have been at first on friendly terms with Gregory VII., but soon
+quarrelled with him over the possession of the city of Imola, and
+henceforth was recognized as the soul of the imperial faction in the
+investiture contest. He allied himself with Cencius, Cardinal Candidus
+and other opponents of Gregory at Rome, and, on his refusal to furnish
+troops or to attend the Lenten synod of 1075, he was ecclesiastically
+suspended by the pope. He was probably excommunicated at the synod of
+Worms (1076) with other Lombard bishops who sided with Henry IV., and
+at the Lenten synod of 1078 he was banned by name. The emperor, having
+been excommunicated for the second time in March 1080, convened nineteen
+bishops of his party at Mainz on the 31st of May, who pronounced the
+deposition of Gregory; and on the 25th of June he caused Guibert to be
+elected pope by thirty bishops assembled at Brixen. Guibert, whilst
+retaining possession of his archbishopric, accompanied his imperial
+master on most of the latter's military expeditions. Having gained Rome,
+he was installed in the Lateran and consecrated as Clement III. on the
+24th of March 1084. One week later, on Easter Sunday, he crowned Henry
+IV. and Bertha in St Peter's. Clement survived not only Gregory VII. but
+also Victor III. and Urban II., maintaining his title to the end and in
+great measure his power over Rome and the adjoining regions.
+Excommunication was pronounced against him by all his rivals. He was
+driven out of Rome finally by crusaders in 1097, and sought refuge in
+various fortresses on his own estates. St Angelo, the last Guibertist
+stronghold in Rome, fell to Urban II. on the 24th of August 1098.
+Clement, on the accession of Paschal II. in 1099, prepared to renew his
+struggle but was driven from Albano by Norman troops and died at Civita
+Castellana in September 1100. His ashes, which were said by his
+followers to have worked miracles, were thrown into the water by Paschal
+II.
+
+  See J. Langen, _Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis
+  Innocenz III._ (Bonn, 1893); Jaffé-Wattenbach, _Regesta pontif.
+  Roman_. (2nd ed., 1885-1888); K. J. von Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_,
+  vol. v. (2nd ed.); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol.
+  iv., trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); and O. Köhncke,
+  _Wibert von Ravenna_ (Leipzig, 1888).     (C. H. Ha.)
+
+
+
+
+GUIBERT (1053-1124), of Nogent, historian and theologian, was born of
+noble parents at Clermont-en-Beauvoisis, and dedicated from infancy to
+the church. He received his early education at the Benedictine abbey of
+Flavigny (Flaviacum) or St Germer, where he studied with great zeal,
+devoting himself at first to the secular poets, an experience which left
+its imprint on his works; later changing to theology, through the
+influence of Anselm of Bec, afterwards of Canterbury. In 1104, he was
+chosen to be head of the abbey of Notre Dame de Nogent and henceforth
+took a prominent part in ecclesiastical affairs. His autobiography (_De
+vita sua, sive monodiarum_), written towards the close of his life,
+gives many picturesque glimpses of his time and the customs of his
+country. The description of the commune of Laon is an historical
+document of the first order. The same local colour lends charm to his
+history of the first crusade (_Gesta Dei per Francos_) written about
+1110. But the history is largely a paraphrase, in ornate style, of the
+_Gesta Francorum_ of an anonymous Norman author (see CRUSADES); and when
+he comes to the end of his authority, he allows his book to degenerate
+into an undigested heap of notes and anecdotes. At the same time his
+high birth and his position in the church give his work an occasional
+value.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Guibert's works, edited by d'Achery, were first
+  published in 1651, in 1 vol. folio, at Paris (_Venerabilis Guiberti
+  abbatis B. Mariae de Novigento opera omnia_), and republished in
+  Migne's _Patrologia Latina_, vols. clvi. and clxxxiv. They include,
+  besides minor works, a treatise on homiletics ("Liber quo ordine sermo
+  fieri debeat"); ten books of _Moralia_ on Genesis, begun in 1084, but
+  not completed until 1116, composed on the model of Gregory the Great's
+  _Moralia in Jobum_; five books of _Tropologiae_ on Hosea, Amos and the
+  Lamentations; a treatise on the _Incarnation_, against the Jews; four
+  books _De pignoribus sanctorum_, a remarkably free criticism on the
+  abuses of saint and relic worship; three books of autobiography, _De
+  vita sua, sive monodiarum_; and eight books of the _Historia quae
+  dicitur Gesta Dei per Francos, sive historia Hierosolymitana_ (the
+  ninth book is by another author). Separate editions exist of the last
+  named, in J. Bongars, _Gesta Dei per Francos_, i., and _Recueil des
+  historiens des croisades, hist. Occid._, iv. 115-263. It has been
+  translated into French in Guizot's _Collection_, ix. 1-338. See H. von
+  Sybel, _Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges_ (Leipzig, 1881); B. Monod,
+  _Le Moine Guibert et son temps_ (Paris, 1905); and _Guibert de Nogent;
+  histoire de sa vie_, edited by G. Bourgin (Paris, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+GUIBERT, JACQUES ANTOINE HIPPOLYTE, COMTE DE (1743-1790), French general
+and military writer, was born at Montauban, and at the age of thirteen
+accompanied his father, Charles Bénoit, comte de Guibert (1715-1786),
+chief of staff to Marshal de Broglie, throughout the war in Germany,
+and won the cross of St Louis and the rank of colonel in the expedition
+to Corsica (1767). In 1770 he published his _Essai général de tactique_
+in London, and this celebrated work appeared in numerous subsequent
+editions and in English, German and even Persian translations (extracts
+also in Liskenne and Sauvan, _Bibl. historique et militaire_, Paris,
+1845). Of this work (for a detailed critique of which see Max Jähns,
+_Gesch. d. Kriegswissenschaften_, vol. iii. pp. 2058-2070 and references
+therein) it may be said that it was the best essay on war produced by a
+soldier during a period in which tactics were discussed even in the
+salon and military literature was more abundant than at any time up to
+1871. Apart from technical questions, in which Guibert's enlightened
+conservatism stands in marked contrast to the doctrinaire
+progressiveness of Menil Durand, Folard and others, the book is chiefly
+valued for its broad outlook on the state of Europe, especially of
+military Europe in the period 1763-1792. One quotation may be given as
+being a most remarkable prophecy of the impending revolution in the art
+of war, a revolution which the "advanced" tacticians themselves scarcely
+foresaw. "The standing armies, while a burden on the people, are
+inadequate for the achievement of great and decisive results in war, and
+meanwhile the mass of the people, untrained in arms, degenerates.... The
+hegemony over Europe will fall to that nation which ... becomes
+possessed of manly virtues and _creates a national army_"--a prediction
+fulfilled almost to the letter within twenty years of Guibert's death.
+In 1773 he visited Germany and was present at the Prussian regimental
+drills and army manoeuvres; Frederick the Great, recognizing Guibert's
+ability, showed great favour to the young colonel and freely discussed
+military questions with him. Guibert's _Journal d'un voyage en
+Allemagne_ was published, with a memoir, by Toulongeon (Paris, 1803).
+His _Défense du système de guerre moderne_, a reply to his many critics
+(Neuchâtel, 1779) is a reasoned and scientific defence of the Prussian
+method of tactics, which formed the basis of his work when in 1775 he
+began to co-operate with the count de St Germain in a series of
+much-needed and successful reforms in the French army. In 1777, however,
+St Germain fell into disgrace, and his fall involved that of Guibert who
+was promoted to the rank of _maréchal de camp_ and relegated to a
+provincial staff appointment. In his semi-retirement he vigorously
+defended his old chief St Germain against his detractors. On the eve of
+the Revolution he was recalled to the War Office, but in his turn he
+became the object of attack and he died, practically of disappointment,
+on the 6th of May 1790. Other works of Guibert, besides those mentioned,
+are: _Observations sur la constitution politique et militaire des armées
+de S. M. Prussienne_ (Amsterdam, 1778), _Éloges_ of Marshal Catinat
+(1775), of Michel de l'Hôpital (1778), and of Frederick the Great
+(1787). Guibert was a member of the Academy from 1786, and he also wrote
+a tragedy, _Le Connétable de Bourbon_ (1775) and a journal of travels in
+France and Switzerland.
+
+  See Toulongeon, _Éloge véridique de Guibert_ (Paris, 1790); Madame de
+  Stäel, _Éloge de Guibert_; Bardin, _Notice historique du général
+  Guibert_ (Paris, 1836); Flavian d'Aldeguier, _Discours sur la vie et
+  les écrits du comte de Guibert_ (Toulouse, 1855); Count Forestie,
+  _Biographie du comte de Guibert_ (Montauban, 1855); Count zur Lippe,
+  "Friedr. der Grosse und Oberst Guibert" (_Militär-Wochenblatt_, 1873,
+  9 and 10).
+
+
+
+
+GUICCIARDINI, FRANCESCO (1483-1540), the celebrated Italian historian
+and statesman, was born at Florence in the year 1483, when Marsilio
+Ficino held him at the font of baptism. His family was illustrious and
+noble; and his ancestors for many generations had held the highest posts
+of honour in the state, as may be seen in his own genealogical _Ricordi
+autobiografici e di famiglia_ (_Op. ined._ vol. x.). After the usual
+education of a boy in grammar and elementary classical studies, his
+father, Piero, sent him to the universities of Ferrara and Padua, where
+he stayed until the year 1505. The death of an uncle, who had occupied
+the see of Cortona with great pomp, induced the young Guicciardini to
+hanker after an ecclesiastical career. He already saw the scarlet of a
+cardinal awaiting him, and to this eminence he would assuredly have
+risen. His father, however, checked this ambition, declaring that,
+though he had five sons, he would not suffer one of them to enter the
+church in its then state of corruption and debasement. Guicciardini,
+whose motives were confessedly ambitious (see _Ricordi, Op. ined._ x.
+68), turned his attention to law, and at the age of twenty-three was
+appointed by the Signoria of Florence to read the _Institutes_ in
+public. Shortly afterwards he engaged himself in marriage to Maria,
+daughter of Alamanno Salviati, prompted, as he frankly tells us, by the
+political support which an alliance with that great family would bring
+him (ib. x. 71). He was then practising at the bar, where he won so much
+distinction that the Signoria, in 1512, entrusted him with an embassy to
+the court of Ferdinand the Catholic. Thus he entered on the real work of
+his life as a diplomatist and statesman. His conduct upon that legation
+was afterwards severely criticized; for his political antagonists
+accused him of betraying the true interests of the commonwealth, and
+using his influence for the restoration of the exiled house of Medici to
+power. His Spanish correspondence with the Signoria (_Op. ined._ vol.
+vi.) reveals the extraordinary power of observation and analysis which
+was a chief quality of his mind; and in Ferdinand, hypocritical and
+profoundly dissimulative, he found a proper object for his scientific
+study. To suppose that the young statesman learned his frigid statecraft
+in Spain would be perhaps too simple a solution of the problem offered
+by his character, and scarcely fair to the Italian proficients in
+perfidy. It is clear from Guicciardini's autobiographical memoirs that
+he was ambitious, calculating, avaricious and power-loving from his
+earliest years; and in Spain he had no more than an opportunity of
+studying on a large scale those political vices which already ruled the
+minor potentates of Italy. Still the school was pregnant with
+instructions for so apt a pupil. Guicciardini issued from this first
+trial of his skill with an assured reputation for diplomatic ability, as
+that was understood in Italy. To unravel plots and weave counterplots;
+to meet treachery with fraud; to parry force with sleights of hand; to
+credit human nature with the basest motives, while the blackest crimes
+were contemplated with cold enthusiasm for their cleverness, was
+reckoned then the height of political sagacity. Guicciardini could play
+the game to perfection. In 1515 Leo X. took him into service, and made
+him governor of Reggio and Modena. In 1521 Parma was added to his rule,
+and in 1523 he was appointed viceregent of Romagna by Clement VII. These
+high offices rendered Guicciardini the virtual master of the papal
+states beyond the Apennines, during a period of great bewilderment and
+difficulty. The copious correspondence relating to his administration
+has recently been published (_Op. ined._ vols. vii., viii.). In 1526
+Clement gave him still higher rank as lieutenant-general of the papal
+army. While holding this commission, he had the humiliation of
+witnessing from a distance the sack of Rome and the imprisonment of
+Clement, without being able to rouse the perfidious duke of Urbino into
+activity. The blame of Clement's downfall did not rest with him; for it
+was merely his duty to attend the camp, and keep his master informed of
+the proceedings of the generals (see the Correspondence, _Op. ined._
+vols. iv., v.). Yet Guicciardini's conscience accused him, for he had
+previously counselled the pope to declare war, as he notes in a curious
+letter to himself written in 1527 (_Op. ined._, x. 104). Clement did
+not, however, withdraw his confidence, and in 1531 Guicciardini was
+advanced to the governorship of Bologna, the most important of all the
+papallord-lieutenancies (Correspondence, _Op. ined._ vol. ix.). This
+post he resigned in 1534 on the election of Paul III., preferring to
+follow the fortunes of the Medicean princes. It may here be noticed that
+though Guicciardini served three popes through a period of twenty years,
+or perhaps because of this, he hated the papacy with a deep and frozen
+bitterness, attributing the woes of Italy to the ambition of the church,
+and declaring he had seen enough of sacerdotal abominations to make him
+a Lutheran (see _Op. ined._ i. 27, 104, 96, and _Ist. d' It._, ed. Ros.,
+ii. 218). The same discord between his private opinions and his public
+actions may be traced in his conduct subsequent to 1534. As a political
+theorist, Guicciardini believed that the best form of government was a
+commonwealth administered upon the type of the Venetian constitution
+(_Op. ined._ i. 6; ii. 130 sq.); and we have ample evidence to prove
+that he had judged the tyranny of the Medici at its true worth (_Op.
+ined._ i. 171, on the tyrant; the whole _Storia Fiorentina_ and
+_Reggimento di Firenze_, ib. i. and iii., on the Medici). Yet he did not
+hesitate to place his powers at the disposal of the most vicious members
+of that house for the enslavement of Florence. In 1527 he had been
+declared a rebel by the Signoria on account of his well-known Medicean
+prejudices; and in 1530, deputed by Clement to punish the citizens after
+their revolt, he revenged himself with a cruelty and an avarice that
+were long and bitterly remembered. When, therefore, he returned to
+inhabit Florence in 1534, he did so as the creature of the dissolute
+Alessandro de' Medici. Guicciardini pushed his servility so far as to
+defend this infamous despot at Naples in 1535, before the bar of Charles
+V., from the accusations brought against him by the Florentine exiles
+(_Op. ined._ vol. ix.). He won his cause; but in the eyes of all
+posterity he justified the reproaches of his contemporaries, who
+describe him as a cruel, venal, grasping seeker after power, eager to
+support a despotism for the sake of honours, offices and emoluments
+secured for himself by a bargain with the oppressors of his country.
+Varchi, Nardi, Jacopo Pitti and Bernardo Segni are unanimous upon this
+point; but it is only the recent publication of Guicciardini's private
+MSS. that has made us understand the force of their invectives. To plead
+loyalty or honest political conviction in defence of his Medicean
+partianship is now impossible, face to face with the opinions expressed
+in the _Ricordi politici_ and the _Storia Fiorentina_. Like Machiavelli,
+but on a lower level, Guicciardini was willing to "roll stones," or to
+do any dirty work for masters whom, in the depth of his soul, he
+detested and despised. After the murder of Duke Alessandro in 1537,
+Guicciardini espoused the cause of Cosimo de' Medici, a boy addicted to
+field sports, and unused to the game of statecraft. The wily old
+diplomatist hoped to rule Florence as grand vizier under this
+inexperienced princeling. He was mistaken, however, in his schemes, for
+Cosimo displayed the genius of his family for politics, and coldly
+dismissed his would-be lord-protector. Guicciardini retired in disgrace
+to his villa, where he spent his last years in the composition of the
+_Storia d'Italia_. He died in 1540 without male heirs.
+
+Guicciardini was the product of a cynical and selfish age, and his life
+illustrated its sordid influences. Of a cold and worldly temperament,
+devoid of passion, blameless in his conduct as the father of a family,
+faithful as the servant of his papal patrons, severe in the
+administration of the provinces committed to his charge, and
+indisputably able in his conduct of affairs, he was at the same time,
+and in spite of these qualities, a man whose moral nature inspires a
+sentiment of liveliest repugnance. It is not merely that he was
+ambitious, cruel, revengeful and avaricious, for these vices have
+existed in men far less antipathetic than Guicciardini. Over and above
+those faults, which made him odious to his fellow-citizens, we trace in
+him a meanness that our century is less willing to condone. His
+phlegmatic and persistent egotism, his sacrifice of truth and honour to
+self-interest, his acquiescence in the worst conditions of the world, if
+only he could use them for his own advantage, combined with the glaring
+discord between his opinions and his practice, form a character which
+would be contemptible in our eyes were it not so sinister. The social
+and political decrepitude of Italy, where patriotism was unknown, and
+only selfishness survived of all the motives that rouse men to action,
+found its representative and exponent in Guicciardini. When we turn from
+the man to the author, the decadence of the age and race that could
+develop a political philosophy so arid in its cynical despair of any
+good in human nature forces itself vividly upon our notice. Guicciardini
+seems to glory in his disillusionment, and uses his vast intellectual
+ability for the analysis of the corruption he had helped to make
+incurable. If one single treatise of that century should be chosen to
+represent the spirit of the Italian people in the last phase of the
+Renaissance, the historian might hesitate between the _Principe_ of
+Machiavelli and the _Ricordi politici_ of Guicciardini. The latter is
+perhaps preferable to the former on the score of comprehensiveness. It
+is, moreover, more exactly adequate to the actual situation, for the
+_Principe_ has a divine spark of patriotism yet lingering in the cinders
+of its frigid science, an idealistic enthusiasm surviving in its moral
+aberrations; whereas a great Italian critic of this decade has justly
+described the _Ricordi_ as "Italian corruption codified and elevated to
+a rule of life." Guicciardini is, however, better known as the author of
+the _Storia d'Italia_, that vast and detailed picture of his country's
+sufferings between the years 1494 and 1532. Judging him by this
+masterpiece of scientific history, he deserves less commendation as a
+writer than as a thinker and an analyst. The style is wearisome and
+prolix, attaining to precision at the expense of circumlocution, and
+setting forth the smallest particulars with the same distinctness as the
+main features of the narrative. The whole tangled skein of Italian
+politics, in that involved and stormy period, is unravelled with a
+patience and an insight that are above praise. It is the crowning merit
+of the author that he never ceases to be an impartial spectator--a cold
+and curious critic. We might compare him to an anatomist, with knife and
+scalpel dissecting the dead body of Italy, and pointing out the symptoms
+of her manifold diseases with the indifferent analysis of one who has no
+moral sensibility. This want of feeling, while it renders Guicciardini a
+model for the scientific student, has impaired the interest of his
+history. Though he lived through that agony of the Italian people, he
+does not seem to be aware that he is writing a great historical tragedy.
+He takes as much pains in laying bare the trifling causes of a petty war
+with Pisa as in probing the deep-seated ulcer of the papacy. Nor is he
+capable of painting the events in which he took a part, in their
+totality as a drama. Whatever he touches, lies already dead on the
+dissecting table, and his skill is that of the analytical pathologist.
+Consequently, he fails to understand the essential magnitude of the
+task, or to appreciate the vital vigour of the forces contending in
+Europe for mastery. This is very noticeable in what he writes about the
+Reformation. Notwithstanding these defects, inevitable in a writer of
+Guicciardini's temperament, the _Storia d'Italia_ was undoubtedly the
+greatest historical work that had appeared since the beginning of the
+modern era. It remains the most solid monument of the Italian reason in
+the 16th century, the final triumph of that Florentine school of
+philosophical historians which included Machiavelli, Segni, Pitti,
+Nardi, Varchi, Francesco Vettori and Donato Giannotti. Up to the year
+1857 the fame of Guicciardini as a writer, and the estimation of him as
+a man, depended almost entirely upon the _History of Italy_, and on a
+few ill-edited extracts from his aphorisms. At that date his
+representatives, the counts Piero and Luigi Guicciardini, opened their
+family archives, and committed to Signor Giuseppe Canestrini the
+publication of his hitherto inedited MSS. in ten important volumes. The
+vast mass of documents and finished literary work thus given to the
+world has thrown a flood of light upon Guicciardini, whether we consider
+him as author or as citizen. It has raised his reputation as a political
+philosopher into the first rank, where he now disputes the place of
+intellectual supremacy with his friend Machiavelli; but it has coloured
+our moral judgment of his character and conduct with darker dyes. From
+the stores of valuable materials contained in those ten volumes, it will
+be enough here to cite (1) the _Ricordi politici_, already noticed,
+consisting of about 400 aphorisms on political and social topics; (2)
+the observations on Machiavelli's _Discorsi_, which bring into
+remarkable relief the views of Italy's two great theorists on statecraft
+in the 16th century, and show that Guicciardini regarded Machiavelli
+somewhat as an amiable visionary or political enthusiast; (3) the
+_Storia Fiorentina_, an early work of the author, distinguished by its
+animation of style, brilliancy of portraiture, and liberality of
+judgment; and (4) the _Dialogo del reggimento di Firenze_, also in all
+probability an early work, in which the various forms of government
+suited to an Italian commonwealth are discussed with infinite subtlety,
+contrasted, and illustrated from the vicissitudes of Florence up to the
+year 1494. To these may be added a series of short essays, entitled
+_Discorsi politici_, composed during Guicciardini's Spanish legation. It
+is only after a careful perusal of these minor works that the student of
+history may claim to have comprehended Guicciardini, and may feel that
+he brings with him to the consideration of the _Storia d' Italia_ the
+requisite knowledge of the author's private thoughts and jealously
+guarded opinions. Indeed, it may be confidently affirmed that those who
+desire to gain an insight into the true principles and feelings of the
+men who made and wrote history in the 16th century will find it here far
+more than in the work designed for publication by the writer. Taken in
+combination with Machiavelli's treatises, the _Opere inedite_ furnish a
+comprehensive body of Italian political philosophy anterior to the date
+of Fra Paolo Sarpi. (J. A. S.)
+
+  See Rosini's edition oí the _Storia d' Italia_ (10 vols., Pisa, 1819),
+  and the _Opere inedite_, in 10 vols., published at Florence, 1857. A
+  complete and initial edition of Guicciardini's works is now in
+  preparation in the hands of Alessandro Gherardi of the Florence
+  archives. Among the many studies on Guicciardini we may mention
+  Agostino Rossi's _Francesco Guicciardini e il governo Fiorentino_ (2
+  vols., Bologna, 1896), based on many new documents; F. de Sanctis's
+  essay "L'Uomo del Guicciardini," in his _Nuovi Saggi critici_ (Naples,
+  1879), and many passages in Professor P. Villari's _Machiavelli_ (Eng.
+  trans., 1892); E. Benoist's _Guichardin, historien et homme d'état
+  italien an XVI^e siècle_ (Paris, 1862), and C. Gioda's _Francesco
+  Guicciardini e le sue opere inedite_ (Bologna, 1880) are not without
+  value, but the authors had not had access to many important documents
+  since published. See also Geoffrey's article "Une Autobiographie de
+  Guichardin d'après ses oeuvres inédites," in the _Revue des deux
+  mondes_ (1st of February 1874).
+
+
+
+
+GUICHARD, KARL GOTTLIEB (1724-1775), soldier and military writer, known
+as QUINTUS ICILIUS, was born at Magdeburg in 1724, of a family of French
+refugees. He was educated for the Church, and at Leiden actually
+preached a sermon as a candidate for the pastorate. But he abandoned
+theology for more secular studies, especially that of ancient history,
+in which his learning attracted the notice of the prince of Orange, who
+promised him a vacant professorship at Utrecht. On his arrival, however,
+he found that another scholar had been elected by the local authorities,
+and he thereupon sought and obtained a commission in the Dutch army. He
+made the campaigns of 1747-48 in the Low Countries. In the peace which
+followed, his combined military and classical training turned his
+thoughts in the direction of ancient military history. His notes on this
+subject grew into a treatise, and in 1754 he went over to England in
+order to consult various libraries. In 1757 his _Mémoires militaires sur
+les Grecs et les Romains_ appeared at the Hague, and when Carlyle wrote
+his _Frederick the Great_ it had reached its fifth edition. Coming back,
+with English introductions, to the Continent, he sought service with
+Ferdinand of Brunswick, who sent him on to Frederick the Great, whom he
+joined in January 1758 at Breslau. The king was very favourably
+impressed with Guichard and his works, and he remained for nearly 18
+months in the royal suite. His Prussian official name of Quintus Icilius
+was the outcome of a friendly dispute with the king (see Nikolai,
+_Anekdoten_, vi. 129-145; Carlyle, _Frederick the Great_, viii.
+113-114). Frederick in discussing the battle of Pharsalia spoke of a
+centurion Quintus Caecilius as Q. Icilius. Guichard ventured to correct
+him, whereupon the king said, "_You_ shall be Quintus Icilius," and as
+Major Quintus Icilius he was forthwith gazetted to the command of a free
+battalion. This corps he commanded throughout the later stages of the
+Seven Years' War, his battalion, as time went on, becoming a regiment of
+three battalions, and Quintus himself recruited seven more battalions of
+the same kind of troops. His command was almost always with the king's
+own army in these campaigns, but for a short time it fought in the
+western theatre under Prince Henry. When not on the march he was always
+at the royal headquarters, and it was he who brought about the famous
+interview between the king and Gellert (see Carlyle, _Frederick the
+Great_, ix. 109; Gellert, _Briefwechsel mit Demoiselle Lucius_, ed.
+Ebert, Leipzig, 1823, pp. 629-631) on the subject of national German
+literature. On 22nd January 1761 Quintus was ordered to sack the castle
+of Hubertusburg (a task which Major-General Saldern had point-blank
+refused to undertake, from motives of conscience), and carried out his
+task, it is said, to his own very considerable profit. The place cannot
+have been seriously injured, as it was soon afterwards the meeting-place
+of the diplomatists whose work ended in the peace of Hubertusburg, but
+the king never ceased to banter Quintus on his supposed depredations.
+The very day of Frederick's triumphant return from the war saw the
+disbanding of most of the free battalions, including that of Quintus,
+but the major to the end of his life remained with the king. He was made
+lieutenant-colonel in 1765, and in 1773, in recognition of his work
+_Mémoires critiques et historiques sur plusieurs points d'antiquités
+militaires_, dealing mainly with Caesar's campaigns in Spain (Berlin,
+1773), was promoted colonel. He died at Potsdam, 1775.
+
+
+
+
+GUICHEN, LUC URBAIN DE BOUËXIC, COMTE DE (1712-1790), French admiral,
+entered the navy in 1730 as "garde de la Marine," the first rank in the
+corps of royal officers. His promotion was not rapid. It was not till
+1748 that he became "lieutenant de vaisseau," which was, however, a
+somewhat higher rank than the lieutenant in the British navy, since it
+carried with it the right to command a frigate. He was "capitaine de
+vaisseau," or post captain, in 1756. But his reputation must have been
+good, for he was made chevalier de Saint Louis in 1748. In 1775 he was
+appointed to the frigate "Terpsichore," attached to the training
+squadron, in which the duc de Chartres, afterwards notorious as the duc
+d'Orléans and as Philippe Égalité, was entered as volunteer. In the next
+year he was promoted chef d'escadre, or rear-admiral. When France had
+become the ally of the Americans in the War of Independence, he hoisted
+his flag in the Channel fleet, and was present at the battle of Ushant
+on the 27th of July 1779. In March of the following year he was sent to
+the West Indies with a strong squadron and was there opposed to Sir
+George Rodney. In the first meeting between them on the 17th of April to
+leeward of Martinique, Guichen escaped disaster only through the clumsy
+manner in which Sir George's orders were executed by his captains.
+Seeing that he had to deal with a formidable opponent, Guichen acted
+with extreme caution, and by keeping the weather gauge afforded the
+British admiral no chance of bringing him to close action. When the
+hurricane months approached (July to September) he left the West Indies,
+and his squadron, being in a bad state from want of repairs, returned
+home, reaching Brest in September. Throughout all this campaign Guichen
+had shown himself very skilful in handling a fleet, and if he had not
+gained any marked success, he had prevented the British admiral from
+doing any harm to the French islands in the Antilles. In December 1781
+the comte de Guichen was chosen to command the force which was entrusted
+with the duty of carrying stores and reinforcements to the West Indies.
+On the 12th Admiral Kempenfelt, who had been sent out by the British
+Government with an unduly weak force to intercept him, sighted the
+French admiral in the Bay of Biscay through a temporary clearance in a
+fog, at a moment when Guichen's warships were to leeward of the convoy,
+and attacked the transports at once. The French admiral could not
+prevent his enemy from capturing twenty of the transports, and driving
+the others into a panic-stricken flight. They returned to port, and the
+mission entrusted to Guichen was entirely defeated. He therefore
+returned to port also. He had no opportunity to gain any
+counterbalancing success during the short remainder of the war, but he
+was present at the final relief of Gibraltar by Lord Howe. His death
+occurred on the 13th of January 1790. The comte de Guichen was, by the
+testimony of his contemporaries, a most accomplished and high-minded
+gentleman. It is probable that he had more scientific knowledge than any
+of his English contemporaries and opponents. But as a commander in war
+he was notable chiefly for his skill in directing the orderly movements
+of a fleet, and seems to have been satisfied with formal operations,
+which were possibly elegant but could lead to no substantial result. He
+had none of the combative instincts of his countryman Suffren, or of the
+average British admiral.
+
+  See vicomte de Noailles, _Marins et soldats français en Amérique_
+  (1903); and E. Chevalier, _Histoire de la marine française pendant la
+  guerre de l'indépendence américaine_ (1877).     (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. _gyde_, from the Fr. _guide_; the earlier French
+form was _guie_, English "guy," the _d_ was due to the Italian form
+_guida_; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being
+connected with the base seen in O. Eng. _witan_, to know), an agency for
+directing or showing the way, specifically a person who leads or directs
+a stranger over unknown or unmapped country, or conducts travellers and
+tourists through a town, or over buildings of interest. In European wars
+up to the time of the French Revolution, the absence of large scale
+detailed maps made local guides almost essential to the direction of
+military operations, and in the 18th century the general tendency to the
+stricter organization of military resources led in various countries to
+the special training of guide officers (called _Feldjäger_, and
+considered as general staff officers in the Prussian army), whose chief
+duty it was to find, and if necessary establish, routes across country
+for those parts of the army that had to move parallel to the main road
+and as nearly as possible at deploying interval from each other, for in
+those days armies were rarely spread out so far as to have the use of
+two or more made roads. But the necessity for such precautions died away
+when adequate surveys (in which guide officers were, at any rate in
+Prussia, freely employed) were carried out, and, as a definite term of
+military organization to-day, "guide" possesses no more essential
+peculiarity than fusilier, grenadier or rifleman. The genesis of the
+modern "Guide" regiments is perhaps to be found in a short-lived Corps
+of Guides formed by Napoleon in Italy in 1796, which appears to have
+been a personal escort or body guard composed of men who knew the
+country. In the Belgian army of to-day the Guide regiments correspond
+almost to the Guard cavalry of other nations; in the Swiss army the
+squadrons of "Guides" act as divisional cavalry, and in this role
+doubtless are called upon on occasion to lead columns. The "Queen's own
+Corps of Guides" of the Indian army consists of infantry companies and
+cavalry squadrons. In drill, a "guide" is an officer or non-commissioned
+officer told off to regulate the direction and pace of movements, the
+remainder of the unit maintaining their alignment and distances by him.
+
+A particular class of guides are those employed in mountaineering; these
+are not merely to show the way but stand in the position of professional
+climbers with an expert knowledge of rock and snowcraft, which they
+impart to the amateur, at the same time assuring the safety of the
+climbing party in dangerous expeditions. This professional class of
+guides arose in the middle of the 19th century when Alpine climbing
+became recognized as a sport (see MOUNTAINEERING). It is thus natural to
+find that the Alpine guides have been requisitioned for mountaineering
+expeditions all over the world. In climbing in Switzerland, the central
+committee of the Swiss Alpine Club issues a guides' tariff which fixes
+the charges for guides and porters; there are three sections, for the
+Valais and Vaudois Alps, for the Bernese Oberland, and for central and
+eastern Switzerland. The names of many of the great guides have become
+historical. In Chamonix a statue has been raised to Jacques Balmat, who
+was the first to climb Mont Blanc in 1786. Of the more famous guides
+since the beginning of Alpine climbing may be mentioned Auguste Balmat,
+Michel Cros, Maquignay, J. A. Carrel, who went with E. Whymper to the
+Andes, the brothers Lauener, Christian Almer and Jakob and Melchior
+Anderegg.
+
+"Guide" is also applied to a book, in the sense of an elementary primer
+on some subject, or of one giving full information for travellers of a
+country, district or town. In mechanical usage, the term "guide" is of
+wide application, being used of anything which steadies or directs the
+motion of an object, as of the "leading" screw of a screw-cutting lathe,
+of a loose pulley used to steady a driving-belt, or of the bars or rods
+in a steam-engine which keep the sliding blocks moving in a straight
+line. The doublet "guy" is thus used of a rope which steadies a sail
+when it is being raised or lowered, or of a rope, chain or stay
+supporting a funnel, mast, derrick, &c.
+
+
+
+
+GUIDI, CARLO ALESSANDRO (1650-1712), Italian lyric poet, was born at
+Pavia in 1650. As chief founder of the well-known Roman academy called
+"L'Arcadia," he had a considerable share in the reform of Italian
+poetry, corrupted at that time by the extravagance and bad taste of the
+poets Marini and Achillini and their school. The poet Guidi and the
+critic and jurisconsult Gravina checked this evil by their influence and
+example. The genius of Guidi was lyric in the highest degree; his songs
+are written with singular force, and charm the reader, in spite of
+touches of bombast. His most celebrated song is that entitled _Alla
+Fortuna_ (To Fortune), which certainly is one of the most beautiful
+pieces of poetry of the 17th century. Guidi was squint-eyed, humpbacked,
+and of a delicate constitution, but possessed undoubted literary
+ability. His poems were printed at Parma in 1671, and at Rome in 1704.
+In 1681 he published at Parma his lyric tragedy _Amalasunta in Italy_,
+and two pastoral dramas _Daphne_ and _Endymion_. The last had the honour
+of being mentioned as a model by the critic Gravina, in his treatise on
+poetry. Less fortunate was Guidi's poetical version of the six homilies
+of Pope Clement XI., first as having been severely criticized by the
+satirist Settano, and next as having proved to be the indirect cause of
+the author's death. A splendid edition of this version had been printed
+in 1712, and, the pope being then in San Gandolfo, Guidi went there to
+present him with a copy. On the way he found out a serious typographical
+error, which he took so much to heart that he was seized with an
+apoplectic fit at Frascati and died on the spot. Guidi was honoured with
+the special protection of Ranuccio II., duke of Parma, and of Queen
+Christina of Sweden.
+
+
+
+
+GUIDICCIONI, GIOVANNI (1480-1541), Italian poet, was born at Lucca in
+1480, and died at Macerata in 1541. He occupied a high position, being
+bishop of Fossombrone and president of Romagna. The latter office nearly
+cost him his life; a murderer attempted to kill him, and had already
+touched his breast with his dagger when, conquered by the resolute
+calmness of the prelate, he threw away the weapon and fell at his feet,
+asking forgiveness. The _Rime_ and _Letters_ of Guidiccioni are models
+of elegant and natural Italian style. The best editions are those of
+Genoa (1749), Bergamo (1753) and Florence (1878).
+
+
+
+
+GUIDO OF AREZZO (possibly to be identified with Guido de St Maur des
+Fosses), a musician who lived in the 11th century. He has by many been
+called the father of modern music, and a portrait of him in the
+refectory of the monastery of Avellana bears the inscription _Beatus
+Guido, inventor musicae_. Of his life little is known, and that little
+is chiefly derived from the dedicatory letters prefixed to two of his
+treatises and addressed respectively to Bishop Theodald (not Theobald,
+as Burney writes the name) of Arezzo, and Michael, a monk of Pomposa and
+Guido's pupil and friend. Occasional references to the celebrated
+musician in the works of his contemporaries are, however, by no means
+rare, and from these it may be conjectured with all but absolute
+certainty that Guido was born in the last decade of the 10th century.
+The place of his birth is uncertain in spite of some evidence pointing
+to Arezzo; on the title-page of all his works he is styled _Guido
+Aretinus_, or simply _Aretinus_. At his first appearance in history
+Guido was a monk in the Benedictine monastery of Pomposa, and it was
+there that he taught singing and invented his educational method, by
+means of which, according to his own statement, a pupil might learn
+within five months what formerly it would have taken him ten years to
+acquire. Envy and jealousy, however, were his only reward, and by these
+he was compelled to leave his monastery--"inde est, quod me vides
+prolixis finibus exulatum," as he says himself in the second of the
+letters above referred to. According to one account, he travelled as far
+as Bremen, called there by Archbishop Hermann in order to reform the
+musical service. But this statement has been doubted. Certain it is that
+not long after his flight from Pomposa Guido was living at Arezzo, and
+it was here that, about 1030, he received an invitation to Rome from
+Pope John XIV. He obeyed the summons, and the pope himself became his
+first and apparently one of his most proficient pupils. But in spite of
+his success Guido could not be induced to remain in Rome, the
+insalubrious air of which seems to have affected his health. In Rome he
+met again his former superior, the abbot of Pomposa, who seems to have
+repented of his conduct, and to have induced Guido to return to Pomposa;
+and here all authentic records of Guido's life cease. We only know that
+he died, on the 17th of May 1050, as prior of Avellana, a monastery of
+the Camaldulians; such at least is the statement of the chroniclers of
+that order. It ought, however, to be added that the Camaldulians claim
+the celebrated musician as wholly their own, and altogether deny his
+connexion with the Benedictines.
+
+The documents discovered by Dom Germain Morin, the Belgian Benedictine,
+about 1888, point to the conclusion that Guido was a Frenchman and lived
+from his youth upwards in the Benedictine monastery of St Maur des
+Fosses where he invented his novel system of notation and taught the
+brothers to sing by it. In codex 763 of the British Museum the composer
+of the "Micrologus" and other works by Guido of Arezzo is always
+described as Guido de Sancto Mauro.
+
+There is no doubt that Guido's method shows considerable progress in the
+evolution of modern notation. It was he who for the first time
+systematically used the lines of the staff, and the intervals or
+_spatia_ between them. There is also little doubt that the names of the
+first six notes of the scale, _ut_, _re_, _mi_, _fa_, _sol_, _la_, still
+in use among Romance nations, were introduced by Guido, although he
+seems to have used them in a relative rather than in an absolute sense.
+It is well known that these words are the first syllables of six lines
+of a hymn addressed to St John the Baptist, which may be given here:--
+
+  _Ut_ queant laxis   _re_sonare fibris
+  _Mi_ra gestorum     _fa_muli tuorum,
+  _Sol_ve polluti     _la_bii reatum,
+             Sancte Joannes.
+
+In addition to this Guido is generally credited with the introduction of
+the F clef. But more important than all this, perhaps, is the thoroughly
+practical tone which Guido assumes in his theoretical writings, and
+which differs greatly from the clumsy scholasticism of his
+contemporaries and predecessors.
+
+  The most important of Guido's treatises, and those which are generally
+  acknowledged to be authentic, are _Micrologus Guidonis de disciplina
+  artis musicae_, dedicated to Bishop Theodald of Arezzo, and comprising
+  a complete theory of music, in 20 chapters; _Musicae Guidonis regulae
+  rhythmicae in antiphonarii sui prologum prolatae_, written in trochaic
+  decasyllabics of anything but classical structure; _Aliae Guidonis
+  regulae de ignoto cantu, identidem in antiphonarii sui prologum
+  prolatae_; and the _Epistola Guidonis Michaeli monacho de ignoto
+  cantu_, already referred to. These are published in the second volume
+  of Gerbert's _Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra_. A very
+  important manuscript unknown to Gerbert (the _Codex bibliothecae
+  Uticensis_, in the Paris library) contains, besides minor treatises,
+  an antiphonarium and gradual undoubtedly belonging to Guido.
+
+  See also L. Angeloni, _G. d'Arezzo_ (1811); Kiesewetter, _Guido von
+  Arezzo_ (1840); Kornmüller, "Leben und Werken Guidos von Arezzo," in
+  Habert's _Jahrb._ (1876); Antonio Brandi, _G. Aretino_ (1882); G. B.
+  Ristori, _Biografia di Guido monaco d'Arezzo_ (1868).
+
+
+
+
+GUIDO OF SIENA. The name of this Italian painter is of considerable
+interest in the history of art, on the ground that, if certain
+assumptions regarding him could be accepted as true, he would be
+entitled to share with Cimabue, or rather indeed to supersede him in,
+the honour of having given the first onward impulse to the art of
+painting. The case stands thus. In the church of S. Domenico in Siena is
+a large painting of the "Virgin and Child Enthroned," with six angels
+above, and in the Benedictine convent of the same city is a triangular
+pinnacle, once a portion of the same composition, representing the
+Saviour in benediction, with two angels; the entire work was originally
+a triptych, but is not so now. The principal section of this picture has
+a rhymed Latin inscription, giving the painter's name as Gu ... o de
+Senis, with the date 1221: the genuineness of the inscription is not,
+however, free from doubt, and especially it is maintained that the date
+really reads as 1281. In the general treatment of the picture there is
+nothing to distinguish it particularly from other work of the same early
+period; but the heads of the Virgin and Child are indisputably very
+superior, in natural character and graceful dignity, to anything to be
+found anterior to Cimabue. The question therefore arises, Are these
+heads really the work of a man who painted in 1221? Crowe and
+Cavalcaselle pronounce in the negative, concluding that the heads are
+repainted, and are, as they now stand, due to some artist of the 14th
+century, perhaps Ugolino da Siena; thus the claims of Cimabue would
+remain undisturbed and in their pristine vigour. Beyond this, little is
+known of Guido da Siena. There is in the Academy of Siena a picture
+assigned to him, a half-figure of the "Virgin and Child," with two
+angels, dating probably between 1250 and 1300; also in the church of S.
+Bernardino in the same city a Madonna dated 1262. Milanesi thinks that
+the work in S. Domenico is due to Guido Graziani, of whom no other
+record remains earlier than 1278, when he is mentioned as the painter of
+a banner. Guido da Siena appears always to have painted on panel, not in
+fresco on the wall. He has been termed, very dubiously, a pupil of
+Pietrolino, and the master of "Diotisalvi," Mino da Turrita and
+Berlinghieri da Lucca.
+
+
+
+
+GUIDO RENI (1575-1642), a prime master in the Bolognese school of
+painting, and one of the most admired artists of the period of incipient
+decadence in Italy, was born at Calvenzano near Bologna on the 4th of
+November 1575. His father was a musician of repute, a player on the
+flageolet; he wished to bring the lad up to perform on the harpsichord.
+At a very childish age, however, Guido displayed a determined bent
+towards the art of form, scribbling some attempt at a drawing here,
+there and everywhere. He was only nine years of age when Denis Calvart
+took notice of him, received him into his academy of design by the
+father's permission, and rapidly brought him forward, so that by the age
+of thirteen Guido had already attained marked proficiency. Albani and
+Domenichino became soon afterwards pupils in the same academy. With
+Albani Guido was very intimate up to the earlier period of manhood, but
+they afterwards became rivals, both as painters and as heads of
+ateliers, with a good deal of asperity on Albani's part; Domenichino was
+also pitted against Reni by the policy of Annibale Caracci. Guido was
+still in the academy of Calvart when he began frequenting the opposition
+school kept by Lodovico Caracci, whose style, far in advance of that of
+the Flemish painter, he dallied with. This exasperated Calvart. Him
+Guido, not yet twenty years of age, cheerfully quitted, transferring
+himself openly to the Caracci academy, in which he soon became
+prominent, being equally skilful and ambitious. He had not been a year
+with the Caracci when a work of his excited the wonder of Agostino and
+the jealousy of Annibale. Lodovico cherished him, and frequently painted
+him as an angel, for the youthful Reni was extremely handsome. After a
+while, however, Lodovico also felt himself nettled, and he patronized
+the competing talents of Giovanni Barbiere. On one occasion Guido had
+made a copy of Annibale's "Descent from the Cross"; Annibale was asked
+to retouch it, and, finding nothing to do, exclaimed pettishly, "He
+knows more than enough" ("Costui ne sa troppo"). On another occasion
+Lodovico, consulted as umpire, lowered a price which Reni asked for an
+early picture. This slight determined the young man to be a pupil no
+more. He left the Caracci, and started on his own account as a
+competitor in the race for patronage and fame. A renowned work, the
+story of "Callisto and Diana," had been completed before he left.
+
+Guido was faithful to the eclectic principle of the Bolognese school of
+painting. He had appropriated something from Calvart, much more from
+Lodovico Caracci; he studied with much zest after Albert Dürer; he
+adopted the massive, sombre and partly uncouth manner of Caravaggio. One
+day Annibale Caracci made the remark that a style might be formed
+reversing that of Caravaggio in such matters as the ponderous shadows
+and the gross common forms; this observation germinated in Guido's mind,
+and he endeavoured after some such style, aiming constantly at suavity.
+Towards 1602 he went to Rome with Albani, and Rome remained his
+headquarters for twenty years. Here, in the pontificate of Paul V.
+(Borghese), he was greatly noted and distinguished. In the garden-house
+of the Rospigliosi Palace he painted the vast fresco which is justly
+regarded as his masterpiece--"Phoebus and the Hours preceded by Aurora."
+This exhibits his second manner, in which he had deviated far indeed
+from the promptings of Caravaggio. He founded now chiefly upon the
+antique, more especially the Niobe group and the "Venus de' Medici,"
+modified by suggestions from Raphael, Correggio, Parmigiano and Paul
+Veronese. Of this last painter, although on the whole he did not get
+much from him, Guido was a particular admirer; he used to say that he
+would rather have been Paul Veronese than any other master--Paul was
+more nature than art. The "Aurora" is beyond doubt a work of pre-eminent
+beauty and attainment; it is stamped with pleasurable dignity, and,
+without being effeminate, has a more uniform aim after graceful
+selectness than can readily be traced in previous painters, greatly
+superior though some of them had been in impulse and personal fervour of
+genius. The pontifical chapel of Montecavallo was assigned to Reni to
+paint; but, being straitened in payments by the ministers, the artist
+made off to Bologna. He was fetched back by Paul V. with ceremonious
+éclat, and lodging, living and equipage were supplied to him. At another
+time he migrated from Rome to Naples, having received a commission to
+paint the chapel of S. Gennaro. The notorious cabal of three painters
+resident in Naples--Corenzio, Caracciolo and Ribera--offered, however,
+as stiff an opposition to Guido as to some other interlopers who
+preceded and succeeded him. They gave his servant a beating by the hands
+of two unknown bullies, and sent by him a message to his master to
+depart or prepare for death; Guido waited for no second warning, and
+departed. He now returned to Rome; but he finally left that city
+abruptly, in the pontificate of Urban VIII., in consequence of an
+offensive reprimand administered to him by Cardinal Spinola. He had
+received an advance of 400 scudi on account of an altarpiece for St
+Peter's, but after some lapse of years had made no beginning with the
+work. A broad reminder from the cardinal put Reni on his mettle; he
+returned the 400 scudi, quitted Rome within a few days, and steadily
+resisted all attempts at recall. He now resettled in Bologna. He had
+taught as well as painted in Rome, and he left pupils behind him; but on
+the whole he did not stamp any great mark upon the Roman school of
+painting, apart from his own numerous works in the papal city.
+
+In Bologna Guido lived in great splendour, and established a celebrated
+school, numbering more than two hundred scholars. He himself drew in it,
+even down to his latest years. On first returning to this city, he
+charged about £21 for a full-length figure (mere portraits are not here
+in question), half this sum for a half-length, and £5 for a head. These
+prices must be regarded as handsome, when we consider that Domenichino
+about the same time received only £10, 10s. for his very large and
+celebrated picture, the "Last Communion of St Jerome." But Guido's
+reputation was still on the increase, and in process of time he
+quintupled his prices. He now left Bologna hardly at all; in one
+instance, however, he went off to Ravenna, and, along with three pupils,
+he painted the chapel in the cathedral with his admired picture of the
+"Israelites gathering Manna." His shining prosperity was not to last
+till the end. Guido was dissipated, generously but indiscriminately
+profuse, and an inveterate gambler. The gambling propensity had been his
+from youth, but until he became elderly it did not noticeably damage his
+fortunes. It grew upon him, and in a couple of evenings he lost the
+enormous sum of 14,400 scudi. The vice told still more ruinously on his
+art than on his character. In his decline he sold his time at so much
+per hour to certain picture dealers; one of them, the Shylock of his
+craft, would stand by, watch in hand, and see him work.
+Half-heartedness, half-performance, blighted his product:
+self-repetition and mere mannerism, with affectation for sentiment and
+vapidity for beauty, became the art of Guido. Some of these trade-works,
+heads or half-figures, were turned out in three hours or even less. It
+is said that, tardily wise, Reni left off gambling for nearly two
+years; at last he relapsed, and his relapse was followed not long
+afterwards by his death, caused by malignant fever. This event took
+place in Bologna on the 18th of August 1642; he died in debt, but was
+buried with great pomp in the church of S. Domenico.
+
+  Guido was personally modest, although he valued himself on his
+  position in the art, and would tolerate no slight in that relation; he
+  was extremely upright, temperate in diet, nice in his person and his
+  dress. He was fond of stately houses, but could feel also the charm of
+  solitude. In his temper there was a large amount of suspiciousness;
+  and the jealousy which his abilities and his successes excited, now
+  from the Caracci, now from Albani, now from the monopolizing league of
+  Neapolitan painters, may naturally have kept this feeling in active
+  exercise. Of his numerous scholars, Simone Cantarini, named II
+  Pesarese, counts as the most distinguished; he painted an admirable
+  head of Reni, now in the Bolognese Gallery. The portrait in the Uffizi
+  Gallery of Florence is from Reni's own hand. Two other good scholars
+  were Giacomo Semenza and Francesco Gessi.
+
+  The character of Guido's art is so well known as hardly to call for
+  detailed analysis, beyond what we have already intimated. His most
+  characteristic style exhibits a prepense ideal, of form rather than
+  character, with a slight mode of handling, and silvery, somewhat cold,
+  colour. In working from the nude he aimed at perfection of form,
+  especially marked in the hands and feet. But he was far from always
+  going to choice nature for his model; he transmuted _ad libitum_, and
+  painted, it is averred, a Magdalene of demonstrative charms from a
+  vulgar-looking colour-grinder. His best works have beauty, great
+  amenity, artistic feeling and high accomplishment of manner, all
+  alloyed by a certain core of commonplace; in the worst pictures the
+  commonplace swamps everything, and Guido has flooded European
+  galleries with trashy and empty pretentiousness, all the more noxious
+  in that its apparent grace of sentiment and form misleads the unwary
+  into approval, and the dilettante dabbler into cheap raptures. Both in
+  Rome and wherever else he worked he introduced increased softness of
+  style, which was then designated as the modern method. His pictures
+  are mostly Scriptural or mythologic in subject, and between two and
+  three hundred of them are to be found in various European
+  collections--more than a hundred of these containing life-sized
+  figures. The portraits which he executed are few--those of Sixtus V.,
+  Cardinal Spada and the so-called Beatrice Cenci being among the most
+  noticeable. The identity of the last-named portrait is very dubious;
+  it certainly cannot have been painted direct from Beatrice, who had
+  been executed in Rome before Guido ever resided there. Many etchings
+  are attributed to him--some from his own works, and some after other
+  masters; they are spirited, but rather negligent.
+
+  Of other works not already noticed, the following should be named:--in
+  Rome (the Vatican), the "Crucifixion of St Peter," an example of the
+  painter's earlier manner; in S. Lorenzo in Lucina, "Christ Crucified";
+  in Forlì, the "Conception"; in Bologna, the "Alms of St Roch" (early),
+  the "Massacre of the Innocents," and the "Pietà, or Lament over the
+  Body of Christ" (in the church of the Mendicanti), which is by many
+  regarded as Guido's prime executive work; in the Dresden Gallery, an
+  "Ecce Homo"; in Milan (Brera Gallery), "Saints Peter and Paul"; in
+  Genoa (church of S. Ambrogio), the "Assumption of the Virgin"; in
+  Berlin, "St Paul the Hermit and St Anthony in the Wilderness." The
+  celebrated picture of "Fortune" (in the Capitol) is one of Reni's
+  finest treatments of female form; as a specimen of male form, the
+  "Samson Drinking from the Jawbone of an Ass" might be named beside it.
+  One of his latest works of mark is the "Ariadne," which used to be in
+  the Gallery of the Capitol. The Louvre contains twenty of his
+  pictures, the National Gallery of London seven, and others were once
+  there, now removed to other public collections. The most interesting
+  of the seven is the small "Coronation of the Virgin," painted on
+  copper, an elegantly finished work, more pretty than beautiful. It was
+  probably painted before the master quitted Bologna for Rome.
+
+  For the life and works of Guido Reni, see Bolognini, _Vita di Guido
+  Reni_ (1839); Passeri, _Vite de' pittori_; and Malvasia, _Felsina
+  Pittrice_; also Lanzi, _Storia pitiorica_.     (W. M. R.)
+
+
+
+
+GUIENNE, an old French province which corresponded roughly to the
+_Aquitania Secunda_ of the Romans and the archbishopric of Bordeaux. In
+the 12th century it formed with Gascony the duchy of Aquitaine, which
+passed under the dominion of the kings of England by the marriage of
+Eleanor of Aquitaine to Henry II.; but in the 13th, through the
+conquests of Philip Augustus, Louis VIII. and Louis IX., it was confined
+within the narrower limits fixed by the treaty of Paris (1259). It is at
+this point that Guienne becomes distinct from Aquitaine. It then
+comprised the Bordelais (the old countship of Bordeaux), the Bazadais,
+part of Périgord, Limousin, Quercy and Rouergue, the Agenais ceded by
+Philip III. (the Bold) to Edward I. (1279), and (still united with
+Gascony) formed a duchy extending from the Charente to the Pyrenees.
+This duchy was held on the terms of homage to the French kings, an
+onerous obligation; and both in 1296 and 1324 it was confiscated by the
+kings of France on the ground that there had been a failure in the
+feudal duties. At the treaty of Brétigny (1360) Edward III. acquired the
+full sovereignty of the duchy of Guienne, together with Aunis,
+Saintonge, Angoumois and Poitou. The victories of du Guesclin and Gaston
+Phoebus, count of Foix, restored the duchy soon after to its
+13th-century limits. In 1451 it was conquered and finally united to the
+French crown by Charles VII. In 1469 Louis XI. gave it in exchange for
+Champagne and Brie to his brother Charles, duke of Berry, after whose
+death in 1472 it was again united to the royal dominion. Guienne then
+formed a government which from the 17th century onwards was united with
+Gascony. The government of Guienne and Gascony, with its capital at
+Bordeaux, lasted till the end of the _ancien régime_. Under the
+Revolution the departments formed from Guienne proper were those of
+Gironde, Lot-et-Garonne, Dordogne, Lot, Aveyron and the chief part of
+Tarn-et-Garonne.
+
+
+
+
+GUIGNES, JOSEPH DE (1721-1800), French orientalist, was born at Pontoise
+on the 19th of October 1721. He succeeded Fourmont at the Royal Library
+as secretary interpreter of the Eastern languages. A _Mémoire historique
+sur l'origine des Huns et des Turcs_, published by de Guignes in 1748,
+obtained his admission to the Royal Society of London in 1752, and he
+became an associate of the French Academy of Inscriptions in 1754. Two
+years later he began to publish his learned and laborious _Histoire
+générale des Huns, des Mongoles, des Turcs et des autres Tartares
+occidentaux_ (1756-1758); and in 1757 he was appointed to the chair of
+Syriac at the Collège de France. He maintained that the Chinese nation
+had originated in Egyptian colonization, an opinion to which, in spite
+of every argument, he obstinately clung. He died in Paris in 1800. The
+_Histoire_ had been translated into German by Dähnert (1768-1771). De
+Guignes left a son, Christian Louis Joseph (1759-1845), who, after
+learning Chinese from his father, went as consul to Canton, where he
+spent seventeen years. On his return to France he was charged by the
+government with the work of preparing a Chinese-French-Latin dictionary
+(1813). He was also the author of a work of travels (_Voyages à Pékin,
+Manille, et l'île de France_, 1808).
+
+  See Quérard, _La France littéraire_, where a list of the memoirs
+  contributed by de Guignes to the _Journal des savants_ is given.
+
+
+
+
+GUILBERT, YVETTE (1869-   ), French _diseuse_, was born in Paris. She
+served for two years until 1885 in the Magasin du Printemps, when, on
+the advice of the journalist, Edmond Stoullig, she trained for the stage
+under Landrol. She made her début at the Bouffes du Nord, then played at
+the Variétés, and in 1890 she received a regular engagement at the
+Eldorado to sing a couple of songs at the beginning of the performance.
+She also sang at the Ambassadeurs. She soon won an immense vogue by her
+rendering of songs drawn from Parisian lower-class life, or from the
+humours of the Latin Quarter, "_Quatre z'étudiants_" and the "_Hôtel du
+numéro trois_" being among her early triumphs. Her adoption of an
+habitual yellow dress and long black gloves, her studied simplicity of
+diction, and her ingenuous delivery of songs charged with _risqué_
+meaning, made her famous. She owed something to M. Xanrof, who for a
+long time composed songs especially for her, and perhaps still more to
+Aristide Bruant, who wrote many of her _argot_ songs. She made
+successful tours in England, Germany and America, and was in great
+request as an entertainer in private houses. In 1895 she married Dr M.
+Schiller. In later years she discarded something of her earlier manner,
+and sang songs of the "pompadour" and the "crinoline" period in costume.
+She published the novels _La Vedette_ and _Les Demi-vieilles_, both in
+1902.
+
+
+
+
+GUILDFORD, a market town and municipal borough, and the county town of
+Surrey, England, in the Guildford parliamentary division, 29 m. S.W. of
+London by the London and South Western railway; served also by the
+London, Brighton, and South Coast and the South Eastern and Chatham
+railways. Pop. (1901) 15,938. It is beautifully situated on an
+acclivity of the northern chalk Downs and on the river Wey. Its older
+streets contain a number of picturesque gabled houses, with quaint
+lattices and curious doorways. The ruins of a Norman castle stand finely
+above the town and are well preserved; while the ground about them is
+laid out as a public garden. Beneath the Angel Inn and a house in the
+vicinity are extensive vaults, apparently of Early English date, and
+traditionally connected with the castle. The church of St Mary is Norman
+and Early English, with later additions and considerably restored; its
+aisles retain their eastward apses and it contains many interesting
+details. The church of St Nicholas is a modern building on an ancient
+site, and that of Holy Trinity is a brick structure of 1763, with later
+additions, also on the site of an earlier church, from which some of the
+monuments are preserved, including that of Archbishop Abbot (1640). The
+town hall dates from 1683 and contains a number of interesting pictures.
+Other public buildings are the county hall, corn-market and institute
+with museum and library. Abbot's Hospital, founded by Archbishop Abbot
+in 1619, is a beautiful Tudor brick building. The county hospital (1866)
+was erected as a memorial to Albert, Prince Consort. The Royal Free
+Grammar School, founded in 1509, and incorporated by Edward VI., is an
+important school for boys. At Cranleigh, 6 m. S.E., is a large
+middle-class county school. The town has flour mills, iron foundries and
+breweries, and a large trade in grain; while fairs are held for live
+stock. There is a manufacture of gunpowder in the neighbouring village
+of Chilworth. Guildford is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of
+Winchester. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors.
+Area, 2601 acres.
+
+Guildford (Gyldeford, Geldeford), occurs among the possessions of King
+Alfred, and was a royal borough throughout the middle ages. It probably
+owed its rise to its position at the junction of trade routes. It is
+first mentioned as a borough in 1131. Henry III. granted a charter to
+the men of Guildford in 1256, by which they obtained freedom from toll
+throughout the kingdom, and the privilege of having the county court
+held always in their town. Edward III. granted charters to Guildford in
+1340, 1346 and 1367; Henry VI. in 1423; Henry VII. in 1488. Elizabeth in
+1580 confirmed earlier charters, and other charters were granted in
+1603, 1626 and 1686. The borough was incorporated in 1486 under the
+title of the mayor and good men of Guildford. During the middle ages the
+government of the town rested with a powerful merchant gild. Two members
+for Guildford sat in the parliament of 1295, and the borough continued
+to return two representatives until 1867 when the number was reduced to
+one. By the Redistribution Act of 1885 Guildford became merged in the
+county for electoral purposes. Edward II. granted to the town the right
+of having two fairs, at the feast of St Matthew (21st of September) and
+at Trinity respectively. Henry VII. granted fairs on the feast of St
+Martin (11th of November) and St George (23rd of April). Fairs in May
+for the sale of sheep and in November for the sale of cattle are still
+held. The market rights date at least from 1276, and three weekly
+markets are still held for the sale of corn, cattle and vegetables
+respectively. The cloth trade which formed the staple industry at
+Guildford in the middle ages is now extinct.
+
+
+
+
+GUILDHALL, the hall of the corporation of the city of London, England.
+It faces a courtyard opening out of Gresham Street. The date of its
+original foundation is not known. An ancient crypt remains, but the hall
+has otherwise undergone much alteration. It was rebuilt in 1411,
+beautified by the munificence of successive officials, damaged in the
+Great Fire of 1666, and restored in 1789 by George Dance; while the hall
+was again restored, with a new roof, in 1870. This fine chamber, 152 ft.
+in length, is the scene of the state banquets and entertainments of the
+corporation, and of the municipal meetings "in common hall." The
+building also contains a council chamber and various court rooms, with a
+splendid library, open to the public, a museum and art gallery
+adjoining. The hall contains several monuments and two giant figures of
+wood, known as Gog and Magog. These were set up in 1708, but the
+appearance of giants in city pageants is of much earlier date.
+
+
+
+
+GUILFORD, BARONS AND EARLS OF. FRANCIS NORTH, 1st Baron Guilford
+(1637-1685), was the third son of the 4th Baron North (see NORTH,
+BARONS), and was created Baron Guilford in 1683, after becoming lord
+keeper in succession to Lord Nottingham. He had been an eminent lawyer,
+solicitor-general (1671), attorney-general (1673), and chief-justice of
+the common pleas (1675), and in 1679 was made a member of the council of
+thirty and on its dissolution of the cabinet. He was a man of wide
+culture and a stanch royalist. In 1672 he married Lady Frances Pope,
+daughter and co-heiress of the earl of Downe, who inherited the Wroxton
+estate; and he was succeeded as 2nd baron by his son Francis
+(1673-1729), whose eldest son Francis (1704-1790), after inheriting
+first his father's title as 3rd baron, and then (in 1734) the barony of
+North from his kinsman the 6th Baron North, was in 1752 created 1st earl
+of Guilford. His first wife was a daughter of the earl of Halifax, and
+his son and successor Frederick was the English prime minister, commonly
+known as Lord North, his courtesy title while the 1st earl was alive.
+
+FREDERICK NORTH, 2nd earl of Guilford, but better known by his courtesy
+title of Lord North (1732-1792), prime minister of England during the
+important years of the American War, was born on the 13th of April 1732,
+and after being educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, was sent to
+make the grand tour of the continent. On his return he was, though only
+twenty-two years of age, at once elected M.P. for Banbury, of which town
+his father was high steward; and he sat for the same town in parliament
+for nearly forty years. In 1759 he was chosen by the duke of Newcastle
+to be a lord of the treasury, and continued in the same office under
+Lord Bute and George Grenville till 1765. He had shown himself such a
+ready debater that on the fall of the first Rockingham ministry in 1766
+he was sworn of the privy council, and made paymaster-general by the
+duke of Grafton. His reputation for ability grew so high that in
+December 1767, on the death of the brilliant Charles Townshend, he was
+made chancellor of the exchequer. His popularity with both the House of
+Commons and the people continued to increase, for his temper was never
+ruffled, and his quiet humour perpetually displayed; and, when the
+retirement of the duke of Grafton was necessitated by the hatred he
+inspired and the attacks of Junius, no better successor could be found
+for the premiership than the chancellor of the exchequer. Lord North
+succeeded the duke in March 1770, and continued in office for twelve of
+the most eventful years in English history. George III. had at last
+overthrown the ascendancy of the great Whig families, under which he had
+so long groaned, and determined to govern as well as rule. He knew that
+he could only govern by obtaining a majority in parliament to carry out
+his wishes, and this he had at last obtained by a great expenditure of
+money in buying seats and by a careful exercise of his patronage. But in
+addition to a majority he must have a minister who would consent to act
+as his lieutenant, and such a minister he found in Lord North. How a man
+of undoubted ability such as Lord North was could allow himself to be
+thus used as a mere instrument cannot be explained; but the confidential
+tone of the king's letters seems to show that there was an unusual
+intimacy between them, which may account for North's compliance. The
+path of the minister in parliament was a hard one; he had to defend
+measures which he had not designed, and of which he had not approved,
+and this too in a House of Commons in which all the oratorical ability
+of Burke and Fox was against him, and when he had only the purchased
+help of Thurlow and Wedderburne to aid him. The most important events of
+his ministry were those of the American War of Independence. He cannot
+be accused of causing it, but one of his first acts was the retention of
+the tea-duty, and he it was also who introduced the Boston Port Bill in
+1774. When the war had broken out he earnestly counselled peace, and it
+was only the earnest solicitations of the king not to leave his
+sovereign again at the mercy of the Whigs that induced him to defend a
+war which from 1779 he knew to be both hopeless and impolitic. At last,
+in March 1782, he insisted on resigning after the news of Cornwallis's
+surrender at Yorktown, and no man left office more blithely. He had been
+well rewarded for his assistance to the king: his children had good
+sinecures; his half-brother, Brownlow North (1741-1820), was bishop of
+Winchester; he himself was chancellor of the university of Oxford,
+lord-lieutenant of the county of Somerset, and had finally been made a
+knight of the Garter, an honour which has only been conferred on three
+other members of the House of Commons, Sir R. Walpole, Lord Castlereagh
+and Lord Palmerston. Lord North did not remain long out of office, but
+in April 1783 formed his famous coalition with his old subordinate, C.
+J. Fox (q.v.), and became secretary of state with him under the nominal
+premiership of the duke of Portland. He was probably urged to this
+coalition with his old opponent by a desire to show that he could act
+independently of the king, and was not a mere royal mouthpiece. The
+coalition ministry went out of office on Fox's India Bill in December
+1783, and Lord North, who was losing his sight, then finally gave up
+political ambition. He played, when quite blind, a somewhat important
+part in the debates on the Regency Bill in 1789, and in the next year
+succeeded his father as earl of Guilford. He did not long survive his
+elevation, and died peacefully on the 5th of August 1792. It is
+impossible to consider Lord North a great statesman, but he was a most
+good-tempered and humorous member of the House of Commons. In a time of
+unexampled party feeling he won the esteem and almost the love of his
+most bitter opponents. Burke finely sums up his character in his _Letter
+to a Noble Lord_: "He was a man of admirable parts, of general
+knowledge, of a versatile understanding, fitted for every sort of
+business; of infinite wit and pleasantry, of a delightful temper, and
+with a mind most disinterested. But it would be only to degrade myself,"
+he continues, "by a weak adulation, and not to honour the memory of a
+great man, to deny that he wanted something of the vigilance and spirit
+of command which the times required."
+
+By his wife Anne (d. 1797), daughter of George Speke of White
+Lackington, Somerset, Guilford had four sons, the eldest of whom, George
+Augustus (1757-1802), became 3rd earl on his father's death. This earl
+was a member of parliament from 1778 to 1792 and was a member of his
+father's ministry and also of the royal household; he left no sons when
+he died on the 20th of April 1802 and was succeeded in the earldom by
+his brother Francis (1761-1817), who also left no sons. The youngest
+brother, Frederick (1766-1827), who now became 5th earl of Guilford, was
+remarkable for his great knowledge and love of Greece and of the Greek
+language. He had a good deal to do with the foundation of the Ionian
+university at Corfu, of which he was the first chancellor and to which
+he was very liberal. Guilford, who was governor of Ceylon from 1798 to
+1805, died unmarried on the 14th of October 1827. His cousin, Francis
+(1772-1861), a son of Brownlow North, bishop of Winchester from 1781 to
+1820, was the 6th earl, and the latter's descendant, Frederick George
+(b. 1876), became 8th earl in 1886.
+
+On the death of the 3rd earl of Guilford in 1802 the barony of North
+fell into abeyance between his three daughters, the survivor of whom,
+Susan (1797-1884). wife of John Sidney Doyle, who took the name of
+North, was declared by the House of Lords in 1841 to be Baroness North,
+and the title passed to her son, William Henry John North, the 11th
+baron (b. 1836) (see NORTH, BARONS).
+
+  For the Lord Keeper Guilford see the _Lives_ by the Hon. R. North,
+  edited by A. Jessopp (1890); and E. Foss, _The Judges of England_,
+  vol. vii. (1848-1864). For the prime minister, Lord North, see
+  _Correspondence of George III._ with Lord North, edited by W. B. Donne
+  (1867); Horace Walpole, _Journal of the Reign of George III._ (1859),
+  and _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._, edited by G. F. R. Barker
+  (1894); Lord Brougham, _Historical Sketches of Statesmen_, vol. i.
+  (1839); Earl Stanhope, _History of England_ (1858); Sir T. E. May,
+  _Constitutional History of England_ (1863-1865); and W. E. H. Lecky,
+  _History of England in the 18th century_ (1878-1890).
+
+
+
+
+GUILFORD, a township, including a borough of the same name, in New Haven
+county, Connecticut, U.S.A., on Long Island Sound and at the mouth of
+the Menunkatuck or West river, about 16 m. E. by S. of New Haven. Pop.
+of the township, including the borough (1900), 2785, of whom 387 were
+foreign-born; (1910) 3001; pop. of the borough (1910), 1608. The borough
+is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railroad. On a plain is
+the borough green of nearly 12 acres, which is shaded by some fine old
+elms and other trees, and in which there is a soldiers' monument. About
+the green are several churches and some of the better residences. On an
+eminence commanding a fine view of the Sound is an old stone house,
+erected in 1639 for a parsonage, meeting-house and fortification; it was
+made a state museum in 1898, when extensive alterations were made to
+restore the interior to its original appearance. The Point of Rocks, in
+the harbour, is an attractive resort during the summer season. There are
+about 12 ft. of water on the harbour bar at high tide. The principal
+industries of Guilford are coastwise trade, the manufacture of iron
+castings, brass castings, wagon wheels and school furniture, and the
+canning of vegetables. Near the coast are quarries of fine granite; the
+stone for the pedestal of the Statue of Liberty on Bedloe's Island, in
+New York Harbour, was taken from them.
+
+Guilford was founded In 1639 as an independent colony by a company of
+twenty-five or more families from Kent, Surrey and Sussex, England,
+under the leadership of Rev. Henry Whitfield (1597-1657). While still on
+shipboard twenty-five members of the company signed a plantation
+covenant whereby they agreed not to desert the plantation which they
+were about to establish. Arriving at New Haven early in July 1639, they
+soon began negotiations with the Indians for the purchase of land, and
+on the 29th of September a deed was signed by which the Indians conveyed
+to them the territory between East River and Stony Creek for "12 coates,
+12 Fathoms of Wampam, 12 glasses (mirrors), 12 payer of shooes, 12
+Hatchetts, 12 paire of Stockings, 12 Hooes, 4 kettles, 12 knives, 12
+Hatts, 12 Porringers, 12 spoones, and 2 English coates." Other purchases
+of land from the Indians were made later. Before the close of the year
+the company removed from New Haven and established the new colony; it
+was known by the Indian name Menuncatuck for about four years and the
+name Guilford (from Guildford, England) was then substituted. As a
+provisional arrangement, civil power for the administration of justice
+and the preservation of the peace was vested in four persons until such
+time as a church should be organized. This was postponed until 1643 when
+considerations of safety demanded that the colony should become a member
+of the New Haven Jurisdiction, and then only to meet the requirements
+for admission to this union were the church and church state modelled
+after those of New Haven. Even then, though suffrage was restricted to
+church members, Guilford planters who were not church members were
+required to attend town meetings and were allowed to offer objections to
+any proposed order or law. From 1661 until the absorption of the members
+of the New Haven Jurisdiction by Connecticut, in 1664, William Leete
+(1611-1683), one of the founders of Guilford, was governor of the
+Jurisdiction, and under his leadership Guilford took a prominent part in
+furthering the submission to Connecticut, which did away with the church
+state and the restriction of suffrage to freemen. Guilford was the
+birthplace of Fitz-Greene Halleck (1790-1867), the poet; of Samuel
+Johnson (1696-1771), the first president of King's College (now Columbia
+University); of Abraham Baldwin (1754-1807), prominent as a statesman
+and the founder of the University of Georgia; and of Thomas Chittenden,
+the first governor of Vermont. The borough was incorporated in 1815.
+
+  See B. C. Steiner, _A History of the Plantation of Menunca-Tuck and of
+  the Original Town of Guilford, Connecticut_ (Baltimore, 1897), and
+  _Proceedings at the Celebration of the 250th Anniversary of the
+  Settlement of Guilford, Connecticut_ (New Haven, 1889).
+
+
+
+
+GUILLAUME, JEAN BAPTISTE CLAUDE EUGÈNE (1822-1905), French sculptor, was
+born at Montbard on the 4th of July 1822, and studied under Cavelier,
+Millet, and Barrias, at the École des Beaux-Arts, which he entered in
+1841, and where he gained the _prix de Rome_ in 1845 with "Theseus
+finding on a rock his Father's Sword." He became director of the École
+des Beaux-Arts in 1864, and director-general of Fine Arts from 1878 to
+1879, when the office was suppressed. Many of his works have been bought
+for public galleries, and his monuments are to be found in the public
+squares of the chief cities of France. At Rheims there is his bronze
+statue of "Colbert," at Dijon his "Rameau" monument. The Luxembourg
+Museum has his "Anacreon" (1852), "Les Gracques" (1853), "Faucheur"
+(1855), and the marble bust of "Mgr Darboy"; the Versailles Museum the
+portrait of "Thiers"; the Sorbonne Library the marble bust of "Victor le
+Clerc, doyen de la faculté des lettres." Other works of his are at
+Trinity Church, St Germain l'Auxerrois, and the church of St Clotilde,
+Paris. Guillaume was a prolific writer, principally on sculpture and
+architecture of the Classic period and of the Italian Renaissance. He
+was elected member of the Académie Française in 1862, and in 1891 was
+sent to Rome as director of the Académie de France in that city. He was
+also elected an honorary member of the Royal Academy, London, 1869, on
+the institution of that class.
+
+
+
+
+GUILLAUME DE LORRIS (fl. 1230), the author of the earlier section of the
+_Roman de la rose_, derives his surname from a small town about
+equidistant from Montargis and Gien, in the present department of
+Loiret. This and the fact of his authorship may be said to be the only
+things positively known about him. The rubric of the poem, where his own
+part finishes, attributes Jean de Meun's continuation to a period forty
+years later than William's death and the consequent interruption of the
+romance. Arguing backwards, this death used to be put at about 1260; but
+Jean de Meun's own work has recently been dated earlier, and so the
+composition of the first part has been thrown back to a period before
+1240. The author represents himself as having dreamed the dream which
+furnished the substance of the poem in his twentieth year, and as having
+set to work to "rhyme it" five years later. The later and longer part of
+the _Roman_ shows signs of greater intellectual vigour and wider
+knowledge than the earlier and shorter, but Guillaume de Lorris is to
+all appearance more original. The great features of his four or five
+thousand lines are, in the first place, the extraordinary vividness and
+beauty of his word-pictures, in which for colour, freshness and
+individuality he has not many rivals except in the greatest masters,
+and, secondly, the fashion of allegorical presentation, which, hackneyed
+and wearisome as it afterwards became, was evidently in his time new and
+striking. There are of course traces of it before, as in some romances,
+such as those of Raoul de Houdenc, in the troubadours, and in other
+writers; but it was unquestionably Guillaume de Lorris who fixed the
+style.
+
+  For an attempt to identify Guillaume de Lorris see L. Jarry,
+  _Guillaume de Lorris et le testament d'Alphonse de Poitiers_ (1881).
+  Also Paulin Paris in the _Hist. litt. de la France_, vol. xxiii.
+
+
+
+
+GUILLAUME DE PALERME (WILLIAM OF PALERNE), hero of romance. The French
+verse romance was written at the desire of a Countess Yolande, generally
+identified with Yolande, daughter of Baldwin IV., count of Flanders. The
+English poem in alliterative verse was written about 1350 by a poet
+called William, at the desire of Humphrey Bohun, earl of Hereford, (d.
+1361). Guillaume, a foundling supposed to be of low degree, is brought
+up at the court of the emperor of Rome, and loves his daughter Melior
+who is destined for a Greek prince. The lovers flee into the woods
+disguised in bear-skins. Alfonso, who is Guillaume's cousin and a
+Spanish prince, has been changed into a wolf by his step-mother's
+enchantments. He provides food and protection for the fugitives, and
+Guillaume eventually triumphs over Alfonso's father, and wins back from
+him his kingdom. The benevolent werwolf is disenchanted, and marries
+Guillaume's sister.
+
+  See _Guillaume de Palerne_, ed. H. Michelant (Soc. d. anc. textes fr.,
+  1876); _Hist. litt. de la France_, xxii. 829; _William of Palerme_,
+  ed. Sir F. Madden (Roxburghe Club, 1832), and W. W. Skeat (E. E. Text
+  Soc., extra series No. 1, 1867); M. Kaluza, in _Eng. Studien_
+  (Heilbronn, iv. 196). The prose version of the French romance, printed
+  by N. Bonfons, passed through several editions.
+
+
+
+
+GUILLAUME D'ORANGE (d. 812), also known as Guillaume Fierabrace, St
+Guillaume de Gellone, and the Marquis au court nez, was the central
+figure of the southern cycle of French romance, called by the
+_trouvères_ the _geste_ of Garin de Monglane. The cycle of Guillaume has
+more unity than the other great cycles of Charlemagne or of Doon de
+Mayence, the various poems which compose it forming branches of the main
+story rather than independent epic poems. There exist numerous cyclic
+MSS. in which there is an attempt at presenting a continuous _histoire
+poétique_ of Guillaume and his family. MS. Royal 20 D xi. in the British
+Museum contains eighteen _chansons_ of the cycle. Guillaume, son of
+Thierry or Theodoric and of Alde, daughter of Charles Martel, was born
+in the north of France about the middle of the 8th century. He became
+one of the best soldiers and trusted counsellors of Charlemagne, and In
+790 was made count of Toulouse, when Charles's son Louis the Pious was
+put under his charge. He subdued the Gascons, and defended Narbonne
+against the infidels. In 793 Hescham, the successor of Abd-al-Rahman
+II., proclaimed a holy war against the Christians, and collected an army
+of 100,000 men, half of which was directed against the kingdom of the
+Asturias, while the second invaded France, penetrating as far as
+Narbonne. Guillaume met the invaders near the river Orbieux, at
+Villedaigne, where he was defeated, but only after an obstinate
+resistance which so far exhausted the Saracens that they were compelled
+to retreat to Spain. He took Barcelona from the Saracens in 803, and in
+the next year founded the monastery of Gellone (now Saint Guilhem-le
+Désert), of which he became a member in 806. He died there in the odour
+of sanctity on the 28th of May 812.
+
+No less than thirteen historical personages bearing the name of William
+(Guillaume) have been thought by various critics to have their share in
+the formation of the legend. William, count of Provence, son of Boso
+II., again delivered southern France from a Saracen invasion by his
+victory at Fraxinet in 973, and ended his life in a cloister. William
+Tow-head (_Tête d'étoupe_), duke of Aquitaine (d. 983), showed a
+fidelity to Louis IV. paralleled by Guillaume d'Orange's service to
+Louis the Pious. The cycle of twenty or more _chansons_ which form the
+_geste_ of Guillaume reposes on the traditions of the Arab invasions of
+the south of France, from the battle of Poitiers (732) under Charles
+Martel onwards, and on the French conquest of Catalonia from the
+Saracens. In the Norse version of the Carolingian epic Guillaume appears
+in his proper historical environment, as a chief under Charlemagne; but
+he plays a leading part in the _Couronnement Looys_, describing the
+formal associations of Louis the Pious in the empire at Aix (813, the
+year after Guillaume's death), and after the battle of Aliscans it is
+from the emperor Louis that he seeks reinforcements. This anachronism
+arises from the fusion of the epic Guillaume with the champion of Louis
+IV., and from the fact that he was the military and civil chief of Louis
+the Pious, who was titular king of Aquitaine under his father from the
+time when he was three years old. The inconsistencies between the real
+and the epic Guillaume are often left standing in the poems. The
+personages associated with Guillaume in his Spanish wars belong to
+Provence, and have names common in the south. The most famous of these
+are Beuves de Comarchis, Ernaud de Girone, Garin d'Anséun, Aïmer le
+chétif, so called from his long captivity with the Saracens. The
+separate existence of Aïmer, who refused to sleep under a roof, and
+spent his whole life in warring against the infidel, is proved. He was
+Hadhemar, count of Narbonne, who in 809 and 810 was one of the leaders
+sent by Louis against Tortosa. No doubt the others had historical
+prototypes. In the hands of the _trouvères_ they became all brothers of
+Guillaume, and sons of Aymeri de Narbonne,[1] the grandson of Garin de
+Monglane, and his wife Ermenjart. Nevertheless when Guillaume seeks help
+from Louis the emperor he finds all his relations in Laon, in accordance
+with his historic Frankish origin.
+
+The central fact of the _geste_ of Guillaume is the battle of the
+Archamp or Aliscans, in which perished Guillaume's heroic nephew, Vezian
+or Vivien, a second Roland. At the eleventh hour he summoned Guillaume
+to his help against the overwhelming forces of the Saracens. Guillaume
+arrived too late to help Vivien, was himself defeated, and returned
+alone to his wife Guibourc, leaving his knights all dead or prisoners.
+This event is related in a Norman-French transcript of an old French
+_chanson de geste_, the _Chançun de Willame_--which only was brought to
+light in 1901 at the sale of the books of Sir Henry Hope Edwardes--in
+the _Covenant Vivien_, a recension of an older French chanson and in
+_Aliscans_. _Aliscans_ continues the story, telling how Guillaume
+obtained reinforcements from Laon, and how, with the help of the comic
+hero, the scullion Rainouart or Rennewart, he avenged the defeat of
+Aliscans and his nephew's death. Rainouart turns out to be the brother
+of Guillaume's wife Guibourc, who was before her marriage the Saracen
+princess and enchantress Orable. Two other poems are consecrated to his
+later exploits, _La Bataille Loquifer_, the work of a French Sicilian
+poet, Jendeu de Brie (fl. 1170), and _Le Moniage Rainouart_. The
+staring-point of Herbert le duc of Dammartin (fl. 1170) in _Foucon de
+Candie_ (Candie=Gandia in Spain?) is the return of Guillaume from the
+battle; and the Italian compilation _I Nerbonesi_, based on these and
+other _chansons_, seems in some cases to represent an earlier tradition
+than the later of the French _chansons_, although its author Andrea di
+Barberino wrote towards the end of the 14th century. The minnesinger
+Wolfram von Eschenbach based his _Willehalm_ on a French original which
+must have differed from the versions we have. The variations in the
+story of the defeat of Aliscans or the Archant, and the numerous
+inconsistencies of the narratives even when considered separately have
+occupied many critics. Aliscans (Aleschans, Alyscamps, Elysii Campi)
+was, however, generally taken to represent the battle of Villedaigne,
+and to take its name from the famous cemetery outside Arles. Wolfram von
+Eschenbach even mentions the tombs which studded the field of battle.
+Indications that this tradition was not unassailable were not lacking
+before the discovery of the _Chançun de Willame_, which, although
+preserved in a very corrupt form, represents the earliest recension we
+have of the story, dating at least from the beginning of the 12th
+century. It seems probable that the Archant was situated in Spain near
+Vivien's headquarters at Tortosa, and that Guillaume started from
+Barcelona, not from Orange, to his nephew's help. The account of the
+disaster was modified by successive _trouvères_, and the uncertainty of
+their methods may be judged by the fact that in the _Chançun de Willame_
+two consecutive accounts (11. 450-1326 and 11. 1326-2420) of the fight
+appear to be set side by side as if they were separate episodes. _Le
+Couronnement Looys_, already mentioned, _Le Charroi de Nîmes_ (12th
+century) in which Guillaume, who had been forgotten in the distribution
+of fiefs, enumerates his services to the terrified Louis, and _Aliscans_
+(12th century), with the earlier _Chançun_, are among the finest of the
+French epic poems. The figure of Vivien is among the most heroic
+elaborated by the _trouvères_, and the giant Rainouart has more than a
+touch of Rabelaisian humour.
+
+  The _chansons de geste_ of the cycle of Guillaume are: _Enfances Garin
+  de Monglane_ (15th century) and _Garin de Monglane_ (13th century), on
+  which is founded the prose romance of _Guérin de Monglane_, printed in
+  the 15th century by Jehan Trepperel and often later; _Girars de Viane_
+  (13th century, by Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube), ed. P. Tarbé (Reims,
+  1850); _Hernaut de Beaulande_ (fragment 14th century); _Renier de
+  Gennes_, which only survives in its prose form; _Aymeri de Narbonne_
+  (c. 1210) by Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube, ed. L. Demaison (Soc. des anc.
+  textes fr., Paris, 2 vols., 1887); _Les Enfances Guillaume_ (13th
+  century); _Les Narbonnais_, ed. H. Suchier (Soc. des anc. textes fr.,
+  2 vols., 1898), with a Latin fragment dating from the 11th century,
+  preserved at the Hague; _Le Couronnement Looys_ (ed. E. Langlois,
+  1888), _Le Charroi de Nîmes_, _La Prise d'Orange_, _Le Covenant
+  Vivien_, _Aliscans_, which were edited by W. J. A. Jonckbloet in vol.
+  i. of his _Guillaume d'Orange_ (The Hague, 1854); a critical text of
+  _Aliscans_ (Halle, 1903, vol. i.) is edited by E. Wienbeck, W.
+  Hartnacke and P. Rasch; _Loquifer_ and _Le Moniage Rainouart_ (12th
+  century); _Bovon de Commarchis_ (13th century), recension of the
+  earlier Siège de Barbastre, by Adenès li Rois, ed. A. Scheler
+  (Brussels, 1874); _Guibert d'Andrenas_ (13th century); _La Prise de
+  Cordres_ (13th century); _La Mort Aimeri de Narbonne_, ed. J. Couraye
+  de Parc (Soc. des Anciens Textes français, Paris, 1884); _Foulque de
+  Candie_ (ed. P. Tarbé, Reims, 1860); _Le Moniage Guillaume_ (12th
+  century); _Les Enfances Vivien_ (ed. C. Wahlund and H. v. Feilitzen,
+  Upsala and Paris, 1895); _Chançun de Willame_ (Chiswick Press, 1903),
+  described by P. Meyer in _Romania_ (xxxiii. 597-618). The ninth branch
+  of the _Karlamagnus Saga_ (ed. C. R. Unger, Christiania, 1860) deals
+  with the _geste_ of Guillaume. _I Nerbonesi_ is edited by J. G. Isola
+  (Bologna, 1877, &c.).
+
+  See C. Révillout, _Étude hist. et litt. sur la vita sancti Willelmi_
+  (Montpellier, 1876); W. J. A. Jonckbloet, _Guillaume d'Orange_ (2
+  vols., 1854, The Hague); L. Clarus (ps. for W. Volk), _Herzog Wilhelm
+  von Aquitanien_ (Münster, 1865); P. Paris, _in Hist. litt. de la
+  France_ (vol. xxii., 1852); L. Gautier, _Épopées françaises_ (vol.
+  iv., 2nd ed., 1882); R. Weeks, _The newly discovered Chançun de
+  Willame_ (Chicago, 1904); A. Thomas, _Études romanes_ (Paris, 1891),
+  on Vivien; L. Saltet, "S. Vidian de Martres-Tolosanes" in _Bull. de
+  litt. ecclés._ (Toulouse, 1902); P. Becker, _Die altfrz. Wilhelmsage
+  u. ihre Beziehung zu Wilhelm dem Heiligen_ (Halle, 1896), and _Der
+  südfranzösische Sagenkreis und seine Probleme_ (Halle, 1898); A.
+  Jeanroy, "Études sur le cycle de Guillaume au court nez" (in
+  _Romania_, vols. 25 and 26, 1896-1897); H. Suchier, "Recherches sur
+  ... Guillaume d'Orange" (in _Romania_, vol. 32, 1903). The conclusions
+  arrived at by earlier writers are combated by Joseph Bédier in the
+  first volume, "Le Cycle de Guillaume d'Orange" (1908), of his
+  _Légendes épiques_, in which he constructs a theory that the cycle of
+  Guillaume d'Orange grew up round the various shrines on the pilgrim
+  route to Saint Gilles of Provence and Saint James of Compostella--that
+  the _chansons de geste_ were, in fact, the product of 11th and 12th
+  century trouvères, exploiting local ecclesiastical traditions, and
+  were not developed from earlier poems dating back perhaps to the
+  lifetime of Guillaume of Toulouse, the saint of Gellone.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The poem of _Aymeri de Narbonne_ contains the account of the
+    young Aymeri's brilliant capture of Narbonne, which he then receives
+    as a fief from Charlemagne, of his marriage with Ermenjart, sister of
+    Boniface, king of the Lombards, and of their children. The fifth
+    daughter, Blanchefleur, is represented as the wife of Louis the
+    Pious. The opening of this poem furnished, though indirectly, the
+    matter of the _Aymerillot_ of Victor Hugo's _Légende des siècles_.
+
+
+
+
+GUILLEMOT (Fr. _guillemot_[1]), the name accepted by nearly all modern
+authors for a sea-bird, the _Colymbus troile_ of Linnaeus and the _Uria
+troile_ of Latham, which nowadays it seems seldom if ever to bear among
+those who, from their vocation, are most conversant with it, though,
+according to Willughby and Ray his translator, it was in their time so
+called "by those of Northumberland and Durham." Around the coasts of
+Britain it is variously known as the frowl, kiddaw or skiddaw, langy
+(cf. Ice. _Langvia_), lavy, marrock, murre, scout (cf. COOT), scuttock,
+strany, tinker or tinkershire and willock. In former days the guillemot
+yearly frequented the cliffs on many parts of the British coasts in
+countless multitudes, and this is still the case in the northern parts
+of the United Kingdom; but more to the southward nearly all its smaller
+settlements have been rendered utterly desolate by the wanton and cruel
+destruction of their tenants during the breeding season, and even the
+inhabitants of those which were more crowded had become so thinned that,
+but for the intervention of the Sea Birds Preservation Act (32 & 33
+Vict. cap. 17), which provided under penalty for the safety of this and
+certain other species at the time of year when they were most exposed to
+danger, they would unquestionably by this time have been exterminated so
+far as England is concerned.
+
+Part of the guillemot's history is still little understood. We know that
+it arrives at its wonted breeding stations on its accustomed day in
+spring, that it remains there till, towards the end of the summer, its
+young are hatched and able, as they soon are, to encounter the perils of
+a seafaring life, when away go all, parents and progeny. After that time
+it commonly happens that a few examples are occasionally met with in
+bays and shallow waters. Tempestuous weather will drive ashore a large
+number in a state of utter destitution--many of them indeed are not
+unfrequently washed up dead--but what becomes of the bulk of the birds,
+not merely the comparatively few thousands that are natives of Britain,
+but the tens and hundreds of thousands, not to say millions, that are in
+summer denizens of more northern latitudes, no one can say. This mystery
+is not peculiar to the guillemot, but is shared by all the _Alcidae_
+that inhabit the Atlantic Ocean. Examples stray every season across the
+Bay of Biscay, are found off the coasts of Spain and Portugal, enter
+the Mediterranean and reach Italian waters, or, keeping farther south,
+may even touch the Madeiras, Canaries or Azores; but these bear no
+proportion whatever to the mighty hosts of whom they are literally the
+"scouts," and whose position and movements they no more reveal than do
+the vedettes of a well-appointed army. The common guillemot of both
+sides of the Atlantic is replaced farther northward by a species with a
+stouter bill, the _U. arra_ or _U. bruennichi_ of ornithologists, and on
+the west coast of North America by the _U. californica_. The habits of
+all these are essentially the same, and the structural resemblance
+between all of them and the Auks is so great that several systematists
+have relegated them to the genus _Alca_, confining the genus _Uria_ to
+the guillemots of another group, of which the type is the _U. grylla_,
+the black guillemot of British authors, the dovekey or Greenland dove of
+sailors, the tysty of Shetlanders. This bird assumes in summer an
+entirely black plumage with the exception of a white patch on each wing,
+while in winter it is beautifully marbled with white and black. Allied
+to it as species or geographical races are the _U. mandti_, _U. columba_
+and _U. carbo_. All these differ from the larger guillemots by laying
+two or three eggs, which are generally placed in some secure niche,
+while the members of the other group lay but a single egg, which is
+invariably exposed on a bare ledge.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The word, however, seems to be cognate with or derived from the
+    Welsh and Manx _Guillem_, or _Gwilym_ as Pennant spells it. The
+    association may have no real meaning, but one cannot help comparing
+    the resemblance between the French _guillemot_ and _Guillaume_ with
+    that between the English willock (another name for the bird) and
+    William.
+
+
+
+
+GUILLOCHE, a French word for an ornament, either painted or carved,
+which was one of the principal decorative bands employed by the Greeks
+in their temples or on their vases. Guilloches are single, double or
+triple; they consist of a series of circles equidistant one from the
+other and enclosed in a band which winds round them and interlaces. This
+guilloche is of Asiatic origin and was largely employed in the
+decoration of the Assyrian palaces, where it was probably copied from
+Chaldaean work, as there is an early example at Erech which dates from
+the time of Gudea (2294 B.C.). The ornament as painted by the Greeks has
+almost entirely disappeared, but traces are found in the temple of
+Nemesis at Rhamnus; and on the terra-cotta slabs by which the timber
+roofs of Greek temples were protected, it is painted in colours which
+are almost as brilliant as when first produced, those of the Treasury of
+Gela at Olympia being of great beauty. These examples are double
+guilloches, with two rows of circles, each with an independent
+interlacing band and united by a small arc with palmette inside; in both
+the single and double guilloches of Greek work there is a flower in the
+centre of the circles. In the triple guilloche, the centre row of
+circles comes half-way between the others, and the enclosing band
+crosses diagonally both ways, interlacing alternately. The best example
+of the triple guilloche is that which is carved on the torus moulding of
+the base and on the small convex moulding above the echinus of the
+capitals of the columns of the Erechtheum at Athens. It was largely
+employed in Roman work, and the single guilloche is found almost
+universally as a border in mosaic pavements, not only in Italy but
+throughout Europe. In the Renaissance in Italy it was also a favourite
+enrichment for borders and occasionally in France and England.
+
+
+
+
+GUILLON, MARIE NICOLAS SYLVESTRE (1760-1847), French ecclesiastic, was
+born in Paris on the 1st of January 1760. He was librarian and almoner
+in the household of the princess de Lamballe, and when in 1792 she was
+executed, he fled to the provinces, where under the name of Pastel he
+practised medicine. A man of facile conscience, he afterwards served in
+turn under Napoleon, the Bourbons and the Orleanists, and became canon
+of St Denis, bishop of Morocco and dean of the Sorbonne.
+
+  Among his many literary works are a _Collection des brefs du pape Pie
+  VI_ (1798), _Bibliothèque choisie des pères grecs et latins_ (1822, 26
+  vols.) and a French translation of Cyprian with notes (1837, 2 vols.).
+
+
+
+
+GUILLOTINE, the instrument for inflicting capital punishment by
+decapitation, introduced into France at the period of the Revolution. It
+consists of two upright posts surmounted by a cross beam, and grooved so
+as to guide an oblique-edged knife, the back of which is heavily
+weighted to make it fall swiftly and with force when the cord by which
+it is held aloft is let go. Some ascribe the invention of the machine
+to the Persians; and previous to the period when it obtained notoriety
+under its present name it had been in use in Scotland, England and
+various parts of the continent. There is still preserved In the
+antiquarian museum of Edinburgh the rude guillotine called the "maiden"
+by which the regent Morton was decapitated in 1581. The last persons
+decapitated by the Scottish "maiden" were the marquis of Argyll in 1661
+and his son the earl of Argyll in 1685. It would appear that no similar
+machine was ever in general use in England; but until 1650 there existed
+in the forest of Hardwick, which was coextensive with the parish of
+Halifax, West Riding, Yorkshire, a mode of trial and execution called
+the gibbet law, by which a felon convicted of theft within the liberty
+was sentenced to be decapitated by a machine called the Halifax gibbet.
+A print of it is contained in a small book called _Halifax and its
+Gibbet Law_ (1708), and in Gibson's edition of Camden's _Britannia_
+(1722). In Germany the machine was in general use during the middle
+ages, under the name of the _Diele_, the _Hobel_ or the _Dolabra_. Two
+old German engravings, the one by George Penez, who died in 1550, and
+the other by Heinrich Aldegrever, with the date 1553, represent the
+death of a son of Titus Manlius by a similar instrument, and its
+employment for the execution of a Spartan is the subject of the
+engraving of the eighteenth symbol in the volume entitled _Symbolicae
+quaestiones de universo genere_, by Achilles Bocchi (1555). From the
+13th century it was used in Italy under the name of _Mannaia_ for the
+execution of criminals of noble birth. The _Chronique de Jean d'Anton_,
+first published in 1835, gives minute details of an execution in which
+it was employed at Genoa in 1507; and it is elaborately described by
+Père Jean Baptiste Labat in his _Voyage en Espagne et en Italie en
+1730_. It is mentioned by Jacques, viscomte de Puységur, in his
+_Mémoires_ as in use in the south of France, and he describes the
+execution by it of Marshal Montmorency at Toulouse in 1632. For about a
+century it had, however, fallen into general disuse on the continent;
+and Dr Guillotine, who first suggested its use in modern times, is said
+to have obtained his information regarding it from the description of an
+execution that took place at Milan in 1702, contained in an anonymous
+work entitled _Voyage historique et politique de Suisse, d'Italie, et
+d'Allemagne_.
+
+Guillotine, who was born at Saintes, May 28, 1738, and elected to the
+Constituent Assembly in 1789, brought forward on the 1st December of
+that year two propositions regarding capital punishment, the second of
+which was that, "in all cases of capital punishment it shall be of the
+same kind--that is, decapitation--and it shall be executed by means of a
+machine." The reasons urged in support of this proposition were that in
+cases of capital punishment the privilege of execution by decapitation
+should no longer be confined to the nobles, and that it was desirable to
+render the process of execution as swift and painless as possible. The
+debate was brought to a sudden termination in peals of laughter caused
+by an indiscreet reference of Dr Guillotine to his machine, but his
+ideas seem gradually to have leavened the minds of the Assembly, and
+after various debates decapitation was adopted as the method of
+execution in the penal code which became law on the 6th October 1791. At
+first it was intended that decapitation should be by the sword, but on
+account of a memorandum by M. Sanson, the executioner, pointing out the
+expense and certain other inconveniences attending that method, the
+Assembly referred the question to a committee, at whose request Dr
+Antoine Louis, secretary to the Academy of Surgeons, prepared a
+memorandum on the subject. Without mentioning the name of Guillotine, it
+recommended the adoption of an instrument similar to that which was
+formerly suggested by him. The Assembly decided in favour of the report,
+and the contract was offered to the person who usually provided the
+instruments of justice; but, as his terms were considered exorbitant, an
+agreement was ultimately come to with a German of the name of Schmidt,
+who, under the direction of M. Louis, furnished a machine for each of
+the French departments. After satisfactory experiments had been made
+with the machine on several dead bodies in the hospital of Bicêtre, it
+was erected on the Place de Grève for the execution of the highwayman
+Pelletier on the 25th April 1792. While the experiments regarding the
+machine were being carried on, it received the name _Louisette_ or _La
+Petite Louison_, but the mind of the nation seems soon to have reverted
+to Guillotine, who first suggested its use; and in the _Journal des
+révolutions de Paris_ for 28th April 1792 it is mentioned as _la
+guillotine_, a name which it thenceforth bore both popularly and
+officially. In 1795 the question was much debated as to whether or not
+death by the guillotine was instantaneous, and in support of the
+negative side the case of Charlotte Corday was adduced whose
+countenance, it is said, blushed as if with indignation when the
+executioner, holding up the head to the public gaze, struck it with his
+fist. The connexion of the instrument with the horrors of the Revolution
+has hindered its introduction into other countries, but in 1853 it was
+adopted under the name of _Fallschwert_ or _Fallbeil_ by the kingdom of
+Saxony; and it is used for the execution of sentences of death in
+France, Belgium and some parts of Germany. It has often been stated that
+Dr Guillotine perished by the instrument which bears his name, but it is
+beyond question that he survived the Revolution and died a natural death
+in 1814.
+
+  See Sédillot, _Réflexions historiques et physiologiques sur le
+  supplice de la guillotine_ (1795); Sue, _Opinion sur le supplice de la
+  guillotine_, (1796); Réveillé-Parise, _Étude biographique sur
+  Guillotine_ (Paris, 1851); _Notice historique et physiologique sur le
+  supplice de la guillotine_ (Paris, 1830); Louis Dubois, _Recherches
+  historiques et physiologiques sur la guillotine et détails sur Sanson_
+  (Paris, 1843); and a paper by J. W. Croker in the _Quarterly Review_
+  for December 1843, reprinted separately in 1850 under the title _The
+  Guillotine, a historical Essay_.
+
+
+
+
+GUILT, a lapse from duty, a crime, now usually the fact of wilful
+wrong-doing, the condition of being guilty of a crime, hence conduct
+deserving of punishment. The O. Eng. form of the word is _gylt_. The
+_New English Dictionary_ rejects for phonetic reasons the usually
+accepted connexion with the Teutonic root _gald_-, to pay, seen in Ger.
+_gelten_, to be of value, _Geld_, money, payment, English "yield."
+
+
+
+
+GUIMARÃES (sometimes written _Guimaraens_), a town of northern Portugal,
+in the district of Braga, formerly included in the province of
+Entre-Minho-e-Douro; 36 m. N.E. of Oporto by the Trofa-Guimarães branch
+of the Oporto-Corunna railway. Pop. (1900) 9104. Guimarães is a very
+ancient town with Moorish fortifications; and even the quarters which
+are locally described as "new" date partly from the 15th century. It
+occupies a low hill, skirted on the north-west by a small tributary of
+the river Ave. The citadel, founded in the 11th century by Count Henry
+of Burgundy, was in 1094 the birthplace of his son Alphonso, the first
+king of Portugal. The font in which Alphonso was baptized is preserved,
+among other interesting relics, in the collegiate church of Santa Maria
+da Oliveira, "St Mary of the Olive," a Romanesque building of the 14th
+century, which occupies the site of an older foundation. This church
+owes its name to the legend that the Visigothic king Wamba (672-680)
+here declined the crown of Spain, until his olive wood spear-shaft
+blossomed as a sign that he should consent. The convent of São Domingos,
+now a museum of antiquities, has a fine 12th-13th century cloister; the
+town hall is built in the blend of Moorish and Gothic architecture known
+as Manoelline. Guimarães has a flourishing trade in wine and farm
+produce; it also manufactures cutlery, linen, leather and preserved
+fruits. Near the town are Citania, the ruins of a prehistoric Iberian
+city, and the hot sulphurous springs of Taipas, frequented since the 4th
+century, when Guimarães itself was founded.
+
+
+
+
+GUIMARD, MARIE MADELEINE (1743-1816), French dancer, was born in Paris
+on the 10th of October 1743. For twenty-five years she was the star of
+the Paris Opéra. She made herself even more famous by her love affairs,
+especially by her long liaison with the prince de Soubise. She bought a
+magnificent house at Pantin, and built a private theatre connected with
+it, where Collé's _Partie de chasse de Henri IV_ which was prohibited in
+public, and most of the _Proverbes_ of Carmontelle (Louis Carrogis,
+1717-1806), and similar licentious performances were given to the
+delight of high society. In 1772, in defiance of the archbishop of
+Paris, she opened a gorgeous house with a theatre seating five hundred
+spectators in the Chaussée d'Antin. In this Temple of Terpsichore, as
+she named it, the wildest orgies took place. In 1786 she was compelled
+to get rid of the property, and it was disposed of by lottery for her
+benefit for the sum of 300,000 francs. Soon after her retirement in 1789
+she married Jean Etienne Despréaux (1748-1820), dancer, song-writer and
+playwright.
+
+
+
+
+GUIMET, JEAN BAPTISTE (1795-1871), French industrial chemist, was born
+at Voiron on the 20th of July 1795. He studied at the École
+Polytechnique in Paris, and in 1817 entered the Administration des
+Poudres et Salpêtres. In 1828 he was awarded the prize offered by the
+Société d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale for a process of
+making artificial ultramarine with all the properties of the substance
+prepared from lapis lazuli; and six years later he resigned his official
+position in order to devote himself to the commercial production of that
+material, a factory for which he established at Fleurieux sur Saône. He
+died on the 8th of April 1871.
+
+His son ÉMILE ÉTIENNE GUIMET, born at Lyons on the 26th of June 1836,
+succeeded him in the direction of the factory, and founded the Musée
+Guimet, which was first located at Lyons in 1879 and was handed over to
+the state and transferred to Paris in 1885. Devoted to travel, he was in
+1876 commissioned by the minister of public instruction to study the
+religions of the Far East, and the museum contains many of the fruits of
+this expedition, including a fine collection of Japanese and Chinese
+porcelain and many objects relating not merely to the religions of the
+East but also to those of Ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome. He wrote
+_Lettres sur l'Algérie_ (1877) and _Promenades japonaises_ (1880), and
+also some musical compositions, including a grand opera, _Taï-Tsoung_
+(1894).
+
+
+
+
+GUINEA, the general name applied by Europeans to part of the western
+coast region of equatorial Africa, and also to the gulf formed by the
+great bend of the coast line eastward and then southward. Like many
+other geographical designations the use of which is controlled neither
+by natural nor political boundaries, the name has been very differently
+employed by different writers and at different periods. In the widest
+acceptation of the term, the Guinea coast may be said to extend from 13°
+N. to 16° S., from the neighbourhood of the Gambia to Cape Negro.
+Southern or Lower Guinea comprises the coasts of Gabun and Loango (known
+also as French Congo) and the Portuguese possessions on the south-west
+coast, and Northern or Upper Guinea stretches from the river Casamance
+to and inclusive of the Niger delta, Cameroon occupying a middle
+position. In a narrower use of the name, Guinea is the coast only from
+Cape Palmas to the Gabun estuary. Originally, on the other hand, Guinea
+was supposed to begin as far north as Cape Nun, opposite the Canary
+Islands, and Gomes Azurara, a Portuguese historian of the 15th century,
+is said to be the first authority who brings the boundary south to the
+Senegal. The derivation of the name is uncertain, but is probably taken
+from Ghinea, Ginnie, Genni or Jenné, a town and kingdom in the basin of
+the Niger, famed for the enterprise of its merchants and dating from the
+8th century A.D. The name Guinea is found on maps of the middle of the
+14th century, but it did not come into general use in Europe till
+towards the close of the 15th century.[1]
+
+Although the term Gulf of Guinea is applied generally to that part of
+the coast south of Cape Palmas and north of the mouth of the Congo,
+particular indentations have their peculiar designations. The bay formed
+by the configuration of the land between Cape St Paul and the Nun mouth
+of the Niger is known as the Bight of Benin, the name being that of the
+once powerful native state whose territory formerly extended over the
+whole district. The Bight of Biafra, or Mafra (named after the town of
+Mafra in southern Portugal), between Capes Formosa and Lopez, is the
+most eastern part of the Gulf of Guinea; it contains the islands
+Fernando Po, Prince's and St Thomas's. The name Biafra--as indicating
+the country--fell into disuse in the later part of the 19th century.
+
+The coast is generally so low as to be visible to navigators only within
+a very short distance, the mangrove trees being their only sailing
+marks. In the Bight of Biafra the coast forms an exception, being high
+and bold, with the Cameroon Mountains for background. At Sierra Leone
+also there is high land. The coast in many places maintains a dead level
+for 30 to 50 m. inland. Vegetation is exceedingly luxuriant and varied.
+The palm-oil tree is indigenous and abundant from the river Gambia to
+the Congo. The fauna comprises nearly all the more remarkable of African
+animals. The inhabitants are the true Negro stock.
+
+By the early traders the coast of Upper Guinea was given names founded
+on the productions characteristic of the different parts. The Grain
+coast, that part of the Guinea coast extending for 500 m. from Sierra
+Leone eastward to Cape Palmas received its name from the export of the
+seeds of several plants of a peppery character, called variously grains
+of paradise, Guinea pepper and melegueta. The name Grain coast was first
+applied to this region in 1455. It was occasionally styled the Windy or
+Windward coast, from the frequency of short but furious tornadoes
+throughout the year. Towards the end of the 18th century, Guinea pepper
+was supplanted in Europe by peppers from the East Indies. The name now
+is seldom used, the Grain coast being divided between the British colony
+of Sierra Leone and the republic of Liberia. The Ivory coast extends
+from Cape Palmas to 3° W., and obtained its name from the quantity of
+ivory exported therefrom. It is now a French possession. Eastwards of
+the Ivory coast are the Gold and Slave coasts. The Niger delta was for
+long known as the Oil rivers. To two regions only of the coast is the
+name Guinea officially applied, the French and Portuguese colonies north
+of Sierra Leone being so styled.
+
+Of the various names by which the divisions of Lower Guinea were known,
+Loango was applied to the country south of the Gabun and north of the
+Congo river. It is now chiefly included in French Congo. Congo was used
+to designate the country immediately south of the river of the same
+name, usually spoken of until the last half of the 19th century as the
+Zaire. Congo is now one of the subdivisions of Portuguese West Africa
+(see ANGOLA). It must not be confounded with the Belgian Congo.
+
+Few questions in historical geography have been more keenly discussed
+than that of the first discovery of Guinea by the navigators of modern
+Europe. Lancelot Malocello, a Genoese, in 1270 reached at least as far
+as the Canaries. The first direct attempt to find a sea route to India
+was, it is said, also made by Genoese, Ugolino and Guido de Vivaldo,
+Tedisio Doria and others who equipped two galleys and sailed south along
+the African coast in 1291. Beyond the fact that they passed Cape Nun
+there is no trustworthy record of their voyage. In 1346 a Catalan
+expedition started for "the river of gold" on the Guinea coast; its fate
+is unknown. The French claim that between 1364 and 1410 the people of
+Dieppe sent out several expeditions to Guinea; and Jean de Béthencourt,
+who settled in the Canaries about 1402, made explorations towards the
+south. At length the consecutive efforts of the navigators employed by
+Prince Henry of Portugal--Gil Eannes, Diniz Diaz, Nuno Tristam, Alvaro
+Fernandez, Cadamosto, Usodimare and Diego Gomez--made known the coast as
+far as the Gambia, and by the end of the 15th century the whole region
+was familiar to Europeans.
+
+  For further information see SENEGAL, GOLD COAST, IVORY COAST, FRENCH
+  GUINEA, PORTUGUESE GUINEA, LIBERIA, &c. For the history of European
+  discoveries, consult G. E. de Azurara, _Chronica de descobrimento e
+  conquista de Guiné_, published, with an introduction, by Barros de
+  Santarem (Paris, 1841), English translation, _The Discovery and
+  Conquest of Guinea_, by C. R. Beazley and E. Prestage (Hakluyt Society
+  publications, 2 vols., London, 1896-1899, vol. ii. has an
+  introduction on the early history of African exploration, &c. with
+  full bibliographical notes). L. Estancelin, _Recherches sur les
+  voyages et découvertes des navigateurs normands en Afrique_ (Paris,
+  1832); Villault de Bellefond, _Relation des costes d'Afrique appellées
+  Guinée_ (Paris, 1669); Père Labat, _Nouvelle Relation de l'Afrique
+  occidentale_ (Paris, 1728); Desmarquets, _Mém. chron. pour servir à
+  l'hist. de Dieppe_ (1875); Santarem, _Priorité de la découverte des
+  pays situés sur la côte occidentale d'Afrique_ (Paris, 1842); R. H.
+  Major, _Life of Prince Henry the Navigator_ (London, 1868); and the
+  elaborate review of Major's work by M. Codine in the _Bulletin de la
+  Soc. de Géog._ (1873); A. E. Nordenskiöld, _Periplus_ (Stockholm,
+  1897); _The Story of Africa_, vol. i. (London, 1892), edited by Dr
+  Robert Brown.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Guinea may, however, be derived from Ghana (or Ghanata) the name
+    of the oldest known state in the western Sudan. Ghana dates,
+    according to some authorities, from the 3rd century A.D. From the 7th
+    to the 12th century it was a powerful empire, its dominions
+    extending, apparently, from the Atlantic to the Niger bend. At one
+    time Jenné was included within its borders. Ghana was finally
+    conquered by the Mandingo kings of Melle in the 13th century. Its
+    capital, also called Ghana, was west of the Niger, and is generally
+    placed some 200 m. west of Jenné. In this district L. Desplagnes
+    discovered in 1907 numerous remains of a once extensive city, which
+    he identified as those of Ghana. The ruins lie 25 m. W. of the Niger,
+    on both banks of a marigot, and are about 40 m. N. by E. of Kulikoro
+    (see _La Géographie_, xvi. 329). By some writers Ghana city is,
+    however, identified with Walata, which town is mentioned by Arab
+    historians as the capital of Ghanata. The identification of Ghana
+    city with Jenné is not justified, though Idrisi seems to be
+    describing Jenné when writing of "Ghana the Great."
+
+
+
+
+GUINEA, a gold coin at one time current in the United Kingdom. It was
+first coined in 1663, in the reign of Charles II., from gold imported
+from the Guinea coast of West Africa by a company of merchants trading
+under charter from the British crown--hence the name. Many of the first
+guineas bore an elephant on one side, this being the stamp of the
+company; in 1675 a castle was added. Issued at the same time as the
+guinea were five-guinea, two-guinea and half-guinea pieces. The current
+value of the guinea on its first issue was twenty shillings. It was
+subsidiary to the silver coinage, but this latter was in such an
+unsatisfactory state that the guinea in course of time became
+over-valued in relation to silver, so much so that in 1694 it had risen
+in value to thirty shillings. The rehabilitation of the silver coinage
+in William III.'s reign brought down the value of the guinea to 21s. 6d.
+in 1698, at which it stood until 1717, when its value was fixed at
+twenty-one shillings. This value the guinea retained until its
+disappearance from the coinage. It was last coined in 1813, and was
+superseded in 1817 by the present principal gold coin, the sovereign. In
+1718 the quarter-guinea was first coined. The third-guinea was first
+struck in George III.'s reign (1787). To George III.'s reign also
+belongs the "spade-guinea," a guinea having the shield on the reverse
+pointed at the base or spade-shaped. It is still customary to pay
+subscriptions, professional fees and honoraria of all kinds, in terms of
+"guineas," a guinea being twenty-one shillings.
+
+
+
+
+GUINEA FOWL, a well-known domestic gallinaceous bird, so called from the
+country whence in modern times it was brought to Europe, the _Meleagris_
+and _Avis_ or _Gallina Numidica_ of ancient authors.[1] Little is
+positively known of the wild stock to which we owe our tame birds, nor
+can the period of its reintroduction (for there is apparently no
+evidence of its domestication being continuous from the time of the
+Romans) be assigned more than roughly to that of the African discoveries
+of the Portuguese. It does not seem to have been commonly known till the
+middle of the 16th century, when John Caius sent a description and
+figure, with the name _Gallus Mauritanus_, to Gesner, who published both
+in his _Paralipomena_ in 1555, and in the same year Belon also gave a
+notice and woodcut under the name of _Poulle de la Guinée_; but while
+the former authors properly referred their bird to the ancient
+_Meleagris_, the latter confounded the _Meleagris_ and the turkey.
+
+The ordinary guinea fowl of the poultry-yard (see also POULTRY AND
+POULTRY-FARMING) is the _Numida meleagris_ of ornithologists. The chief
+or only changes which domestication seems to have induced in its
+appearance are a tendency to albinism generally shown in the plumage of
+its lower parts, and frequently, though not always, the conversion of
+the colour of its legs and feet from dark greyish-brown to bright
+orange. That the home of this species is West Africa from the Gambia[2]
+to the Gaboon is certain, but its range in the interior is quite
+unknown. It appears to have been imported early into the Cape Verd
+Islands, where, as also in some of the Greater Antilles and in
+Ascension, it has run wild. Representing the species in South Africa we
+have the _N. coronata_, which is very numerous from the Cape Colony to
+Ovampoland, and the _N. cornuta_ of Drs Finsch and Hartlaub, which
+replaces it in the west as far as the Zambesi. Madagascar also has its
+peculiar species, distinguishable by its red crown, the _N. mitrata_ of
+Pallas, a name which has often been misapplied to the last. This bird
+has been introduced to Rodriguez, where it is now found wild. Abyssinia
+is inhabited by another species, the _N. ptilorhyncha_,[3] which differs
+from all the foregoing by the absence of any red colouring about the
+head. Very different from all of them, and the finest species known, is
+the _N. vulturina_ of Zanzibar, conspicuous by the bright blue in its
+plumage, the hackles that adorn the lower part of its neck, and its long
+tail. By some writers it is thought to form a separate genus,
+_Acryllium_. All these guinea fowls except the last are characterized by
+having the crown bare of feathers and elevated into a bony "helmet," but
+there is another group (to which the name _Guttera_ has been given) in
+which a thick tuft of feathers ornaments the top of the head. This
+contains four or five species, all inhabiting some part or other of
+Africa, the best known being the _N. cristata_ from Sierra Leone and
+other places on the western coast. This bird, apparently mentioned by
+Marcgrave more than 200 years ago, but first described by Pallas, is
+remarkable for the structure--unique, if not possessed by its
+representative forms--of its _furcula_, where the head, instead of being
+the thin plate found in all other _Gallinae_, is a hollow cup opening
+upwards, into which the trachea dips, and then emerges on its way to the
+lungs. Allied to the genus _Numida_, but readily distinguished form
+among other characters by the possession of spurs and the absence of a
+helmet, are two very rare forms, _Agelastes_ and _Phasidus_, both from
+western Africa. Of their habits nothing is known. All these birds are
+beautifully figured in Elliot's _Monograph of the Phasianidae_, from
+drawings by Wolf.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Columella (_De re rustica_, viii. cap. 2) distinguishes the
+    _Meleagris_ from the _Gallina Africana_ or _Numidica_, the latter
+    having, he says, a red wattle (_palea_, a reading obviously
+    preferable to _galea_), while it was blue in the former. This would
+    look as if the _Meleagris_ had sprung from what is now called _Numida
+    ptilorhyncha_, while the _Gallina Africana_ originated in the _N.
+    meleagris_, species which have a different range, and if so the fact
+    would point to two distinct introductions--one by Greeks, the other
+    by Latins.
+
+  [2] Specimens from the Gambia are said to be smaller, and have been
+    described as distinct under the name of _N. rendalli_.
+
+  [3] Darwin (_Anim. and Pl. under Domestication_, i. 294), gives this
+    as the original stock of the modern domestic birds, but obviously by
+    an accidental error. As before observed, it may possibly have been
+    the true [Greek: meleagris] of the Greeks.
+
+
+
+
+GUINEA-WORM (_Dracontiasis_), a disease due to the _Filaria medinensis_,
+or _Dracunculus_, or Guinea-worm, a filarious nematode like a
+horse-hair, whose most frequent habitat is the subcutaneous and
+intramuscular tissues of the legs and feet. It is common on the Guinea
+coast, and in many other tropical and subtropical regions and has been
+familiarly known since ancient times. The condition of dracontiasis due
+to it is a very common one, and sometimes amounts to an epidemic. The
+black races are most liable, but Europeans of almost any social rank and
+of either sex are not altogether exempt. The worm lives in water, and,
+like the _Filaria sanguinis hominis_, appears to have an intermediate
+host for its larval stage. It is doubtful whether the worm penetrates
+the skin of the legs directly; it is not impossible that the
+intermediate host (a cyclops) which contains the larvae may be swallowed
+with the water, and that the larvae of the _Dracunculus_ may be set free
+in the course of digestion.
+
+
+
+
+GÜINES, a town in the interior of Havana province, Cuba, about 30 m.
+S.E. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 8053. It is situated on a plain, in the
+midst of a rich plantation district, chiefly devoted to the cultivation
+of tobacco. The first railway in Cuba was built from Havana to Güines
+between 1835 and 1838. One of the very few good highways of the island
+also connects Güines with the capital. The pueblo of Güines, which was
+built on a great private estate of the same name, dates back to about
+1735. The church dates from 1850. Güines became a "villa" in 1814, and
+was destroyed by fire in 1817.
+
+
+
+
+GUINGAMP, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Côtes-du-Nord, on the right bank of the Trieux, 20
+m. W.N.W. of St Brieuc on the railway to Brest. Pop. (1906), town 6937,
+commune 9212. Its chief church, Notre-Dame de Bon-Secours, dates from
+the 14th to the 16th centuries; two towers rise on each side of the
+richly sculptured western portal and a third surmounts the crossing. A
+famous statue of the Virgin, the object of one of the most important
+"pardons" or religious pilgrimages in Brittany, stands in one of the two
+northern porches. The central square is decorated by a graceful fountain
+in the Renaissance style, restored in 1743. Remains of the ramparts and
+of the château of the dukes of Penthièvre, which belong to the 15th
+century, still survive. Guingamp is the seat of a sub-prefect and of a
+tribunal of first instance. It is an important market for dairy-cattle,
+and its industries include flour-milling, tanning and leather-dressing.
+Guingamp was the chief town of the countship (subsequently the duchy) of
+Penthièvre. The Gothic chapel of Grâces, near Guingamp, contains fine
+sculptures.
+
+
+
+
+GUINNESS, the name of a family of Irish brewers. The firm was founded by
+ARTHUR GUINNESS, who about the middle of the 18th century owned a modest
+brewing-plant at Leixlip, a village on the upper reaches of the river
+Liffey. In or about 1759 Arthur Guinness, seeking to extend his trade,
+purchased a small porter brewery belonging to a Mr Rainsford at St
+James's Gate, Dublin. By careful attention to the purity of his product,
+coupled with a shrewd perception of the public taste, he built up a
+considerable business. But his third son, BENJAMIN LEE GUINNESS
+(1798-1868), may be regarded as the real maker of the firm, into which
+he was taken at an early age, and of which about 1825 he was given sole
+control. Prior to that date the trade in Guinness's porter and stout had
+been confined to Ireland, but Benjamin Lee Guinness at once established
+agencies in the United Kingdom, on the continent, in the British
+colonies and in America. The export trade soon assumed huge proportions;
+the brewery was continually enlarged, and when in 1855 his father died,
+Benjamin Lee Guinness, who in 1851 was elected first lord mayor of
+Dublin, found himself sole proprietor of the business and the richest
+man in Ireland. Between 1860 and 1865 he devoted a portion of this
+wealth to the restoration of St Patrick's cathedral, Dublin. The work,
+the progress of which he regularly superintended himself, cost £160,000.
+Benjamin Lee Guinness represented the city of Dublin in parliament as a
+Conservative from 1865 till his death, and in 1867 was created a
+baronet. He died in 1868, and was succeeded in the control of the
+business by Sir Arthur Edward Guinness (b. 1840), his eldest, and Edward
+Cecil Guinness (b. 1847), his third, son. SIR ARTHUR EDWARD GUINNESS,
+who for some time represented Dublin in parliament, was in 1880 raised
+to the peerage as Baron Ardilaun, and about the same time disposed of
+his share in the brewery to his brother Edward Cecil Guinness. In 1886
+EDWARD CECIL GUINNESS disposed of the brewery, the products of which
+were then being sent all over the world, to a limited company, in which
+he remained the largest shareholder. Edward Cecil Guinness was created a
+baronet in 1885, and in 1891 was raised to the peerage as Baron Iveagh.
+
+The Guinness family have been distinguished for their philanthropy and
+public munificence. Lord Ardilaun gave a recreation ground to Dublin,
+and the famous Muckross estate at Killarney to the nation. Lord Iveagh
+set aside £250,000 for the creation of the Guinness trust (1889) for the
+erection and maintenance of buildings for the labouring poor in London
+and Dublin, and was a liberal benefactor to the funds of Dublin
+university.
+
+
+
+
+GUINOBATAN, a town of the province of Albay, Luzon, Philippine Islands,
+on the Inaya river, 9 m. W. by N. of the town of Albay. Pop. (1903),
+20,027. Its chief interest is in hemp, which is grown in large
+quantities in the neighbouring country.
+
+
+
+
+GUIPÚZCOA, a maritime province of northern Spain, included among the
+Basque provinces, and bounded on the N. by the Bay of Biscay; W. by the
+province of Biscay (_Vizcaya_); S. and S.E. by. Álava and Navarre: and
+N.E. by the river Bidassoa,[1] which separates it from France. Pop.
+(1900), 195,850; area, 728 sq. m. Situated on the northern slope of the
+great Cantabrian chain at its junction with the Pyrenees, the province
+has a great variety of surface in mountain, hill and valley; and its
+scenery is highly picturesque. The coast is much indented, and has
+numerous harbours, but none of very great importance; the chief are
+those of San Sebastian, Pasajes, Guetaria, Deva and Fuenterrabia. The
+rivers (Deva, Urola, Oria, Urumea, Bidassoa) are all short, rapid and
+unnavigable. The mountains are for the most part covered with forests of
+oak, chestnut or pine; holly and arbutus are also common, with furze and
+heath in the poorer parts. The soil in the lower valleys is generally of
+hard clay and unfertile; it is cultivated with great care, but the grain
+raised falls considerably short of what is required for home
+consumption. The climate, though moist, is mild, pleasant and healthy;
+fruit is produced in considerable quantities, especially apples for
+manufacture into _zaragua_ or cider. The chief mineral products are
+iron, lignite, lead, copper, zinc and cement. Ferruginous and sulphurous
+springs are very common, and are much frequented every summer by
+visitors from all parts of the kingdom. There are excellent fisheries,
+which supply the neighbouring provinces with cod, tunny, sardines and
+oysters; and the average yearly value of the coasting trade exceeds
+£400,000. By Irun, Pasajes and the frontier roads £4,000,000 of imports
+and £3,000,000 of exports pass to and from France, partly in transit for
+the rest of Europe. Apart from the four Catalan provinces, no province
+has witnessed such a development of local industries as Guipúzcoa. The
+principal industrial centres are Irun, Renteria, Villabona, Vergara and
+Azpéitia for cotton and linen stuffs; Zumarraga for osiers; Eibar,
+Plasencia and Elgoibar for arms and cannon and gold incrustations; Irun
+for soap and carriages; San Sebastian, Irun and Onate for paper, glass,
+chemicals and saw-mills; Tolosa for paper, timber, cloths and furniture;
+and the banks of the bay of Pasajes for the manufacture of liqueurs of
+every kind, and the preparation of wines for export and for consumption
+in the interior of Spain. This last industry occupies several thousand
+French and Spanish workmen. An arsenal was established at Azpéitia
+during the Carlist rising of 1870-1874; but the manufacture of ordnance
+and gunpowder was subsequently discontinued. The main line of the
+northern railway from Madrid to France runs through the province, giving
+access, by a loop line, to the chief industrial centres. The
+custom-house through which it passes on the frontier is one of the most
+important in Spain. Despite the steep gradients, where traffic is hardly
+possible except by ox-carts, there are over 350 m. of admirably
+engineered roads, maintained solely by the local tax-payers. After San
+Sebastian, the capital (pop. 1900, 37,812), the chief towns are
+Fuenterrabia (4345) and Irun (9912). Other towns with more than 6000
+inhabitants are Azpéitia (6066), Eibar (6583), Tolosa (8111) and Vergara
+(6196). Guipúzcoa is the smallest and one of the most densely peopled
+provinces of Spain; for its constant losses by emigration are
+counterbalanced by a high birth-rate and the influx of settlers from
+other districts who are attracted by its industrial prosperity.
+
+  For an account of its inhabitants and their customs, language and
+  history, see BASQUES and BASQUE PROVINCES.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] A small island in the Bidassoa, called La Isla de los Faisanes,
+    or l'Isle de la Conférence, is celebrated as the place where the
+    marriage of the duke of Guienne was arranged between Louis XI. and
+    Henry IV. in 1463, where Francis I., the prisoner of Charles V., was
+    exchanged for his two sons in 1526, and where in 1659 "the Peace of
+    the Pyrenees" was concluded between D. Luis de Haro and Cardinal
+    Mazarin.
+
+
+
+
+GUIRAUD, ERNEST (1837-1892), French composer, was born at New Orleans on
+the 26th of June 1837. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire, where he
+won the _grand prix de Rome_. His father had gained the same distinction
+many years previously, this being the only instance of both father and
+son obtaining this prize. Ernest Guiraud composed the following operas:
+_Sylvie_ (1864); _Le Kobold_ (1870), _Madame Turlupin_ (1872),
+_Piccolino_ (1876), _Galante Aventure_ (1882), and also the ballet
+_Gretna Green_, given at the Opéra in 1873. His opera _Frédégonde_ was
+left in an unfinished condition and was completed by Camille
+Saint-Saëns. Guiraud, who was a fellow-student and intimate friend of
+Georges Bizet, was for some years professor of composition at the
+Conservatoire. He was the author of an excellent treatise on
+instrumentation. He died in Paris on the 6th of May 1892.
+
+
+
+
+GUISBOROUGH, or GUISBROUGH, a market town in the Cleveland parliamentary
+division of the North Riding of Yorkshire, England, 10 m. E.S.E. of
+Middlesbrough by a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. of urban
+district (1901), 5645. It is well situated in a narrow, fertile valley
+at the N. foot of the Cleveland Hills. The church of St Nicholas is
+Perpendicular, greatly restored. Other buildings are the town hall, and
+the modern buildings of the grammar school founded in 1561. Ruins of an
+Augustinian priory, founded in 1129, are beautifully situated near the
+eastern extremity of the town. The church contains some fine Decorated
+work, and the chapter house and parts of the conventual buildings may be
+traced. Considerable fragments of Norman and transitional work remain.
+Among the historic personages who were buried within its walls was
+Robert Bruce, lord of Annandale, the competitor for the throne of
+Scotland with John Baliol, and the grandfather of King Robert the Bruce.
+About 1 m. S.E. of the town there is a sulphurous spring discovered in
+1822. The district neighbouring to Guisborough is rich in iron-stone.
+Its working forms the chief industry of the town, and there are also
+tanneries and breweries.
+
+
+
+
+GUISE, a town of northern France, in the department of Aisne, on the
+Oise, 31 m. N. of Laon by rail. Pop. (1906), 7562. The town was formerly
+the capital of the district of Thiérache and afterwards of a countship
+(see below). There is a château dating in part from the middle of the
+16th century. Camille Desmoulins was in 1762 born in the town, which has
+erected a statue to him. The chief industry is the manufacture of iron
+stoves and heating apparatus, carried on on the co-operative system in
+works founded by J. B. A. Godin, who built for his workpeople the huge
+buildings known as the _familistère_, in front of which stands his
+statue. A board of trade-arbitration is among the public institutions.
+
+
+
+
+GUISE, HOUSE OF, a cadet branch of the house of Lorraine (q.v.). René
+II., duke of Lorraine (d. 1508), united the two branches of the house of
+Lorraine. From his paternal grandmother, Marie d'Harcourt, René
+inherited the countships of Aumale, Mayenne, Elbeuf, Lillebonne, Brionne
+and other French fiefs, in addition to the honours of the elder branch,
+which included the countship of Guise, the dowry of Marie of Blois on
+her marriage in 1333 with Rudolph or Raoul of Lorraine. René's eldest
+surviving son by his marriage with Philippa, daughter of Adolphus of
+Egmont, duke of Gelderland, was Anthony, who succeeded his father as
+duke of Lorraine (d. 1544), while the second, Claude, count and
+afterwards duke of Guise, received the French fiefs. The Guises, though
+naturalized in France, continued to interest themselves in the fortunes
+of Lorraine, and their enemies were always ready to designate them as
+foreigners. The partition between the brothers Anthony and Claude was
+ratified by a further agreement in 1530, reserving the lapsed honours of
+the kingdoms of Jerusalem, Sicily, Aragon, the duchy of Anjou and the
+countships of Provence and Maine to the duke of Lorraine. Of the other
+sons of René II., John (1498-1550) became the first cardinal of
+Lorraine, while Ferri, Louis and Francis fell fighting in the French
+armies at Marignano (1515), Naples (1528) and Pavia (1525) respectively.
+
+CLAUDE OF LORRAINE, count and afterwards 1st duke of Guise (1496-1550),
+was born on the 20th of October 1496. He was educated at the French
+court, and at seventeen allied himself to the royal house of France by a
+marriage with Antoinette de Bourbon (1493-1583) daughter of François,
+Count of Vendôme. Guise distinguished himself at Marignano (1515), and
+was long in recovering from the twenty-two wounds he received in the
+battle; in 1521 he fought at Fuenterrabia, when Louise of Savoy ascribed
+the capture of the place to his efforts; in 1522 he defended northern
+France, and forced the English to raise the siege of Hesdin; and in 1523
+he obtained the government of Champagne and Burgundy, defeating at
+Neufchâteau the imperial troops who had invaded his province. In 1525
+he destroyed the Anabaptist peasant army, which was overrunning
+Lorraine, at Lupstein, near Saverne (Zabern). On the return of Francis
+I. from captivity, Guise was erected into a duchy in the peerage of
+France, though up to this time only princes of the royal house had held
+the title of duke and peer of France. The Guises, as cadets of the
+sovereign house of Lorraine and descendants of the house of Anjou,
+claimed precedence of the Bourbon princes. Their pretensions and
+ambitions inspired distrust in Francis I., although he rewarded Guise's
+services by substantial gifts in land and money. The duke distinguished
+himself in the Luxemburg campaign in 1542, but for some years before his
+death he effaced himself before the growing fortunes of his sons. He
+died on the 12th of April 1550.
+
+He had been supported in all his undertakings and intrigues by his
+brother JOHN, cardinal of Lorraine (1498-1550), who had been made
+coadjutor of Metz at the age of three. The cardinal was archbishop of
+Reims, Lyons and Narbonne, bishop of Metz, Toul, Verdun, Thérouanne,
+Luçon, Albi, Valence, Nantes and Agen, and before he died had squandered
+most of the wealth which he had derived from these and other benefices.
+Part of his ecclesiastical preferments he gave up in favour of his
+nephews. He became a member of the royal council in 1530, and in 1536
+was entrusted with an embassy to Charles V. Although a complaisant
+helper in Francis I.'s pleasures, he was disgraced in 1542, and retired
+to Rome. He died at Nogent-sur-Yonne on the 18th of May 1550. He was
+extremely dissolute, but as an open-handed patron of art and learning,
+as the protector and friend of Erasmus, Marot and Rabelais he did
+something to counter-balance the general unpopularity of his calculating
+and avaricious brother.
+
+  Claude of Guise had twelve children, among them Francis, 2nd duke of
+  Guise; Charles, 2nd cardinal of Lorraine (1524-1574), who became
+  archbishop of Reims in 1538 and cardinal in 1547; Claude, marquis of
+  Mayenne, duke of Aumale (1526-1573), governor of Burgundy, who married
+  Louise de Brézé, daughter of Diane de Poitiers, thus securing a
+  powerful ally for the family; Louis (1527-1578), bishop of Troyes,
+  archbishop of Sens and cardinal of Guise; René, marquis of Elbeuf
+  (1536-1566), from whom descended the families of Harcourt, Armagnac,
+  Marsan and Lillebonne; Mary of Lorraine (q.v.), generally known as
+  Mary of Guise, who after the death of her second husband, James V. of
+  Scotland, acted as regent of Scotland for her daughter Mary, queen of
+  Scots; and Francis (1534-1563), grand prior of the order of the
+  Knights of Malta. The solidarity of this family, all the members of
+  which through three generations cheerfully submitted to the authority
+  of the head of the house, made it a formidable factor in French
+  politics.
+
+FRANCIS OF LORRAINE, 2nd duke of Guise (1519-1563), "le grand Guise,"
+was born at Bar on the 17th of February 1519. As count of Aumale he
+served in the French army, and was nearly killed at the siege of
+Boulogne in 1545 by a wound which brought him the name of "Balafré."
+Aumale was made (1547) a peerage-duchy in his favour, and on the
+accession of Henry II. the young duke, who had paid assiduous court to
+Diane de Poitiers, shared the chief honours of the kingdom with the
+constable Anne de Montmorency. Both cherished ambitions for their
+families, but the Guises were more unscrupulous in subordinating the
+interests of France to their own. Montmorency's brutal manners, however,
+made enemies where Guise's grace and courtesy won him friends. Guise was
+a suitor for the hand of Jeanne d'Albret, princess of Navarre, who
+refused, however, to become a sister-in-law of a daughter of Diane de
+Poitiers and remained one of the most dangerous and persistent enemies
+of the Guises. He married in December 1548 Anne of Este, daughter of
+Ercole II., duke of Ferrara, and through her mother Renée, a
+granddaughter of Louis XII. of France. In the same year he had put down
+a peasant rising in Saintonge with a humanity that compared very
+favourably with the cruelty shown by Montmorency to the town of
+Bordeaux. He made preparations in Lorraine for the king's German
+campaign of 1551-52. He was already governor of Dauphiné, and now became
+grand chamberlain, prince of Joinville, and hereditary seneschal of
+Champagne, with large additions to his already considerable revenues. He
+was charged with the defence of Metz, which Henry II. had entered in
+1551. He reached the city in August 1552, and rapidly gave proof of his
+great powers as a soldier and organizer by the skill with which the
+place, badly fortified and unprovided with artillery, was put in a state
+of defence. Metz was invested by the duke of Alva in October with an
+army of 60,000 men, and the emperor joined his forces in November. An
+army of brigands commanded by Albert of Brandenburg had also to be
+reckoned with. Charles was obliged to raise the siege on the 2nd of
+January 1553, having lost, it is said, 30,000 men before the walls.
+Guise used his victory with rare moderation and humanity, providing
+medical care for the sick and wounded left behind in the besiegers'
+camp. The subsequent operations were paralysed by the king's suspicion
+and carelessness, and the constable's inactivity, and a year later Guise
+was removed from the command. He followed the constable's army as a
+volunteer, and routed the army of Charles V. at the siege of Renty on
+the 12th of August 1554. Montmorency's inaction rendered the victory
+fruitless, and a bitter controversy followed between Guise and the
+constable's nephew Coligny, admiral of France, which widened a breach
+already existing.
+
+The conclusion of a six years' truce at Vaucelles (1556) disappointed
+Guise's ambitions, and he was the main mover in the breach of the treaty
+in 1558, when he was sent at the head of a French army to Italy to the
+assistance of Pope Paul IV. against Spain. Guise, who perhaps had in
+view the restoration to his family of the Angevin dominion of Naples and
+Sicily, crossed the Alps early in 1557 and after a month's delay in
+Rome, where he failed to receive the promised support, marched on the
+kingdom of Naples, then occupied by the Spanish troops under Alva. He
+seized and sacked Campli (April 17th), but was compelled to raise the
+siege of Civitella. Meanwhile the pope had veered round to a Spanish
+alliance, and Guise, seeing that no honour was to be gained in the
+campaign, wisely spared his troops, so that his army was almost intact
+when, in August, he was hastily summoned home to repel the Spanish army
+which had invaded France from the north, and had taken St Quentin. On
+reaching Paris in October Guise was made lieutenant-general of the
+kingdom, and proceeded to prepare for the siege of Calais. The town was
+taken, after six days' fighting, on the 6th of January 1558, and this
+success was followed up by the capture of Guînes, Thionville and Arlon,
+when the war was ended by the treaty of Câteau Cambrésis (1559).
+Although his brother, the cardinal of Lorraine, was one of the
+negotiators, this peace was concluded against the wishes of Guise, and
+was regarded as a triumph of the constable's party. The Guises were
+provided with a weapon against Montmorency by the bishop of Arras
+(afterwards Cardinal Granvella), who gave to the cardinal of Lorraine at
+an interview at Péronne in 1558 an intercepted letter proving the
+Huguenot leanings of the constable's nephews.
+
+On the accession in 1559 of Francis II., their nephew by marriage with
+Mary Stuart, the royal authority was practically delegated to Guise and
+the cardinal, who found themselves beyond rivalry for the time being.
+They had, however, to cope with a new and dangerous force in Catherine
+de' Medici, who was now for the first time free to use her political
+ability. The incapacity, suspicion and cruelty of the cardinal, who
+controlled the internal administration, roused the smaller nobility
+against the Lorraine princes. A conspiracy to overturn their government
+was formed at Nantes, with a needy Périgord nobleman named La Renaudie
+as its nominal head, though the agitation had in the first instance been
+fostered by the agents of Louis I., prince of Condé. The Guises were
+warned of the conspiracy while the court was at Blois, and for greater
+security removed the king to Amboise. La Renaudie, nothing daunted,
+merely postponed his plans; and the conspirators assembled in small
+parties in the woods round Amboise. They had, however, been again
+betrayed and many of them were surrounded and taken before the _coup_
+could be delivered; one party, which had seized the château of Noizay,
+surrendered on a promise of amnesty given "on his faith as a prince" by
+James of Savoy, duke of Nemours, a promise which, in spite of the duke's
+protest, was disregarded. On the 19th of March 1560, La Renaudie and
+the rest of the conspirators openly attacked the château of Amboise.
+They were repelled; their leader was killed; and a large number were
+taken prisoners. The merciless vengeance of the Guises was the measure
+of their previous fears. For a whole week the torturings, quarterings
+and hangings went on, the bodies being cast into the Loire, the young
+king and queen witnessing the bloody spectacle day by day from a balcony
+of the château.
+
+The cruel repression of this "conspiracy of Amboise" inspired bitter
+hatred of the Guises, since they were avenging a rising rather against
+their own than the royal authority. They now entrenched themselves with
+the king at Orleans, and the Bourbon princes, Anthony, king of Navarre,
+and his brother Condé, were summoned to court. The Guises convened a
+special commission to try Condé, who was condemned to death; but the
+affair was postponed by the chancellor, and the death of Francis II. in
+December saved Condé. Guise then made common cause with his old rival
+Montmorency and with the Marshal de Saint André against Catherine, the
+Bourbons and Coligny. This alliance, constituted on the 6th of April
+1561, and known as the triumvirate, aimed at the annulment of the
+concessions made by Catherine to the Huguenots. The cardinal of Lorraine
+fomented the discord which appeared between the clergy of the two
+religions when they met at the colloquy of Poissy in 1561, but in spite
+of the extreme Catholic views he there professed, he was at the time in
+communication with the Lutheran princes of Germany, and in February 1562
+met the duke of Württemberg at Zabern to discuss the possibility of a
+religious compromise.
+
+The signal for civil war was given by an attack of Guise's escort on a
+Huguenot congregation at Vassy (1st of March 1562). Although Guise did
+not initiate the massacre, and although, when he learned what was going
+on, he even tried to restrain his soldiers, he did not disavow their
+action. When Catherine de' Medici forbade his entry into Paris, he
+accepted the challenge, and on the 16th of March he entered the city,
+where he was a popular hero, at the head of 2000 armed nobles. The
+provost of the merchants offered to put 20,000 men and two million
+livres at his disposal. In September he joined Montmorency in besieging
+Rouen, which was sacked as if it had been a foreign city, in spite of
+Guise's efforts to save it from the worst horrors. At the battle of
+Dreux (19th of December 1562) he commanded a reserve army, with which he
+saved Montmorency's forces from destruction and inflicted a crushing
+defeat on the Huguenots. The prince of Condé was his prisoner, while the
+capture of Montmorency by the Huguenots and the assassination of the
+Marshal de Saint-André after the battle left Guise the undisputed head
+of the Catholic party. He was appointed lieutenant-general of the
+kingdom, and on the 5th of February 1563 he appeared with his army
+before Orleans. On the 19th, however, he was shot by the Huguenot Jean
+Poltrot de Méré as he was returning to his quarters, and died on the
+24th of the effects of the wound. Guise's splendid presence, his
+generosity and humanity and his almost unvarying success on the
+battlefield made him the idol of his soldiers. He attended personally to
+the minutest details, and Monluc complains that he even wrote out his
+own orders. The mistakes and cruelties associated with his name were
+partly due to the evil counsels of his brother Charles, the cardinal,
+whose cowardice and insincerity were the scorn of his contemporaries.
+The negotiations of the Guises with Spain dated from the interview with
+Granvella at Péronne, in 1558, and after the death of his brother the
+cardinal of Lorraine was constantly in communication with the Spanish
+court, offering, in the event of the failure of direct heirs to the
+Valois kings, to deliver up the frontier fortresses and to acknowledge
+Philip II. as king of France. His death in 1574 temporarily weakened the
+extreme Catholic party.
+
+  Of the children of Francis "le Balafré" five survived him: Henry, 3rd
+  duke of Guise; Charles, duke of Mayenne (1554-1611) (q.v.), who
+  consolidated the League; Catherine (1552-1596), who married Louis of
+  Bourbon, duke of Montpensier, and encouraged the fanaticism of the
+  Parisian leaguers; Louis, second cardinal of Guise, afterwards of
+  Lorraine (1555-1588), who was assassinated with his brother Henry; and
+  Francis (1558-1573).
+
+HENRY OF LORRAINE, 3rd duke of Guise (1550-1588), born on the 31st of
+December 1550, was thirteen years old at the time of his father's death,
+and grew up under the domination of a passionate desire for revenge.
+Catherine de' Medici refused to take steps against Coligny, who was
+formally accused by the duchess of Guise and her brothers-in-law of
+having incited the murder. In 1566 she insisted on a formal
+reconciliation at Moulins between the Guises and Coligny, at which,
+however, none of the sons of the murdered man was present. Henry and his
+brothers were, however, compelled in 1572 to sign an ambiguous assent to
+this agreement. Guise's widow married James of Savoy, duke of Nemours,
+and the young duke at sixteen went to fight against the Turks in
+Hungary. On the fresh outbreak of civil war in 1567 he returned to
+France and served under his uncle Aumale. In the autumn of 1568 he
+received a considerable command, and speedily came into rivalry with
+Henry of Valois, duke of Anjou. He had not inherited his father's
+generalship, and his rashness and headstrong valour more than once
+brought disaster on his troops, but the showy quality of his fighting
+brought him great popularity in the army. In the defence of Poitiers in
+1569 with his brother, the duke of Mayenne, he showed more solid
+abilities as a soldier. On the conclusion of peace in 1570 he returned
+to court, where he made no secret of his attachment to Margaret of
+Valois. His pretensions were violently resented by her brothers, who
+threatened his life, and he saved himself by a precipitate marriage with
+Catherine of Cleves (daughter of Francis of Cleves, duke of Nevers, and
+Margaret of Bourbon), the widow of a Huguenot nobleman, Antoine de Crog,
+prince of Porcien. Presently he ended his disgrace by an apparent
+reconciliation with Henry of Valois and an alliance with Catherine de'
+Medici. He was an accomplice in the first attack on Coligny's life, and
+when permission for the massacre of Saint Bartholomew had been extorted
+from Charles IX. he roused Paris against the Huguenots, and satisfied
+his personal vengeance by superintending the murder of Coligny. He was
+now the acknowledged chief of the Catholic party, and the power of his
+family was further increased by the marriage (1575) of Henry III. with
+Louise of Vaudémont, who belonged to the elder branch of the house of
+Lorraine. In a fight at Dormans (10th of October 1575), the only
+Catholic victory in a disastrous campaign, Guise received a face wound
+which won for him his father's name of Balafré and helped to secure the
+passionate attachment of the Parisians. He refused to acquiesce in the
+treaty of Beaulieu (5th of May 1576), and with the support of the
+Jesuits proceeded to form a "holy league" for the defence of the Roman
+Catholic Church. The terms of enrolment enjoined offensive action
+against all who refused to join. This association had been preceded by
+various provincial leagues among the Catholics, notably one at Péronne.
+Condé had been imposed on this town as governor by the terms of the
+peace, and the local nobility banded together to resist him. This, like
+the Holy League itself, was political as well as religious in its aims,
+and was partly inspired by revolt against the royal authority. In the
+direction of the League Guise was hampered by Philip of Spain, who
+subsidized the movement, while he also had to submit to the dictation of
+the Parisian democracy. Ulterior ambitions were freely ascribed to him.
+It was asserted that papers seized from his envoy to Rome, Jean David,
+revealed a definite design of substituting the Lorraines, who
+represented themselves as the successors of Charlemagne, for the Valois;
+but these papers were probably a Huguenot forgery. Henry III. eventually
+placed himself at the head of the League, and resumed the war against
+the Huguenots; but on the conclusion of peace (September 1577) he seized
+the opportunity of disbanding the Catholic associations. The king's
+jealousy of Guise increased with the duke's popularity, but he did not
+venture on an open attack, nor did he dare to avenge the murder by
+Guise's partisans of one of his personal favourites, Saint-Mégrin, who
+had been set on by the court to compromise the reputation of the duchess
+of Guise.[1]
+
+Meanwhile the duke had entered on an equivocal alliance with Don John of
+Austria. He was also in constant correspondence with Mary of Lorraine,
+and meditated a descent on Scotland in support of the Catholic cause.
+But the great riches of the Guises were being rapidly dissipated, and in
+1578 the duke became a pensioner of Philip II. When in 1584 the death of
+the duke of Anjou made Henry of Navarre the next heir to the throne, the
+prospect of a Huguenot dynasty roused the Catholics to forget their
+differences, and led to the formation of a new league of the Catholic
+nobles. At the end of the same year Guise and his brother, the duke of
+Mayenne, with the assent of other Catholic nobles, signed a treaty at
+Joinville with Philip II., fixing the succession to the crown on
+Charles, cardinal of Bourbon, to the exclusion of the Protestant princes
+of his house. In March 1585 the chiefs of the League issued the
+Declaration of Péronne, exposing their grievances against the government
+and announcing their intention to restore the dignity of religion by
+force of arms. On the refusal of Henry III. to accept Spanish help
+against his Huguenot subjects, war broke out. The chief cities of France
+declared for the League, and Guise, who had recruited his forces in
+Germany and Switzerland, took up his headquarters at Châlons, while
+Mayenne occupied Dijon, and his relatives, the dukes of Elbeuf, Aumale
+and Mercoeur,[2] roused Normandy and Brittany. Henry III. accepted, or
+feigned to accept, the terms imposed by the Guises at Nemours (7th of
+July 1585). The edicts in favour of the Huguenots were immediately
+revoked. Guise added to his reputation as the Catholic champion by
+defeating the German auxiliaries of the Huguenots at Vimory (October
+1587) and Auneau (November 1587). The protestations of loyalty to Henry
+III. which had marked the earlier manifestoes of the League were
+modified. Obedience to the king was now stated to depend on his giving
+proof of Catholic zeal and showing no favour to heresy. In April 1588
+Guise arrived in Paris, where he put himself at the head of the Parisian
+mob, and on the 12th of May, known as the Day of the Barricades, he
+actually had the crown within his grasp. He refused to treat with
+Catherine de' Medici, who was prepared to make peace at any cost, but
+restrained the populace from revolution and permitted Henry to escape
+from Paris. Henry came to terms with the League in May, and made Guise
+lieutenant-general of the royal armies. The estates-general, which were
+assembled at Blois, were devoted to the Guise interest, and alarmed the
+king by giving voice to the political as well as the religious
+aspirations of the League. Guise remained at the court of Blois after
+receiving repeated warnings that Henry meditated treason. On the 25th of
+December he was summoned to the king's chamber during a sitting of the
+royal council, and was murdered by assassins carefully posted by Henry
+III. himself. The cardinal of Lorraine was murdered in prison on the
+next day. The history of the Guises thenceforward centres in the duke of
+Mayenne (q.v.).
+
+  By his wife, Catherine of Cleves, the third duke had fourteen
+  children: among them Charles, 4th duke of Guise (1571-1640); Claude,
+  duke of Chevreuse (1578-1657), whose wife, Marie de Rohan, duchess of
+  Chevreuse, became famous for her intrigues; Louis (1585-1621), 3rd
+  cardinal of Guise, archbishop of Reims, remembered for his liaison
+  with Charlotte des Essarts, mistress of Henry IV.
+
+CHARLES, 4th duke of Guise (1571-1640), was imprisoned for three years
+after his father's death. He married Henriette Catherine de Joyeuse,
+widow of the duke of Montpensier. His eldest son predeceased him, and he
+was succeeded by his second son HENRY (1614-1664), who had been
+archbishop of Reims, but renounced the ecclesiastical estate and became
+5th duke. He made an attempt (1647) on the crown of Naples, and was a
+prisoner in Spain from 1648 to 1652. A second expedition to Naples in
+1654 was a fiasco. He was succeeded by his nephew, LOUIS JOSEPH
+(1650-1671), as 6th duke. With his son, FRANCIS JOSEPH (1670-1675), the
+line failed; and the title and estates passed to his great-aunt, Marie
+of Lorraine, duchess of Guise (1615-1688), daughter of the 4th duke, and
+with her the title became extinct. The title is now vested in the family
+of the Bourbon-Orleans princes.
+
+
+GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF GUISE
+
+  René II. (who united the two branches of the house of Lorraine), duke
+  of Lorraine, and Philippa of Gelderland, had (besides two older boys
+  who died in childhood, and four unmarried daughters)
+
+                                                  |
+             +--------------+--------------+------+-----+------------+-----------+
+             |              |              |            |            |           |
+         Antoine,        Claude,         John,        Ferri,       Louis,     Francis,
+         duke of       1st duke of   1st cardinal   killed at    killed at   killed at
+        Lorraine,        Guise,      of Lorraine.   Marignano.     Naples.     Pavia.
+         +1544,          +1550,
+       ancestor of    = Antoinette
+      the dukes of     of Bourbon.
+    Lorraine and the        |
+   house of Mercoeur.       |
+                            |
+       +--------------+------------+-------------+------------+----------+------------+---------+
+       |              |            |             |            |          |            |         |
+    Francis,       Charles,      Claude,       Louis,      Francis,    René,      Marie =      And
+  2nd duke of   2nd cardinal   marquis of  1st cardinal     grand     marquis   (1) duke of    five
+     Guise,     of Lorraine,  Mayenne and    of Guise,      prior.   of Elbeuf, Longueville,  others.
+     +1563.        +1574.     and duke of      +1578                   +1566.   (2) James V.
+   = Anne of                    Aumale,                                  |      of Scotland.
+     Este.                      +1573.                                   |           |
+       |                  = Louise de Brézé.                             |      Mary Stuart,
+       |                           |                                     |        queen of
+       |                        Charles,                              Charles,     Scots.
+       |                    duke of Aumale,                       duke of Elbeuf,
+       |                        +1631.                                +1605.
+       |
+       +----+-------------+-------------+----------------+-------------------+
+            |             |             |                |                   |
+          Henry,       Charles,       Louis,         Catherine =      And five others.
+        3rd duke,      duke of     2nd cardinal   Louis de Bourbon,
+          +1588        Mayenne,      of Guise,        duke of
+        =Catherine      +1611.        +1588.        Montpensier.
+        of Cleves         |
+        (and had          |
+       14 children).      |
+            |           Henry,
+            |      duke of Mayenne,
+            |           +1621.
+            |
+            ---+--------------------+-------------------------+---------------------+
+               |                    |                         |                     |
+            Charles,             Claude,                    Louis,          And eleven more.
+       4th duke of Guise,   duke of Chevreuse,      3rd cardinal of Guise,
+             +1640.         = Marie de Rohan,               +1621.
+               |       widow of the duke of Luynes.
+               |
+               +------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+
+               |                        |                         |                  |
+             Henry,                   Marie,                    Louis,           And eight
+      archbishop of Reims,    called Mlle. de Guise,   chevalier of Guise and      more.
+         and 5th duke,        succeeded to the duchy       duke of Joyeuse,
+            +1664.            in 1675 and sold her              +1654.
+                            rights to Louis Augustus,             |
+                                 duke of Maine.              Louis-Joseph,
+                                                           6th duke of Guise,
+                                                                +1671.
+                                                                  |
+                                                            Francis-Joseph,
+                                                      7th and last duke of Guise,
+                                                                +1675.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--A number of contemporary documents relating to the
+  Guises are included by L. Cimber and F. Danjou in their _Archives
+  curieuses de l'histoire de France_ (Paris, 1834, &c.). Vol. iii.
+  contains a soldier's diary of the siege of Metz, first published in
+  Italian (Lyons, 1553), accounts of the sieges of Calais (Tours, 1558).
+  of Thionville (Paris, 1558); vol. iv. an account of the tumult of
+  Amboise from the _Mémoires_ of Condé, and four accounts of the affair
+  of Vassy; vol. v. four accounts of the battle of Dreux, one dictated
+  by Guise, and accounts of the murder of Guise; vol. xi. accounts of
+  the Parisian revolution of 1558; and vol. xii. numerous pamphlets and
+  pieces dealing with the murder of Henry of Guise and his brother. An
+  account of the murder of Guise and of the subsequent measures taken by
+  Mayenne, which was supplied by the Venetian ambassador, G. Mocenigo,
+  to his government, is printed by H. Brown in the _Eng. Hist. Rev._
+  (April 1895). For the foreign policy of the Guises, and especially
+  their relations with Scotland, there is abundant material in the
+  English _Calendar of State Papers_ of Queen Elizabeth (Foreign Series)
+  and in the correspondence of Cardinal Granvella. The memoirs of
+  Francis, duke of Guise, covering the years 1547 to 1563, were
+  published by Michel and Poujoulat in series 1, vol. iv. of their
+  _Coll. de mémoires_. Among contemporary memoirs see especially those
+  of the prince of Condé, of Blaise de Monluc and of Gaspard de
+  Saulx-Tavannes. See also _La Vie de F. de Lorraine, duc de Guise_
+  (Paris, 1681), by J. B. H. du Trousset de Valincourt; A. de Ruble,
+  _L'Assassinat de F. de Lorraine, duc de Guise_ (1897), where there is
+  a list of the MS. sources available for a history of the house; R. de
+  Bouillé, _Hist. des ducs de Guise_ (4 vols., 1849); H. Forneron, _Les
+  Guise et leur époque_ (2 vols., 1887).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] This incident supplied Alexandre Dumas _père_ with the subject of
+    his _Henri III et sa cour_ (1829).
+
+  [2] Philippe-Emmanuel of Lorraine, duke of Mercoeur, a cadet of
+    Lorraine and brother of Louise de Vaudémont, Henry III.'s queen. His
+    wife, Mary of Luxemburg, descended from the dukes of Brittany, and he
+    was made governor of the province in 1582. He aspired to separate
+    sovereignty, and called his son prince and duke of Brittany.
+
+
+
+
+GUITAR (Fr. _guitarre_, Ger. _Guitarre_, Ital. _chitarra_, Span.
+_guitarra_), a musical instrument strung with gut strings twanged by the
+fingers, having a body with a flat back and graceful incurvations in
+complete contrast to the members of the family of lute (i.e.), whose
+back is vaulted. The construction of the instrument is of paramount
+importance in assigning to the guitar its true position in the history
+of musical instruments, midway between the cithara (i.e.) and the
+violin. The medieval stringed instruments with neck fall into two
+classes, characterized mainly by the construction of the body: (1) Those
+which, like their archetype the cithara, had a body composed of a flat
+or delicately arched back and soundboard joined by ribs. (2) Those
+which, like the lyre, had a body consisting of a vaulted back over which
+was glued a flat soundboard without the intermediary of ribs; this
+method of construction predominates among Oriental Instruments and is
+greatly inferior to the first. A striking proof of this inferiority is
+afforded by the fact that instruments with vaulted backs, such as the
+rebab or rebec, although extensively represented during the middle ages
+in all parts of Europe by numerous types, have shown but little or no
+development during the course of some twelve centuries, and have dropped
+out one by one from the realm of practical music without leaving a
+single survivor. The guitar must be referred to the first of these
+classes.
+
+[Illustration: Notation.]
+
+[Illustration: Real Sounds.]
+
+The back and ribs of the guitar are of maple, ash or cherry-wood,
+frequently inlaid with rose-wood, mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell, &c.,
+while the soundboard is of pine and has one large ornamental rose sound
+hole. The bridge, to which the strings are fastened, is of ebony with an
+ivory nut which determines the one end of the vibrating strings, while
+the nut at the end of the fingerboard determines the other. The neck and
+fingerboard are made of hard wood, such as ebony, beech or pear. The
+head, bent back from the neck at an obtuse angle contains two parallel
+barrels or long holes through which the pegs or metal screws pass, three
+on each side of the head. The correct positions for stopping the
+intervals are marked on the fingerboard by little metal ridges called
+frets. The modern guitar has six strings, three of gut and three of silk
+covered with silver wire, tuned as shown. To the thumb are assigned the
+three deepest strings, while the first, second and third fingers are
+used to twang the highest strings. It is generally stated that the sixth
+or lowest string was added in 1790 by Jacob August Otto of Jena, who was
+the first in Germany to take up the construction of guitars after their
+introduction from Italy in 1788 by the duchess Amalie of Weimar. Otto[1]
+states that it was Capellmeister Naumann of Dresden who requested him to
+make him a guitar with six strings by adding the low E, a spun wire
+string. The original guitar brought from Italy by the duchess Amalie had
+five strings,[2] the lowest A being the only one covered with wire. Otto
+also covered the D in order to increase the fulness of the tone. In
+Spain six-stringed guitars and vihuelas were known in the 16th century;
+they are described by Juan Bermudo[3] and others.[4] The lowest string
+was tuned to G. Other Spanish guitars of the same period had four, five
+or seven strings or courses of strings in pairs of unisons. They were
+always twanged by the fingers.
+
+[Illustration: From Juan Bermudo.
+
+FIG. 1.--Spanish Guitar with seven Strings. 1555. _Vihuela da Mano_.]
+
+  The guitar is derived from the cithara[5] both structurally and
+  etymologically. It is usually asserted that the guitar was introduced
+  into Spain by the Arabs, but this statement is open to the gravest
+  doubts. There is no trace among the instruments of the Arabs known to
+  us of any similar to the guitar in construction or shape, although a
+  guitar (fig. 2) with slight incurvations was known to the ancient
+  Egyptians.[6] There is also extant a fine example of the guitar, with
+  ribs and incurvations and a long neck provided with numerous frets, on
+  a Hittite bas-relief on the dromos at Euyuk (_c_. 1000 B.C.) in
+  Cappadocia.[7] Unless other monuments of much later date should come
+  to light showing guitars with ribs, we shall be justified in assuming
+  that the instrument, which required skill in construction, died out in
+  Egypt and in Asia before the days of classic Greece, and had to be
+  evolved anew from the cithara by the Greeks of Asia Minor. That the
+  evolution should take place within the Byzantine Empire or in Syria
+  would be quite consistent with the traditions of the Greeks and their
+  veneration for the cithara, which would lead them to adapt the neck
+  and other improvements to it, rather than adopt the rebab, the tanbur
+  or the barbiton from the Persians or Arabians. This is, in fact, what
+  seems to have taken place. It is true that in the 14th century in an
+  enumeration of musical instruments by the Archipreste de Hita, a
+  _guitarra morisca_ is mentioned and unfavourably compared with the
+  _guitarra latina_; moreover, the Arabs of the present day still use an
+  instrument called _kuitra_ (which in N. Africa would be guithara), but
+  it has a vaulted back, the body being like half a pear with a long
+  neck; the strings are twanged by means of a quill. The Arab instrument
+  therefore belongs to a different class, and to admit the instrument as
+  the ancestor of the Spanish guitar would be tantamount to deriving the
+  guitar from the lute.[8]
+
+  By piecing together various indications given by Spanish writers, we
+  obtain a clue to the identity of the medieval instruments, which, in
+  the absence of absolute proof, is entitled to serious consideration.
+  From Bermudo's work, quoted above, we learn that the guitar and the
+  _vihuela da mano_ were practically identical, differing only in
+  accordance and occasionally in the number of strings.[9] Three kinds
+  of vihuelas were known in Spain during the middle ages, distinguished
+  by the qualifying phrases _da arco_ (with bow), _da mano_ (by hand),
+  _da penola_ (with quill). Spanish scholars[10] who have inquired into
+  this question of identity state that the _guitarra latina_ was
+  afterwards known as the _vihuela da mano_, a statement fully supported
+  by other evidence. As the Arab _kuitra_ was known to be played by
+  means of a quill, we shall not be far wrong in identifying it with the
+  _vihuela da penola_. The word _vihuela_ or _vigola_ is connected with
+  the Latin _fidicula_ or _fides_, a stringed instrument mentioned by
+  Cicero[11] as being made from the wood of the plane-tree and having
+  many strings. The remaining link in the chain of identification is
+  afforded by St Isidore, bishop of Seville in the 7th century, who
+  states that fidicula was another name for cithara, "Veteres aut
+  citharas fidicula vel fidice nominaverunt."[12] The fidicula therefore
+  was the cithara, either in its original classical form or in one of
+  the transitions which transformed it into the guitar. The existence of
+  a superior _guitarra latina_ side by side with the _guitarra morisca_
+  is thus explained. It was derived directly from the classical cithara
+  introduced by the Romans into Spain, the archetype of the structural
+  beauty which formed the basis of the perfect proportions and delicate
+  structure of the violin. In an inventory[13] made by Philip van Wilder
+  of the musical instruments which had belonged to Henry VIII. is the
+  following item bearing on the question: "foure gitterons with iiii.
+  cases _they are called Spanishe Vialles_." _Vial_ or _viol_ was the
+  English equivalent of _vihuela_. The transitions whereby the cithara
+  acquired a neck and became a guitar are shown in the miniatures (fig.
+  3) of a single MS., the celebrated Utrecht Psalter, which gave rise to
+  so many discussions. The Utrecht Psalter was executed in the diocese
+  of Reims in the 9th century, and the miniatures, drawn by an
+  Anglo-Saxon artist attached to the Reims school, are unique, and
+  illustrate the Psalter, psalm by psalm. It is evident that the
+  Anglo-Saxon artist, while endowed with extraordinary talent and vivid
+  imagination, drew his inspiration from an older Greek illustrated
+  Psalter from the Christian East,[14] where the evolution of the guitar
+  took place.
+
+  [Illustration: From Denon's _Voyage in Egypt_.
+
+  FIG. 2.--Ancient Egyptian Guitar. 1700 to 1200 B.C.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Instrumentalists from the Utrecht Psalter, 9th
+  century: (a) The bass rotta, first transition of cithara in (C);
+  (b, c, d), Transitions showing the addition of neck to the body of
+  the cithara.]
+
+  [Illustration: From Dr H. Janitschek's _Geschichte der deutschen
+  Malerei_.
+
+  FIG. 4.--Representation of a European Guitar. A.D. 1180.]
+
+  One of the earliest representations (fig. 4) of a guitar in Western
+  Europe occurs in a Passionale from Zwifalten A.D. 1180, now in the
+  Royal Library at Stuttgart.[15] St Pelagia seated on an ass holds a
+  rotta, or cithara in transition, while one of the men-servants leading
+  her ass holds her guitar. Both instruments have three strings and the
+  characteristic guitar outline with incurvations, the rotta differing
+  in having no neck. Mersenne[16] writing early in the 17th century
+  describes and figures two Spanish guitars, one with four, the other
+  with five strings; the former had a cittern head, the latter the
+  straight head bent back at an obtuse angle from the neck, as in the
+  modern instrument; he gives the Italian, French and Spanish tablatures
+  which would seem to show that the guitar already enjoyed a certain
+  vogue in France and Italy as well as in Spain. Mersenne states that
+  the proportions of the guitar demand that the length of the neck from
+  shoulder to nut shall be equal to the length of the body from the
+  centre of the rose to the tail end. From this time until the middle of
+  the 19th century the guitar enjoyed great popularity on the continent,
+  and became the fashionable instrument in England after the Peninsular
+  War, mainly through the virtuosity of Ferdinand Sor, who also wrote
+  compositions for it. This popularity of the guitar was due less to its
+  merits as a solo instrument than to the ease with which it could be
+  mastered sufficiently to accompany the voice. The advent of the
+  Spanish guitar in England led to the wane in the popularity of the
+  cittern, also known at that time in contradistinction as the English
+  or wire-strung guitar, although the two instruments differed in many
+  particulars. As further evidence of the great popularity of the guitar
+  all over Europe may be instanced the extraordinary number of books
+  extant on the instrument, giving instructions how to play the guitar
+  and read the tablature.[17]     (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Über den Bau der Bogeninstrumente_ (Jena, 1828), pp. 94 and 95.
+
+  [2] See Pietro Millioni, _Vero e facil modo d' imparare a sonare et
+    accordare da se medesimo la chitarra spagnola_, with illustration
+    (Rome, 1637).
+
+  [3] _Declaracion de instrumentos musicales_ (Ossuna, 1555), fol.
+    xciii. _b_ and fol. xci. _a_. See also illustration of _vihuela da
+    mano_.
+
+  [4] See also G. G. Kapsperger, _Libro primo di Villanelle con l'
+    infavolutura del chitarone et alfabeto per la chitarra spagnola_
+    (three books, Rome, 1610-1623).
+
+  [5] See Kathleen Schlesinger, _The Instruments of the Orchestra_,
+    part ii. "Precursors of the Violin Family," pp. 230-248.
+
+  [6] See Denon's _Voyage in Egypt_ (London, 1807, pl. 55).
+
+  [7] Illustrated from a drawing in Perrot and Chipiez, "Judée
+    Sardaigne, Syrie, Cappadoce." Vol. iv. of _Hist. de l'art dans
+    l'antiquité_, Paris, 1887, p. 670. Also see plate from a photograph
+    by Prof. John Garstang, in Kathleen Schlesinger, _op. cit._
+
+  [8] See Biernath, _Die Guitarre_ (1908).
+
+  [9] See also Luys Milan, _Libro de musica de vihuela da mano,
+    Intitulado Il Maestro_, where the accordance is D, G, C, E, A, D from
+    bass to treble.
+
+  [10] Mariano Soriano, _Fuertes Historia de la musica española_
+    (Madrid, 1855), i. 105, and iv. 208, &c.
+
+  [11] _De natura deorum_, ii. 8, 22.
+
+  [12] See _Etymologiarium_, lib. iii., cap. 21.
+
+  [13] See British Museum, Harleian MS. 1419, fol. 200.
+
+  [14] The literature of the Utrecht Psalter embraces a large number of
+    books and pamphlets in many languages of which the principal are here
+    given: Professor J. O. Westwood, _Facsimiles of the Miniatures and
+    Ornaments of Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS._ (London, 1868); Sir Thos.
+    Duffus-Hardy, _Report on the Athanasian Creed in connection with the
+    Utrecht Psalter_ (London, 1872); _Report on the Utrecht Psalter_,
+    addressed to the Trustees of the British Museum (London, 1874); Sir
+    Thomas Duffus-Hardy, _Further Report on the Utrecht Psalter_ (London,
+    1874); Walter de Gray Birch, _The History, Art and Palaeography of
+    the MS. styled the Utrecht Psalter_ (London, 1876); Anton Springer,
+    "Die Psalterillustrationen im frühen Mittelalter mit besonderer
+    Rücksicht auf den Utrecht Psalter," _Abhandlungen der kgl. sächs.
+    Ges. d. Wissenschaften, phil.-hist. Klasse_, Bd. viii. pp. 187-296,
+    with 10 facsimile plates in autotype from the MS.; Adolf Goldschmidt,
+    "Der Utrecht Psalter," in _Repertorium für Kunstwissenschaft_, Bd.
+    xv. (Stuttgart, 1892), pp. 156-166; Franz Friedrich Leitschuh,
+    _Geschichte der karolingischen Malerei, ihr Bilderkreis und seine
+    Quellen_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 321-330; Adolf Goldschmidt, _Der Albani
+    Psalter in Hildesheim_, &c. (Berlin, 1895); Paul Durrieu, _L'Origine
+    du MS. célèbre dit le Psaultier d'Utrecht_ (Paris, 1895); Hans
+    Graeven, "Die Vorlage des Utrecht Psalters," paper read before the
+    XI. International Oriental Congress, Paris, 1897. See also
+    _Repertorium für Kunstwissenschaft_ (Stuttgart, 1898), Bd. xxi. pp.
+    28-35; J. J. Tikkanen, _Abendländische Psalter-Illustration im
+    Mittelalter_, part iii. "Der Utrecht Psalter" (Helsingfors, 1900),
+    320 pp. and 77 ills. (Professor Tikkanen now accepts the Greek or
+    Syrian origin of the Utrecht Psalter); Georg Swarzenski, "Die
+    karolingische Malerei und Plastik in Reims." in _Jahrbuch d. kgl.
+    preussischen Kunstsammlungen_, Bd. xxiii. (Berlin, 1902), pp. 81-100;
+    Ormonde M. Dalton, "The Crystal of Lothair," in _Archäologie_, vol.
+    lix. (1904); Kathleen Schlesinger, _The Instruments of the
+    Orchestra_, part ii. "The Precursors of the Violin Family," chap.
+    viii. "The Question of the Origin of the Utrecht Psalter," pp.
+    352-382 (with illustrations), where all the foregoing are summarized.
+
+  [15] Reproduced in Hubert Janitschek's _Geschichte der deutschen
+    Malerei_, Bd. iii. of _Gesch. der deutschen Kunst_ (Berlin, 1890), p.
+    118.
+
+  [16] _Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636), livre ii. prop. xiv.
+
+  [17] See C. F. Becker, _Darstellung der musik. Literatur_ (Leipzig,
+    1836); and Wilhelm Tappert, "Zur Geschichte der Guitarre," in
+    _Monatshefte für Musikgeschichte_ (Berlin, 1882), No. 5. pp. 77-85.
+
+
+
+
+GUITAR FIDDLE (_Troubadour Fiddle_), a modern name bestowed
+retrospectively upon certain precursors of the violin possessing
+characteristics of both guitar and fiddle. The name "guitar fiddle" is
+intended to emphasize the fact that the instrument in the shape of the
+guitar, which during the middle ages represented the most perfect
+principle of construction for stringed instruments with necks, adopted
+at a certain period the use of the bow from instruments of a less
+perfect type, the rebab and its hybrids. The use of the bow with the
+guitar entailed certain constructive changes in the instrument: the
+large central rose sound-hole was replaced by lateral holes of various
+shapes; the flat bridge, suitable for instruments whose strings were
+plucked, gave place to the arched bridge required in order to enable the
+bow to vibrate each string separately; the arched bridge, by raising the
+strings higher above the soundboard, made the stopping of strings on the
+neck extremely difficult if not impossible; this matter was adjusted by
+the addition of a finger-board of suitable shape and dimensions (fig.
+1). At this stage the guitar fiddle possesses the essential features of
+the violin, and may justly claim to be its immediate predecessor[1] not
+so much through the viols which were the outcome of the Minnesinger
+fiddle with sloping shoulders, as through the intermediary of the
+Italian _lyra_, a guitar-shaped bowed instrument with from 7 to 12
+strings.
+
+[Illustration: From Ruhlmann's _Geschichte der Bogeninstrumente_.
+
+FIG. 1.--Typical Alto Guitar Fiddle, 15th century (Pinakothek, Munich).]
+
+  From such evidence as we now possess, it would seem that the evolution
+  of the early guitar with a neck from the Greek cithara took place
+  under Greek influence in the Christian East. The various stages of
+  this transition have been definitely established by the remarkable
+  miniatures of the Utrecht Psalter.[2] Two kinds of citharas are shown:
+  the antique rectangular,[3] and the later design with rounded body
+  having at the point where the arms are added indications of the waist
+  or incurvations characteristic of the outline of the Spanish
+  guitar.[4] The first stage in the transition is shown by a cithara or
+  rotta[5] in which arms and transverse bar are replaced by a kind of
+  frame repeating the outline of the body and thus completing the second
+  lobe of the Spanish guitar. The next stages in the transition are
+  concerned with the addition of a neck[6] and of frets.[7] All these
+  instruments are twanged by the fingers. One may conclude that the use
+  of the bow was either unknown at this time (c. 6th century A.D.), or
+  that it was still confined to instruments of the rebab type. The
+  earliest known representation of a guitar fiddle complete with bow[8]
+  (fig. 2) occurs in a Greek Psalter written and illuminated in Caesarea
+  by the archpriest Theodorus in 1066 (British Museum, Add. MS. 19352).
+  Instances of perfect guitar fiddles abound in the 13th century MSS.
+  and monuments, as for instance in a picture by Cimabue (1240-1302). in
+  the Pitti Gallery in Florence.[9]
+
+  [Illustration: From a Byzantine MS. in the British Museum.
+
+  FIG. 2.--Earliest example of the Guitar Fiddle. A.D. 1066.]
+
+  An evolution on parallel lines appears also to have taken place from
+  the antique rectangular cithara[10] of the _citharoedes_, which was a
+  favourite in Romano-Christian art.[11] In this case examples
+  illustrative of the transitions are found represented in great variety
+  in Europe. The old German rotta[12] of the 6th century preserved in
+  the Völker Museum, Berlin, and the instruments played by King David in
+  two early Anglo-Saxon illuminated MSS., one a Psalter (Cotton MS.
+  Vesp. A. i. British Museum) finished in A.D. 700, the other "A
+  Commentary on the Psalms by Cassiodorus _manu Bedae_" of the 8th
+  century preserved in the Cathedral Library at Durham[13] form examples
+  of the first stage of transition. From such types as these the
+  rectangular _crwth_ or crowd was evolved by the addition of a
+  finger-board and the reduction in the number of strings, which follows
+  as a natural consequence as soon as an extended compass can be
+  obtained by stopping the strings. By the addition of a neck we obtain
+  the clue to the origin of rectangular citterns with rounded corners
+  and of certain instruments played with the bow whose bodies or
+  sound-chests have an outline based upon the rectangle with various
+  modifications. We may not look upon this type of guitar fiddle as due
+  entirely to western or southern European initiative; its origin like
+  that of the type approximating to the violin is evidently Byzantine.
+  It is found among the frescoes which cover walls and barrel vaults in
+  the palace of Kosseir 'Amra,[14] believed to be that of Caliph Walid
+  II. (A.D. 744) of the Omayyad dynasty, or of Prince Ahmad, the
+  Abbasid (862-866). The instrument, a cittern with four strings, is
+  being played by a bear. Other examples occur in the Stuttgart
+  Carolingian Psalter[15] (10th century); in MS. 1260 (Bibl. Imp. Paris)
+  _Tristan and Yseult_; as guitar fiddle in the Liber Regalis preserved
+  in Westminster Abbey (14th century); in the Sforza Book[16]
+  (1444-1476), the Book of Hours executed for Bona of Savoy, wife of
+  Galeazzo Maria Sforza; on one of the carvings of the 13th century in
+  the Cathedral of Amiens. It has also been painted by Italian artists
+  of the 15th and 16th centuries.     (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See "The Precursors of the Violin Family," by Kathleen
+    Schlesinger, part ii. of _An Illustrated Handbook on the Instruments
+    of the Orchestra_ (London, 1908), chs. ii. and x.
+
+  [2] See Kathleen Schlesinger, _op. cit._ part ii., the "Utrecht
+    Psalter," pp. 127-135, and the "Question of the Origin of the Utrecht
+    Psalter," pp. 136-166, where the subject is discussed and
+    illustrated.
+
+  [3] _Idem_, see pl. vi. (2) to the right centre.
+
+  [4] _Idem_, see pl. iii. centre and figs. 118 and 119.
+
+  [5] _Idem_, see fig. 117, p. 341, and figs. 172 and 116.
+
+  [6] _Idem_, see fig. 121, p. 246, figs. 122, 123, 125 and 126 pl.
+    iii. vi. (1) and (2).
+
+  [7] _Idem_, see fig. 126, p. 350, and pl. iii. right centre.
+
+  [8] _Idem_, see fig. 173, p. 448.
+
+  [9] _Idem_, see fig. 205, p. 480.
+
+  [10] See _Museo Pio Clementino_, by Visconti (Milan, 1818).
+
+  [11] See for example _Georgics_, iv. 471-475 in the Vatican Virgil
+    (Cod. 3225), in facsimile (Rome, 1899) (British Museum press-mark 8,
+    tab. f. vol. ii.).
+
+  [12] This rotta was found in an Alamannic tomb of the 4th to the 7th
+    centuries at Oberflacht in the Black Forest. A facsimile is preserved
+    in the collection of the Kgl. Hochschule, Berlin, illustrations in
+    "Grabfunde am Berge Lupfen bei Oberflacht, 1846," _Jahresberichte d.
+    Württemb. Altertums-Vereins_, iii. (Stuttgart, 1846), tab. viii. also
+    Kathleen Schlesinger, _op. cit._ part ii. fig. 168 (drawing from the
+    facsimile).
+
+  [13] Reproductions of both miniatures are to be found in Professor J.
+    O. Westwood's _Facsimiles of the Miniatures and Ornaments of
+    Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS._ (London, 1868).
+
+  [14] An illustration occurs in the fine publication of the Austrian
+    Academy of Sciences, _Kusejr 'Amra_ (Vienna, 1907, pl. xxxiv.).
+
+  [15] See reproduction of some of the miniatures in Jacob and H. von
+    Hefner-Alteneck, _Trachten des christlichen Mittelalters_ (Darmstadt.
+    1840-1854, 3 vols.), and in _Trachten, Kunstwerke und Gerätschaften
+    vom frühen Mittelalter_ (Frankfort-on-Main, 1879-1890),
+
+  [16] Add. MS. 34294, British Museum, vol. ii. fol. 83, 161, vol. iii.
+    fol. 402, vol. iv. fols. 534 and 667.
+
+
+
+
+GUITRY, LUCIEN GERMAIN (1860-   ), French actor, was born in Paris. He
+became prominent on the French stage at the Porte Saint-Martin theatre
+in 1900, and the Variétés in 1901, and then became a member of the
+Comédie Française, but he resigned very soon in order to become director
+of the Renaissance, where he was principally associated with the actress
+Marthe Brandès, who had also left the Comédie. Here he established his
+reputation, in a number of plays, as the greatest contemporary French
+actor in the drama of modern reality.
+
+
+
+
+GUIZOT, FRANÇOIS PIERRE GUILLAUME (1787-1874), historian, orator and
+statesman, was born at Nîmes on the 4th of October 1787, of an
+honourable Protestant family belonging to the _bourgeoisie_ of that
+city. It is characteristic of the cruel disabilities which still weighed
+upon the Protestants of France before the Revolution, that his parents,
+at the time of their union, could not be publicly or legally married by
+their own pastors, and that the ceremony was clandestine. The liberal
+opinions of his family did not, however, save it from the sanguinary
+intolerance of the Reign of Terror, and on the 8th April 1794 his father
+perished at Nîmes upon the scaffold. Thenceforth the education of the
+future minister devolved entirely upon his mother, a woman of slight
+appearance and of homely manners, but endowed with great strength of
+character and clearness of judgment. Madame Guizot was a living type of
+the Huguenots of the 16th century, stern in her principles and her
+faith, immovable in her convictions and her sense of duty. She formed
+the character of her illustrious son and shared every vicissitude of his
+life. In the days of his power her simple figure, always clad in deep
+mourning for her martyred husband, was not absent from the splendid
+circle of his political friends. In the days of his exile in 1848 she
+followed him to London, and there at a very advanced age closed her life
+and was buried at Kensal Green. Driven from Nîmes by the Revolution,
+Madame Guizot and her son repaired to Geneva, where he received his
+education. In spite of her decided Calvinistic opinions, the theories of
+Rousseau, then much in fashion, were not without their influence on
+Madame Guizot. She was a strong Liberal, and she even adopted the notion
+inculcated in the _Émile_ that every man ought to learn a manual trade
+or craft. Young Guizot was taught to be a carpenter, and he so far
+succeeded in his work that he made a table with his own hands, which is
+still preserved. Of the progress of his graver studies little is known,
+for in the work which he entitled _Memoirs of my own Times_ Guizot
+omitted all personal details of his earlier life. But his literary
+attainments must have been precocious and considerable, for when he
+arrived in Paris in 1805 to pursue his studies in the faculty of laws,
+he entered at eighteen as tutor into the family of M. Stapfer, formerly
+Swiss minister in France, and he soon began to write in a journal edited
+by M. Suard, the _Publiciste_. This connexion introduced him to the
+literary society of Paris. In October 1809, being then twenty-two, he
+wrote a review of M. de Chateaubriand's _Martyrs_, which procured for
+him the approbation and cordial thanks of that eminent person, and he
+continued to contribute largely to the periodical press. At Suard's he
+had made the acquaintance of Pauline Meulan, an accomplished lady of
+good family, some fourteen years older than himself, who had been forced
+by the hardships of the Revolution to earn her living by literature, and
+who also was engaged to contribute a series of articles to Suard's
+journal. These contributions were interrupted by her illness, but
+immediately resumed and continued by an unknown hand. It was discovered
+that François Guizot had quietly supplied the deficiency on her behalf.
+The acquaintance thus begun ripened into friendship and love, and in
+1812 Mademoiselle de Meulan consented to marry her youthful ally. She
+died in 1827; she was the author of many esteemed works on female
+education. An only son, born in 1819, died in 1837 of consumption. In
+1828 Guizot married Elisa Dillon, niece of his first wife, and also an
+author. She died in 1833, leaving a son, Maurice Guillaume (1833-1892),
+who attained some reputation as a scholar and writer.
+
+During the empire, Guizot, entirely devoted to literary pursuits,
+published a collection of French synonyms (1809), an essay on the fine
+arts (1811), and a translation of Gibbon with additional notes in 1812.
+These works recommended him to the notice of M. de Fontanes, then
+grand-master of the university of France, who selected Guizot for the
+chair of modern history at the Sorbonne in 1812. His first lecture
+(which is reprinted in his _Memoirs_) was delivered on the 11th of
+December of that year. The customary compliment to the all-powerful
+emperor he declined to insert in it, in spite of the hints given him by
+his patron, but the course which followed marks the beginning of the
+great revival of historical research in France in the 19th century. He
+had now acquired a considerable position in the society of Paris, and
+the friendship of Royer-Collard and the leading members of the liberal
+party, including the young duc de Broglie. Absent from Paris at the
+moment of the fall of Napoleon in 1814, he was at once selected, on the
+recommendation of Royer-Collard, to serve the government of Louis XVIII.
+in the capacity of secretary-general of the ministry of the interior,
+under the abbé de Montesquiou. Upon the return of Napoleon from Elba he
+immediately resigned, on the 25th of March 1815 (the statement that he
+retained office under General Carnot is incorrect), and returned to his
+literary pursuits. After the Hundred Days, he repaired to Ghent, where
+he saw Louis XVIII., and in the name of the liberal party pointed out to
+his majesty that a frank adoption of a liberal policy could alone secure
+the duration of the restored monarchy--advice which was ill-received by
+M. de Blacas and the king's confidential advisers. This visit to Ghent,
+at the time when France was a prey to a second invasion, was made a
+subject of bitter reproach to Guizot in after life by his political
+opponents, as an unpatriotic action. "The Man of Ghent" was one of the
+terms of insult frequently hurled against him in the days of his power.
+But the reproach appears to be wholly unfounded. The true interests of
+France were not in the defence of the falling empire, but in
+establishing a liberal policy on a monarchical basis and in combating
+the reactionary tendencies of the ultra-royalists. It is at any rate a
+remarkable circumstance that a young professor of twenty-seven, with
+none of the advantages of birth or political experience, should have
+been selected to convey so important a message to the ears of the king
+of France, and a proof, if any were wanting, that the Revolution had, as
+Guizot said, "done its work."
+
+On the second restoration, Guizot was appointed secretary-general of the
+ministry of justice under M. de Barbé-Marbois, but resigned with his
+chief in 1816. Again in 1819 he was appointed general director of
+communes and departments in the ministry of the interior, but lost his
+office with the fall of Decazes in February 1820. During these years
+Guizot was one of the leaders of the _Doctrinaires_, a small party
+strongly attached to the charter and the crown, and advocating a policy
+which has become associated (especially by Faguet) with the name of
+Guizot, that of the _juste milieu_, a _via media_ between absolutism and
+popular government. Their opinions had more of the rigour of a sect than
+the elasticity of a political party. Adhering to the great principles of
+liberty and toleration, they were sternly opposed to the anarchical
+traditions of the Revolution. They knew that the elements of anarchy
+were still fermenting in the country; these they hoped to subdue, not by
+reactionary measures, but by the firm application of the power of a
+limited constitution, based on the suffrages of the middle class and
+defended by the highest literary talent of the times. Their motives
+were honourable. Their views were philosophical. But they were opposed
+alike to the democratical spirit of the age, to the military traditions
+of the empire, and to the bigotry and absolutism of the court. The fate
+of such a party might be foreseen. They lived by a policy of resistance;
+they perished by another revolution (1830). They are remembered more for
+their constant opposition to popular demands than by the services they
+undoubtedly rendered to the cause of temperate freedom.
+
+In 1820, when the reaction was at its height after the murder of the duc
+de Berri, and the fall of the ministry of the duc Decazes, Guizot was
+deprived of his offices, and in 1822 even his course of lectures were
+interdicted. During the succeeding years he played an important part
+among the leaders of the liberal opposition to the government of Charles
+X., although he had not yet entered parliament, and this was also the
+time of his greatest literary activity. In 1822 he had published his
+lectures on representative government (_Histoire des origines du
+gouvernement représentatif_, 1821-1822, 2 vols.; Eng. trans. 1852); also
+a work on capital punishment for political offences and several
+important political pamphlets. From 1822 to 1830 he published two
+important collections of historical sources, the memoirs of the history
+of England in 26 volumes, and the memoirs of the history of France in 31
+volumes, and a revised translation of Shakespeare, and a volume of
+essays on the history of France. The most remarkable work from his own
+pen was the first part of his _Histoire de la révolution d'Angleterre
+depuis Charles I^er à Charles II._ (2 vols., 1826-1827; Eng. trans., 2
+vols., Oxford, 1838), a book of great merit and impartiality, which he
+resumed and completed during his exile in England after 1848. The
+Martignac administration restored Guizot in 1828 to his professor's
+chair and to the council of state. Then it was that he delivered the
+celebrated courses of lectures which raised his reputation as an
+historian to the highest point of fame, and placed him amongst the best
+writers of France and of Europe. These lectures formed the basis of his
+general _Histoire de la civilisation en Europe_ (1828; Eng. trans, by W.
+Hazlitt, 3 vols., 1846), and of his _Histoire de la civilisation en
+France_ (4 vols., 1830), works which must ever be regarded as classics
+of modern historical research.
+
+Hitherto Guizot's fame rested on his merits as a writer on public
+affairs and as a lecturer on modern history. He had attained the age of
+forty-three before he entered upon the full display of his oratorical
+strength. In January 1830 he was elected for the first time by the town
+of Lisieux to the chamber of deputies, and he retained that seat during
+the whole of his political life. Guizot immediately assumed an important
+position in the representative assembly, and the first speech he
+delivered was in defence of the celebrated address of the 221, in answer
+to the menacing speech from the throne, which was followed by the
+dissolution of the chamber, and was the precursor of another revolution.
+On his returning to Paris from Nîmes on the 27th of July, the fall of
+Charles X. was already imminent. Guizot was called upon by his friends
+Casimir-Périer, Laffitte, Villemain and Dupin to draw up the protest of
+the liberal deputies against the royal ordinances of July, whilst he
+applied himself with them to control the revolutionary character of the
+late contest. Personally, Guizot was always of opinion that it was a
+great misfortune for the cause of parliamentary government in France
+that the infatuation and ineptitude of Charles X. and Prince Polignac
+rendered a change in the hereditary line of succession inevitable. But,
+though convinced that it was inevitable, he became one of the most
+ardent supporters of Louis-Philippe. In August 1830 Guizot was made
+minister of the interior, but resigned in November. He had now passed
+into the ranks of the conservatives, and for the next eighteen years was
+the most determined foe of democracy, the unyielding champion of "a
+monarchy limited by a limited number of bourgeois."
+
+In 1831 Casimir-Périer formed a more vigorous and compact
+administration, which was terminated in May 1832 by his death; the
+summer of that year was marked by a formidable republican rising in
+Paris, and it was not till the 11th of October 1832 that a stable
+government was formed, in which Marshal Soult was first minister, the
+duc de Broglie took the foreign office, Thiers the home department, and
+Guizot the department of public instruction. This ministry, which lasted
+for nearly four years, was by far the ablest that ever served Louis
+Philippe. Guizot, however, was already marked with the stigma of
+unpopularity by the more advanced liberal party. He remained unpopular
+all his life, "not," said he, "that I court unpopularity, but that I
+think nothing about it." Yet never were his great abilities more useful
+to his country than whilst he filled this office of secondary rank but
+of primary importance in the department of public instruction. The
+duties it imposed on him were entirely congenial to his literary tastes,
+and he was master of the subjects they concerned. He applied himself in
+the first instance to carry the law of the 28th of June 1833, and then
+for the next three years to put it into execution. In establishing and
+organizing primary education in France, this law marked a distinct epoch
+in French history. In fifteen years, under its influence, the number of
+primary schools rose from ten to twenty-three thousand; normal schools
+for teachers, and a general system of inspection, were introduced; and
+boards of education, under mixed lay and clerical authority, were
+created. The secondary class of schools and the university of France
+were equally the subject of his enlightened protection and care, and a
+prodigious impulse was given to philosophical study and historical
+research. The branch of the Institute of France known as the "Académie
+des Sciences Morales et Politiques," which had been suppressed by
+Napoleon, was revived by Guizot. Some of the old members of this learned
+body--Talleyrand, Siéyès, Roederer and Lakanal--again took their seats
+there, and a host of more recent celebrities were added by election for
+the free discussion of the great problems of political and social
+science. The "Société de l'Histoire de France" was founded for the
+publication of historical works; and a vast publication of medieval
+chronicles and diplomatic papers was undertaken at the expense of the
+state (see HISTORY; and FRANCE, _History_, section _Sources_).
+
+The object of the cabinet of October 1832 was to organize a conservative
+party, and to carry on a policy of resistance to the republican faction
+which threatened the existence of the monarchy. It was their pride and
+their boast that their measures never exceeded the limits of the law,
+and by the exercise of legal power alone they put down an insurrection
+amounting to civil war in Lyons and a sanguinary revolt in Paris. The
+real strength of the ministry lay not in its nominal heads, but in the
+fact that in this government and this alone Guizot and Thiers acted in
+cordial co-operation. The two great rivals in French parliamentary
+eloquence followed for a time the same path; but neither of them could
+submit to the supremacy of the other, and circumstances threw Thiers
+almost continuously on a course of opposition, whilst Guizot bore the
+graver responsibilities of power.
+
+Once again indeed, in 1839, they were united, but it was in opposition
+to M. Molé, who had formed an intermediate government, and this
+coalition between Guizot and the leaders of the left centre and the
+left, Thiers and Odilon Barrot, due to his ambition and jealousy of
+Molé, is justly regarded as one of the chief inconsistencies of his
+life. Victory was secured at the expense of principle, and Guizot's
+attack upon the government gave rise to a crisis and a republican
+insurrection. None of the three chiefs of that alliance took ministerial
+office, however, and Guizot was not sorry to accept the post of
+ambassador in London, which withdrew him for a time from parliamentary
+contests. This was in the spring of 1840, and Thiers succeeded shortly
+afterwards to the ministry of foreign affairs.
+
+Guizot was received with marked distinction by the queen and by the
+society of London. His literary works were highly esteemed, his
+character was respected, and France was never more worthily represented
+abroad than by one of her greatest orators. He was known to be well
+versed in the history and the literature of England, and sincerely
+attached to the alliance of the two nations and the cause of peace. But,
+as he himself remarked, he was a stranger to England and a novice in
+diplomacy; and unhappily the embroiled state of the Syrian question, on
+which the French government had separated itself from the joint policy
+of Europe, and possibly the absence of entire confidence between the
+ambassador and the minister of foreign affairs, placed him in an
+embarrassing and even false position. The warnings he transmitted to
+Thiers were not believed. The warlike policy of Thiers was opposed to
+his own convictions. The treaty of the 15th of July was signed without
+his knowledge and executed in the teeth of his remonstrances. For some
+weeks Europe seemed to be on the brink of war, until the king put an end
+to the crisis by refusing his assent to the military preparations of
+Thiers, and by summoning Guizot from London to form a ministry and to
+aid his Majesty in what he termed "ma lutte tenace contre l'anarchie."
+Thus began, under dark and adverse circumstances, on the 29th of October
+1840, the important administration in which Guizot remained the
+master-spirit for nearly eight years. He himself took the office of
+minister for foreign affairs, to which he added some years later, on the
+retirement of Marshal Soult, the ostensible rank of prime minister. His
+first care was the maintenance of peace and the restoration of amicable
+relations with the other powers of Europe. If he succeeded, as he did
+succeed, in calming the troubled elements and healing the wounded pride
+of France, the result was due mainly to the indomitable courage and
+splendid eloquence with which he faced a raging opposition, gave unity
+and strength to the conservative party, who now felt that they had a
+great leader at their head, and appealed to the thrift and prudence of
+the nation rather than to their vanity and their ambition. In his
+pacific task he was fortunately seconded by the formation of Sir Robert
+Peel's administration in England, in the autumn of 1841. Between Lord
+Palmerston and Guizot there existed an incompatibility of character
+exceedingly dangerous in the foreign ministers of two great and in some
+respects rival countries. With Lord Palmerston in office, Guizot felt
+that he had a bitter and active antagonist in every British agent
+throughout the world; the combative element was strong in his own
+disposition; and the result was a system of perpetual conflict and
+counter-intrigues. Lord Palmerston held (as it appears from his own
+letters) that war between England and France was, sooner or later,
+inevitable. Guizot held that such a war would be the greatest of all
+calamities, and certainly never contemplated it. In Lord Aberdeen, the
+foreign secretary of Sir Robert Peel, Guizot found a friend and an ally
+perfectly congenial to himself. Their acquaintance in London had been
+slight, but it soon ripened into mutual regard and confidence. They were
+both men of high principles and honour; the Scotch Presbyterianism which
+had moulded the faith of Lord Aberdeen was reflected in the Huguenot
+minister of France; both were men of extreme simplicity of taste, joined
+to the refinement of scholarship and culture; both had an intense
+aversion to war and felt themselves ill-qualified to carry on those
+adventurous operations which inflamed the imagination of their
+respective opponents. In the eyes of Lord Palmerston and Thiers their
+policy was mean and pitiful; but it was a policy which secured peace to
+the world, and united the two great and free nations of the West in what
+was termed the _entente cordiale_. Neither of them would have stooped to
+snatch an advantage at the expense of the other; they held the common
+interest of peace and friendship to be paramount; and when differences
+arose, as they did arise, in remote parts of the world,--in Tahiti, in
+Morocco, on the Gold Coast,--they were reduced by this principle to
+their proper insignificance. The opposition in France denounced Guizot's
+foreign policy as basely subservient to England. He replied in terms of
+unmeasured contempt,--"You may raise the pile of calumny as high as you
+will; vous n'arriverez jamais à la hauteur de mon dédain!" The
+opposition in England attacked Lord Aberdeen with the same reproaches,
+but in vain. King Louis Philippe visited Windsor. The queen of England
+(in 1843) stayed at the Château d'Eu. In 1845 British and French troops
+fought side by side for the first time in an expedition to the River
+Plate.
+
+The fall of Sir Robert Peel's government in 1846 changed these intimate
+relations; and the return of Lord Palmerston to the foreign office led
+Guizot to believe that he was again exposed to the passionate rivalry of
+the British cabinet. A friendly understanding had been established at Eu
+between the two courts with reference to the future marriage of the
+young queen of Spain. The language of Lord Palmerston and the conduct of
+Sir Henry Bulwer (afterwards Lord Dalling) at Madrid led Guizot to
+believe that this understanding was broken, and that it was intended to
+place a Coburg on the throne of Spain. Determined to resist any such
+intrigue, Guizot and the king plunged headlong into a counter-intrigue,
+wholly inconsistent with their previous engagements to England, and
+fatal to the happiness of the queen of Spain. By their influence she was
+urged into a marriage with a despicable offset of the house of Bourbon,
+and her sister was at the same time married to the youngest son of the
+French king, in direct violation of Louis Philippe's promises. This
+transaction, although it was hailed at the time as a triumph of the
+policy of France, was in truth as fatal to the monarch as it was
+discreditable to the minister. It was accomplished by a mixture of
+secrecy and violence. It was defended by subterfuges. By the
+dispassionate judgment of history it has been universally condemned. Its
+immediate effect was to destroy the Anglo-French alliance, and to throw
+Guizot into closer relations with the reactionary policy of Metternich
+and the Northern courts.
+
+The history of Guizot's administration, the longest and the last which
+existed under the constitutional monarchy of France, bears the stamp of
+the great qualities and the great defects of his political character,
+for he was throughout the master-spirit of that government. His first
+object was to unite and discipline the conservative party, which had
+been broken up by previous dissensions and ministerial changes. In this
+he entirely succeeded by his courage and eloquence as a parliamentary
+leader, and by the use of all those means of influence which France too
+liberally supplies to a dominant minister. No one ever doubted the
+purity and disinterestedness of Guizot's own conduct. He despised money;
+he lived and died poor; and though he encouraged the fever of
+money-getting in the French nation, his own habits retained their
+primitive simplicity. But he did not disdain to use in others the baser
+passions from which he was himself free. Some of his instruments were
+mean; he employed them to deal with meanness after its kind. Gross
+abuses and breaches of trust came to light even in the ranks of the
+government, and under an incorruptible minister the administration was
+denounced as corrupt. _Licet uti alieno vitio_ is a proposition as false
+in politics as it is in divinity.
+
+Of his parliamentary eloquence it is impossible to speak too highly. It
+was terse, austere, demonstrative and commanding,--not persuasive, not
+humorous, seldom adorned, but condensed with the force of a supreme
+authority in the fewest words. He was essentially a ministerial speaker,
+far more powerful in defence than in opposition. Like Pitt he was the
+type of authority and resistance, unmoved by the brilliant charges, the
+wit, the gaiety, the irony and the discursive power of his great rival.
+Nor was he less a master of parliamentary tactics and of those sudden
+changes and movements in debate which, as in a battle, sometimes change
+the fortune of the day. His confidence in himself, and in the majority
+of the chamber which he had moulded to his will, was unbounded; and long
+success and the habit of authority led him to forget that in a country
+like France there was a people outside the chamber elected by a small
+constituency, to which the minister and the king himself were held
+responsible.
+
+A government based on the principle of resistance and repression and
+marked by dread and distrust of popular power, a system of diplomacy
+which sought to revive the traditions of the old French monarchy, a
+sovereign who largely exceeded the bounds of constitutional power and
+whose obstinacy augmented with years, a minister who, though far removed
+from the servility of the courtier, was too obsequious to the personal
+influence of the king, were all singularly at variance with the promises
+of the Revolution of July, and they narrowed the policy of the
+administration. Guizot's view of politics was essentially historical and
+philosophical. His tastes and his acquirements gave him little insight
+into the practical business of administrative government. Of finance he
+knew nothing; trade and commerce were strange to him; military and naval
+affairs were unfamiliar to him; all these subjects he dealt with by
+second hand through his friends, P. S. Dumon (1797-1870), Charles Marie
+Tanneguy, Comte Duchâtel (1803-1867), or Marshal Bugeaud. The
+consequence was that few measures of practical improvement were carried
+by his administration. Still less did the government lend an ear to the
+cry for parliamentary reform. On this subject the king's prejudices were
+insurmountable, and his ministers had the weakness to give way to them.
+It was impossible to defend a system which confined the suffrage to
+200,000 citizens, and returned a chamber of whom half were placemen.
+Nothing would have been easier than to strengthen the conservative party
+by attaching the suffrage to the possession of land in France, but blank
+resistance was the sole answer of the government to the just and
+moderate demands of the opposition. Warning after warning was addressed
+to them in vain by friends and by foes alike; and they remained
+profoundly unconscious of their danger till the moment when it
+overwhelmed them. Strange to say, Guizot never acknowledged either at
+the time or to his dying day the nature of this error; and he speaks of
+himself in his memoirs as the much-enduring champion of liberal
+government and constitutional law. He utterly fails to perceive that a
+more enlarged view of the liberal destinies of France and a less intense
+confidence in his own specific theory might have preserved the
+constitutional monarchy and averted a vast series of calamities, which
+were in the end fatal to every principle he most cherished. But with the
+stubborn conviction of absolute truth he dauntlessly adhered to his own
+doctrines to the end.
+
+The last scene of his political life was singularly characteristic of
+his inflexible adherence to a lost cause. In the afternoon oí the 23rd
+of February 1848 the king summoned his minister from the chamber, which
+was then sitting, and informed him that the aspect of Paris and the
+country during the banquet agitation for reform, and the alarm and
+division of opinion in the royal family, led him to doubt whether he
+could retain his ministry. That doubt, replied Guizot, is decisive of
+the question, and instantly resigned, returning to the chamber only to
+announce that the administration was at an end and that Molé had been
+sent for by the king. Molé failed in the attempt to form a government,
+and between midnight and one in the morning Guizot, who had according to
+his custom retired early to rest, was again sent for to the Tuileries.
+The king asked his advice. "We are no longer the ministers of your
+Majesty," replied Guizot; "it rests with others to decide on the course
+to be pursued. But one thing appears to be evident: this street riot
+must be put down; these barricades must be taken; and for this purpose
+my opinion is that Marshal Bugeaud should be invested with full power,
+and ordered to take the necessary military measures, and as your Majesty
+has at this moment no minister, I am ready to draw up and countersign
+such an order." The marshal, who was present, undertook the task,
+saying, "I have never been beaten yet, and I shall not begin to-morrow.
+The barricades shall be carried before dawn." After this display of
+energy the king hesitated, and soon added: "I ought to tell you that M.
+Thiers and his friends are in the next room forming a government!" Upon
+this Guizot rejoined, "Then it rests with them to do what they think
+fit," and left the palace. Thiers and Barrot decided to withdraw the
+troops. The king and Guizot next met at Claremont. This was the most
+perilous conjuncture of Guizot's life, but fortunately he found a safe
+refuge in Paris for some days in the lodging of a humble miniature
+painter whom he had befriended, and shortly afterwards effected his
+escape across the Belgian frontier and thence to London, where he
+arrived on the 3rd of March. His mother and daughters had preceded him,
+and he was speedily installed in a modest habitation in Pelham Crescent,
+Brompton.
+
+The society of England, though many persons disapproved of much of his
+recent policy, received the fallen statesman with as much distinction
+and respect as they had shown eight years before to the king's
+ambassador. Sums of money were placed at his disposal, which he
+declined. A professorship at Oxford was spoken of, which he was unable
+to accept. He stayed in England about a year, devoting himself again to
+history. He published two more volumes on the English revolution, and in
+1854 his _Histoire de la république d'Angleterre et de Cromwell_ (2
+vols., 1854), then his _Histoire du protectorat de Cromwell et du
+rétablissement des Stuarts_ (2 vols., 1856). He also published an essay
+on Peel, and amid many essays on religion, during the ten years
+1858-1868, appeared the extensive _Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire de
+mon temps_, in nine volumes. His speeches were included in 1863 in his
+_Histoire parlementaire de la France_ (5 vols. of parliamentary
+speeches, 1863).
+
+Guizot survived the fall of the monarchy and the government he had
+served twenty-six years. He passed abruptly from the condition of one of
+the most powerful and active statesmen in Europe to the condition of a
+philosophical and patriotic spectator of human affairs. He was aware
+that the link between himself and public life was broken for ever; and
+he never made the slightest attempt to renew it. He was of no party, a
+member of no political body; no murmur of disappointed ambition, no
+language of asperity, ever passed his lips; it seemed as if the fever of
+oratorical debate and ministerial power had passed from him and left him
+a greater man than he had been before, in the pursuit of letters, in the
+conversation of his friends, and as head of the patriarchal circle of
+those he loved. The greater part of the year he spent at his residence
+at Val Richer, an Augustine monastery near Lisieux in Normandy, which
+had been sold at the time of the first Revolution. His two daughters,
+who married two descendants of the illustrious Dutch family of De Witt,
+so congenial in faith and manners to the Huguenots of France, kept his
+house. One of his sons-in-law farmed the estate. And here Guizot devoted
+his later years with undiminished energy to literary labour, which was
+in fact his chief means of subsistence. Proud, independent, simple and
+contented he remained to the last; and these years of retirement were
+perhaps the happiest and most serene portion of his life.
+
+Two institutions may be said even under the second empire to have
+retained their freedom--the Institute of France and the Protestant
+Consistory. In both of these Guizot continued to the last to take an
+active part. He was a member of three of the five academies into which
+the Institute of France is divided. The Academy of Moral and Political
+Science owed its restoration to him, and he became in 1832 one of its
+first associates. The Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres elected
+him in 1833 as the successor to M. Dacier; and in 1836 he was chosen a
+member of the French Academy, the highest literary distinction of the
+country. In these learned bodies Guizot continued for nearly forty years
+to take a lively interest and to exercise a powerful influence. He was
+the jealous champion of their independence. His voice had the greatest
+weight in the choice of new candidates; the younger generation of French
+writers never looked in vain to him for encouragement; and his constant
+aim was to maintain the dignity and purity of the profession of letters.
+
+In the consistory of the Protestant church in Paris Guizot exercised a
+similar influence. His early education and his experience of life
+conspired to strengthen the convictions of a religious temperament. He
+remained through life a firm believer in the truths of revelation, and a
+volume of _Meditations on the Christian Religion_ was one of his latest
+works. But though he adhered inflexibly to the church of his fathers and
+combated the rationalist tendencies of the age, which seemed to threaten
+it with destruction, he retained not a tinge of the intolerance or
+asperity of the Calvinistic creed. He respected in the Church of Rome
+the faith of the majority of his countrymen; and the writings of the
+great Catholic prelates, Bossuet and Bourdaloue, were as familiar and
+as dear to him as those of his own persuasion, and were commonly used by
+him in the daily exercises of family worship.
+
+In these literary pursuits and in the retirement of Val Richer years
+passed smoothly and rapidly away; and as his grandchildren grew up
+around him, he began to direct their attention to the history of their
+country. From these lessons sprang his last and not his least work, the
+_Histoire de France racontée à mes petits enfants_, for although this
+publication assumed a popular form, it is not less complete and profound
+than it is simple and attractive. The history came down to 1789, and was
+continued to 1870 by his daughter Madame Guizot de Witt from her
+father's notes.
+
+Down to the summer of 1874 Guizot's mental vigour and activity were
+unimpaired. His frame, temperate in all things, was blessed with a
+singular immunity from infirmity and disease; but the vital power ebbed
+away, and he passed gently away on the 12th of September 1874, reciting
+now and then a verse of Corneille or a text of Scripture.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See his own _Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire de mon
+  temps_ (8 vols., 1858-1861); _Lettres de M. Guizot à sa famille et à
+  ses amis_ (1884); C. A. Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_ (vol. i.,
+  1857) and _Nouveaux Lundis_ (vols. i. and ix., 1863-1872); E. Scherer,
+  _Études critiques sur la littérature contemporaine_ (vol. iv., 1873);
+  Mme de Witt, _Guizot dans sa famille_ (1880); Jules Simon, _Thiers,
+  Guizot et Rémusat_ (1885); E. Faguet, _Politiques et moralistes au
+  XIX^e siècle_ (1891); G. Bardoux, _Guizot_ (1894) in the series of
+  "Les Grands Écrivains français"; Maurice Guizot, _Les Années de
+  retraite de M. Guizot_ (1901); and for a long list of books and
+  articles on Guizot in periodicals see H. P. Thieme, _Guide
+  bibliographique de la littérature française de 1800 à 1906_ (_s.v._
+  Guizot, Paris, 1907). For a notice of his first wife see C. A.
+  Sainte-Beuve, _Portraits de femmes_ (1884), and Ch. de Rémusat,
+  _Critiques et études littéraires_ (vol. ii., 1847).
+       (H. R.; J. T. S.*)
+
+
+
+
+GUJARAT or GUZERAT, a region of India, in the Bombay Presidency. In the
+widest sense of the name it includes the whole of the country where the
+Gujarati language is spoken, i.e. the northern districts and states of
+the Presidency from Palanpur to Damaun, with Kathiawar and Cutch. But it
+is more properly confined to the country north of the Nerbudda and east
+of the Rann of Cutch and Kathiawar. In this sense it has an area of
+29,071 sq. m., with a population in 1901 of 4,798,504. It includes the
+states distributed among the agencies of Palanpur, Mahi Kantha, Rewa
+Kantha and Cambay, with most of Baroda and the British districts of
+Ahmedabad, Kaira, Panch Mahals and Broach. Less than one-fourth is
+British territory. The region takes its name from the Gujars, a tribe
+who passed into India from the north-west, established a kingdom in
+Rajputana, and spread south in A.D. 400-600. The ancient Hindu capital
+was Anhilvada; the Mahommedan dynasty, which ruled from 1396 to 1572,
+founded Ahmedabad, which is still the largest city; but Gujarat owed
+much of its historical importance to the seaports of Broach, Cambay and
+Surat. Its fertile plain, with a regular rainfall and numerous rivers,
+has caused it to be styled the "garden of India." It suffered, however,
+severely from the famine of 1899-1901. For an account of the history,
+geography, &c., of Gujarat see the articles on the various states and
+districts. Gujarat gives its name to the vernacular of northern Bombay,
+viz. Gujarati, one of the three great languages of that Presidency,
+spoken by more than 9 millions. It has an ancient literature and a
+peculiar character. As the language of the Parsis it is prominent in the
+Bombay press; and it is also the commercial language of Bombay city,
+which lies outside the territorial area of Gujarat.
+
+  See J. Campbell, _History of Gujarat_ (Bombay, 1896); Sir E. C.
+  Bayley, _The Muhammedan Kingdom of Gujarat_ (1886); A. K. Forbes, _Ras
+  Mala_ (1856).
+
+
+
+
+GUJARATI and RAJASTHANI, the names of two members of the western
+sub-group of the Intermediate Group of Indo-Aryan languages (q.v.). The
+remaining member of this sub-group is Panjabi or Punjabi (see
+HINDOSTANI). In 1901 the speakers of those now dealt with numbered:
+Gujarati, 9,439,925, and Rajasthani, 10,917,712. The two languages are
+closely connected and might almost be termed co-dialects of the same
+form of speech. Together they occupy an almost square block of country,
+some 400 m. broad, reaching from near Agra and Delhi on the river Jumna
+to the Arabian Sea. Gujarati (properly _Gujarati_) is spoken in Gujarat,
+the northern maritime province of the Bombay Presidency, and also in
+Baroda and the native states adjoining. Rajasthani (properly
+_Rajasthani_, from "_Rajasthan_," the native name for Rajputana) is
+spoken in Rajputana and the adjoining parts of Central India.
+
+In the articles INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES and PRAKRIT the history of the
+earlier stages of the Indo-Aryan vernaculars is given at some length. It
+is there shown that, from the most ancient times, there were two main
+groups of these forms of speech--one, the language of the Midland,
+spoken in the country near the Gangetic Doab, and the other, the
+so-called "Outer Band," containing the Midland on three sides, west,
+north and south. The country to the west and south-west of the Midland,
+in which this outer group of languages was spoken, included the modern
+Punjab, Rajputana and Gujarat. In process of time the population of the
+Midland expanded and carried its language to its new homes. It occupied
+the eastern and central Punjab, and the mixed (or "intermediate")
+language which there grew up became the modern Panjabi. To the west it
+spread into Rajputana, till its progress was stopped by the Indian
+desert, and in Rajputana another intermediate language took rise and
+became Rajasthani. As elsewhere explained, the language-wave of the
+Midland exercised less and less influence as it travelled farther from
+its home, so that, while in eastern Rajputana the local dialect is now
+almost a pure midland speech, in the west there are many evident traces
+of the old outer language still surviving. To the south-west of
+Rajputana there was no desert to stop the wave of Midland expansion,
+which therefore rolled on unobstructed into Gujarat, where it reached
+the sea. Here the survivals of the old outer language are stronger
+still. The old outer Prakrit of north Gujarat was known as "Saurastri,"
+while the Prakrit of the Midland invaders was called "Sauraseni," and we
+may therefore describe Gujarati as being an intermediate language
+derived (as explained in the articles PRAKRIT) from a mixture of the
+Apabhramsa forms of Saurastri and Sauraseni, in which the latter
+predominated.
+
+It will be observed that, at the present day, Gujarati breaks the
+continuity of the outer band of Indo-Aryan languages. To its north it
+has Sindhi and to its south Marathi, both outer languages with which it
+has only a slight connexion. On the other hand, on the east and
+north-east it has Rajasthani, into which it merges so gradually and
+imperceptibly that at the conventional border-line, in the state of
+Palanpur, the inhabitants of Rajputana say that the local dialect is a
+form of Gujarati, while the inhabitants of Gujarat say that it is
+Rajasthani.
+
+
+  Language.
+
+Gujarati has no important local dialects, but there is considerable
+variation in the speeches of different classes of the community. Parsees
+and Mussulmans (when the latter use the language--as a rule the Gujarat
+Mussulmans speak Hindostani) have some striking peculiarities of
+pronunciation, the most noticeable of which is the disregard by the
+latter of the distinction between cerebral and dental letters. The
+uneducated Hindus do not pronounce the language in the same way as their
+betters, and this difference is accentuated in northern Gujarat, where
+the lower classes substitute _e_ for _i_, _c_ for _k_, _ch_ for _kh_,
+_s_ for _c_ and _ch_, _h_ for _s_, and drop _h_ as readily as any
+cockney. There is also (as in the case of the Mussulmans) a tendency to
+confuse cerebral and dental consonants, to substitute _r_ for _d_ and
+_l_, to double medial consonants, and to pronounce the letter _a_ as
+_å_, something like the _a_ in "all." The Bhils of the hills east of
+Gujarat also speak a rude Gujarati, with special dialectic peculiarities
+of their own, probably due to the fact that the tribes are of Dravidian
+origin. These Bhil peculiarities are further mixed with corruptions of
+Marathi idioms in Nimar and Khandesh, where we have almost a new
+language.
+
+Rajasthani has numerous dialects, each state claiming one or more of its
+own. Thus, in the state of Jaipur there have been catalogued no less
+than ten dialects among about 1,688,000 people. All Rajasthani dialects
+can, however, be easily classed in four well-defined groups, a
+north-eastern, a southern, a western and an east-central. The
+north-eastern (Mewati) is that form of Rajasthani which is merging into
+the Western Hindi of the Midland. It is a mixed form of speech, and need
+not detain us further. Similarly, the southern (Malvi) is much mixed
+with the neighbouring Bundeli form of Western Hindi. The western
+(Marwari) spoken in Marwar and its neighbourhood, and the east-central
+(Jaipuri) spoken in Jaipur and its neighbourhood, may be taken as the
+typical Rajasthani dialects. In the following paragraphs we shall
+therefore confine ourselves to Gujarati, Marwari and Jaipuri.
+
+We know more about the ancient history of Gujarati than we do about that
+of any other Indo-Aryan language. The one native grammar of Apabhramsa
+Prakrit which we possess in a printed edition, was written by Hemacandra
+(12th century A.D.), who lived in what is now north Gujarat, and who
+naturally described most fully the particular vernacular with which he
+was personally familiar. It was known as the Nagara Apabhramsa, closely
+connected (as above explained) with Sauraseni, and was so named after
+the Nagara Brahmans of the locality. These men carried on the tradition
+of learning inherited from Hemacandra, and we see Gujarati almost in the
+act of taking birth in a work called the _Mugdhavabodhamauktika_,
+written by one of them only two hundred years after his death. Formal
+Gujarati literature is said to commence with the poet Narsingh Meta in
+the 15th century. Rajasthani literature has received but small attention
+from European or native scholars, and we are as yet unable to say how
+far back the language goes.
+
+Both Gujarati and Rajasthani are usually written in current scripts
+related to the well-known Nagari alphabet (see SANSKRIT). The form
+employed in Rajputana is known all over northern India as the "Mahajani"
+alphabet, being used by bankers or _Mahajans_, most of whom are
+Marwaris. It is noteworthy as possessing two distinct characters for _d_
+and _r_. The Gujarati character closely resembles the Kaithi character
+of northern India (see BIHARI). The Nagari character is also freely used
+in Rajputana, and to a less extent in Gujarat, where it is employed by
+the Nagara Brahmans, who claim that their tribe has given the alphabet
+its name.
+
+In the following description of the main features of our two languages,
+the reader is presumed to be familiar with the leading facts stated in
+the articles INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES and PRAKRIT. The article HINDOSTANI
+may also be perused with advantage.
+
+  (Abbreviations. Skr. = Sanskrit. Pr. = Prakrit. Ap. = Apabhramsa. G. =
+  Gujarati. R. = Rajasthani. H. = Hindostaani.)
+
+  _Vocabulary._--The vocabulary of both Gujarat and Rajasthani is very
+  free from _tatsama_ words. The great mass of both vocabularies is
+  _tadbhava_ (see INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES). Rajputana was from an early
+  period brought into close contact with the Mogul court at Agra and
+  Delhi, and even in the 13th century A.D. official documents of the
+  Rajput princes contained many borrowed Persian and Arabic words.
+  Gujarati, under the influence of the learned Nagara Brahmans, has
+  perhaps more _tatsama_ words than Rajasthani, but their employment is
+  not excessive. On the other hand, Parsees and Mussulmans employ
+  Persian and Arabic words with great freedom; while, owing to its
+  maritime connexions, the language has also borrowed occasional words
+  from other parts of Asia and from Europe. This is specially marked in
+  the strange dialect of the Kathiawar boatmen who travel all over the
+  world as lascars on the great steamships. Their language is a mixture
+  of Hindostani and Gujarati with a heterogeneous vocabulary.
+
+  _Phonetics._--With a few exceptions to be mentioned below, the
+  sound-system of the two languages is the same as that of Sanskrit, and
+  is represented in the same manner in the Roman character (see
+  SANSKRIT). The simplest method for considering the subject in regard
+  to Gujarati is to compare it with the phonetical system of Hindostani
+  (q.v.). As a rule, Rajasthani closely follows Gujarati and need not be
+  referred to except in special cases. G. invariably simplifies a medial
+  Pr. double consonant, lengthening the preceding vowel in compensation.
+  Thus Skr. _mraksanam_, Ap. _makkhanu_, H. _makkhan_, but G. _makhan_,
+  butter. In H. this rule is generally observed, but in G. it is
+  universal, while, on the other hand, in Panjabi the double consonant
+  is never simplified, but is retained as in Ap. In G. (and sometimes in
+  R.) when _a_ is followed by _h_ it is changed to _e_, as in H.
+  _shahr_, G. _seher_, a city. As in other outer languages H. _ai_ and
+  _au_ are usually represented by a short _e_ and by _å_ (sounded like
+  the _a_ in "all") respectively. Thus H. _baitha_. G. _betho_, seated;
+  H. _cautha_, G. _cåtho_ (written _cotho_), fourth. In R. this _e_ is
+  often further weakened to the sound of _a_ in "man," a change which
+  is also common in Bengali. Many words which have _i_ in H. have _a_ in
+  G. and R., thus, H. _likhe_, G. _lakhe_, he writes; H. din, G. and R.
+  _dan_, a day. Similarly we have _a_ for _u_, as in H. _tum_, G., R.
+  _tame_, you. In colloquial G. _a_ often becomes _a_, and _i_ becomes
+  _e_; thus, _pani_ for _pani_, water; _mares_ for _maris_, I shall
+  strike. As in most Indo-Aryan vernaculars an _a_ after an accented
+  syllable is very lightly pronounced, and is here represented by a
+  small ^a above the line.
+
+  The Vedic cerebral _l_ and the cerebral _n_ are very common as medial
+  letters in both G. and R. (both being unknown to literary H.). The
+  rule is, as elsewhere in western and southern intermediate and outer
+  languages, that when n and l represent a double _nn_ (or _nn_) or a
+  double _ll_ in Pr. they are dental, but when they represent single
+  medial letters they are cerebralized. Thus Ap. _sonnau_, G. _sonu_,
+  gold; Ap. _ghanau_, G. _ghanu_, dense; Ap. _callai_, G. _cale_, he
+  goes; Ap. _calai_, G. _cale_, he moves. In northern G. and in some
+  caste dialects dental and cerebral letters are absolutely
+  interchangeable, as in _dah^ado_ or _dahado_, a day; _tu_ or _tu_,
+  thou; _didho_ or _didho_, given. In G. and R. medial _d_ is pronounced
+  as a rough cerebral _r_, and is then so transcribed. We have seen that
+  in the Marwari alphabet there are actually distinct letters for these
+  two sounds. In colloquial G. _c_ and _ch_ are pronounced _s_,
+  especially in the north, as in _pas_ for _pac_, five; _pusyo_ for
+  _puchyo_, he asked. Similarly, in the north, _j_ and _jh_ become _z_,
+  as in _zad_ for _jhad_, a tree. In some localities (as in Marathi) we
+  have _ts_ and _dz_ for these sounds, as in _Tsarotar_ (name of a tract
+  of country) for _Carotar_. On the other hand, _k_, _kh_ and _g_,
+  especially when preceded or followed by _i_, _e_ or _y_, become in the
+  north _c_, _ch_ and _j_ respectively; thus, _dic^aro_ for _dik^aro_, a
+  son; _chetar_ for _khetar_, a field; _lajyo_ for _lagyo_, begun. A
+  similar change is found in dialectic Marathi, and is, of course, one
+  of the commonplaces of the philology of the Romance languages. The
+  sibilants _s_ and _s_ are colloquially pronounced _h_ (as in several
+  outer languages), especially in the north. Thus _deh_ for _des_, a
+  country; _hu_ for _su_, what; _ham^ajavyo_ for _sam^ajavyo_, he
+  explained. An original aspirate is, however, often dropped, as in _'u_
+  for _hu_, I; _'ate_ for _hathe_, on the hand. Standard G. is at the
+  same time fond of pronouncing an _h_ where it is not written, as in
+  _ame_, we, pronounced _ahme_. In other respects both G. and R. closely
+  agree in their phonetical systems with the Apabhramsa form of
+  Sauraseni Prakrit from which the Midland language is derived.
+
+  _Declension._--Gujarati agrees with Marathi (an outer language) as
+  against Hindostani in retaining the neuter gender of Sanskrit and
+  Prakrit. Moreover, the neuter gender is often employed to indicate
+  living beings of which the sex is uncertain, as in the case of
+  _dik^aru_, a child, compared with _dik^aro_, a son, and _dik^ari_, a
+  daughter. In R. there are only sporadic instances of the neuter, which
+  grow more and more rare as we approach the Midland. Nouns in both G.
+  and R. may be weak or strong as is fully explained in the article
+  HINDOSTANI. We have there seen that the strong form of masculine nouns
+  in Western Hindi generally ends in _au_, the _a_ of words like the
+  Hindostani _ghora_, a horse, being an accident due to the fact that
+  the Hindostani dialect of Western Hindi borrows this termination from
+  Panjabi. G. and R. follow Western Hindi, for their masculine strong
+  forms end in _o_. Feminine strong forms end in _i_ as elsewhere.
+  Neuter strong forms in G. end in _u_, derived as follows: Skr,
+  _svarnakam_, Ap. _sonnau_, G. _sonu_, gold. As an example of the three
+  genders of the same word we may take G. _chok^aro_ (masc.), a boy;
+  _chok^ari_ (fem.), a girl; _chok^aru_ (neut.), a child. Long forms
+  corresponding to the Eastern Hindi _ghor^awa_, a horse, are not much
+  used, but we not infrequently meet another long form made by suffixing
+  the pleonastic termination _do_ or _ro_ (fem. _di_ or _ri_; G. neut.
+  _du_ or _ru_) which is directly descended from the Ap. pleonastic
+  termination _daü_, _dai_, _dau_. We come across this most often in R.,
+  where it is used contemptuously, as in _Turuk-ro_, a Turk.
+
+  In the article HINDOSTANI it is shown that all the oblique cases of
+  each number in Sanskrit and Prakrit became melted down in the modern
+  languages into one general oblique case, which, in the Midland, is
+  derived in the singular from the Ap. termination _-hi_ or _-hi_, and
+  that even this has survived only in the case of strong masculine
+  nouns; thus, _ghora_, obl. _ghore_. In G. and R. this same termination
+  has also survived, but for all nouns as the case sign of the agent and
+  locative cases. The general oblique case is the same as the
+  nominative, except in the case of strong masculine and neuter nouns in
+  _o_ and _u_ respectively, where it ends in _a_, not _e_. This
+  _a_-termination is characteristic of the outer band of languages, and
+  is one of the survivals already referred to. It is derived from the
+  Apabhramsa genitive form in -_aha_, corresponding to the Magadhi Pr.
+  (an outer Prakrit) termination -_aha_. Thus, G. _chok^aro_, a son;
+  _chok^aru_, a child; obl. sing. _chok^ara_.
+
+  In G. the nominative and oblique plural for all nouns are formed by
+  adding _o_ to the oblique form singular, but in the neuter strong
+  forms the oblique singular is nasalized. The real plural is the same
+  in form as the oblique singular in the case of masculines, and as a
+  nasalized oblique singular in the case of neuter strong forms, as in
+  other modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars, and the added _o_ is a further
+  plural termination (making a double plural, exactly as it does in the
+  Ardhamagadhi Prakrit _putta-o_, sons) which is often dropped. The
+  nasalization of the strong neuter plurals is inherited from Ap., in
+  which the neuter nom. plural of such nouns ended in -_aai_ In R. the
+  nominative plural of masculine nouns is the same in form as the
+  oblique case singular, and the oblique plural ends in _a_. The
+  feminine has _a_ both in the nominative and in the oblique plural.
+  These are all explained in the article HINDOSTANI. We thus get the
+  following paradigms of the declension of nouns.
+
+    +----------------------+--------------+---------------+------------+
+    |                      |  Apabhramsa. |   Gujarati.   | Rajasthani.|
+    +----------------------+--------------+---------------+------------+
+    | Strong Noun Masc.--  |              |               |            |
+    | "A horse." Sing. Nom.| ghodau       | ghodo         |   ghodo    |
+    |                  Obl.| ghodaaha     | ghoda         |   ghoda    |
+    |              Ag.-Loc.| ghodaahi     | ghode, ghodae |   ghodai   |
+    |            Plur. Nom.| ghodaa       | ghoda-o       |   ghoda    |
+    |                  Obl.| ghodaaha     | ghoda-o       |   ghoda    |
+    |              Ag.-Loc.| ghodaahi     | ghoda-o-e     |   ghoda    |
+    | Strong Noun Neut.--  |              |               |            |
+    | "Gold."    Sing. Nom.| sonnau       | sonu          |     ..     |
+    |                  Obl.| sonnaaha     | sona          |     ..     |
+    |              Ag.-Loc.| sonnaahi     | sone, sonae   |     ..     |
+    |            Plur. Nom.| sonnaai      | sone          |     ..     |
+    |                  Obl.| sonnaaha     | sona-o        |     ..     |
+    |              Ag.-Loc.| sonnaahi     | sona-o-e      |     ..     |
+    | Strong Noun Fem.--   |              |               |            |
+    | "A mare."  Sing. Nom.| ghodia       | ghodi         |   ghodi    |
+    |                  Obl.| ghodiahi     | ghodi         |   ghodi    |
+    |              Ag.-Loc.| ghodiae      | ghodie        |   ghodi    |
+    |            Plur. Nom.| ghodia-o     | ghodi-o       |   ghodya   |
+    |                  Obl.| ghodiahu     | ghodi-o       |   ghodya   |
+    |              Ag.-Loc.| ghodiahi     | ghodi-o-e     |   ghodya   |
+    | Weak Noun Masc.      |              |               |            |
+    | or Neut.--           |              |               |            |
+    | "A house." Sing. Nom.| gharu (neut.)| ghar          |   ghar     |
+    |                  Obl.| gharaha      | ghar          |   ghar     |
+    |              Ag.-Loc.| gharahi      | ghare         |   gharai   |
+    |            Plur. Nom.| gharai       | ghar-o        |   ghar     |
+    |                  Obl.| gharaha      | ghar-o        |   ghara    |
+    |              Ag.-Loc.| gharahi      | ghar-o-e      |   ghara    |
+    | Weak Noun Fem.--     |              |               |            |
+    | "A word."  Sing. Nom.| vatta        | wat           |   bat      |
+    |                  Obl.| vattahi      | wat           |   bat      |
+    |              Ag.-Loc.| vattae       | wate          |   bat      |
+    |            Plur. Nom.| vatta-o      | wat-o         |   bata     |
+    |                  Obl.| vattahu      | wat-o         |   bata     |
+    |              Ag.-Loc.| vattahi      | wat-o-e       |   bata     |
+    +----------------------+--------------+---------------+------------+
+
+  The general oblique case can be employed for any case except the
+  nominative, but, in order to define the meaning, it is customary to
+  add postpositions as in Hindostani. These are:
+
+    +------------+----------+---------------+----------+----------+
+    |            | Genitive.|    Dative.    | Ablative.| Locative.|
+    +------------+----------+---------------+----------+----------+
+    | Gujarati   |    no    |       ne      |    thi   |    ma    |
+    | Rajasthani |  ro, ko  | nai, rai, kai |    su    |    mai   |
+    +------------+----------+---------------+----------+----------+
+
+  The suffix _no_ of the genitive is believed to be a contraction of
+  _tano_, which is found in old Gujarati poetry, and which, under the
+  form _tanas_ in Sanskrit and _tanaü_ in Apabhramsa, mean "belonging
+  to." It is an adjective, and agrees in gender, number and case with
+  the thing possessed. Thus, _raja-no dik^aro_, the king's son; _raja-ni
+  dik^ari_, the king's daughter; _raja-nu ghar_, the king's house;
+  _raja-na dik^ara-ne_, to the king's son (_na_ is in the oblique case
+  masculine to agree with _dik^ara_); _raja-ne ghare_, in the king's
+  house. The _ro_ and _ko_ of R. are similarly treated, but, of course,
+  have no neuter. The dative postpositions are simply locatives of the
+  genitive ones, as in all modern Indo-Aryan languages (see HINDOSTANI).
+  _Thi_, the postposition of the G. ablative, is connected with _thawu_,
+  to be, one of the verbs substantive in that language. The ablative
+  suffix is made in this way in many modern Indo-Aryan languages (e.g.
+  Bengali, q.v.). It means literally "having been" and is to be
+  ultimately referred to the Sanskrit root, _stha_, stand. The
+  derivation of the other postpositions is discussed in the article
+  HINDOSTANI.
+
+  Strong adjectives agree with the nouns they qualify in gender, number
+  and case, as in the examples of the genitive above. Weak adjectives
+  are immutable.
+
+  Pronouns closely agree with those found in Hindostani. In the table on
+  following page we give the first two personal pronouns, and the
+  demonstrative pronoun "this."
+
+   Similarly are formed the remaining pronouns, viz. G. _a_, R. _u_,
+  he, that; G. _te_, R. _so_ (obl. sing. _ti_), that; G. _je_, R. _jo_,
+  who; G. _kan_ (obl. _kan_, _ko_, or _ke_), R. _kun_ (obl. _kun_),
+  who?; G. _su_, R. _kai_, what?; G., R. _koi_, anyone, someone, _kai_
+  anything, something. G. has two other demonstratives, _pelo_ and
+  _olyo_, both meaning "that." The derivation of these and of _su_ has
+  been discussed without any decisive result. The rest are explained in
+  the article HINDOSTANI. The reflexive pronoun is G. _ap^ane_, R.
+  _apa_. It is generally employed as a plural of the first personal
+  pronoun including the person addressed; thus G. _ap^ane_, we
+  (including you), but _ame_, we (excluding you). In G. _pote_, obl.
+  _pota_, is used to mean "self."
+
+    +------------------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
+    |                  |    Apabhramsa.    | Gujarati.|   Rajasthani.  |
+    +------------------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
+    | I           Nom. |   hau             |  hu      | hu, mhu, mai   |
+    |             Obl. | mai, mahu, majjhu | ma, maj  | ma, mha, mu    |
+    | MY               |   maharaü         |  maro    | maro, mharo    |
+    | WE          Nom. |   amhe            |  ame     | mhe            |
+    |             Obl. |   amhahã          |  am-o    | mha            |
+    | OUR              |   amharaü         |  amaro   | mha-ro, mha-ko |
+    | THOU        Nom. |   tuhu            |  tu      | tu             |
+    |             Obl. | tai, tuha, tujjhu | ta, tuj  | ta, tha, tu    |
+    | THY              |   tuharaü         |  taro    | tharo          |
+    | YOU         Nom. |   tumhe           |  tame    | the, tame      |
+    |             Obl. |   tumhahã         |  tam-o   | tha, tama      |
+    | YOUR             |   tumharaü        |  tamaro  | tha-ro, tha-ko |
+    | THIS, HE    Nom. |   eho             |  e       | yo             |
+    |             Obl. | (?) ehaha, imaha  |  e       | i              |
+    | THESE, THEY Nom. |   ei              |  e-o     | e, ye          |
+    |             Obl. |   eammi, ehana    |  em      | ina, ya.       |
+    +------------------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
+
+  _Conjugation._--The old present has survived as in Hindostani and
+  other Indian languages. Taking the base _call_ or _cal_, go, as our
+  model, we have:
+
+    +-------------+------------+-----------------------+
+    |             | Apabhramsa.| Gujarati.| Rajasthani.|
+    +-------------+------------+-----------------------+
+    |  Sing.  1   |   callau   |   calu   |    calu    |
+    |         2   |   callahi  |   cale   |    calai   |
+    |         3   |   callai   |   cale   |    calai   |
+    |  Plur.  1   |   callahu  |   calie  |    cala    |
+    |         2   |   callahu  |   calo   |    calo    |
+    |         3   |   callahi  |   cale   |    calai   |
+    +-------------+------------+-----------------------+
+
+  The derivation of the G. 1 plural is unknown. That of the other G. and
+  R. forms is manifest. The imperative closely follows this, but as
+  usual has no termination in the second person singular.
+
+  In R. the future may be formed by adding _go_ (cf. Hindostani _ga_),
+  _lo_, or _la_ to the old present. Thus, _calu-go_, _calu-lo_ or
+  _calu-la_ I shall go. The _go_ and _lo_ agree in gender and number
+  with the subject, but _la_ is immutable. The termination with _l_ is
+  also found in Bhojpuri (see BIHARI), in Marathi and in Nepali. For
+  _go_ see HINDOSTANI. Another form of the future has _s_ or _h_ for its
+  characteristic letter, and is the only one employed in G. Thus, Ap.
+  _callisau_ or _callihau_, G. _calis_, R. (Jaipuri) _cal^asyu_,
+  (Marwari) _cal^ahu_. The other personal terminations differ
+  considerably from those of the old present, and closely follow Ap.
+  Thus, Ap. 3 sing. _callisai_ or _callihi_, G. _cal^ase_, Marwari
+  _cal^ahi_.
+
+  The participles and infinitive are as follows:
+
+    +----------------------+------------+-----------------------+
+    |                      | Apabhramsa.| Gujarati.| Rajasthani.|
+    +----------------------+------------+-----------------------+
+    | Pres. Part. Active   | callantau  | cal^ato  |   cal^ato  |
+    | Past. Part. Passive  | calliau    | calyo    |   calyo    |
+    | Future Part. Passive | calliavvau | cal^avo  |   cal^abo  |
+    | Infinitive           |     ..     | cal^avu  |   cal^abo  |
+    +----------------------+------------+-----------------------+
+
+  In G. the infinitive is simply the neuter of the future passive
+  participle. The participles are employed to form finite tenses; thus
+  G. _hu cal^ato_], I used to go; _hu calyo_, I went. If the verb is
+  transitive (see HINDOSTANI) the passive meaning of the past participle
+  comes into force. The subject is put into the case of the agent, and
+  the participle inflects to agree with the object, or, if there is no
+  object, is employed impersonally in the neuter (in G.) or in the
+  masculine (in R.). In Hindostani, if the object is expressed in the
+  dative, the participle is also employed impersonally, in the
+  masculine; thus _raja-ne sherni-ko mara_ (masc.), not _mari_, (fem.),
+  by-the-king, with reference-to-the-tigress,
+  it-(impersonal)-was-killed, i.e. the king killed the tigress. But in
+  G. and R., even if the object is in the dative, the past participle
+  agrees with it; thus, G. _rajae waghan-ne mari_, by-the-king,
+  with-reference-to-the-tigress, she-was-killed. Other examples from G.
+  of this passive construction are _me kahyu_, by me it was said, I
+  said; _tene citthi lakhi_, by him a letter was written, he wrote a
+  letter; _e baie vag^ada-ma, dahada kadya_, by this lady, in the
+  wilderness, days were passed, i.e. she passed her days in the
+  wilderness; _rajae vicaryu_, the king considered. The idiom of R. is
+  exactly the same in these cases, except that the masculine must be
+  used where G. has the neuter; thus, _rajaai vicaryo_. The future
+  passive participle is construed in much the same way, but (as in
+  Latin) the subject may be put into the dative. Thus, _mare a cåp^adi
+  vac^avi, mihi ille liber (est) legendus_, I must read that book, but
+  also _tene_ (agent case) _e kam kar^avu_, by him this business is to
+  be done.
+
+  G. also forms a past participle in _elo_ (_calelo_), which is one of
+  the many survivals of the outer language. This -_l_- participle is
+  typical of most of the languages of the outer band, including Marathi,
+  Oriya, Bengali, Bihari and Assamese. It is formed by the addition of
+  the Prakrit pleonastic suffix _-illa-_, which was not used by the
+  Prakrit of the Midland, but was common elsewhere. Compare, for
+  instance, the Ardhamagadhi past participle passive _an-illia-_,
+  brought.
+
+  The usual verbs substantive are as follows: G. _chu_, R. _hu_ or
+  _chu_, I am, which are conjugated regularly as old presents, and G.
+  _hato_, R. _ho_ or _cho_, was, which is a past participle, like the
+  Hindostani (q.v.) _tha_. _Hu_, _hato_ and _ho_ are explained in the
+  article on that language. _Chu_ is for Skr. _[r°]cchami_, Ap.
+  _acchau_. The use of this base is one of the outer band survivals.
+  Even in Prakrit, it is not found (so far as the present writer is
+  aware) in the Sauraseni of the Midland. Using these as auxiliaries the
+  finite verb makes a whole series of periphrastic tenses. A present
+  definite is formed by conjugating the old present tense (not the
+  present participle) with the present tense of the verb substantive.
+  Thus, G. _calu chu_, I am going. A similar idiom is found in some
+  Western Hindi dialects, but Hindostani employs the present participle;
+  thus, _calta hu_. In G. and R., however, the imperfect is formed with
+  the present participle as in H. Thus, G. _hu cal^ato hato_, I was
+  going. So, as in H., we have a perfect _hu calyo_ (or _calelo_) _chu_,
+  I have gone, and a pluperfect _hu calyo_ (or _calelo_) _hato_, I had
+  gone. The R. periphrastic tenses are made on the same principles. With
+  the genitive of the G. future passive participle, _cal^ava-no_, we
+  have a kind of gerundive, as in _hu cal^avano chu_, I am to be gone,
+  i.e. I am about to go; _hu cal^avano hato_, I was about to go.
+
+  The same series of derivative verbs occurs in G. and R. as in H. Thus,
+  we have a potential passive (a simple passive in G.) formed by adding
+  _a_ to the base, as in G. _lakh^avu_, to write, _lakhavu_, to be
+  written; and a causal by adding _av_ or _ad_, as in _lakhav^avu_, to
+  cause to write; _bes^avu_, to sit, _besad^avu_, to seat. A new passive
+  may be formed in G. from the causal, as in _tap^avu_, to be hot;
+  _tapav^avu_, to cause to be hot; to heat; _tapavavu_, to be heated.
+
+  Several verbs have irregular past participles. These must be learnt
+  from the grammars. So also the numerous compound verbs, such as (G.)
+  _cali sak^avu_, to be able to go; _cali cuk^avu_, to have completed
+  going; _calya kar^avu_, to be in the habit of going, and so on.
+
+
+  Literature.
+
+Very little is known about the literature of Rajputana, except that it
+is of large extent. It includes a number of bardic chronicles of which
+only one has been partially edited, but the contents of which have been
+described by Tod in his admired _Rajasthan_. It also includes a
+considerable religious literature, but the whole mass of this is still
+in MS. From those specimens which the present writer has examined, it
+would appear that most of the authors wrote in Braj Bhasha, the Hindu
+literary dialect of Hindostani (q.v.) In Marwar it is an acknowledged
+fact that the literature falls into two branches, one called _Pingal_
+and couched in Braj Bhasha, and the other called _[D.]ingal_ and couched
+in Rajasthani. The most admired work in [D.]ingal is the _Raghunath
+Rupak_ written by Mansa Ram in the beginning of the 19th century. It is
+nominally a treatise on prosody, but, like many other works of the same
+kind, it contrives to pay a double debt, for the examples of the metres
+are so arranged as to form a complete epic poem celebrating the deeds of
+the hero Rama.
+
+The earliest writer of importance in Gujarati, and its most admired
+poet, was Narsingh Meta, who lived in the 15th century A.D. Before him
+there were writers on Sanskrit grammar, rhetoric and the like, who
+employed an old form of Gujarati for their explanations. Narsingh does
+not appear to have written any considerable work, his reputation
+depending on his short songs, many of which exhibit much felicity of
+diction. He had several successors, all admittedly his inferiors.
+Perhaps the most noteworthy of these was Rewa Sankar, the translator of
+the _Mahabharata_ (see SANSKRIT: _Literature_). A more important side of
+Gujarati literature is its bardic chronicles, the contents of which have
+been utilized by Forbes in his _Ras Mala_. Modern Gujarati literature
+mostly consists of translations or imitations of English works.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Volume ix. of the _Linguistic Survey of India_ contains
+  a full and complete account of Gujarati and Rajasthani, including
+  their various dialectic forms.
+
+  For Rajasthani, see S. H. Kellogg, _Grammar of the Hindi Language_
+  (2nd ed., London, 1893). In this are described several dialects of
+  Rajasthani. See also Ram Karn Sarma, _Marwari Vyakarana_ (Jodhpur,
+  1901) (a Marwari grammar written in that language), and G. Macalister,
+  _Specimens of the Dialects spoken in the State of Jaipur_ (contains
+  specimens, vocabularies and grammars) (Allahabad, 1898).
+
+  For Gujarati, there are numerous grammars, amongst which we may note
+  W. St C. Tisdall, _Simplified Grammar of the Gujarati Language_
+  (London, 1892) and (the most complete) G. P. Taylor, _The Student's
+  Gujarati Grammar_ (2nd ed., Bombay, 1908). As for dictionaries, the
+  most authoritative is the _Narma-kos_ of Narmada Sankar (Bhaunagar
+  and Surat, 1873), in Gujarati throughout. For English readers we may
+  mention Shahpurji Edalji's (2nd ed., Bombay, 1868), the introduction
+  to which contains an account of Gujarati literature by J. Glasgow,
+  Belsare's (Ahmedabad, 1895), and Karbhari's (Ahmedabad, 1899).
+       (G. A. Gr.)
+
+
+
+
+GUJRANWALA, a town and district of British India, in the Lahore division
+of the Punjab. The town is situated 40 m. N. of Lahore by rail. It is of
+modern growth, and owes its importance to the father and grandfather of
+Maharaja Ranjit Singh, whose capital it formed during the early period
+of the Sikh power. Pop. (1901) 29,224. There are manufactures of
+brass-ware, jewellery, and silk and cotton scarves.
+
+The DISTRICT comprises an area of 3198 sq. m. In 1901 the population was
+756,797, showing an increase of 29% in the decade. The district is
+divided between a low alluvial tract along the rivers Chenab and Degh
+and the upland between them, which forms the central portion of the
+Rechna Doab, intermediate between the fertile submontane plains of
+Sialkot and the desert expanses of Jhang. Part of the upland tract has
+been brought under cultivation by the Chenab canal. The country is very
+bare of trees, and the scenery throughout is tame and in the central
+plateau becomes monotonous. It seems likely that the district once
+contained the capital of the Punjab, at an epoch when Lahore had not
+begun to exist. We learn from the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, Hsuan Tsang,
+that about the year 630 he visited a town known as Tse-kia (or Taki),
+the metropolis of the whole country of the five rivers. A mound near the
+modern village of Asarur has been identified as the site of the ancient
+capital. Until the Mahommedan invasions little is known of Gujranwala,
+except that Taki had fallen into oblivion and Lahore had become the
+chief city. Under Mahommedan rule the district flourished for a time;
+but a mysterious depopulation fell upon the tract, and the whole region
+seems to have been almost entirely abandoned. On the rise of Sikh power,
+the waste plains of Gujranwala were seized by various military
+adventurers. Charat Singh took-possession of the village of Gujranwala,
+and here his grandson the great Maharaja Ranjit Singh was born. The Sikh
+rule, which was elsewhere so disastrous, appears to have been an
+unmitigated benefit to this district. Ranjit Singh settled large
+colonies in the various villages, and encouraged cultivation throughout
+the depopulated plain. In 1847 the district came under British influence
+in connexion with the regency at Lahore; and in 1849 it was included in
+the territory annexed after the second Sikh war. A large export trade is
+carried on in cotton, wheat and other grains. The district is served by
+the main line and branches of the North-Western railway.
+
+
+
+
+GUJRAT, a town and district of British India, in the Rawalpindi division
+of the Punjab, lying on the south-western border of Kashmir. The town
+stands about 5 m. from the right bank of the river Chenab, 70 m. N. of
+Lahore by rail. Pop. (1901) 19,410. It is built upon an ancient site,
+formerly occupied, according to tradition, by two successive cities, the
+second of which is supposed to have been destroyed in 1303, the year of
+a Mongol invasion. More than 200 years later either Sher Shah or Akbar
+founded the existing town. Though standing in the midst of a Jat
+neighbourhood, the fort was first garrisoned by Gujars, and took the
+name of Gujrat. Akbar's fort, largely improved by Gujar Singh, stands in
+the centre of the town. The neighbouring shrine of the saint Shah Daula
+serves as a kind of native asylum for lunatics. The town has
+manufactures of furniture, inlaid work in gold and iron, brass-ware,
+boots, cotton goods and shawls.
+
+The DISTRICT OF GUJRAT comprises a narrow wedge of sub-Himalayan plain
+country, possessing few natural advantages. From the basin of the Chenab
+on the south the general level rises rapidly towards the interior,
+which, owing to the great distance of the water beneath the surface,
+assumes a dreary and desert aspect. A range of low hills, known as the
+Pabbi, traverses the northern angle of Gujrat. They are composed of a
+friable Tertiary sandstone and conglomerate, destitute of vegetation,
+and presenting a mere barren chaos of naked rock, deeply scored with
+precipitous ravines. Immediately below the Pabbi stretches a high
+plateau, terminating abruptly in a precipitous bluff some 200 ft. in
+height. At the foot of this plateau is a plain, which forms the actual
+valley of the Chenab and participates in the irrigation from the river
+bed.
+
+Numerous relics of antiquity stud the surface of the district. Mounds of
+ancient construction yield early coins, and bricks are found whose size
+and type prove them to belong to the prehistoric period. A mound now
+occupied by the village of Moga or Mong has been identified as the site
+of Nicaea, the city built by Alexander the Great on the field of his
+victory over Porus. The Delhi empire established its authority in this
+district under Bahlol Lodi (1451-1489). A century later it was visited
+by Akbar, who founded Gujrat as the seat of government. During the decay
+of the Mogul power, the Ghakkars of Rawalpindi overran this portion of
+the Punjab and established themselves in Gujrat about 1741. Meanwhile
+the Sikh power had been asserting itself in the eastern Punjab, and in
+1765 the Ghakkar chief was defeated by Sirdar Gujar Singh, chief of the
+Bhangi confederacy. On his death, his son succeeded him, but after a few
+months' warfare, in 1798, he submitted himself as vassal to the Maharaja
+Ranjit Singh. In 1846 Gujrat first came under the supervision of British
+officials. Two years later the district became the theatre for the
+important engagements which decided the event of the second Sikh war.
+After several bloody battles in which the British were unsuccessful, the
+Sikh power was irretrievably broken at the engagement which took place
+at Gujrat on the 22nd of February 1849. The Punjab then passed by
+annexation under British rule.
+
+The district comprises an area of 2051 sq. m. In 1901 the population was
+750,548, showing a decrease of 1%, compared with an increase of 10% in
+the previous decade. The district has a large export trade in wheat and
+other grains, oil, wool, cotton and hides. The main line and the
+Sind-Sagar branch of the North-Western railway traverse it.
+
+
+
+
+GULA, a Babylonian goddess, the consort of Ninib. She is identical with
+another goddess, known as Bau, though it would seem that the two were
+originally independent. The name Bau is more common in the oldest period
+and gives way in the post-Khammurabic age to Gula. Since it is probable
+that Ninib (q.v.) has absorbed the cults of minor sun-deities, the two
+names may represent consorts of different gods. However this may be, the
+qualities of both are alike, and the two occur as synonymous
+designations of Ninib's female consort. Other names borne by this
+goddess are Nin-Karrak, Ga-tum-dug and Nin-din-dug, the latter
+signifying "the lady who restores to life." The designation well
+emphasizes the chief trait of Bau-Gula which is that of healer. She is
+often spoken of as "the great physician," and accordingly plays a
+specially prominent rôle in incantations and incantation rituals
+intended to relieve those suffering from disease. She is, however, also
+invoked to curse those who trample upon the rights of rulers or those
+who do wrong with poisonous potions. As in the case of Ninib, the cult
+of Bau-Gula is prominent in Shirgulla and in Nippur. While generally in
+close association with her consort, she is also invoked by herself, and
+thus retains a larger measure of independence than most of the goddesses
+of Babylonia and Assyria. She appears in a prominent position on the
+designs accompanying the Kudurrus boundary-stone monuments of Babylonia,
+being represented by a statue, when other gods and goddesses are merely
+pictured by their shrines, by sacred animals or by weapons. In
+neo-Babylonian days her cult continues to occupy a prominent position,
+and Nebuchadrezzar II. speaks of no less than three chapels or shrines
+within the sacred precincts of E-Zida in the city of Borsippa, besides a
+temple in her honour at Babylon.     (M. Ja.)
+
+
+
+
+GULBARGA, an ancient city of India, situated in the Nizam's dominions,
+70 m. S.E. of Sholapur. Pop. (1901) 29,228. Originally a Hindu city, it
+was made the capital of the Bahmani kings when that dynasty established
+their independence in the Deccan in 1347, and it remained such until
+1422. The palaces, mosques and tombs of these kings still stand
+half-ruined. The most notable building is a mosque modelled after that
+of Cordova in Spain, covering an area of 38,000 sq. ft., which is
+almost unique in India as being entirely covered in. Since the opening
+of a station on the Great India Peninsula railway, Gulbarga has become a
+centre of trade, with cotton-spinning and weaving mills. It is also the
+headquarters of a district and division of the same name. The district,
+as recently reconstituted, has an area of 6004 sq. m.; pop. (1901),
+1,041,067.
+
+
+
+
+GULF STREAM,[1] the name properly applied to the stream current which
+issues from the Gulf of Mexico and flows north-eastward, following the
+eastern coast of North America, and separated from it by a narrow strip
+of cold water (the _Cold Wall_), to a point east of the Grand Banks off
+Newfoundland. The Gulf Stream is a narrow, deep current, and its
+velocity is estimated at about 80 m. a day. It is joined by, and often
+indistinguishable from, a large body of water which comes from outside
+the West Indies and follows the same course. The term was formerly
+applied to the drift current which carries the mixed waters of the Gulf
+Stream and the Labrador current eastwards across the Atlantic. This is
+now usually known as the "Gulf Stream drift," although the name is not
+altogether appropriate. See Atlantic.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The word "gulf," a portion of the sea partially enclosed by the
+    coast-line, and usually taken as referring to a tract of water larger
+    than a bay and smaller than a sea, is derived through the Fr.
+    _golfe_, from Late Gr. [Greek: kolphos], class. Gr. [Greek: kolpos],
+    bosom, hence bay, cf. Lat. sinus. In University slang, the term is
+    used of the position of those who fail to obtain a place in the
+    honours list at a public examination, but are allowed a "pass."
+
+
+
+
+GULFWEED, in botany, a popular name for the seaweed _Sargassum
+bacciferum_, one of the brown seaweeds (Phaeophyceae), large quantities
+of which are found floating in the Gulf of Mexico, whence it is carried
+northwards by the Gulf Stream, small portions sometimes being borne as
+far as the coasts of the British Isles. It was observed by Columbus, and
+is remarkable among seaweeds for its form, which resembles branches
+bearing leaves and berries; the latter, to which the species-name
+_bacciferum_ refers, are hollow floats answering the same purpose as the
+bladders in another brown seaweed, _Fucus vesiculosus_, which is common
+round the British Isles between high and low water.
+
+
+
+
+GULL, SIR WILLIAM WITHEY, 1st Bart. (1816-1890), English physician, was
+the youngest son of John Gull, a barge-owner and wharfinger of
+Thorpe-le-Soken, Essex, and was born on the 31st of December 1816 at
+Colchester. He began life as a schoolmaster, but in 1837 Benjamin
+Harrison, the treasurer of Guy's Hospital, who had noticed his ability,
+brought him up to London from the school at Lewes where he was usher,
+and gave him employment at the hospital, where he also gained permission
+to attend the lectures. In 1843 he was made a lecturer in the medical
+school of the hospital, in 1851 he was chosen an assistant physician,
+and in 1856 he became full physician. In 1847 he was elected Fullerian
+professor of physiology in the Royal Institution, retaining the post for
+the usual three years, and in 1848 he delivered the Gulstonian Lectures
+at the College of Physicians, where he filled every office of honour but
+that of president. He died in London on the 29th of January 1890 after a
+series of paralytic strokes, the first of which had occurred nearly
+three years previously. He was created a baronet in 1872, in recognition
+of the skill and care he had shown in attending the prince of Wales
+during his attack of typhoid in 1871. Sir William Gull's fame rested
+mainly on his success as a clinical practitioner; as he said himself, he
+was "a clinical physician or nothing." This success must be largely
+ascribed to his remarkable powers of observation, and to the great
+opportunities he enjoyed for gaining experience of disease. He was
+sometimes accused of being a disbeliever in drugs. That was not the
+case, for he prescribed drugs like other physicians when he considered
+them likely to be beneficial. He felt, however, that their
+administration was only a part of the physician's duties, and his mental
+honesty and outspokenness prevented him from deluding either himself or
+his patients with unwarranted notions of what they can do. But though he
+regarded medicine as primarily an art for the relief of physical
+suffering, he was far from disregarding the scientific side of his
+profession, and he made some real contributions to medical science. His
+papers were printed chiefly in _Guy's Hospital Reports_ and in the
+proceedings of learned societies: among the subjects he wrote about were
+cholera, rheumatic fever, taenia, paraplegia and abscess of the brain,
+while he distinguished for the first time (1873) the disease now known
+as myxoedema, describing it as a "cretinoid state in adults."
+
+
+
+
+GULL (Welsh _gwylan_, Breton, _goelann_, whence Fr. _goêland_), the name
+commonly adopted, to the almost entire exclusion of the O. Eng. MEW
+(Icel. _máfur_, Dan. _maage_, Swedish _måse_, Ger. _Meve_, Dutch
+_meeuw_, Fr. _mouette_), for a group of sea-birds widely and commonly
+known, all belonging to the genus _Larus_ of Linnaeus, which subsequent
+systematists have broken up in a very arbitrary and often absurd
+fashion. The family _Laridae_ is composed of two chief groups, _Larinae_
+and _Sterninae_--the gulls and the terns, though two other subfamilies
+are frequently counted, the skuas (_Stercorariinae_), and that formed by
+the single genus _Rhynchops_, the skimmers; but there seems no strong
+reason why the former should not be referred to the _Larinae_ and the
+latter to the _Sterninae_.
+
+Taking the gulls in their restricted sense, Howard Saunders, who has
+subjected the group to a rigorous revision (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1878,
+pp. 155-211), admits forty-nine species of them, which he places in five
+genera instead of the many which some prior investigators had sought to
+establish. Of the genera recognized by him, _Pagophila_ and
+_Rhodostethia_ have but one species each, _Rissa_ and _Xema_ two, while
+the rest belong to _Larus_. The _Pagophila_ is the so-called ivory-gull,
+_P. eburnea_, names which hardly do justice to the extreme whiteness of
+its plumage, to which its jet-black legs offer a strong contrast. The
+young, however, are spotted with black. An inhabitant of the most
+northern seas, examples, most commonly young birds of the year, find
+their way in winter to more temperate shores. Its breeding-place has
+seldom been discovered, and the first of its eggs ever seen by
+ornithologists was brought home by Sir L. M'Clintock in 1853 from Cape
+Krabbe (_Journ. R. Dubl. Society_, i. 60, pl. 1); others were
+subsequently obtained by Dr Malmgren in Spitsbergen. Of the species of
+_Rissa_, one is the abundant and well-known kittiwake, _R. tridactyla_,
+of circumpolar range, breeding, however, also in comparatively low
+latitudes, as on the coasts of Britain, and in winter frequenting
+southern waters. The other is _R. brevirostris_, limited to the North
+Pacific, between Alaska and Kamchatka. The singular fact requires to be
+noticed that in both these species the hind toe is generally deficient,
+but that examples of each are occasionally found in which this
+functionless member has not wholly disappeared. We have then the genus
+_Larus_, which ornithologists have attempted most unsuccessfully to
+subdivide. It contains the largest as well as the smallest of gulls. In
+some species the adults assume a dark-coloured head every
+breeding-season, in others any trace of dark colour is the mark of
+immaturity. The larger species prey fiercely on other kinds of birds,
+while the smaller content themselves with a diet of small animals, often
+insects and worms. But however diverse be the appearance, structure or
+habits of the extremities of the series of species, they are so closely
+connected by intermediate forms that it is hard to find a gap between
+them that would justify a generic division. Forty-three species of this
+genus are recognized by Saunders. About fifteen belong to Europe and
+fourteen to North America, of which (excluding stragglers) some five
+only are common to both countries. Our knowledge of the geographical
+distribution of several of them is still incomplete. Some have a very
+wide range, others very much the reverse, as witness _L. fuliginosus_,
+believed to be confined to the Galapagos, and _L. scopulinus_ and _L.
+bulleri_ to New Zealand,--the last indeed perhaps only to the South
+Island. The largest species of the group are the glaucous gull and
+greater black-backed gull, _L. glaucus_ and _L. marinus_, of which the
+former is circumpolar, and the latter nearly so--not being hitherto
+found between Labrador and Japan. The smallest species is the European
+_L. minutus_, though the North American _L. Philadelphia_ does not much
+exceed it in size. Many of the gulls congregate in vast numbers to
+breed, whether on rocky cliffs of the sea-coast or on healthy islands
+in inland waters. Some of the settlements of the black-headed or
+"peewit" gull, _L. ridibundus_, are a source of no small profit to their
+proprietors,--the eggs, which are rightly accounted a great delicacy,
+being taken on an orderly system up to a certain day, and the birds
+carefully protected. Ross's or the roseate gull, _Rhodostethia rosea_,
+forms a well-marked genus, distinguished not so much by the pink tint of
+its plumage (for that is found in other species) but by its small
+dove-like bill and wedge-shaped tail. It is an exceedingly scarce bird,
+and beyond its having an Arctic habitat, little has yet been ascertained
+about it. More rare still is one of the species of _Xema_, _X.
+furcatum_, of which only two specimens, both believed to have come from
+the Galapagos, have been seen. Its smaller congener Sabine's gull, _X.
+sabinii_, is more common, and has been found breeding both in Arctic
+America and in Siberia, and several examples, chiefly immature birds,
+have been obtained in the British islands. Both species of _Xema_ are
+readily distinguished from all other gulls by their forked tails.
+     (A. N.)
+
+
+
+
+GULLY, JOHN (1783-1863), English sportsman and politician, was born at
+Wick, near Bath, on the 21st of August 1783, the son of an innkeeper. He
+came into prominence as a boxer, and in 1805 he was matched against
+Henry Pearce, the "Game Chicken," before the duke of Clarence
+(afterwards William IV.) and numerous other spectators, and after
+fighting sixty-four rounds, which occupied an hour and seventeen
+minutes, was beaten. In 1807 he twice fought Bob Gregson, the Lancashire
+giant, for two hundred guineas a side, winning on both occasions. As the
+landlord of the "Plough" tavern in Carey Street, London, be retired from
+the ring in 1808, and took to horse-racing. In 1827 he lost £40,000 by
+backing his horse "Mameluke" (for which he had paid four thousand
+guineas) for the St Leger. In partnership with Robert Ridskale, in 1832,
+he made £85,000 by winning the Derby and St Leger with "St Giles" and
+"Margrave." In partnership with John Day he won the Two Thousand Guineas
+with "Ugly Buck" in 1844, and two years later he took the Derby and the
+Oaks with "Pyrrhus the First" and "Mendicant," in 1854 the Two Thousand
+Guineas with "Hermit," and in the same year, in partnership with Henry
+Padwick, the Derby with "Andover." Having bought Ackworth Park near
+Pontefract he was M.P. from December 1832 to July 1837. In 1862 he
+purchased the Wingate Grange estate and collieries. Gully was twice
+married and had twelve children by each wife. He died at Durham on the
+9th of March 1863. He appears to have been no relation of the subsequent
+Speaker, Lord Selby.
+
+
+
+
+GULPÁÏGÁN (_Jerbádegán_ of the Arab geographers), a district and city in
+Central Persia, situated N.W. of Isfahán and S.E. of Irák. Together with
+Khunsár it forms a small province, paying a yearly revenue of about
+£6000. The city of Gulpáïgán is situated 87 m. N.W. of Isfahán, at an
+elevation of 5875 ft. in 33° 24´ N. and 50° 20´ E., and has a population
+of about 5000. The district is fertile and produces much grain and some
+opium. Sometimes it is under the governor-general of the Isfahán
+province, at others it forms part of the province of Irák, and at times,
+as in 1906, is under a governor appointed from Teheran.
+
+
+
+
+GUM (Fr. _gomme_, Lat. _gommi_, Gr. [Greek: kommi], possibly a Coptic
+word; distinguish "gum," the fleshy covering of the base of a tooth, in
+O. Eng. _góma_, palate, cf. Ger. _Gaumen_, roof of the mouth; the
+ultimate origin is probably the root _gha_, to open wide, seen in Gr.
+[Greek: chainein], to gape, cf. "yawn"), the generic name given to a
+group of amorphous carbo-hydrates of the general formula (C6H10O5)_n,
+which exist in the juices of almost all plants, and also occur as
+exudations from stems, branches and fruits of plants. They are entirely
+soluble or soften in water, and form with it a thick glutinous liquid or
+mucilage. They yield mucic and oxalic acids when treated with nitric
+acid. In structure the gums are quite amorphous, being neither organized
+like starch nor crystallized like sugar. They are odourless and
+tasteless, and some yield clear aqueous solutions--the real gums--while
+others swell up and will not percolate filter paper--the vegetable
+mucilages. The acacias and the Rosaceae yield their gums most abundantly
+when sickly and in an abnormal state, caused by a fulness of sap in the
+young tissues, whereby the new cells are softened and finally
+disorganized; the cavities thus formed fill with liquid, which exudes,
+dries and constitutes the gum.
+
+_Gum arabic_ may be taken as the type of the gums entirely soluble in
+water. Another variety, obtained from the _Prosopis dulcis_, a
+leguminous plant, is called gum mesquite or mezquite; it comes from
+western Texas and Mexico, and is yellowish in colour, very brittle and
+quite soluble in water.
+
+  Gum arabic occurs in pieces of varying size, and some kinds are full
+  of minute cracks. The specific gravity of Turkey picked gum (the
+  purest variety) is 1.487, or, when dried at 100° C., 1.525. It is
+  soluble in water to an indefinite extent; boiled with dilute sulphuric
+  acid it is converted into the sugar galactose. Moderately strong
+  nitric acid changes it into mucic, saccharic, tartaric and oxalic
+  acids. Under the influence of yeast it does not enter into the
+  alcoholic fermentation, but M. P. E. Berthelot, by digesting with
+  chalk and cheese, obtained from it 12% of its weight of alcohol, along
+  with calcium lactate, but no appreciable quantity of sugar. Gum arabic
+  may be regarded as a potassium and calcium salt of gummic or arabic
+  acid. T. Graham (_Chemical and Physical Researches_) recommended
+  dialysis as the best mode of preparing gummic acid, and stated that
+  the power of gum to penetrate the parchment septum is 400 times less
+  than that of sodium chloride, and, further, that by mixing the gum
+  with substances of the crystalloid class the diffusibility is lowered,
+  and may be even reduced to nothing. The mucilage must be acidulated
+  with hydrochloric acid before dialysing, to set free the gummic acid.
+  By adding alcohol to the solution, the acid is precipitated as a white
+  amorphous mass, which becomes glassy at 100°. Its formula is
+  (C6H10O5)2H2O, and it forms compounds with nearly all bases which are
+  easily soluble in water. Gummic acid reddens litmus, its reaction
+  being about equal to carbonic acid. When solutions of gum arabic and
+  gelatin are mixed, oily drops of a compound of the two are
+  precipitated, which on standing form a nearly colourless jelly,
+  melting at 25° C., or by the heat of the hand. This substance can be
+  washed without decomposition. Gummic acid is soluble in water; when
+  well dried at 100° C., it becomes transformed into metagummic acid,
+  which is insoluble, but swells up in water like gum tragacanth.
+
+  Gum arabic, when heated to 150° C. with two parts of acetic anhydride,
+  swells up to a mass which, when washed with boiling water, and then
+  with alcohol, gives a white amorphous insoluble powder called acetyl
+  arabin C6H8(C2H3O)2O5. It is saponified by alkalies, with reproduction
+  of soluble gum. Gum arabic is not precipitated from solution by alum,
+  stannous chloride, sulphate or nitrate of copper, or neutral lead
+  acetate; with basic lead acetate it forms a white jelly, with ferric
+  chloride it yields a stiff clear gelatinoid mass, and its solutions
+  are also precipitated by borax.
+
+The finer varieties are used as an emollient and demulcent in medicine,
+and in the manufacture of confectionery; the commoner qualities are used
+as an adhesive paste, for giving lustre to crape, silk, &c., in cloth
+finishing to stiffen the fibres, and in calico-printing. For labels,
+&c., it is usual to mix sugar or glycerin with it to prevent it from
+cracking.
+
+Gum senegal, a variety of gum arabic produced by _Acacia Verek_, occurs
+in pieces generally rounded, of the size of a pigeon's egg, and of a
+reddish or yellow colour, and specific gravity 1.436. It gives with
+water a somewhat stronger mucilage than gum arabic, from which it is
+distinguished by its clear interior, fewer cracks and greater toughness.
+It is imported from the river Gambia, and from Senegal and Bathurst.
+
+Chagual gum, a variety brought from Santiago, Chile, resembles gum
+senegal. About 75% is soluble in water. Its solution is not thickened by
+borax, and is precipitated by neutral lead acetate; and dilute sulphuric
+acid converts it into _d_-glucose.
+
+_Gum tragacanth_, familiarly called gum dragon, exudes from the stem,
+the lower part especially, of the various species of _Astragalus_,
+especially _A. gummifer_, and is collected in Asia Minor, the chief port
+of shipment being Smyrna. Formerly only what exuded spontaneously was
+gathered; this was often of a brownish colour; but now the flow of the
+gum is aided by incisions cut near the root, and the product is the
+fine, white, flaky variety so much valued in commerce. The chief flow of
+gum takes place during the night, and hot and dry weather is the most
+favourable for its production.
+
+  In colour gum tragacanth is of a dull white; it occurs in horny,
+  flexible and tough, thin, twisted flakes, translucent, and with
+  peculiar wavy lines on the surface. When dried at temperatures under
+  100° C. it loses about 14% of water, and is then easily powdered. Its
+  specific gravity is 1.384. With water it swells by absorption, and
+  with even fifty times its weight of that liquid forms a thick
+  mucilage. Part of it only is soluble in water, and that resembles
+  gummic acid in being precipitated by alcohol and ammonium oxalate, but
+  differs from it in giving a precipitate with neutral lead acetate and
+  none with borax. The insoluble part of the gum is a calcium salt of
+  bassorin (C12H20O10), which is devoid of taste and smell, forms a
+  gelatinoid mass with water, but by continued boiling is rendered
+  soluble.
+
+Gum tragacanth is used in calico-printing as a thickener of colours and
+mordants; in medicine as a demulcent and vehicle for insoluble powders,
+and as an excipient in pills; and for setting and mending beetles and
+other insect specimens. It is medicinally superior to gum acacia, as it
+does not undergo acetous fermentation. The best pharmacopeial
+preparation is the _Mucilago Tragacanthae_. The compound powder is a
+useless preparation, as the starch it contains is very liable to
+ferment.
+
+Gum kuteera resembles in appearance gum tragacanth, for which the
+attempt has occasionally been made to substitute it. It is said to be
+the product of _Sterculia urens_, a plant of the natural order
+Sterculiaceae.
+
+_Cherry tree gum_ is an exudation from trees of the genera _Prunus_ and
+_Cerasus_. It occurs in shiny reddish lumps, resembling the commoner
+kinds of gum arabic. With water, in which it is only partially soluble,
+it forms a thick mucilage. Sulphuric acid converts it into l-arabinose;
+and nitric acid oxidizes it to oxalic acid (without the intermediate
+formation of mucic acid as in the case of gum arabic).
+
+_Gum of Bassora_, from Bassora or Bussorah in Asia, is sometimes
+imported into the London market under the name of the hog tragacanth. It
+is insipid, crackles between the teeth, occurs in variable-sized pieces,
+is tough, of a yellowish-white colour, and opaque, and has properties
+similar to gum tragacanth. Its specific gravity is 1.36. It contains
+only 1% of soluble gum or arabin. Under the name of Caramania gum it is
+mixed with inferior kinds of gum tragacanth before exportation.
+
+_Mucilage._--Very many seeds, roots, &c., when infused in boiling water,
+yield mucilages which, for the most part, consist of bassorin. Linseed,
+quince seed and marshmallow root yield it in large quantity. In their
+reactions the different kinds of mucilage present differences; e.g.
+quince seed yields only oxalic acid when treated with nitric acid, and
+with a solution of iodine in zinc iodide it gives, after some time, a
+beautiful red tint. Linseed does not give the latter reaction; by
+treatment with boiling nitric acid it yields mucic and oxalic acids.
+
+  _Gum Resins._--This term is applied to the inspissated milky juices of
+  certain plants, which consist of gum soluble in water, resin and
+  essential oil soluble in alcohol, other vegetable matter and a small
+  amount of mineral matter. They are generally opaque and solid, and
+  often brittle. When finely powdered and rubbed down with water they
+  form emulsions, the undissolved resin being suspended in the gum
+  solution. Their chief uses are in medicine. Examples are ammoniacum,
+  asafetida, bdellium, euphorbium, gamboge, myrrh, sagapanum and
+  scammony.
+
+
+
+
+GÜMBEL, KARL WILHELM VON, BARON (1823-1898), German geologist, was born
+at Dannenfels, in the Palatinate of the Rhine, on the 11th of February
+1823, and is known chiefly by his researches on the geology of Bavaria.
+He received a practical and scientific education in mining at Munich and
+Heidelberg, taking the degree of Ph.D. at Munich in 1862; and he was
+engaged for a time at the colliery of St Ingbert and as a surveyor in
+that district. In 1851, when the Geological Survey of Bavaria was
+instituted, Gümbel was appointed chief geologist; in 1863 he was made
+honorary professor of geognosy and surveying at the university of
+Munich, and in 1879, Oberberg director of the Bavarian mining department
+with which the Geological Survey was incorporated. His geological map of
+Bavaria appeared in 1858, and the official memoir descriptive of the
+detailed work, entitled _Geognostische Beschreibung des Königreichs
+Bayern_ was issued in three parts (1861, 1868 and 1879). He subsequently
+published his _Geologie von Bayern_ in 2 vols. (1884-1894), an elaborate
+treatise on geology, with special reference to the geology of Bavaria.
+In the course of his long and active career he engaged in much
+palaeontological work: he studied the fauna of the Trias, and in 1861
+introduced the term Rhaetic for the uppermost division of that system;
+he supported at first the view of the organic nature of _Eozoon_ (1866
+and 1876), he devoted special attention to Foraminifera, and described
+those of the Eocene strata of the northern Alps (1868); he dealt also
+with Receptaculites (1875) which he regarded as a genus belonging to the
+Foraminifera. He died on the 18th of June 1898.
+
+
+
+
+GUMBINNEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of East Prussia,
+on the Pissa, an affluent of the Pregel, 22 m. by rail S.W. of
+Eydtkuhnen on the line to Königsberg. Pop. (1905), 14,194. The
+surrounding country is pleasant and fruitful, and the town has spacious
+and regular streets shaded by linden trees. It has a Roman Catholic and
+three Evangelical churches, a synagogue, a gymnasium, two public
+schools, a public library, a hospital and an infirmary. In the market
+square there is a statue of the king of Prussia Frederick William I.,
+who in 1724 raised Gumbinnen to the rank of a town, and in 1732 brought
+to it a number of persons who had been driven from Salzburg by religious
+persecution. On the bridge over the Pissa a monument has been erected to
+the soldiers from the neighbourhood who fell in the Franco-German war of
+1870-71. Iron founding and the manufacture of machinery, wool, cotton,
+and linen weaving, stocking-making, tanning, brewing and distilling are
+the principal industries. There are horse and cattle markets, and some
+trade in corn and linseed.
+
+  See J. Schneider, _Aus Gumbinnens Vergangenheit_ (Gumbinnen, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+GUMBO, or OKRA, termed also _Okro, Ochro, Ketmia, Gubbo_ and Syrian
+mallow (Sans. _Tindisa_, Bengali _Dheras_, Pers. _Bámiyah_--the _Bammia_
+of Prosper Alpinus; Fr. _Gombaut_, or better _Gombo_, and _Ketmie
+comestible_), _Hibiscus esculentus_, a herbaceous hairy annual plant of
+the natural order _Malvaceae_, probably of African origin, and now
+naturalized or cultivated in all tropical countries. The leaves are
+cordate, and 3 to 5-lobed, and the flowers yellow, with a crimson
+centre; the fruit or pod, the _Bendi-Kai_ of the Europeans of southern
+India, is a tapering, 10-angled capsule, 4 to 10 in. in length, except
+in the dwarf varieties of the plant, and contains numerous oval
+dark-coloured seeds, hairy at the base. Three distinct varieties of the
+gumbo (_Quiabo_ and _Quimgombo_) in Brazil have been described by
+Pacheco. The unripe fruit is eaten either pickled or prepared like
+asparagus. It is also an ingredient in various dishes, e.g. the _gumbo_
+of the Southern United States and the _calalou_ of Jamaica; and on
+account of the large amount of mucilage it contains, it is extensively
+consumed, both fresh and in the form of the prepared powder, for the
+thickening of broths and soups. For winter use it is salted or sliced
+and dried. The fruit is grown on a very large scale in the vicinity of
+Constantinople. It was one of the esculents of Egypt in the time of
+Abul-Abbas el-Nebati, who journeyed to Alexandria in 1216 (Wüstenfeld,
+_Gesch. d. arab. Ärzte_, p. 118, Gött., 1840), and is still cultivated
+by the Egyptians, who called it _Bammgé_.
+
+The seeds of the gumbo are used as a substitute for coffee. From their
+demulcent and emollient properties, the leaves and immature fruit have
+long been in repute in the East for the preparation of poultices and
+fomentations. Alpinus (1592) mentions the employment of their decoction
+in Egypt in ophthalmia and in uterine and other complaints.
+
+  The musk okra (Sans., _Latákasturiká_, cf. the Gr. [Greek: kástor];
+  Bengali, _Latákasturi_; Ger. _Bisamkörnerstrauch_; Fr. _Ketmie
+  musquée_), _Hibiscus Abelmoschus_ (_Abelmoschus moschatus_),
+  indigenous to India, and cultivated in most warm regions of the globe,
+  is a suffruticose plant, bearing a conical 5-ridged pod about 3 in. in
+  length, within which are numerous brown reniform seeds, smaller than
+  those of _H. esculentus._ The seeds possess a musky odour, due to an
+  oleo-resin present in the integument, and are known to perfumers under
+  the name of _ambrette_ as a substitute for musk. They are said to be
+  used by the Arabs for scenting coffee. The seeds (in the Fantee
+  language, _Incromahom_) are used in Africa as beads; and powdered and
+  steeped in rum they are valued in the West Indies as a remedy for
+  snakebites. The plant yields an excellent fibre, and, being rich in
+  mucilage, is employed in Upper India for the clarifying of sugar. The
+  best-perfumed seeds are reported to come from Martinique.
+
+  See P. Alpinus, _De plantis Aegypti_, cap. xxvii. p. 38 (Venice,
+  1592); J. Sontheimer's _Abd Allah ibn Ahmad_, &c., i. 118 (Stuttgart,
+  1840-1842); P. P. Pacheco, "La Ketmie potagère ou comestible," _La
+  Belgique horticole_, iv. 63 (1853); Della Sudda, "De l'emploi à
+  Constantinople de la racine de l'Hibiscus esculentus," _Répert. de
+  pharm._, January 1860, p. 229; E. J. Waring, _Pharm. of India_, p. 35
+  (1868); O. Popp, "Über die Aschenbestandteile der Samen von Acacia
+  nilotica und Hibiscus esculentus in Ägypten," _Arch. der Pharm._ cxcv.
+  p. 140 (1871); Drury, _The Useful Plants of India_, pp. 1, 2 (2nd ed.,
+  1873); U. C. Dutt, _The Mat. Med. of the Hindus_, pp. 123, 321 (1877);
+  Lanessan, _Hist. des drogues_, i. 181-184 (1878); G. Watt, _Dictionary
+  of the Economic Products of India_ (1890).
+
+
+
+
+GUMTI, a river of northern India. It rises in a depression in the
+Pilibhit district of the United Provinces, and after a sinuous but
+generally south-easterly course of 500 m. past Lucknow and Jaunpur joins
+the Ganges in Ghazipar district. At Jaunpur it is a fine stream, spanned
+by a 16th-century bridge of sixteen arches, and is navigable by vessels
+of 17 tons burden. There is also a small river of the same name in the
+Tippera district of eastern Bengal and Assam.
+
+
+
+
+GUMULJINA, or GUMURDJINA, a town of European Turkey, in the vilayet of
+Adrianople. Pop. (1905), about 8000, of whom three-fourths are Turks and
+the remainder Greeks, Jews or Armenians. Gumuljina is situated on the
+river Karaja-Su, south of the eastern extremity of the Rhodope range of
+mountains and 13 m. inland from the Aegean Sea. It has a station on the
+railway between Salonica and Dédéagatch. The district produces wheat,
+maize, barley and tobacco; sericulture and viticulture are both
+practised on a limited scale. A cattle fair is held annually on Greek
+Palm Sunday. Copper and antimony are found in the neighbourhood.
+
+
+
+
+GUMUS, or GUMZ, Negroes of the Shangalla group of tribes, dwelling in
+the mountainous district of Fazogli on the Sudan-Abyssinian frontier.
+They live in independent groups, some being mountaineers while others
+are settled on the banks of the Blue Nile. Gumz in the native tongue
+signifies "people," and the sub-tribes have distinctive names. The Gumus
+are nature-worshippers, God and the sun being synonymous. On ceremonial
+occasions they carry parasols of honour (see SHANGALLA).
+
+
+
+
+GÜMÜSH-KHANEH, the chief town of a sanjak of the same name in the
+Trebizond vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, situated on high ground (4400 ft.)
+in the valley of the Kharshut Su, about ½ m. to south of the
+Trebizond-Erzerum _chaussée_. The silver mines from which the place
+takes its name were noted in ancient times and are mentioned by Marco
+Polo. Pop. about 3000, chiefly Greeks, who are in the habit of
+emigrating to great distances to work in mines. They practically supply
+the whole lead and silver-mining labour in Asiatic Turkey, and in
+consequence the Greek bishop of Gümüsh-Khaneh has under his jurisdiction
+all the communities engaged in this particular class of mines.
+
+
+
+
+GUN, a general term for a weapon, tubular in form, from which a
+projectile is discharged by means of an explosive. When applied to
+artillery the word is confined to those pieces of ordnance which have a
+direct as opposed to a high-angle fire, in which case the terms
+"howitzer" and "mortar" are used (see ORDNANCE and MACHINE-GUN). "Gun"
+as applied to firearms which are carried in the hand and fired from the
+shoulder, the old "hand gun," is now chiefly used of the sporting
+shot-gun, with which this article mainly deals; in military usage this
+type of weapon, whether rifle, carbine, &c., is known collectively as
+"small arms" (see RIFLE and PISTOL). The origin of the word, which in
+Mid. Eng. is _gonne_ or _gunne_, is obscure, but it has been suggested
+by Professor W. W. Skeat that it conceals a female name, _Gunnilde_ or
+_Gunhilda_. The names, e.g. Mons Meg at Edinburgh Castle and _faule
+Grete_ (heavy Peg), known to readers of Carlyle's _Frederick the Great_,
+will be familiar parallelisms. "Gunne" would be a shortened "pet name"
+of Gunnhilde. The _New English Dictionary_ finds support for the
+suggestion in the fact that in Old Norwegian _gunne_ and _hilde_ both
+mean "war," and quotes an inventory of war material at Windsor Castle in
+1330-1331, where is mentioned "una magna balista de cornu quae vocatur
+Domina Gunilda." Another suggestion for the origin of the word is that
+the word represents a shortened form, _gonne_, of a supposed French
+_mangonne_, a mangonel, but the French word is _mangonneau_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Hand Gun.]
+
+Firearms are said to have been first used in European warfare in the
+14th century. The hand gun (see fig. 1) came into practical use in 1446
+and was of very rude construction. It consisted of a simple iron or
+brass tube with a touch-hole at the top fixed in a straight stock of
+wood, the end of which passed under the right armpit when the "gonne"
+was about to be fired. A similar weapon (see fig. 2) was also used by
+the horse-soldier, with a ring at the end of the stock, by which it was
+suspended by a cord round the neck; a forked rest, fitted by a ring to
+the saddlebow, served to steady the gun. This rest, when not in use,
+hung down in front of the right leg. A match was made of cotton or hemp
+spun slack, and boiled in a strong solution of saltpetre or in the lees
+of wine. The touch-hole was first placed on the top of the barrel, but
+afterwards at the side, with a small pan underneath to hold the priming,
+and guarded by a cover moving on a pivot.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Mounted Man with Hand Gun.]
+
+[Illustration: From General Hardÿ de Périnï's _Turenne et Condé
+1626-1675_.
+
+FIG. 3.--Musketeer, 1626.]
+
+An improvement in firearms took place in the first year of the reign of
+Henry VII., or at the close of Edward IV., by fixing a cock (Fr.
+_serpentine_) on the hand gun to hold the match, which was brought down
+to the priming by a trigger, whence the term matchlock. This weapon is
+still in use among the Chinese, Tatars, Sikhs, Persians and Turks. An
+improvement in the stock was also made during this period by forming it
+with a wide butt end to be placed against the right breast. Subsequently
+the stock was bent, a German invention, and the arm was called a
+hackbutt or hagbut, and the smaller variety a demihague. The arquebus
+and hackbutt were about a yard in length, including barrel and stock,
+and the demihague was about half the size and weight, the forerunner of
+the pistol. The arquebus was the standard infantry firearm in Europe
+from the battle of Pavia to the introduction of the heavier and more
+powerful musket. It did not as a rule require a rest, as did the musket.
+The wheel-lock, an improvement on the matchlock, was invented in
+Nuremberg in 1517; was first used at the siege of Parma in 1521; was
+brought to England in 1530, and continued in partial use there until the
+time of Charles II. This wheel-lock consisted of a fluted or grooved
+steel wheel which protruded into the priming pan, and was connected with
+a strong spring. The cock, also regulated by a spring, was fitted with a
+piece of iron pyrites. In order to discharge the gun the lock was wound
+up by a key, the cock was let down on the priming pan, the pyrites
+resting on the wheel; on the trigger being pressed the wheel was
+released and rapidly revolved, emitting sparks, which ignited the powder
+in the pan. The complicated and expensive nature of this lock, with its
+liability to injury, no doubt prevented its general adoption.
+
+[Illustration: From General Hardÿ de Périnï's _Turenne et Condé,
+1626-1675_.
+
+FIGS. 4 and 5.--Musketeers, 1675.]
+
+About 1540 the Spaniards constructed a larger and heavier firearm
+(matchlock), carrying a ball of 10 to the pound, called a musket. This
+weapon was introduced into England before the middle of the 16th
+century, and soon came into general use throughout Europe. The snaphance
+was invented about this period in Germany, and from its comparative
+cheapness was much used in England, France and Holland. It held a flint
+instead of the pyrites of the wheel or firelock, which ignited the
+powder in the pan by striking on a piece of furrowed steel, when
+released by the trigger, and emitting sparks.
+
+As a sporting weapon the gun may be said to date from the invention of
+the wheel-lock in the beginning of the 16th century, though firearms
+were used for sporting purposes in Italy, Spain, Germany, and to some
+extent in France, in the 15th century. Before that period the longbow in
+England and the crossbow on the Continent were the usual weapons of the
+chase. In Great Britain little use appears to have been made of firearms
+for game shooting until the latter half of the 17th century, and the
+arms then used for the purpose were entirely of foreign make.
+
+The French gunmakers of St-Étienne claim for their town that it is the
+oldest centre of the firearms industry. They do not appear to have made
+more than the barrels of the finest sporting arms, and these even were
+sometimes made in Paris. The production of firearms by the artists of
+Paris reached its zenith about the middle of the 17th century. The
+Italian, German, Spanish and Russian gunsmiths also showed great skill
+in the elegance and design of their firearms, the Spaniards in
+particular being makers of fine barrels. The pistol (q.v.) is understood
+to have been made for the first time about 1540 at Pistoia in Italy.
+About 1635 the modern firelock or flint-lock was invented, which only
+differed from the snaphance by the cover of the pan forming part of the
+furrowed steel struck by the flint. Originally the priming was put into
+the pan from a flask containing a fine-grained powder called serpentine
+powder. Later the top of the cartridge was bitten off and the pan filled
+therefrom before loading. The mechanism of the flint-lock musket
+rendered all this unnecessary, as, in loading, a portion of the charge
+passed through the vent into the pan, where it was held by the cover or
+hammer. The matchlock, as a military weapon, gradually gave way to the
+firelock, which came into general use in the last half of the 17th
+century, and was the weapon of Marlborough's and Wellington's armies.
+This was the famous "Brown Bess" of the British army. The highest
+development of the flint-lock is found in the fowling-pieces of the end
+of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, particularly those made
+by Joseph Manton, the celebrated English gunsmith and inventor. The
+Napoleonic wars afforded English gunmakers an opportunity, which they
+fully utilized, of gaining the supremacy over their foreign competitors
+in the gunmaking trade. English gunmakers reduced the weight, improved
+the shooting powers, and perfected the lock mechanism of the sporting
+gun, and increased the range and efficiency of the rifle. This
+transference of the gunmaking craft from the Continent to England was
+also assisted by the tyranny of the foreign gunmaking gilds. In 1637 the
+London gunmakers obtained their charter of incorporation. The important
+gunmaking industry of Birmingham dates from 1603, and soon rivalled that
+of London. Double shot-guns do not appear to have been generally used
+until the 19th century. The first successful double guns were built with
+the barrels over and under, and not side by side, and were invented
+about 1616 by one Guilliano Bossi of Rome. In 1784 double shot guns were
+described as a novelty. Joseph Manton patented the elevated rib which
+rested on the barrels. The general success of the double gun was
+eventually due to the light weight which the better material and
+workmanship of the best gunmakers made possible, and to the quickness
+and certainty of ignition of the modern cartridge.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Moorish Flint-lock.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Indian Matchlock.]
+
+The objections to the flint-lock were that it did not entirely preserve
+the priming from wet, and that the flint sparks sometimes failed to
+ignite the charge. In 1807 the Rev. Alexander John Forsyth obtained a
+patent for priming with a fulminating powder made of chlorate of potash,
+sulphur and charcoal, which exploded by concussion. This important
+improvement in firearms was not recognized and adopted by the military
+authorities until more than thirty years later. In the meantime it was
+gradually developed, and the copper percussion cap invented, by various
+gunmakers and private individuals. Thomas Shaw of Philadelphia first
+used fulminate in a steel cap in 1814, which he changed to a copper cap
+in 1816. It was not until the introduction of the copper cap that the
+percussion gun could be considered in every way superior to the flint.
+In 1834, in the reign of William IV., Forsyth's invention was tested at
+Woolwich by firing 6000 rounds from six flint-lock muskets, and a
+similar number from six percussion muskets, in all weathers. This trial
+established the percussion principle. The shooting was found to be more
+accurate, the recoil less, the charge of powder having been reduced from
+6 to 4½ drs., the rapidity of firing greater and the number of
+miss-fires much reduced, being as 1 to 26 nearly in favour of the
+percussion system. In consequence of this successful trial the military
+flint-lock in 1839 was altered to suit the percussion principle. This
+was easily accomplished by replacing the hammer and pan by a nipple with
+a hole through its centre to the vent or touch-hole, and by replacing
+the cock which held the flint by a smaller cock or hammer with a hollow
+to fit on the nipple when released by the trigger. On the nipple was
+placed the copper cap containing the detonating composition, now made of
+three parts of chlorate of potash, two of fulminate of mercury and one
+of powdered glass.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+In 1840 the Austrian army was supplied with the percussion musket, and
+in 1842 a new model percussion musket with a block or back-sight for 150
+yds. was issued to the British army, 11 lb. 6 oz. in weight, 4 ft. 6¾
+in. in length without bayonet, 6 ft. with bayonet and with a barrel 3
+ft. 3 in. in length, firing a bullet of 14½ to the lb. with 4½ drs. of
+powder. This musket was larger in bore than that of France, Belgium,
+Russia and Austria, and thus had the advantage of being able to fire
+their balls, while the English balls could not be fired from their
+barrels. But the greater weight and momentum of the English ball was
+counteracted by the excess of windage. This percussion musket of 1842,
+the latest development of the renowned Brown Bess, continued in use in
+the British army until partially superseded in 1851 by the Minié rifle,
+and altogether by the Enfield rifle in 1855. For further information as
+to the history and development of military, target and sporting rifles
+see RIFLE.
+
+  Illustrations are given herewith of a German carbine of the 16th
+  century, with double wheel-lock (fig. 8); a snaphance (fig. 9);
+  several forms of the Brown Bess or flint-lock military musket
+  (English, William III., fig. 10; George II., fig. 11; George III.,
+  fig. 12; French, Napoleon, fig. 13); and of the percussion musket
+  adopted in the British service in 1839 (fig. 14). Examples of
+  non-European firearms are shown in figs. 6 and 7, representing a
+  Moorish flint-lock and an Indian matchlock respectively. Figs. 15-18
+  represent various carbines, musketoons and blunderbusses, fig. 15
+  showing a small blunderbuss or musketoon of the early 18th century,
+  fig. 16 a large blunderbuss of 1750, fig. 17 a flint-lock cavalry
+  carbine of about 1825 and fig. 18 a percussion carbine of 1830. All
+  these are drawn from arms in the museum of the Royal United Service
+  Institution, London.
+
+_Modern Shot Guns._--The modern sporting breech-loaders may be said to
+have originated with the invention of the cartridge-case containing its
+own means of ignition. The breech-loading mechanism antedated the
+cartridge by many years, the earliest breech-loading hand guns dating
+back to 1537. Another distinct type of breech-loader was invented in
+France about the middle of the 17th century. During the 17th and 18th
+centuries breech-loading arms were very numerous and of considerable
+variety. The original cartridge, a charge of powder and bullet in a
+paper envelope, dates from 1586. These were used with muzzle-loaders,
+the base of the cartridge being ripped or bitten off by the soldier
+before placing in the barrel. It was only when the detonating cap came
+into use that the paper cartridge answered well in breech-loaders. The
+modern breech-loader has resulted from a gradual series of improvements,
+and not from any one great invention. Its essential feature is the
+prevention of all escape of gas at the breech when the gun is fired by
+means of an expansive cartridge-case containing its own means of
+ignition. The earlier breech-loaders were not gas-tight, because the
+cartridge-cases were either consumable or the load was placed in a
+strong non-expansive breech-plug. The earliest efficient modern
+cartridge-case was the pin-fire, patented by Houiller, a Paris gunsmith,
+in 1847, with a thin weak shell which expanded by the force of the
+explosion, fitted perfectly in the barrel, and thus formed an efficient
+gas check. Probably no invention connected with firearms has wrought
+such changes in the principle of gun-construction as those effected by
+the expansive cartridge-case. This invention has completely
+revolutionized the art of gunmaking, has been successfully applied to
+all descriptions of firearms, and has produced a new and important
+industry--that of cartridge manufacture.
+
+About 1836, C. Lefaucheux, a Paris gunsmith, improved the old Pauly
+system of breech-loading, but its breech action was a crude mechanism,
+with single grip worked by a bottom lever. The double grip for the
+barrels was the subsequent invention of a Birmingham gunmaker. The
+central-fire cartridge, practically as now in use, was introduced into
+England in 1861 by Daw. It is said to have been the invention of Pottet,
+of Paris, improved upon by Schneider, and gave rise to considerable
+litigation in respect of its patent rights. Daw, who controlled the
+English patents, was the only exhibitor of central-fire guns and
+cartridges at the International Exhibition of 1862. In his system the
+barrels work on a hinge joint, the bottom lever withdraws the
+holding-down bolt; the cartridge is of the modern type, the cap being
+detonated by a striker passing through the standing breech to the inner
+face. The cartridge-case is withdrawn by a sliding extractor fitted to
+the breech ends of the barrels. Daw was subsequently defeated in his
+control of the patents by Eley Bros., owing to the patent not having
+been kept in force in France. The modern breech-loading gun has been
+gradually and steadily improved since 1860. Westley Richards adopted and
+improved Matthews' top-lever mechanism. About 1866 the rebounding lock
+was introduced, and improved in 1869. The treble wedge-fast mechanism
+for holding down the barrels was originated by W. W. Greener in 1865,
+and perfected in 1873. A very important improvement was the introduction
+of the hammerless gun, in which the mechanism for firing is placed
+entirely within the gun. This was made possible by the introduction of
+the central-fire cartridge. In 1862 Daw, and in 1866 Green, introduced
+hammerless guns in which the cocking was effected by the under lever.
+These guns did not attain popularity. In 1871 T. Murcott patented a
+hammerless gun, the first to obtain distinct success. This also was a
+lever-cocking gun. About the same time Needham introduced the principle
+of utilizing the weight of the barrels to assist in cocking. In 1875
+Anson and Deeley utilized the fore-end attached to the barrels to cock
+the locks. From this date hammerless guns became really popular.
+Subsequently minor improvements were made by many other gun-makers,
+including alternative movements introduced by Purdey and Rogers.
+Improvements were also introduced by Westley Richards, Purdey and
+others, including cocking by means of the mainspring. In 1874 J. Needham
+introduced the ejector mechanism, by which each empty cartridge-case is
+separately and automatically thrown out of the gun when the breech is
+opened, the necessary force being provided by the mainspring of the
+lock. W. W. Greener and some other gunmakers have since introduced minor
+modifications and improvements of this mechanism. Next in turn came
+Perks and other inventors, who separated the ejector mechanism from the
+lock work. This very decided improvement is universal to-day. A later
+innovation in the modern breech-loader is the single trigger mechanism
+introduced by some of the leading English gun-makers, by which both
+barrels can be fired in succession by a single trigger. This improvement
+enables both barrels to be rapidly fired without altering the grip of
+the right hand, but deprives the shooter of the power of selecting his
+barrel.
+
+Repeating or magazine shot-guns on the principle of the repeating rifle,
+with a magazine below the single firing barrel, are also made by some
+American and continental gun-makers, but as yet have not come into
+general use, being comparatively cumbersome and not well balanced. The
+difficulty of a shifting balance as each cartridge is fired has also yet
+to be overcome. Several varieties of a combination rifle and shot-gun
+are also made, for a description of which see RIFLE.
+
+The chief purposes for which modern shot-guns are required are
+game-shooting, trap-shooting at pigeons and wild-fowling. The game gun
+may be any bore from 32 to 10 gauge. The usual standard bore is 12 gauge
+unless it be for a boy, when it is 20 gauge. The usual weight of the
+12-bore double-barrelled game gun is from 6 to 7 lb. with barrels 30 in.
+long, there, however, being a present tendency to barrels of a shorter
+length. These barrels are made of steel, as being a stronger and more
+homogeneous material than the barrels formerly produced, which were
+mostly of Damascus pattern, a mixture of iron and steel. Steel barrels,
+drilled from the solid block, were originally produced by Whitworth.
+To-day the makers of steel for this purpose are many. The standard
+charge for the 12-bore is 42 grains of smokeless powder and 1 oz. to
+1-1/8th oz. of shot. Powder of a lighter gravimetric density is
+occasionally employed, when the weight of the charge is reduced to 33
+grains. This charge of powder corresponds to the 3 drams of black powder
+formerly used. The ordinary game gun should have a killing circle of 30
+in. at 30 yds. with the first barrel and at 40 yds. with the second.
+Improved materials and methods of manufacture, and what is known as
+"choke" boring of the barrels, have enabled modern gun-makers to
+regulate the shooting of guns to a nicety. Choke-boring is the
+constriction of the diameter of the barrel near the muzzle, and was
+known in America in the early part of the 19th century. In 1875 Pape of
+Newcastle was awarded a prize for the invention of choke-boring, there
+being no other claimant. The methods of choke-boring have since been
+varied and improved by the leading English gun-makers. The pigeon gun is
+usually heavier than the game gun and more choked. It generally weighs
+from 7 to 8 lb. Its weight, by club rules, is frequently restricted to
+7½ lb. and its bore to 12 gauge. The standard wild-fowling gun is a
+double 8-bore with 30-in. barrels weighing 15 lb. and firing a charge of
+7 drams of powder and 2¾ to 3 oz. of shot. These guns are also made in
+both smaller and larger varieties, including a single barrel 4-bore,
+which is the largest gun that can be used from the shoulder, and single
+barrel punt guns of 1½-in. bore, weighing 100 lb. While no conspicuous
+advance in improved gun-mechanism and invention has been made during the
+last few years, the materials and methods of manufacture, and the
+quality and exactitude of the gun-maker's work, have continued gradually
+and steadily to improve. English, and particularly London-made, guns
+stand pre-eminent all over the world.     (H. S.-K.)
+
+
+
+
+GUNA, a town and military station in Central India, in the state of
+Gwalior. Pop. (1901) 11,452. After the Mutiny, it became the
+headquarters of the Central India Horse, whose commanding officer acts
+as ex-officio assistant to the resident of Gwalior; and its trade has
+developed rapidly since the opening of a station on a branch of the
+Great Indian Peninsula railway in 1899.
+
+
+
+
+GUNCOTTON, an explosive substance produced by the action of strong
+nitric acid on cellulose at the ordinary temperature; chemically it is a
+nitrate of cellulose, or a mixture of nitrates, according to some
+authorities. The first step in the history of guncotton was made by T.
+J. Pelouze in 1838, who observed that when paper or cotton was immersed
+in cold concentrated nitric acid the materials, though not altered in
+physical appearance, became heavier, and after washing and drying were
+possessed of self-explosive properties. At the time these products were
+thought to be related to the nitrated starch obtained a little
+previously by Henri Braconnot and called _xyloidin_; they are only
+related in so far as they are nitrates. C. F. Schönbein of Basel
+published his discovery of guncotton in 1846 (_Phil. Mag._ [3], 31, p.
+7), and this was shortly after followed by investigations by R. R.
+Böttger of Frankfort and Otto and Knop, all of whom added to our
+knowledge of the subject, the last-named introducing the use of
+sulphuric along with nitric acid in the nitration process. The chemical
+composition and constitution of guncotton has been studied by a
+considerable number of chemists and many divergent views have been put
+forward on the subject. W. Crum was probably the first to recognize that
+some hydrogen atoms of the cellulose had been replaced by an oxide of
+nitrogen, and this view was supported more or less by other workers,
+especially Hadow, who appears to have distinctly recognized that at
+least three compounds were present, the most violently explosive of
+which constituted the main bulk of the product commonly obtained and
+known as guncotton. This particular product was insoluble in a mixture
+of ether and alcohol, and its composition could be expressed by the term
+tri-nitrocellulose. Other products were soluble in the ether-alcohol
+mixture: they were less highly nitrated, and constituted the so-called
+collodion guncotton.
+
+The smallest empirical formula for cellulose (q.v.) may certainly be
+written C6H10O5. How much of the hydrogen and oxygen are in the
+hydroxylic (OH) form cannot be absolutely stated, but from the study of
+the acetates at least three hydroxyl groups may be assumed. The oldest
+and perhaps most reasonable idea represents guncotton as cellulose
+trinitrate, but this has been much disputed, and various formulae, some
+based on cellulose as C12H20O10, others on a still more complex
+molecule, have been proposed. The constitution of guncotton is a
+difficult matter to investigate, primarily on account of the very
+insoluble nature of cellulose itself, and also from the fact that
+comparatively slight variations in the concentration and temperature of
+the acids used produce considerable differences in the products. The
+nitrates are also very insoluble substances, all the so-called solvents
+merely converting them into jelly. No method has yet been devised by
+which the molecular weight can be ascertained.[1] The products of the
+action of nitric acid on cellulose are not nitro compounds in the sense
+that picric acid is, but are nitrates or nitric esters.
+
+Guncotton is made by immersing cleaned and dried cotton waste in a
+mixture of strong nitric and sulphuric acids. The relative amounts of
+the acids in the mixture and the time of duration of treatment of the
+cotton varies somewhat in different works, but the underlying idea is
+the same, viz. employing such an excess of sulphuric over nitric that
+the latter will be rendered anhydrous or concentrated and maintained as
+such in solution in the sulphuric acid, and that the sulphuric acid
+shall still be sufficiently strong to absorb and combine with the water
+produced during the actual formation of the guncotton. In the recent
+methods the cotton remains in contact with the acids for two to four
+hours at the ordinary air temperature (15° C.), in which time it is
+almost fully nitrated, the main portion, say 90%, having a composition
+represented by the formula[2] C6H7O2(NO3)3, the remainder consisting of
+lower nitrated products, some oxidation products and traces of unchanged
+cellulose and cellulose sulphates. The acid is then slowly run out by an
+opening in the bottom of the pan in which the operation is conducted,
+and water distributed carefully over its surface displaces it in the
+interstices of the cotton, which is finally subjected to a course of
+boiling and washing with water. This washing is a most important part of
+the process. On its thoroughness depends the removal of small quantities
+of products other than the nitrates, for instance, some sulphates and
+products from impurities contained in the original cellulose. Cellulose
+sulphates are one, and possibly the main, cause of instability in
+guncotton, and it is highly desirable that they should be completely
+hydrolysed and removed in the washing process. The nitrated product
+retains the outward form of the original cellulose. In the course of the
+washing, according to a method introduced by Sir F. Abel, the cotton is
+ground into a pulp, a process which greatly facilitates the complete
+removal of acids, &c. This pulp is finally drained, and is then either
+compressed, while still moist, into slabs or blocks when required for
+blasting purposes, or it is dried when required for the manufacture of
+propellants. Sometimes a small quantity of an alkali (e.g. sodium
+carbonate) is added to the final washing water, so that quantities of
+this alkaline substance ranging from 0.5% to a little over 1% are
+retained by the guncotton. The idea is that any traces of acid not
+washed away by the washing process or produced later by a slow
+decomposition of the substance will be thereby neutralized and rendered
+harmless. Guncotton in an air-dry state, whether in the original form or
+after grinding to pulp and compressing, burns with very great rapidity
+but does not detonate unless confined.
+
+Immediately after the discovery of guncotton Schönbein proposed its
+employment as a substitute for gunpowder, and General von Lenk carried
+out a lengthy and laborious series of experiments intending to adapt it
+especially for artillery use. All these and many subsequent attempts to
+utilize it, either loose or mechanically compressed in any way, signally
+failed. However much compressed by mechanical means it is still a porous
+mass, and when it is confined as in a gun the flame and hot gases from
+the portion first ignited permeate the remainder, generally causing it
+actually to detonate, or to burn so rapidly that its action approaches
+detonation. The more closely it is confined the greater is the pressure
+set up by a small part of the charge burning, and the more completely
+will the explosion of the remainder assume the detonating form. The
+employment of guncotton as a propellant was possible only after the
+discovery that it could be gelatinized or made into a colloid by the
+action of so-called solvents, e.g. ethylacetate and other esters,
+acetone and a number of like substances (see CORDITE).
+
+  When quite dry guncotton is easily detonated by a blow on an anvil or
+  hard surface. If dry and warm it is much more sensitive to percussion
+  or friction, and also becomes electrified by friction under those
+  conditions. The amount of contained moisture exerts a considerable
+  effect on its sensitiveness. With about 2% of moisture it can still be
+  detonated on an anvil, but the action is generally confined to the
+  piece struck. As the quantity of contained water increases it becomes
+  difficult or even impossible to detonate by an ordinary blow.
+  Compressed dry guncotton is easily detonated by an initiative
+  detonator such as mercuric fulminate. Guncotton containing more than
+  15% of water is uninflammable, may be compressed or worked without
+  danger and is much more difficult to detonate by a fulminate
+  detonator than when dry.[3] A small charge of dry guncotton will,
+  however, detonate the wet material, and this peculiarity is made use
+  of in the employment of guncotton for blasting purposes. A charge of
+  compressed wet guncotton may be exploded, even under water, by the
+  detonation of a small primer of the dry and waterproofed material,
+  which in turn can be started by a small fulminate detonator. The
+  explosive wave from the dry guncotton primer is in fact better
+  responded to by the wet compressed material than the dry, and its
+  detonation is somewhat sharper than that of the dry. It is not
+  necessary for the blocks of wet guncotton to be actually in contact if
+  they be under water, and the peculiar explosive wave can also be
+  conveyed a little distance by a piece of metal such as a railway rail.
+  The more nearly the composition of guncotton approaches that
+  represented by C6H7O2(NO3)3, the more stable is it as regards storing
+  at ordinary temperatures, and the higher the igniting temperature.
+  Carefully prepared guncotton after washing with alcohol-ether until
+  nothing more dissolves may require to be heated to 180-185° C. before
+  inflaming. Ordinary commercial guncottons, containing from 10 to 15%
+  of lower nitrated products, will ignite as a rule some 20-25° lower.
+
+  Assuming the above formula to represent guncotton, there is sufficient
+  oxygen for internal combustion without any carbon being left. The
+  gaseous mixture obtained by burning guncotton in a vacuum vessel
+  contains steam, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, nitric
+  oxide, and methane. When slowly heated in a vacuum vessel until
+  ignition takes place, some nitrogen dioxide, NO2, is also produced.
+  When kept for some weeks at a temperature of 100° in steam, a
+  considerable number of fatty acids, some bases, and glucose-like
+  substances result. Under different pressures the relative amounts of
+  the combustion products vary considerably. Under very great pressures
+  carbon monoxide, steam and nitrogen are the main products, but nitric
+  oxide never quite disappears.
+
+  Dilute mineral acids have little or no action on guncotton. Strong
+  sulphuric acid in contact with it liberates first nitric acid and
+  later oxides of nitrogen, leaving a charred residue or a brown
+  solution according to the quantity of acid. It sometimes fires on
+  contact with strong sulphuric acid, especially when slightly warmed.
+  The alkali hydroxides (e.g. sodium hydroxide) will in a solid state
+  fire it on contact. Strong or weak solutions of these substances also
+  decompose it, producing some alkali nitrate and nitrite, the cellulose
+  molecule being only partially restored, some quantity undergoing
+  oxidation. Ammonia is also active, but not quite in the same manner as
+  the alkali hydroxides. Dry guncotton heated in ammonia gas detonates
+  at about 70°, and ammonium hydroxide solutions of all strengths slowly
+  decompose it, yielding somewhat complex products. Alkali
+  sulphohydrates reduce guncotton, or other nitrated celluloses,
+  completely to cellulose. The production of the so-called "artificial
+  silk" depends on this action.
+
+  A characteristic difference between guncotton and collodion cotton is
+  the insolubility of the former in ether or alcohol or a mixture of
+  these liquids. The so-called collodion cottons are nitrated
+  celluloses, but of a lower degree of nitration (as a rule) than
+  guncotton. They are sometimes spoken of as "lower" or "soluble"
+  cottons or nitrates. The solubility in ether-alcohol may be owing to a
+  lower degree of nitration, or to the temperature conditions under
+  which the process of manufacture has been carried on. If guncotton be
+  correctly represented by the formula C6H7O2(NO3)3, it should contain a
+  little more than 14% of nitrogen. Guncottons are examined for degree
+  of nitration by the nitrometer, in which apparatus they are decomposed
+  by sulphuric acid in contact with mercury, and all the nitrogen is
+  evolved as nitric oxide, NO, which is measured and the weight of its
+  contained nitrogen calculated. Ordinary guncottons seldom contain more
+  than 13% of nitrogen, and in most cases the amount does not exceed
+  12.5%. Generally speaking, the lower the nitrogen content of a
+  guncotton, as found by the nitrometer, the higher the percentage of
+  matters soluble in a mixture of ether-alcohol. These soluble matters
+  are usually considered as "lower" nitrates.
+
+  Guncottons are usually tested by the Abel heat test for stability (see
+  CORDITE). Another heat test, that of Will, consists in heating a
+  weighed quantity of the guncotton in a stream of carbon dioxide to
+  130° C., passing the evolved gases over some red-hot copper, and
+  finally collecting them over a solution of potassium hydroxide which
+  retains the carbon dioxide and allows the nitrogen, arising from the
+  guncotton decomposition, to be measured. This is done at definite time
+  intervals so that the _rate_ of decomposition can be followed. The
+  relative stability is then judged by the amount of nitrogen gas
+  collected in a certain time. Several modifications of this and of the
+  Abel heat test are also in use. (See EXPLOSIVES.)     (W. R. E. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The composition of the cellulose nitrates was reviewed by G.
+    Lunge (_Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc._, 1901, 23, p. 527), who, assuming the
+    formula C24H40O20 for cellulose, showed how the nitrocelluloses
+    described by different chemists may be expressed by the formula
+    C24H_(46-x)O20(NO2)_x, where x has the values 4, 5, 6, ... 12.
+
+  [2] This formula is retained mainly on account of its simplicity. It
+    also expresses all that is necessary in this connexion.
+
+  [3] Air-dried guncotton will contain 2% or less of moisture.
+
+
+
+
+GUNDULICH, IVAN (1588-1638), known also as Giovanni Gondola, Servian
+poet, was born at Ragusa on the 8th of January 1588. His father, Franco
+Gundulich, once the Ragusan envoy to Constantinople and councillor of
+the republic, gave him an excellent education. He studied the
+"humanities" with the Jesuit, Father Muzzi, and philosophy with Father
+Ricasoli. After that he studied Roman law and jurisprudence in general.
+He was member of the Lower Council and once served as the chief
+magistrate of the republic. He died on the 8th of December 1638. A born
+poet, he admired much the Italian poets of his time, from whom he made
+many translations into Servian. It is believed that he so translated
+Tasso's _Gerusalemme liberata_. He is known to have written eighteen
+works, of which eleven were dramas, but of these only three have been
+fully preserved, others having perished during the great earthquake and
+fire in 1667. Most of those dramas were translations from the Italian,
+and were played, seemingly with great success, by the amateurs furnished
+by the noble families of Ragusa. But his greatest and justly celebrated
+work is an epic, entitled _Osman_, in twenty cantos. It is the first
+political epic on the Eastern Question, glorifying the victory of the
+Poles over Turks and Tatars in the campaign of 1621, and encouraging a
+league of the Christian nations, under the guidance of Vladislaus, the
+king of Poland, for the purpose of driving away the Turks from Europe.
+The fourteenth and fifteenth cantos are lost. It is generally believed
+that the Ragusan government suppressed them from consideration for the
+Sultan, the protector of the republic, those two cantos having been
+violently anti-Turkish.
+
+  _Osman_ was printed for the first time in Ragusa in 1826, the two
+  missing cantos being replaced by songs written by Pietro Sorgo (or
+  Sorkochevich). From this edition the learned Italian, Francesco
+  Appendini, made an Italian translation published in 1827. Since that
+  time several other editions have been made. The best are considered to
+  be the edition of the South Slavonic Academy in Agram (1877) and the
+  edition published in Semlin (1889) by Professor Yovan Boshkovich. In
+  the edition of 1844 (Agram) the last cantos, fourteen and fifteen,
+  were replaced by very fine compositions of the Serbo-Croatian poet,
+  Mazhuranich (Mazuranic). The complete works of Gundulich have been
+  published in Agram, 1847, by V. Babukich and by the South Slavonic
+  Academy of Agram in 1889.     (C. Mi.)
+
+
+
+
+GUNG'L, JOSEF (1810-1889), Hungarian composer and conductor, was born on
+the 1st of December 1810, at Zsámbék, in Hungary. After starting life as
+a school-teacher, and learning the elements of music from Ofen, the
+school-choirmaster, he became first oboist at Graz, and, at twenty-five,
+bandmaster of the 4th regiment of Austrian artillery. His first
+composition, a Hungarian march, written in 1836, attracted some notice,
+and in 1843 he was able to establish an orchestra in Berlin. With this
+band he travelled far, even (in 1849) to America. It is worth recording
+that Mendelssohn's complete _Midsummer Night's Dream_ music is said to
+have been first played by Gung'l's band. In 1853 he became bandmaster to
+the 23rd Infantry Regiment at Brünn, but in 1864 he lived at Munich, and
+in 1876 at Frankfort, after (in 1873) having conducted with great
+success a series of promenade concerts at Covent Garden, London. From
+Frankfort Gung'l went to Weimar to live with his daughter, a well-known
+German opera singer and local prima donna. There he died, on the 31st of
+January 1889. Gung'l's dances number over 300, perhaps the most popular
+being the "Amoretten," "Hydropaten," "Casino," "Dreams on the Ocean"
+waltzes; "In Stiller Mitternacht" polka, and "Blue Violets" mazurka. His
+Hungarian march was transcribed by Liszt. His music is characterized by
+the same easy flowing melodies and well-marked rhythm that distinguish
+the dances of Strauss, to whom alone he can be ranked second in this
+kind of composition.
+
+
+
+
+GUNNER, or MASTER GUNNER, in the navy, the warrant officer who has
+charge of the ordnance and ammunition, and of the training of the men at
+gun drill. His functions in this respect are of less relative importance
+than they were in former times, when specially trained corps of seamen
+gunners had not been formed.
+
+
+
+
+GUNNING, PETER (1614-1684), English divine, was born at Hoo, in Kent,
+and educated at the King's School, Canterbury, and Clare College,
+Cambridge, where he became a fellow in 1633. Having taken orders, he
+advocated the royalist cause from the pulpit with much eloquence. In
+1644 he retired to Oxford, and held a chaplaincy at New College until
+the city surrendered to the parliamentary forces in 1646. Subsequently
+he was chaplain, first to the royalist Sir Robert Shirley of Eatington
+(1629-1656), and then at the Exeter House chapel. After the Restoration
+in 1660 he returned to Clare College as master, and was appointed Lady
+Margaret professor of divinity. He also received the livings of
+Cottesmore, Rutlandshire, and Stoke Bruerne, Northamptonshire. In 1661
+he became head of St John's College, Cambridge, and was elected Regius
+professor of divinity. He was consecrated bishop of Chichester in 1669,
+and was translated to the see of Ely in 1674-1675. Holding moderate
+religious views, he deprecated alike the extremes represented by
+Puritanism and Roman Catholicism.
+
+  His works are chiefly reports of his disputations, such as that which
+  appears in the _Scisme Unmask't_ (Paris, 1658), in which the
+  definition of a schism is discussed with two Romanist opponents.
+
+
+
+
+GUNNY, a sort of cloth, the name of which is supposed to be derived from
+_ganga_ or _gania_ of Rumphius, or from _gonia_, a vernacular name of
+the _Crotolaria juncea_--a plant common in Madras. One of the first
+notices of the term itself is to be found in Knox's _Ceylon_, in which
+he says: "The filaments at the bottom of the stem (coir from the
+coco-nut husk, _Cocos nucifera_) may be made into a coarse cloth called
+gunny, which is used for bags and similar purposes."
+
+Warden, in _The Linen Trade_, says:
+
+  "A very large proportion of the jute grown in Bengal is made into
+  cloth in the districts where it is cultivated, and this industry forms
+  the grand domestic manufacture of all the populous eastern districts
+  of Bengal. It pervades all classes, and penetrates into every
+  household, almost every one, man, woman and child, being in some way
+  engaged in it. Boatmen, husbandmen, palankeen carriers, domestic
+  servants, everyone, in fact, being Hindu--for Mussulmans spin cotton
+  only--pass their leisure moments, distaff in hand, spinning gunny
+  twist. It is spun by the takur and dhara, the former being a kind of
+  spindle, which is turned upon the thigh or the sole of the foot, and
+  the latter a reel, on which the thread, when sufficiently twisted, is
+  wound up. Another kind of spinning machine, called a ghurghurea, is
+  occasionally used. A bunch of the raw material is hung up in every
+  farmer's house, or on the protruding stick of a thatched roof, and
+  every one who has leisure forms with these spindles some coarse
+  pack-thread, of which ropes are twisted for the use of the farm. The
+  lower Hindu castes, from this pack-thread, spin a finer thread for
+  being made into cloth, and, there being a loom in nearly every house,
+  very much of it is woven by the women of the lower class of people. It
+  is especially the employment of the Hindu widow, as it enables her to
+  earn her bread without being a burden on her family. The cloth thus
+  made is of various qualities, such as clothing for the family
+  (especially the women, a great proportion of whom on all the eastern
+  frontier wear almost nothing else), coarse fabrics, bedding, rice and
+  sugar bags, sacking, pack-sheet, &c. Much of it is woven into short
+  lengths and very narrow widths, two or three of which are sometimes
+  sewed into one piece before they are sold. That intended for rice and
+  sugar bags is made about 6 feet long, and from 24 to 27 inches wide,
+  and doubled. A considerable quantity of jute yarn is dyed and woven
+  into cloth for various local purposes, and some of it is also sent out
+  of the district. The principal places where chotee, or jute cloth for
+  gunny bags, is made are within a radius of perhaps 150 to 200 miles
+  around Dacca, and there both labour and land are remarkably cheap. The
+  short, staple, common jute is generally consumed in the local
+  manufacture, the finer and long stapled being reserved for the export
+  trade. These causes enable gunny cloth and bags to be sold almost as
+  cheaply as the raw material, which creates an immense demand for them
+  in nearly every market of the world."
+
+Such appeared to be the definition of gunny cloth at the time the above
+was written--between 1850 and 1860. Most of the Indian cloth for gunny
+bags is now made by power, and within about 20 m. of Calcutta. In many
+respects the term gunny cloth is still applied to all and sundry, but
+there is no doubt that the original name was intended for cloth which
+was similar to what is now known as "cotton bagging." This particular
+type of cloth is still largely made in the hand loom, even in Dundee,
+this method of manufacture being considered, for certain reasons, more
+satisfactory than the power loom method (see JUTE and BAGGING).
+
+
+
+
+GUNPOWDER, an explosive composed of saltpetre, charcoal and sulphur.
+Very few substances have had a greater effect on civilization than
+gunpowder. Its employment altered the whole art of war, and its
+influence gradually and indirectly permeated and affected the whole
+fabric of society. Its direct effect on the arts of peace was but
+slight, and had but a limited range, which could not be compared to the
+modern extended employment of high explosives for blasting in mining and
+engineering work.
+
+It is probably quite incorrect to speak of the _discovery_ of gunpowder.
+From modern researches it seems more likely and more just to think of it
+as a thing that has developed, passing through many stages--mainly of
+improvement, but some undoubtedly retrograde. There really is not
+sufficient solid evidence on which to pin down its invention to one man.
+As Lieutenant-Colonel H. W. L. Hime (_Gunpowder and Ammunition_, 1904)
+says, the invention of gunpowder was impossible until the properties of
+nearly pure saltpetre had become known. The honour, however, has been
+associated with two names in particular, Berthold Schwartz, a German
+monk, and Friar Roger Bacon. Of the former Oscar Guttmann writes
+(_Monumenta pulveris pyrii_, 1904, p. 6): "Berthold Schwartz was
+generally considered to be the inventor of gunpowder, and only in
+England has Roger Bacon's claim been upheld, though there are English
+writers who have pleaded in favour of Schwartz. Most writers are agreed
+that Schwartz invented the first firearms, and as nothing was known of
+an inventor of gunpowder, it was perhaps considered justifiable to give
+Schwartz the credit thereof. There is some ambiguity as to when Schwartz
+lived. The year 1354 is sometimes mentioned as the date of his invention
+of powder, and this is also to be inferred from an inscription on the
+monument to him in Freiburg. But considering there can be no doubt as to
+the manufacture in England of gunpowder and cannon in 1344, that we have
+authentic information of guns in France in 1338 and in Florence in 1326,
+and that the Oxford MS. _De officiis regum_ of 1325 gives an
+illustration of a gun, Berthold Schwartz must have lived long before
+1354 to have been the inventor of gunpowder or guns." In Germany also
+there were powder-works at Augsburg in 1340, in Spandau in 1344, and
+Liegnitz in 1348.
+
+Roger Bacon, in his _De mirabili potestate artis et naturae_ (1242),
+makes the most important communication on the history of gunpowder.
+Reference is made to an explosive mixture as known before his time and
+employed for "diversion, producing a noise like thunder and flashes like
+lightning." In one passage Bacon speaks of saltpetre as a violent
+explosive, but there is no doubt that he knew it was not a
+self-explosive substance, but only so when mixed with other substances,
+as appears from the statement in _De secretis operibus artis et
+naturae_, printed at Hamburg in 1618, that "from saltpetre and other
+ingredients we are able to make a fire that shall burn at any distance
+we please." A great part of his three chapters, 9, 10, 11, long appeared
+without meaning until the anagrammatic nature of the sentences was
+realized. The words of this anagram are (chap. 11): "Item ponderis totum
+30 sed tamen salis petrae _luru vopo vir can utri_[1] et sulphuris; et
+sic facies tonitruum et coruscationem, si scias artificium. Videas tamen
+utrum loquar aenigmate aut secundum veritatem." Hime, in his chapter on
+the origin of gunpowder, discusses these chapters at length, and gives,
+omitting the anagram, the translation: "Let the total weight of the
+ingredients be 30, however, of saltpetre ... of sulphur; and with such a
+mixture you will produce a bright flash and a thundering noise, if you
+know the trick. You may find (by actual experiment) whether I am writing
+riddles to you or the plain truth." The anagram reads, according to
+Hime, "salis petrae r(ecipe) vii part(es), v nov(ellae) corul(i), v et
+sulphuris" (take seven parts of saltpetre, five of young hazel-wood, and
+five of sulphur). Hime then goes on to show that Bacon was in possession
+of an explosive which was a considerable advance on mere incendiary
+compositions. Bacon does not appear to have been aware of the projecting
+power of gunpowder. He knew that it exploded and that perhaps people
+might be blown up or frightened by it; more cannot be said. The
+behaviour of small quantities of any explosive is hardly ever indicative
+of its behaviour in large quantities and especially when under
+confinement. Hime is of opinion that Bacon blundered upon gunpowder
+whilst playing with some incendiary composition, such as those mentioned
+by Marcus Graecus and others, in which he employed his comparatively
+pure saltpetre instead of crude nitrum. It has been suggested that Bacon
+derived his knowledge of these fiery mixtures from the MS. _Liber
+ignium_, ascribed to Marcus Graecus, in the National Library in Paris
+(Dutens, _Enquiry into Origin of Discoveries attributed to Moderns_).
+Certainly this Marcus Graecus appears to have known of some incendiary
+composition containing the gunpowder ingredients, but it was not
+gunpowder. Hime seems to doubt the existence of any such person as
+Marcus Graecus, as he says: "The _Liber ignium_ was written from first
+to last in the period of literary forgeries and pseudographs ... and we
+may reasonably conclude that Marcus Graecus is as unreal as the
+imaginary Greek original of the tract which bears his name." Albertus
+Magnus in the _De mirabilibus mundi_ repeats some of the receipts given
+in Marcus Graecus, and several other writers give receipts for Greek
+fire, rockets, &c. Dutens gives many passages in his work, above-named,
+from old authors in support of his view that a composition of the nature
+of gunpowder was not unknown to the ancients. Hime's elaborate arguments
+go to show that these compositions could only have been of the
+incendiary type and not real explosives. His arguments seem to hold good
+as regards not only the Greeks but also the Arabs, Hindus and Chinese
+(see also FIREWORKS).
+
+There seems no doubt that incendiary compositions, some perhaps
+containing nitre, mostly, however, simply combustible substances as
+sulphur, naphtha, resins, &c., were employed and projected both for
+defence and offence, but they were projected or blown by engines and not
+by themselves. It is quite inconceivable that a real propelling
+explosive should have been known in the time of Alexander or much later,
+and not have immediately taken its proper place. In a chapter discussing
+this question of explosives amongst the Hindus, Hime says: "It is
+needless to enlarge the list of quotations: incendiaries pursued much
+the same course in Upper India as in Greece and Arabia." No trustworthy
+evidence of an explosive in India is to be found until the 21st of April
+1526, the date of the decisive battle of Panipat, in which Ibrahim,
+sultan of Delhi, was killed and his army routed by Baber the Mogul, who
+possessed both great and small firearms.
+
+As regards also the crusader period (1097-1291), so strange and deadly
+an agent of destruction as gunpowder could not possibly have been
+employed in the field without the full knowledge of both parties, yet no
+historian, Christian or Moslem, alludes to an explosive of any kind,
+while all of them carefully record the use of incendiaries. The
+employment of rockets and "wildfire" incendiary composition seems
+undoubtedly of very old date in India, but the names given to pieces of
+artillery under the Mogul conqueror of Hindustan point to a European, or
+at least to a Turkish origin, and it is quite certain that Europeans
+were retained in the service of Akbar and Aurangzeb. The composition of
+present day Chinese gunpowder is almost identical with that employed in
+Europe, so that in all probability the knowledge of it was obtained from
+Western sources.
+
+In the writings of Bacon there is no mention of guns or the use of
+powder as a propellant, but merely as an explosive and destructive
+power. Owing perhaps to this obscurity hanging over the early history of
+gunpowder, its employment as a propelling agent has been ascribed to the
+Moors or Saracens. J. A. Conde (_Historia de la dominacion de los Arabes
+en España_) states that Ismail Ben Firaz, king of Granada, who in 1325
+besieged Boza, had among his machines "some that cast globes of fire,"
+but there is not the least evidence that these were guns. The first
+trustworthy document relative to the use of gunpowder in Europe, a
+document still in existence, and bearing date February 11, 1326, gives
+authority to the council of twelve of Florence and others to appoint
+persons to superintend the manufacture of cannons of brass and iron
+balls, for the defence of the territory, &c., of the republic. John
+Barbour, archdeacon of Aberdeen, writing in 1375, states that cannons
+(crakys of war) were employed in Edward III.'s invasion of Scotland in
+1327. An indenture first published by Sir N. H. Nicolas in his _History
+of the Royal Navy_ (London, 1846), and again by Lieutenant-Colonel H.
+Brackenbury (_Proc. R.A. Inst._, 1865), stated to be 1338, contains
+references to small cannon as among the stores of the Tower, and also
+mentions "un petit barrell de gonpoudre le quart' plein." If authentic,
+this is possibly the first mention of gunpowder as such in England, but
+some doubts have been thrown upon the date of this MS. From a
+contemporary document in the National Library in Paris it seems that in
+the same year (1338) there existed in the marine arsenal at Rouen an
+iron weapon called _pot de feu_, for propelling bolts, together with
+some saltpetre and sulphur to make powder for the same. Preserved in the
+Record Office in London are trustworthy accounts from the year 1345 of
+the purchase of ingredients for making powder, and of the shipping of
+cannon to France. In 1346 Edward III. appears to have ordered all
+available saltpetre and sulphur to be bought up for him. In the first
+year of Richard II. (1377) Thomas Norbury was ordered to buy, amongst
+other munitions, sulphur, saltpetre and charcoal, to be sent to the
+castle of Brest. In 1414 Henry V. ordered that no gunpowder should be
+taken out of the kingdom without special licence, and in the same year
+ordered twenty pipes of willow charcoal and other articles for the use
+of the guns.
+
+The manufacture of gunpowder seems to have been carried on as a crown
+monopoly about the time of Elizabeth, and regulations respecting
+gunpowder and nitre were made about 1623 (James I.). Powder-mills were
+probably in existence at Waltham Abbey about the middle or towards the
+end of the 16th century.
+
+  _Ingredients and their Action._--Roger Bacon in his anagram gives the
+  first real recipe for gunpowder, viz. (according to Hime, ch. xii.)
+  saltpetre 41.2, charcoal 29.4, sulphur 29.4. Dr John Arderne of
+  Newark, who began to practise about 1350 and was later surgeon to
+  Henry IV., gives a recipe (Sloane MSS. 335, 795), saltpetre 66.6,
+  charcoal 22.2, sulphur 11.1, "which are to be thoroughly mixed on a
+  marble and then sifted through a cloth." This powder is nominally of
+  the same composition as one given in a MS. of Marcus Graecus, but the
+  saltpetre of this formula by Marcus Graecus was undoubtedly answerable
+  for the difference in behaviour of the two compositions. Roger Bacon
+  had not only refined and obtained pure nitre, but had appreciated the
+  importance of thoroughly mixing the components of the powder. Most if
+  not all the early powder was a "loose" mixture of the three
+  ingredients, and the most important step in connexion with the
+  development of gunpowder was undoubtedly the introduction of wet
+  mixing or "incorporating." Whenever this was done, the improvement in
+  the product must have been immediately evident. In the damp or wetted
+  state pressure could be applied with comparative safety during the
+  mixing. The loose powder mixture came to be called "serpentine"; after
+  wet mixing it was more or less granulated or corned and was known as
+  "corned" powder. Corned powder seems to have been gradually
+  introduced. It is mentioned in the _Fire Book_ of Conrad von Schöngau
+  (in 1429), and was used for hand-guns in England long before 1560. It
+  would seem that corned powder was used for hand-guns or small arms in
+  the 15th century, but cannon were not made strong enough to withstand
+  its explosion for quite another century (Hime). According to the same
+  writer, in the period 1250-1450, when serpentine only was used, one
+  powder could differ from another in the proportions of the
+  ingredients; in the modern period--say 1700-1886--the powders in use
+  (in each state) differed only as a general rule in the size of the
+  grain, whilst during the transition period--1450-1700--they generally
+  differed both in composition and size of grain.
+
+  Corned or grained powder was adopted in France in 1525, and in 1540
+  the French utilized an observation that large-grained powder was the
+  best for cannon, and restricted the manufacture to three sizes of
+  grain or corn, possibly of the same composition. Early in the 18th
+  century two or three sizes of grain and powder of one composition
+  appear to have become common. The composition of English powder seems
+  to have settled down to 75 nitre, 15 charcoal, and 10 sulphur,
+  somewhere about the middle of the 18th century.
+
+  The composition of gunpowders used in different countries at different
+  times is illustrated in the following tables:--
+
+  _English Powders (Hime)._
+
+    +-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+--------+
+    |           | 1250.| 1350.| 1560.| 1647.| 1670.| 1742.|  1781. |
+    +-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+--------+
+    | Saltpetre | 41.2 | 66.6 | 50.0 | 66.6 | 71.4 | 75.0 | 75.0   |
+    | Charcoal  | 29.4 | 22.2 | 33.3 | 16.6 | 14.3 | 12.5 | 15.0   |
+    | Sulphur   | 29.4 | 11.1 | 16.6 | 16.6 | 14.3 | 12.5 | 10.0[2]|
+    +-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+--------+
+
+  _Foreign Powders (Hime)._
+
+    +-----------+-------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+
+    |           |France.|Sweden.|Germany.|Denmark.|France.|Sweden.|Germany.|
+    +-----------+-------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+
+    |           | 1338. | 1560. |  1595. |  1608. | 1650. | 1697. |  1882. |
+    +-----------+-------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+
+    | Saltpetre |  50   |  66.6 |  52.2  |  68.3  |  75.6 |   73  |  78    |
+    | Charcoal  |   ?   |  16.6 |  26.1  |  23.2  |  13.6 |   17  |  19    |
+    | Sulphur   |  25   |  16.6 |  21.7  |   8.5  |  10.8 |   10  |   3[3] |
+    +-----------+-------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+
+
+  When reasonably pure, none of the ingredients of gunpowder absorbs any
+  material quantity of moisture from the atmosphere, and the nitre only
+  is a soluble substance. It seems extremely probable that for a long
+  period the three substances were simply mixed dry, indeed sometimes
+  kept separate and mixed just before being required; the consequence
+  must have been that, with every care as to weighing out, the
+  proportions of any given quantity would alter on carriage. Saltpetre
+  is considerably heavier than sulphur or charcoal, and would tend to
+  separate out towards the bottom of the containing vessel if subjected
+  to jolting or vibration. When pure there can only be one kind of
+  saltpetre or sulphur, because they are chemical individuals, but
+  charcoal is not. Its composition, rate of burning, &c., depend not
+  only on the nature of the woody material from which it is made, but
+  quite as much on the temperature and time of heating employed in the
+  making. The woods from which it is made contain carbon, hydrogen and
+  oxygen, and the two latter are never thoroughly expelled in
+  charcoal-making. If they were, the resulting substance would be of no
+  use for gunpowder. 1-3% of hydrogen and 8-15% of oxygen generally
+  remain in charcoals suitable for gunpowder. A good deal of the
+  fieriness and violence of explosion of a gunpowder depends on the mode
+  of burning of the charcoal as well as on the wood from which it is
+  made.
+
+  _Properties of Ingredients._--Charcoal is the chief combustible in
+  powder. It must burn freely, leaving as little ash or residue as
+  possible; it must be friable, and grind into a non-gritty powder. The
+  sources from which powder charcoal is made are dogwood (_Rhamnus
+  frangula_), willow (_Salix alba_), and alder (_Betula alnus_). Dogwood
+  is mainly used for small-arm powders. Powders made from dogwood
+  charcoal burn more rapidly than those from willow, &c. The wood after
+  cutting is stripped of bark and allowed to season for two or three
+  years. It is then picked to uniform size and charred in cylindrical
+  iron cases or slips, which can be introduced into slightly larger
+  cylinders set in a furnace. The slips are provided with openings for
+  the escape of gases. The rate of heating as well as the absolute
+  temperature attained have an effect on the product, a slow rate of
+  heating yielding more charcoal, and a high temperature reducing the
+  hydrogen and oxygen in the final product. When heated for seven hours
+  to about 800° C. to 900° C. the remaining hydrogen and oxygen amount
+  to about 2% and 12% respectively. The time of charring is as a rule
+  from 5 to 7 hours. The slips are then removed from the furnace and
+  placed in a larger iron vessel, where they are kept comparatively
+  air-tight until quite cold. The charcoal is then sorted, and stored
+  for some time before grinding. The charcoal is ground, and the powder
+  sifted on a rotating reel or cylinder of fine mesh copper-wire gauze.
+  The sifted powder is again stored for some time before use in closed
+  iron vessels.
+
+  Sicilian sulphur is most generally employed for gunpowder, and for
+  complete purification is first distilled and then melted and cast into
+  moulds. It is afterwards ground into a fine powder and sifted as in
+  the case of the charcoal.
+
+  Potassium nitrate is eminently suitable as an oxygen-provider, not
+  being deliquescent. Nitrates are continually being produced in surface
+  soils, &c., by the oxidation of nitrogenous substances. Nitric and
+  nitrous acids are also produced by electric discharges through the
+  atmosphere, and these are found eventually as nitrates in soils, &c.
+  Nitre is soluble in water, and much more so in hot than in cold. Crude
+  nitre, obtained from soils or other sources, is purified by
+  recrystallization. The crude material is dissolved almost to
+  saturation in boiling water: on filtering and then cooling this liquor
+  to about 30° C. almost pure nitre crystallizes out, most of the usual
+  impurities still remaining in solution. By rapidly cooling and
+  agitating the nitre solution crystals are obtained of sufficient
+  fineness for the manufacture of powder without special grinding. Nitre
+  contains nearly 48% of oxygen by weight, five-sixths of which is
+  available for combustion purposes. Nearly all the gases of the powder
+  explosion are derived from the nitre. The specific gravity of nitre is
+  2.2 : 200 grams will therefore occupy about 100 cubic centimetres
+  volume. This quantity on its decomposition by heat alone yields 28
+  grams or 22,400 c.c. of nitrogen, and 80 grams or 56,000 c.c. of
+  oxygen as gases, and 94 grams of potassium oxide, a fusible solid
+  which vaporizes at a very high temperature.
+
+  _Incorporation._--The materials are weighed out separately, mixed by
+  passing through a sieve, and then uniformly moistened with a certain
+  quantity of water, whilst on the bed of the incorporating mill. This
+  consists of two heavy iron wheels mounted so as to run in a circular
+  bed. The incorporation requires about four hours. The mechanical
+  action of rollers on the powder paste is a double one: not only
+  crushing but mixing by pushing forwards and twisting sideways. The
+  pasty mass is deflected so that it repeatedly comes under first one
+  roller and then the next by scrapers, set at an angle to the bed,
+  which follow each wheel.
+
+  Although the charge is wet it is possible for it to be fired either by
+  the heat developed by the roller friction, by sparks from foreign
+  matters, as bits of stone, &c., or possibly by heat generated by
+  oxidation of the materials. The mills are provided with a drenching
+  apparatus so arranged that in case of one mill firing it and its
+  neighbours will be drowned by water from a cistern or tank immediately
+  above the mill. The product from the incorporation is termed
+  "mill-cake."
+
+  After this incorporation in the damp state the ingredients never
+  completely separate on drying, however much shaken, because each
+  particle of nitre is surrounded by a thin layer of water containing
+  nitre in solution in which the particles of charcoal and sulphur are
+  entangled and retained. After due incorporation, powders are pressed
+  to a certain extent whilst still moist. The density to which a powder
+  is pressed is an important matter in regard to the rate of burning.
+  The effect of high density is to slow down the initial rate of
+  burning. Less dense powders burn more rapidly from the first and tend
+  to put a great strain on the gun. Fouling is usually less with denser
+  powders; and, as would be expected, such powders bear transport better
+  and give less dust than light powders. Up to a certain pressure,
+  hardness, density, and size of grain of a powder have an effect on the
+  rate of burning and therefore on pressure. Glazing or polishing powder
+  grains, also exerts a slight retarding action on burning and enables
+  the powders to resist atmospheric moisture better. Excess of moisture
+  in gunpowder has a marked effect in reducing the explosiveness. All
+  powders are liable to absorb moisture, the quality and kind of
+  charcoal being the main determinant in this respect; hard burnt black
+  charcoal is least absorbent. The material employed in brown powders
+  absorbs moisture somewhat readily. Powder kept in a very damp
+  atmosphere, and especially in a changeable one, spoils rapidly, the
+  saltpetre coming to the surface in solution and then crystallizing
+  out. The pieces also break up owing to the formation of large crystals
+  of nitre in the mass. After the pressing of the incorporated powder
+  into a "press-cake," it is broken up or granulated by suitable
+  machines, and the resulting grains separated and sorted by sifting
+  through sieves of determined sizes of mesh. Some dust is formed in
+  this operation, which is sifted away and again worked up under the
+  rollers (for sizes of grains see fig. 1). These grains, cubes, &c.,
+  are then either polished by rotating in drums alone or with graphite,
+  which adheres to and coats the surfaces of the grains. This process is
+  generally followed with powders intended for small-arms or moderately
+  small ordnance.
+
+  _Shaped Powders._--Prisms or prismatic powder are made by breaking up
+  the press-cake into a moderately fine state, whilst still moist, and
+  pressing a certain quantity in a mould. The moulds generally employed
+  consist of a thick plate of bronze in which are a number of hexagonal
+  perforations. Accurately fitting plungers are so applied to these that
+  one can enter at the top and the other at the bottom. The lower
+  plunger being withdrawn to the bottom of the plate the hexagonal hole
+  is charged with the powder and the two plungers set in motion, thus
+  compressing the powder between them. After the desired pressure has
+  been applied the top plunger is withdrawn, and the lower one pushed
+  upward to eject the prism of powder. The axial perforations in prism
+  powders are made by small bronze rods which pass through the lower
+  plunger and fit into corresponding holes in the upper one. If these
+  prisms are made by a steadily applied pressure a density throughout of
+  about 1.78 may be obtained. Further to regulate the rate of burning so
+  that it shall be slow at first and more rapid as the powder is
+  consumed, another form of machine was devised, the cam press, in which
+  the pressure is applied very rapidly to the powder. It receives in
+  fact one blow, which compresses the powder to the same dimensions, but
+  the density of the outer layers of substance of the prism is much
+  greater than in the interior.
+
+  The leading idea in connexion with all shaped powder grains, and with
+  the very large sizes, was to regulate the rate of burning so as to
+  avoid extreme pressure when first ignited and to keep up the pressure
+  in the gun as more space was provided in the chamber or tube by the
+  movement of the shot towards the muzzle. In the perforated prismatic
+  powder the ignition is intended to proceed through the perforations;
+  since in a charge the faces of the prisms fit pretty closely together,
+  it was thought that this arrangement would prevent unburnt cores or
+  pieces of powder from being blown out. These larger grain powders
+  necessitated a lengthened bore to take advantage of the slower
+  production of gases and complete combustion of the powder. General T.
+  J. Rodman first suggested and employed the perforated cake cartridge
+  in 1860, the cake having nearly the diameter of the bore and a
+  thickness of 1 to 2 in. with perforations running parallel with the
+  gun axis. The burning would then start from the comparatively small
+  surfaces of the perforations, which would become larger as the powder
+  burnt away. Experiments bore out this theory perfectly. It was found
+  that small prisms were more convenient to make than large disks, and
+  as the prisms practically fit together into a disk the same result was
+  obtained. This effect of mechanical density on rate of burning is good
+  only up to a certain pressure, above which the gases are driven
+  through the densest form of granular material. After granulating or
+  pressing into shapes, all powders must be dried. This is done by
+  heating in specially ventilated rooms heated by steam pipes. As a rule
+  this drying is followed by the finishing or polishing process. Powders
+  are finally blended, i.e. products from different batches or "makes"
+  are mixed so that identical proof results are obtained.
+
+  _Sizes and Shapes of Powders._--In fig. 1, _a_ to _k_ show the
+  relative sizes and shapes of grain as formerly employed for military
+  purposes, except that the three largest powders, _e-f-g_ and _h_ are
+  figured half-size to save space, whereas the remainder indicate the
+  actual dimensions of the grains. _a_ is for small-arms, all the others
+  are for cannon of various sizes.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+  _Proof of Powder._--In addition to chemical examination powder is
+  passed through certain mechanical tests:--
+
+  1. _For colour, glaze, texture and freedom from dust._
+
+  2. _For proper incorporation._
+
+  3. _For shape, size and proportion of the grains._--The first is
+  judged by eye, and grains of the size required are obtained by the use
+  of sieves of different sizes.
+
+  4. _Density._--The density is generally obtained in some form of
+  mercury densimeter, the powder being weighed in air and then under
+  mercury. In some forms of the instrument the air can be pumped out so
+  that the weighing takes place _in vacuo_.
+
+  5. _Moisture and absorption of moisture._--The moisture and
+  hygroscopic test consists in weighing a sample, drying at 100° C. for
+  a certain time, weighing again, &c., until constant. The dried weighed
+  sample can then be exposed to an artificial atmosphere of known
+  moisture and temperature, and the gain in weight per hour similarly
+  ascertained by periodic weighings.
+
+  6. _Firing proof._--The nature of this depends upon the purpose for
+  which the powder is intended. For sporting powders it consists in the
+  "pattern" given by the shot upon a target at a given distance, or, if
+  fired with a bullet, upon the "figure of merit," or mean radial
+  deviation of a certain number of rounds; also upon the penetrative
+  power. For military purposes the "muzzle" velocity produced by a
+  powder is ascertained by a chronograph which measures the exact time
+  the bullet or other projectile takes to traverse a known distance
+  between two wire screens. By means of "crusher gauges" the exact
+  pressure per square inch upon certain points in the interior of the
+  bore can be found.
+
+  In the chemical examination of gunpowder the points to be ascertained
+  are, in addition to moisture, freedom from chlorides or sulphates, and
+  correct proportion of nitre and sulphur to charcoal.
+
+  _Products of Fired Powder and Changes taking place on
+  Explosion._--With a mixture of the complexity of gunpowder it is quite
+  impossible to say beforehand what will be the relative amounts of
+  products. The desired products are nitrogen and carbon dioxide as
+  gases, and potassium sulphate and carbonate as solids. But the
+  ingredients of the mixture are not in any simple chemical proportion.
+  Burning in contact with air under one atmosphere pressure, and burning
+  in a closed or partially closed vessel under a considerable number of
+  atmospheres pressure, may produce quite different results. The
+  temperature of a reaction always rises with increased pressure.
+  Although the main function of the nitre is to give up oxygen and
+  nitrogen, of the charcoal to produce carbon dioxide and most of the
+  heat, and of the sulphur by vaporizing to accelerate the rate of
+  burning, it is quite impossible to represent the actions taking place
+  on explosion by any simple or single chemical equation. Roughly
+  speaking, the gases from black powder burnt in a closed vessel have a
+  volume at 0° C. and 760 mm. pressure of about 280 times that of the
+  original powder. The temperature produced under one atmosphere is
+  above 2000° C., and under greater pressures considerably higher.
+
+  Experiments have been made by Benjamin Robins (1743), Charles Hutton
+  (1778), Count Rumford (1797), Gay-Lussac (1823), R. Bunsen and L.
+  Schiskoff (1857), T. J. Rodman (1861), C. Karolyi (1863), and later
+  many researches by Sir Andrew Noble and Sir F. A. Abel, and by H.
+  Debus and others, all with the idea of getting at the precise
+  mechanism of the explosion. Debus (_Ann._, 1882, vols. 212, 213; 1891,
+  vol. 265) discussed at great length the results of researches by
+  Bunsen, Karolyi, Noble and Abel, and others on the combustion of
+  powder in closed vessels in such manner that all the products could be
+  collected and examined and the pressures registered. A Waltham Abbey
+  powder, according to an experiment by Noble and Abel, gave when fired
+  in a closed vessel the following quantities of products calculated
+  from one gram of powder:--
+
+                         Fractions of    Fractions of a
+                            a gram.     molecule or atom.
+
+    Potassium carbonate     .2615       .00189 molecule
+    Potassium sulphate      .1268       .00072    "
+        "     thiosulphate  .1666       .00087    "
+        "     sulphide      .0252       .00017    "
+    Sulphur                 .0012       .00004 atom
+    Carbon dioxide          .2678       .00608 molecule
+    Carbon monoxide         .0339       .00121    "
+    Nitrogen                .1071       .00765 atom
+    Hydrogen                .0008       .0008   "
+    Hydrogen sulphide       .0080       .00023 molecule
+    Potassium thiocyanate   .0004
+    Nitre                   .0005
+    Ammonium carbonate      .0002
+
+  From this, and other results, Debus concluded that Waltham Abbey
+  powder could be represented by the formula 16KNO3+21·18C+6·63S and
+  that on combustion in a closed vessel the end results could be fairly
+  expressed (rounding off fractions) by 16KNO3+21C+5S = 5K2CO3 +
+  K2SO4+2K2S2+13CO2+3CO+8N2. Some of the sulphur is lost, part combining
+  with the metal of the apparatus and part with hydrogen in the
+  charcoal. The military powders of most nations can be represented by
+  the formula 16KNO3+21·2C+6·6S, proportions which are reasonably near
+  to a theoretical mixture, that is one giving most complete combustion,
+  greatest gas volume and temperature. The combustion of powder consists
+  of two processes: (i.) oxidation, during which potassium carbonate and
+  sulphate, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are mainly formed, and (ii.) a
+  reduction process in which free carbon acts on the potassium sulphate
+  and free sulphur on the potassium carbonate, producing potassium
+  sulphide and carbon monoxide respectively. Most powders contain more
+  carbon and sulphur than necessary, hence the second stage. In this
+  second stage heat is lost. The potassium sulphide is also the most
+  objectionable constituent as regards fouling.
+
+  The energy of a powder is given, according to Berthelot, by
+  multiplying the gas volume by the heat (in calories) produced during
+  burning; Debus shows that a powder composed of 16KNO3 to 8C and 8S
+  would have the least, and one of composition 16KNO3+24C+16S the
+  greatest, when completely burnt. The greatest capability with the
+  lowest proportion of carbon and sulphur to nitre would be obtained
+  from the mixture ÷ 16KNO3+22C+8S.
+
+  Smokeless and even noiseless powders seem to have been sought for
+  during the whole gunpowder period. In 1756 one was experimented with
+  in France, but was abandoned owing to difficulties in manufacture.
+  Modern smokeless powders are certainly less noisy than the black
+  powders, mainly because of the absence of metallic salts which
+  although they may be gaseous whilst in the gun are certainly ejected
+  as solids or become solids at the moment of contact with air.
+
+  _Brown Powders._--About the middle of the 19th century guns and
+  projectiles were made much larger and heavier than previously, and it
+  was soon found that the ordinary black powders of the most dense form
+  burnt much too rapidly, straining or bursting the pieces. Powders were
+  introduced containing about 3% sulphur and 17-19% of a special form of
+  charcoal made from slightly charred straw, or similar material. This
+  "brown charcoal" contains a considerable amount of the hydrogen and
+  oxygen of the original plant substance. The mechanical processes of
+  manufacture of these brown powders is the same as for black. They,
+  however, differ from black by burning very slowly, even under
+  considerable pressure. This comparative slowness is caused by (1) the
+  presence of a small amount of water even when air-dry; (2) the fact
+  that the brown charcoal is practically very slightly altered
+  cellulosic material, which before it can burn completely must undergo
+  a little further resolution or charring at the expense of some heat
+  from the portion of charge first ignited; and (3) the lower content of
+  sulphur. An increase of a few per cent in the sulphur of black powder
+  accelerates its rate of burning, and it may become almost a blasting
+  powder. A decrease in sulphur has the reverse effect. It is really the
+  sulphur vapour that in the early period of combustion spreads the
+  flame through the charge.
+
+  Many other powders have been made or proposed in which nitrates or
+  chlorates of the alkalis or of barium, &c., are the oxygen providers
+  and substances as sugar, starch, and many other organic compounds as
+  the combustible elements. Some of these compositions have found
+  employment for blasting or even as sporting powders, but in most cases
+  their objectionable properties of fouling, smoke and mode of exploding
+  have prevented their use for military purposes. The adoption by the
+  French government of the comparatively smokeless nitrocellulose
+  explosive of Paul Vieille in 1887 practically put an end to the old
+  forms of gunpowders. The first smokeless powder was made in 1865 by
+  Colonel E. Schultze (_Ding. Pol. Jour._ 174, p. 323; 175, p. 453) by
+  nitrating wood meal and adding potassium and barium nitrates. It is
+  somewhat similar in composition to the E. C. sporting powder. F.
+  Uchatius, in Austria, proposed a smokeless powder made from nitrated
+  starch, but it was not adopted owing to its hygroscopic nature and
+  also its tendency to detonate.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Vanucchio Biringuccio, _De la pirotechnia_ (Venice,
+  1540); Tartaglia, _Quesiti e invenzioni diversi_ (lib. iii.) (Venice,
+  1546); Peter Whitehorne, _How to make Saltpetre, Gunpowder, &c._
+  (London, 1573); Nic. Macchiavelli, _The Arte of Warre_, trans. by
+  Whitehorne (London, 1588); Hanzelet, _Recueil de plusiers machines
+  militaires_ (Paris, 1620); Boillet Langrois, _Modelles artifices de
+  feu_ (1620); Kruger, _Chemical Meditations on the Explosion of
+  Gunpowder_ (in Latin) (1636); Collado, _On the Invention of Gunpowder_
+  (Spanish) (1641); _The True Way to make all Sorts of Gunpowder and
+  Matches_ (1647); Hawksbee, _On Gunpowder_ (1686); Winter, _On
+  Gunpowder_ (in Latin); Robins, _New Principles of Gunnery_ (London,
+  1742) (new ed. by Hutton, 1805); D'Antoni, _Essame della polvere_
+  (Turin, 1765) (trans. by Captain Thomson, R. A., London, 1787); Count
+  Rumford, "Experiments on Fired Gunpowder," _Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc._
+  (1797); Charles Hutton, _Mathematical Tracts_, vol. iii. (1812); Sir
+  W. Congreve, _A Short Account of Improvements in Gunpowder made by_
+  (London, 1818); Bunsen and Schiskoff, "On the Chemical Theory of
+  Gunpowder," _Pogg. Ann._, 1857, vol. cii.; General Rodman,
+  _Experiments on Metal for Cannon, and Qualities of Cannon Powder_
+  (Boston, 1861); Napoleon III., _Études sur le passé et l'avenir de
+  l'artillerie_, vol. iii. (Paris, 1862); Von Karolyi, "On the Products
+  of the Combustion of Gun Cotton and Gunpowder," _Phil. Mag._ (October
+  1863); Captain F. M. Smith, _Handbook of the Manufacture and Proof of
+  Gunpowder at Waltham Abbey_ (London, 1870); Noble and Abel, _Fired
+  Gunpowder_ (London, 1875, 1880); Noble, _Artillery and Explosives_
+  (1906); H. W. L. Hime, _Gunpowder and Ammunition, their Origin and
+  Progress_ (1904); O. Guttmann, _The Manufacture of Explosives_ (1895),
+  _Monumenta pulveris pyrii_ (1906); _Notes on Gunpowder and Gun
+  Cotton_, published by order of the secretary of state for war (London,
+  1907). (See also EXPLOSIVES.)     (W. R. E. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] These words were emended by some authors to read _luru mope can
+    ubre_, the letters of which can be arranged to give _pulvere
+    carbonum_.
+
+  [2] This represents the composition of English powder at present, and
+    no doubt it has remained the same for a longer time than the above
+    date indicates.
+
+  [3] Brown or coco-powder for large charges in guns. The charcoal is
+    not burnt black but roasted until brown, and is made from some
+    variety of straw, not wood.
+
+
+
+
+GUNPOWDER PLOT, the name given to a conspiracy for blowing up King James
+I. and the parliament on the 5th of November 1605.
+
+To understand clearly the nature and origin of the famous conspiracy, it
+is necessary to recall the political situation and the attitude of the
+Roman Catholics towards the government at the accession of James I. The
+Elizabethan administration had successfully defended its own existence
+and the Protestant faith against able and powerful antagonists, but this
+had not been accomplished without enforcing severe measures of
+repression and punishment upon those of the opposite faith. The
+beginning of a happier era, however, was expected with the opening of
+the new reign. The right of James to the crown could be more readily
+acknowledged by the Romanists than that of Elizabeth: Pope Clement VIII.
+appeared willing to meet the king half-way. James himself was by nature
+favourable to the Roman Catholics and had treated the Roman Catholic
+lords in Scotland with great leniency, in spite of their constant plots
+and rebellions. Writing to Cecil before his accession he maintained, "I
+am so far from any intention of persecution as I protest to God I
+reverence their church as our mother church, although clogged with many
+infirmities and corruptions, besides that I did ever hold persecution as
+one of the infallible notes of a false church." He declared to
+Northumberland, the kinsman and master of Thomas Percy, the conspirator,
+"as for the Catholics, I will neither persecute any that will be quiet
+and give but an outward obedience to the law, neither will I spare to
+advance any of them that will be of good service and worthily deserved."
+It is probable that these small but practical concessions would have
+satisfied the lay Roman Catholics and the secular priests, but they were
+very far from contenting the Jesuits, by whom the results of such
+leniency were especially feared: "What rigour of laws would not compass
+in so many years," wrote Henry Tichborne, the Jesuit, in 1598, "this
+liberty and lenity will effectuate in 20 days, to wit the disfurnishing
+of the seminaries, the disanimating of men to come and others to return,
+the expulsion of the society and confusion as in Germany, extinction of
+zeal and favour, disanimation of princes from the hot pursuit of the
+enterprise.... We shall be left as a prey to the wolves that will
+besides drive our greatest patron [the king of Spain] to stoop to a
+peace which will be the utter ruin of our edifice, this many years in
+building." Unfortunately, about this time the Jesuits, who thus thrived
+on political intrigue, and who were deeply implicated in treasonable
+correspondence with Spain, had obtained a complete ascendancy over the
+secular priests, who were for obeying the civil government as far as
+possible and keeping free from politics. The time, therefore, as far as
+the Roman Catholics themselves were concerned, was not a propitious one
+for introducing the moderate concessions which alone James had promised:
+James, too, on his side, found that religious toleration, though clearly
+sound in principle, was difficult in practice. During the first few
+months of the reign all went well. In July 1603 the fines for recusancy
+were remitted. In January 1604 peaceable Roman Catholics could live
+unmolested and "serve God according to their consciences without any
+danger." But James's expectations that the pope would prevent dangerous
+and seditious persons from entering the country were unfulfilled and the
+numbers of the Jesuits and the Roman Catholics greatly increased.
+Rumours of plots came to hand. Cecil, though like his master naturally
+in favour of toleration, with his experience gained in the reign of
+Elizabeth, was alarmed at the policy pursued and its results, and great
+anxiety was aroused in the government and nation, which was in the end
+shared by the king. It was determined finally to return to the earlier
+policy of repression. On the 22nd of February 1604 a proclamation was
+issued banishing priests; on the 28th of November 1604, recusancy fines
+were demanded from 13 wealthy persons, and on the 10th of February 1605
+the penal laws were ordered to be executed. The plot, however, could not
+have been occasioned by these measures, for it had been already
+conceived in the mind of Robert Catesby. It was aimed at the repeal of
+the whole Elizabethan legislation against the Roman Catholics and
+perhaps derived some impulse at first from the leniency lately shown by
+the administration, afterwards gaining support from the opposite cause,
+the return of the government to the policy of repression.
+
+It was in May 1603 that Catesby told Percy, in reply to the latter's
+declaration of his intention to kill the king, that he was "thinking of
+a most sure way." Subsequently, about the 1st of November 1603, Catesby
+sent a message to his cousin Robert Winter at Huddington, near
+Worcester, to come to London, which the latter refused. On the arrival
+of a second urgent summons shortly afterwards he obeyed, and was then at
+a house at Lambeth, probably in January 1604, initiated by Catesby
+together with John Wright into the plot to blow up the parliament house.
+Before putting this plan into execution, however, it was decided to try
+a "quiet way"; and Winter was sent over to Flanders to obtain the good
+offices of Juan de Velasco, duke of Frias and constable of Castile, who
+had arrived there to conduct the negotiations for a peace between
+England and Spain, in order to obtain the repeal of the penal laws.
+Winter, having secured nothing but vain promises from the constable,
+returned to England about the end of April, bringing with him Guy
+Fawkes, a man devoted to the Roman Catholic cause and recommended for
+undertaking perilous adventures. Subsequently the three and Thomas
+Percy, who joined the conspiracy in May, met in a house behind St
+Clement's and, having taken an oath of secrecy together, heard Mass and
+received the Sacrament in an adjoining apartment from a priest stated by
+Fawkes to have been Father Gerard. Later several other persons were
+included in the plot, viz. Winter's brother Thomas, John Grant, Ambrose
+Rokewood, Robert Keyes, Sir Everard Digby, Francis Tresham, a cousin of
+Catesby and Thomas Bates Catesby's servant, all, with the exception of
+the last, being men of good family and all Roman Catholics. Father
+Greenway and Father Garnet, the Jesuits, were both cognisant of the plot
+(see GARNET, HENRY). On the 24th of May 1604 a house was hired in
+Percy's name adjoining the House of Lords, from the cellar of which they
+proposed to work a mine. They began on the 11th of December 1604, and by
+about March had got half-way through the wall. They then discovered that
+a vault immediately under the House of Lords was available. This was at
+once hired by Percy, and 36 barrels of gunpowder, amounting to about 1
+ton and 12 cwt., were brought in and concealed under coal and faggots.
+The preparations being completed in May the conspirators separated.
+Fawkes was despatched to Flanders, where he imparted the plot to Hugh
+Owen, a zealous Romanist intriguer. Sir Edmund Baynham was sent on a
+mission to Rome to be at hand when the news came to gain over the pope
+to the cause of the successful conspirators. An understanding was
+arrived at with several officers levied for the service of the archduke,
+that they should return at once to England when occasion arose of
+defending the Roman Catholic cause. A great hunting match was organized
+at Danchurch in Warwickshire by Digby, to which large numbers of the
+Roman Catholic gentry were invited, who were to join the plot after the
+successful accomplishment of the explosion of the 5th of November, the
+day fixed for the opening of parliament, and get possession of the
+princess Elizabeth, then residing in the neighbourhood; while Percy was
+to seize the infant prince Charles and bring him on horseback to their
+meeting-place. Guy Fawkes himself was to take ship immediately for
+Flanders, spread the news on the continent and get supporters. The
+conspirators imagined that a terrorized and helpless government would
+readily agree to all their demands. Hitherto the secret had been well
+kept and the preparations had been completed with extraordinary success
+and without a single drawback; but a very serious difficulty now
+confronted the conspirators as the time for action arrived, and
+disturbed their consciences. The feelings of ordinary humanity shrunk
+from the destruction of so many persons guiltless of any offence. But in
+addition, among the peers to be assassinated were included many Roman
+Catholics and some lords nearly connected in kinship or friendship with
+the plotters themselves. Several appeals, however, made to Catesby to
+allow warning to be given to certain individuals were firmly rejected.
+
+On the 26th of October Lord Monteagle, a brother-in-law of Francis
+Tresham, who had formerly been closely connected with some of the other
+conspirators and had engaged in Romanist plots against the government,
+but who had given his support to the new king, unexpectedly ordered
+supper to be prepared at his house at Haxton, from which he had been
+absent for more than a year. While at supper about 6 o'clock an
+anonymous letter was brought by an unknown messenger which, having
+glanced at, he handed to Ward, a gentleman of his service and an
+intimate friend of Winter, the conspirator, to be read aloud. The
+celebrated letter ran as follows:--
+
+  "My lord, out of the love I bear to some of your friends, I have a
+  care for your preservation. Therefore I would advise you, as you
+  tender your life, to devise some excuse to shift of your attendance
+  of this Parliament, for God and man hath concurred to punish the
+  wickedness of this time. And think not slightly of this advertisement,
+  but retire yourself into your country, where you may expect the event
+  in safety, for though there be no appearance of any stir, yet I say
+  they shall receive a terrible blow the Parliament, and yet they shall
+  not see who hurts them. This counsel is not to be contemned, because
+  it may do you good and can do you no harm, for the danger is past as
+  soon as you have burnt the letter: and I hope God will give you the
+  grace to make good use of it, to whose holy protection I commend you."
+
+The authorship of the letter has never been disclosed or proved, but all
+evidence seems to point to Tresham, and to the probability that he had
+some days before warned Monteagle and agreed with him as to the best
+means of making known the plot and preventing its execution, and at the
+same time of giving the conspirators time to escape (see TRESHAM,
+FRANCIS).
+
+Monteagle at once started for Whitehall, found Salisbury and other
+ministers about to sit down to supper, and showed the letter, whereupon
+it was decided to search the cellar under the House of Lords before the
+meeting of parliament, but not too soon, so that the plot might be ripe
+and be fully disclosed. Meanwhile Ward, on the 27th of October, as had
+evidently been intended, informed Winter that the plot was known, and on
+the 28th Winter informed Catesby and begged him to give up the whole
+project. Catesby, however, after some hesitation, finding from Fawkes
+that nothing had been touched in the cellar, and prevailed upon by
+Percy, determined to stand firm, hoping that the government had put no
+credence in Monteagle's letter, and Fawkes returned to the cellar to
+keep guard as before. On the 4th the king, having been shown the letter,
+ordered the earl of Suffolk, as lord chamberlain, to examine the
+buildings. He was accompanied by Monteagle. On arriving at the cellar,
+the door was opened to him by Fawkes. Seeing the enormous piles of
+faggots he asked the name of their owner, to which Fawkes replied that
+they belonged to Percy. His name immediately aroused suspicions, and
+accordingly it was ordered that a further search should be made by
+Thomas Knyvett, a Westminster magistrate who, coming with his men at
+night, discovered the gunpowder and arrested Fawkes on the threshold.
+
+The opinion that the whole plot was the work of Salisbury, that he acted
+as an _agent provocateur_ and lured on his victims to destruction,
+repeated by some contemporary and later writers and recently formulated
+and urged with great ability, has no solid foundation. Nor is it even
+probable that he was aware of its existence till he received Monteagle's
+letter. Even after its reception complete belief was not placed in the
+warning. A search was made only to make sure that nothing was wrong and
+guided only by Monteagle's letter, while no attempt was made to seize
+the conspirators. The steps taken by Salisbury after the discovery of
+the gunpowder do not show the possession of any information of the plot
+or of the persons who were its chief agents outside Fawkes's first
+statement, and his knowledge is seen to develop according to the
+successive disclosures and confessions of the latter. Thus on the 7th of
+November he had no knowledge of the _mine_, and it is only after
+Fawkes's examination by torture on the 9th, when the names of the
+conspirators were drawn from him, that the government was able to
+classify them according to their guilt and extent of their
+participation. The inquiry was not conducted by Salisbury alone, but by
+several commissioners, some of whom were Roman Catholics, and many
+rivals and secret enemies. To conceal his intrigue from all these would
+have been impossible, and that he should have put himself in their power
+to such an extent is highly improbable. Again, the plan agreed upon for
+disclosing the plot was especially designed to allow the conspirators to
+escape, and therefore scarcely a method which would have been arranged
+with Salisbury. Not one of the conspirators, even when all hope of
+saving life was gone, made any accusation against Salisbury or the
+government and all died expressing contrition for their crime. Lastly
+Salisbury had no conceivable motive in concocting a plot of this
+description. His political power and position in the new reign had been
+already secured and by very different methods. He was now at the height
+of his influence, having been created Viscount Cranborne in August 1604
+and earl of Salisbury in May 1605; and James had already, more than 16
+months before the discovery of the plot, consented to return to the
+repressive measures against the Romanists. The success with which the
+conspirators concealed their plot from Salisbury's spies is indeed
+astonishing, but is probably explained by its very audacity and by the
+absence of incriminating correspondence, the medium through which the
+minister chiefly obtained his knowledge of the plans of his enemies.
+
+On the arrest of Fawkes the other conspirators, except Tresham, fled in
+parties by different ways, rejoining each other in Warwickshire, as had
+been agreed in case the plot had been successful. Catesby, who with some
+others had covered the distance of 80 m. between London and his mother's
+house at Ashby St Legers in eight hours, informed his friends in
+Warwickshire, who had been awaiting the issue of the plot, of its
+failure, but succeeded in persuading Sir Everard Digby, by an
+unscrupulous falsehood, to further implicate himself in his hopeless
+cause by assuring him that both James and Salisbury were dead; and,
+according to Father Garnet, this was not the first time that Catesby had
+been guilty of lies in order to draw men into the plot. He pushed on the
+same day with his companions in the direction of Wales, where, it was
+hoped, they would be joined by bands of insurgents. They arrived at
+Huddington at 2 in the afternoon. On the morning of the 7th the band,
+numbering about 36 persons, confessed and heard Mass, and then rode away
+to Holbeche, 2 m. from Stourbridge, in Staffordshire, the house of
+Stephen Littleton, who had been present at the hunting at Danchurch (see
+DIGBY, EVERARD), where they arrived at 10 o'clock at night, having on
+their way broken into Lord Windsor's house at Hewell Grange and taken
+all the armour they found there. Their case was now desperate. None had
+joined them: "Not one came to take our part," said Sir Everard Digby,
+"though we had expected so many." They were being followed by the
+sheriff and all the forces of the county. All spurned them from their
+doors when they applied for succour. One by one their followers fled
+from the house in which the last scene was to be played out. They now
+began to feel themselves abandoned not only by man but by God; for an
+explosion of some of their gunpowder, on the morning of the 8th, by
+which Catesby and some others were scorched, struck terror into their
+hearts as a judgment from heaven. The assurance of innocence and of a
+just cause which till now had alone supported them was taken away. The
+greatness of their crime, its true nature, now struck home to them, and
+the few moments which remained to them of life were spent in prayer and
+in repentance. The supreme hour had now arrived. About 11 o'clock the
+sheriff and his men came up and immediately began firing into the house.
+Catesby, Percy and the two Wrights were killed, Winter and Rokewood
+wounded and taken prisoners with the men who still adhered to them. In
+all eight of the conspirators, including the two Winters, Digby, Fawkes,
+Rokewood, Keyes and Bates, were executed, while Tresham died in the
+Tower. Of the priests involved, Garnet was tried and executed, while
+Greenway and Gerard succeeded in escaping.
+
+So ended the strange and famous Gunpowder Plot. However atrocious its
+conception and its aims, it is impossible not to feel, together with
+horror for the deed, some pity and admiration for the guilty persons who
+took part in it. "Theirs was a crime which it would never have entered
+into the heart of any man to commit who was not raised above the lowness
+of the ordinary criminal." They sinned not against the light but in the
+dark. They erred from ignorance, from a perverted moral sense rather
+than from any mean or selfish motive, and exhibited extraordinary
+courage and self-sacrifice in the pursuit of what seemed to them the
+cause of God and of their country. Their punishment was terrible. Not
+only had they risked and lost all in the attempt and drawn upon
+themselves the frightful vengeance of the state, but they saw themselves
+the means of injuring irretrievably the cause for which they felt such
+devotion. Nothing could have been more disastrous to the cause of the
+Roman Catholics than their crime. The laws against them were immediately
+increased in severity, and the gradual advance towards religious
+toleration was put back for centuries. In addition a new, increased and
+long-enduring hostility was aroused in the country against the adherents
+of the old faith, not unnatural in the circumstances, but unjust and
+undiscriminating, because while some of the Jesuits were no doubt
+implicated, the secular priests and Roman Catholic laity as a whole had
+taken no part in the conspiracy.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The recent controversy concerning the nature and origin
+  of the plot can be followed in _What was the Gunpowder Plot?_ by John
+  Gerard, S.J. (1897); _What Gunpowder Plot was_, by S. R. Gardiner (a
+  rejoinder) (1897); _The Gunpowder Plot ... in reply to Professor
+  Gardiner_, by John Gerard, S.J. (1897); _Thomas Winter's Confession
+  and the Gunpowder Plot_, by John Gerard, S.J. (with facsimiles of his
+  writing) (1898); _Eng. Hist. Rev._ iii. 510 and xii. 791; _Edinburgh
+  Review_, clxxxv. 183; _Athenaeum_ 1897, ii. 149, 785, 855; 1898, i.
+  23, ii. 352, 420; _Academy_, vol. 52 p. 84; _The Nation_, vol. 65 p.
+  400. A considerable portion of the controversy centres round the
+  question of the authenticity of Thomas Winter's confession, the MS. of
+  which is at Hatfield, supported by Professor Gardiner, but denied by
+  Father Gerard principally on account of the document having been
+  signed "Winter" instead of "Wintour," the latter apparently being the
+  conspirator's usual style of signature. The document was deposited by
+  the 3rd Marquess of Salisbury for inspection at the Record Office, and
+  was pronounced by two experts, one from the British Museum and another
+  from the Record Office, to be undoubtedly genuine. The cause of the
+  variation in the signature still remains unexplained, but ceases to
+  have therefore any great historical importance. The bibliography of
+  the contemporary controversy is given in the article on Henry Garnet
+  in the _Dictionary of National Biography_ and in _The Gunpowder Plot_
+  by David Jardine (1857), the latter work still remaining the principal
+  authority on the subject; add to these Gardiner's _Hist. of England_,
+  i., where an excellent account is given; _History of the Jesuits in
+  England_, by Father Ethelred Taunton (1901); Father Gerard's
+  _Narrative in Condition of the Catholics under James I._ (1872), and
+  Father Greenway's Narrative in _Troubles of our Catholic Forefathers_,
+  1st series (1872), interesting as contemporary accounts, but not to be
+  taken as complete or infallible authorities, of the same nature being
+  _Historia Provinciae Anglicanae Societatis Jesu_, by Henry More, S.J.
+  (1660), pp. 309 et seq.; also History of Great Britain, by John Speed
+  (1611), pp. 839 et seq.; _Archaeologia_, xii. 200, xxviii. 422, xxix.
+  80; _Harleian Miscellany_ (1809), iii. 119-135, or _Somers Tracts_
+  (1809), ii. 97-117; M. A. Tierney's ed. of _Dodd's Church History_,
+  vol. iv. (1841); _Treason and Plot_, by Martin Hume (1901); _Notes and
+  Queries_, 7 ser. vi., 8 ser. iv. 408, 497, v. 55, xii. 505, 9 ser. xi.
+  115; _Add. MSS. Brit. Mus._ 6178; _State Trials_, ii.; _Calendar of
+  State Pap. Dom._ (1603-1610), and the official account, _A True and
+  Perfect Relation of the Whole Proceedings against the late most
+  Barbarous Traitors_ (1606), a neither true nor complete narrative
+  however, now superseded as an authority, reprinted as _The Gunpowder
+  Treason ..._ with additions in 1679 by Thomas Barlow, bishop of
+  Lincoln. A large number of letters and papers in the State Paper
+  Office relating to the plot were collected in one volume in 1819,
+  called the _Gunpowder Plot Book_; these are noted in their proper
+  place in the printed calendars of State Papers, Domestic Series; see
+  also articles on FAWKES, GUY; TRESHAM, FRANCIS; MONTEAGLE, WILLIAM
+  PARKER, 4TH BARON; PERCY, THOMAS; CATESBY, ROBERT; GARNET, HENRY;
+  DIGBY, SIR EVERARD.     (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+
+
+GUN-ROOM, a ship cabin occupied by the officers below the rank of
+lieutenant, but who are not warrant officers of the class of the
+boatswain, gunner or carpenter. In the wooden sailing ships it was on
+the lower deck, and was originally the quarters of the gunner.
+
+
+
+
+GUNTER, EDMUND (1581-1626), English mathematician, of Welsh extraction,
+was born in Hertfordshire in 1581. He was educated at Westminster
+school, and in 1599 was elected a student of Christ Church, Oxford. He
+took orders, became a preacher in 1614, and in 1615 proceeded to the
+degree of bachelor in divinity. Mathematics, however, which had been his
+favourite study in youth, continued to engross his attention, and on the
+6th of March 1619 he was appointed professor of astronomy in Gresham
+College, London. This post he held till his death on the 10th of
+December 1626. With Gunter's name are associated several useful
+inventions, descriptions of which are given in his treatises on the
+_Sector, Cross-staff, Bow, Quadrant and other Instruments_. He contrived
+his sector about the year 1606, and wrote a description of it in Latin,
+but it was more than sixteen years afterwards before he allowed the book
+to appear in English. In 1620 he published his _Canon triangulorum_ (see
+LOGARITHMS). There is reason to believe that Gunter was the first to
+discover (in 1622 or 1625) that the magnetic needle does not retain the
+same declination in the same place at all times. By desire of James I.
+he published in 1624 _The Description and Use of His Majestie's Dials in
+Whitehall Garden_, the only one of his works which has not been
+reprinted. He introduced the words cosine and cotangent, and he
+suggested to Henry Briggs, his friend and colleague, the use of the
+arithmetical complement (see Brigg's _Arithmetica Logarithmica_, cap.
+xv.). His practical inventions are briefly noticed below:
+
+  _Gunter's Chain_, the chain in common use for surveying, is 22 yds.
+  long and is divided into 100 links. Its usefulness arises from its
+  decimal or centesimal division, and the fact that 10 square chains
+  make an acre.
+
+  _Gunter's Line_, a logarithmic line, usually laid down upon scales,
+  sectors, &c. It is also called _the line of lines_ and _the line of
+  numbers_, being only the logarithms graduated upon a ruler, which
+  therefore serves to solve problems instrumentally in the same manner
+  as logarithms do arithmetically.
+
+  _Gunter's Quadrant_, an instrument made of wood, brass or other
+  substance, containing a kind of stereographic projection of the sphere
+  on the plane of the equinoctial, the eye being supposed to be placed
+  in one of the poles, so that the tropic, ecliptic, and horizon form
+  the arcs of circles, but the hour circles are other curves, drawn by
+  means of several altitudes of the sun for some particular latitude
+  every year. This instrument is used to find the hour of the day, the
+  sun's azimuth, &c., and other common problems of the sphere or globe,
+  and also to take the altitude of an object in degrees.
+
+  _Gunter's Scale_ (generally called by seamen the _Gunter_) is a large
+  plane scale, usually 2 ft. long by about 1½ in. broad, and engraved
+  with various lines of numbers. On one side are placed the natural
+  lines (as the line of chords, the line of sines, tangents, rhumbs,
+  &c.), and on the other side the corresponding artificial or
+  logarithmic ones. By means of this instrument questions in navigation,
+  trigonometry, &c., are solved with the aid of a pair of compasses.
+
+
+
+
+GÜNTHER, JOHANN CHRISTIAN (1695-1723), German poet, was born at Striegau
+in Lower Silesia on the 8th of April 1695. After attending the gymnasium
+at Schweidnitz, he was sent in 1715 by his father, a country doctor, to
+study medicine at Wittenberg; but he was idle and dissipated, had no
+taste for the profession chosen for him, and came to a complete rupture
+with his family. In 1717 he went to Leipzig, where he was befriended by
+J. B. Mencke (1674-1732), who recognized his genius; and there he
+published a poem on the peace of Passarowitz (concluded between the
+German emperor and the Porte in 1718) which acquired him reputation. A
+recommendation from Mencke to Frederick Augustus II. of Saxony, king of
+Poland, proved worse than useless, as Günther appeared at the audience
+drunk. From that time he led an unsettled and dissipated life, sinking
+ever deeper into the slough of misery, until he died at Jena on the 15th
+of March 1723, when only in his 28th year. Goethe pronounces Günther to
+have been a poet in the fullest sense of the term. His lyric poems as a
+whole give evidence of deep and lively sensibility, fine imagination,
+clever wit, and a true ear for melody and rhythm; but an air of cynicism
+is more or less present in most of them, and dull or vulgar witticisms
+are not infrequently found side by side with the purest inspirations of
+his genius.
+
+  Günther's collected poems were published in four volumes (Breslau,
+  1723-1735). They are also included in vol. vi. of Tittmann's _Deutsche
+  Dichter des 17ten Jahrh._ (Leipzig, 1874), and vol. xxxviii. of
+  Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_ (1883). A pretended
+  autobiography of Günther appeared at Schweidnitz in 1732, and a life
+  of him by Siebrand at Leipzig in 1738. See Hoffmann von Fallersleben,
+  _J. Ch. Günther_ (Breslau, 1833); O. Roquette, _Leben und Dichten J.
+  Ch. Günthers_ (Stuttgart, 1860); M. Kalbeck, _Neue Beiträge zur
+  Biographie des Dichters C. Günther_ (Breslau, 1879).
+
+
+
+
+GÜNTHER OF SCHWARZBURG (1304-1349), German king, was a descendant of the
+counts of Schwarzburg and the younger son of Henry VII., count of
+Blankenburg. He distinguished himself as a soldier, and rendered good
+service to the emperor Louis IV., on whose death in 1347 he was offered
+the German throne, after it had been refused by Edward III., king of
+England. He was elected German king at Frankfort on the 30th of January
+1349 by four of the electors, who were partisans of the house of
+Wittelsbach and opponents of Charles of Luxemburg, afterwards the
+emperor Charles IV. Charles, however, won over many of Günther's
+adherents, defeated him at Eltville, and Günther, who was now seriously
+ill, renounced his claims for the sum of 20,000 marks of silver. He died
+three weeks afterwards at Frankfort, and was buried in the cathedral of
+that city, where a statue was erected to his memory in 1352.
+
+  See Graf L. Ütterodt zu Scharffenberg, _Günther, Graf von Schwarzburg,
+  erwählter deutscher König_ (Leipzig, 1862); and K. Janson, _Das
+  Königtum Günthers von Schwarzburg_ (Leipzig, 1880).
+
+
+
+
+GUNTRAM, or GONTRAN (561-592), king of Burgundy, was one of the sons of
+Clotaire I. On the death of his father (561) he and his three brothers
+divided the Frankish realm between them, Guntram receiving as his share
+the valleys of the Saône and Rhone, together with Berry and the town of
+Orleans, which he made his capital. On the death of Charibert (567), he
+further obtained the _civitates_ of Saintes, Angoulême and Périgueux.
+During the civil war which broke out between the kings of Neustria and
+Austrasia, his policy was to try to maintain a state of equilibrium.
+After the assassination of Sigebert (575), he took the youthful
+Childebert II. under his protection, and, thanks to his assistance
+against the intrigues of the great lords, the latter was able to
+maintain his position in Austrasia. After the death of Chilperic (584)
+he protected the young Clotaire II. in the same way, and prevented
+Childebert from seizing his dominions. His course was rendered easier by
+the fact that his own sons had died; consequently, having an inheritance
+at his disposal, he was able to offer it to whichever of his nephews he
+wished. The danger to the Frankish realm caused by the expedition of
+Gundobald (585), and the anxiety which was caused him by the revolts of
+the great lords in Austrasia finally decided him in favour of
+Childebert. He adopted him as his son, and recognized him as his heir at
+the treaty of Andelot (587); he also helped him to crush the great
+lords, especially Ursion and Berthefried, who were conquered in la
+Woëvre. From this time on he ceased to play a prominent part in the
+affairs of Austrasia. He died in 592, and Childebert received his
+inheritance without opposition. Gregory of Tours is very indulgent to
+Guntram, who showed himself on occasions generous towards the church; he
+almost always calls him "good king Guntram," and in his writings are to
+be found such phrases as "good king Guntram took as his servant a
+concubine Veneranda" (iv. 25); but Guntram was really no better than the
+other kings of his age; he was cruel and licentious, putting his
+_cubicularius_ Condo to death, for instance, because he was suspected of
+having killed a buffalo in the Vosges. He was moreover a coward, and
+went in such constant terror of assassination that he always surrounded
+himself with a regular bodyguard.
+
+  See Krusch, "Zur Chronologie der merowingischen Könige," in the
+  _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, xxii. 451-490; Ulysse
+  Chevalier, _Bio-bibliographie_ (2nd ed.), s.v. "Guntram."     (C. Pf.)
+
+
+
+
+GUNTUR, a town and district of British India, in the Madras presidency.
+The town (pop. in 1901, 30,833) has a station on the Bellary-Bezwada
+branch of the Southern Mahratta railway. It is situated east of the
+Kondavid hills, and is very healthy. It appears to have been founded in
+the 18th century by the French. At the time of the cession of the
+Circars to the English in 1765, Guntur was specially exempted during the
+life of Basalat Jang, whose personal _jagir_ it was. In 1788 it came
+into British possession, the cession being finally confirmed in 1823. It
+has an important trade in cotton, with presses and ginning factories.
+There is a second-grade college supported by the American Lutheran
+Mission. Until 1859, Guntur was the headquarters of a district of the
+same name, and in 1904 a new DISTRICT OF GUNTUR was constituted,
+covering territory which till then had been divided between Kistna and
+Nellore. Area, 5733 sq. m. The population on this area in 1901 was
+1,490,635. The district is bounded on the E. and N. by the river Kistna;
+in the W. a considerable part of the boundary is formed by the
+Gundlakamma river. The greater part consists of a fertile plain
+irrigated by canals from the Kistna, and producing cotton, rice and
+other crops.
+
+
+
+
+GUPTA, an empire and dynasty of northern India, which lasted from about
+A.D. 320 to 480. The dynasty was founded by Chandragupta I., who must
+not be confounded with his famous predecessor Chandragupta Maurya. He
+gave his name to the Gupta era, which continued in use for several
+centuries, dating from the 26th of February, A.D. 320. Chandragupta was
+succeeded by Samudragupta (c. A.D. 326-375), one of the greatest of
+Indian kings, who conquered nearly the whole of India, and whose
+alliances extended from the Oxus to Ceylon; but his name was at one time
+entirely lost to history, and has only been recovered of recent years
+from coins and inscriptions. His empire rivalled that of Asoka,
+extending from the Hugli on the east to the Jumna and Chambal on the
+west, and from the foot of the Himalayas on the north to the Nerbudda on
+the south. His son Chandragupta II. (c. A.D. 375-413) was also known as
+Vikra-Maditya (q.v.), and seems to have been the original of the
+mythical Hindu king of that name. About 388 he conquered the Saka satrap
+of Surashtra (Kathiawar) and penetrated to the Arabian Sea. His
+administration is described in the work of Fa-hien, the earliest Chinese
+pilgrim, who visited India in A.D. 405-411. Pataliputra was the capital
+of the dynasty, but Ajodhya seems to have been sometimes used by both
+Samudragupta and Chandragupta II. as the headquarters of government. The
+Gupta dynasty appears to have fostered a revival of Brahmanism at the
+expense of Buddhism, and to have given an impulse to art and literature.
+The golden age of the empire lasted from A.D. 330 to 455, beginning to
+decline after the latter date. When Skandagupta came to the throne in
+455, India was threatened with an irruption of the White Huns, on whom
+he inflicted a severe defeat, thus saving his kingdom for a time; but
+about 470 the White Huns (see EPHTHALITES) returned to the attack, and
+the empire was gradually destroyed by their repeated inroads. When
+Skandagupta died about 480, the Gupta empire came to an end, but the
+dynasty continued to rule in the eastern provinces for several
+generations. The last known prince of the imperial line of Guptas was
+Kamaragupta II. (c. 535), after whom it passed "by an obscure
+transition" into a dynasty of eleven Gupta princes, known as "the later
+Guptas of Magadha," who seem for the most part to have been merely local
+rulers of Magadha. One of them, however, Adityasena, after the death of
+the paramount sovereign in 648, asserted his independence. The last
+known Gupta king was Jivitagupta II., who reigned early in the 8th
+century. About the middle of the century Magadha passed under the sway
+of the Pal kings of Bengal.
+
+  See J. F. Fleet, _Gupta Inscriptions_ (1888); and Vincent A. Smith,
+  _The Early History of India_ (2nd ed., Oxford, 1908), pp. 264-295.
+
+
+
+
+GURA, EUGEN (1842-1906), German singer, was born near Saatz in Bohemia,
+and educated at first for the career of a painter at Vienna and Munich;
+but later, developing a fine baritone voice, he took up singing and
+studied it at the Munich Conservatorium. In 1865 he made his début at
+the Munich opera, and in the following years he gained the highest
+reputation in Germany, being engaged principally at Leipzig till 1876
+and then at Hamburg till 1883. He sang in 1876 in the _Ring_ at
+Bayreuth, and was famous for his Wagnerian rôles; and his Hans Sachs in
+_Meistersinger_, as performed in London in 1882, was magnificent. In
+later years he showed the perfection of art in his singing of German
+_Lieder_. He died in Bavaria on the 26th of August 1906.
+
+
+
+
+GURDASPUR, a town and district of British India, in the Lahore division
+of the Punjab. The town had a population in 1901 of 5764. It has a fort
+(now containing a Brahman monastery) which was famous for the siege it
+sustained in 1712 from the Moguls. The Sikh leader, Banda, was only
+reduced by starvation, when he and his men were tortured to death after
+capitulating.
+
+The DISTRICT comprises an area of 1889 sq. m. It is bounded on the N. by
+the native states of Kashmir and Chamba, on the E. by Kangra district
+and the river Beas, on the S.W. by Amritsar district, and on the W. by
+Sialkot, and occupies the submontane portion of the Bari Doab, or tract
+between the Beas and the Ravi. An intrusive spur of the British
+dominions runs northward into the lower Himalayan ranges, to include the
+mountain sanatorium of Dalhousie, 7687 ft. above sea-level. This
+station, which has a large fluctuating population during the warmer
+months, crowns the most westerly shoulder of a magnificent snowy range,
+the Dhaoladhar, between which and the plain two minor ranges intervene.
+Below the hills stretches a picturesque and undulating plateau covered
+with abundant timber, made green by a copious rainfall, and watered by
+the streams of the Bari Doab, which, diverted by dams and embankments,
+now empty their waters into the Beas directly, in order that their
+channels may not interfere with the Bari Doab canal. The district
+contains several large _jhils_ or swampy lakes, and is famous for its
+snipe-shooting. It is historically important in connexion with the rise
+of the Sikh confederacy. The whole of the Punjab was then distributed
+among the Sikh chiefs who triumphed over the imperial governors. In the
+course of a few years, however, the maharaja Ranjit Singh acquired all
+the territory which those chiefs had held. Pathankot and the
+neighbouring villages in the plain, together with the whole hill portion
+of the district, formed part of the area ceded by the Sikhs to the
+British after the first Sikh war in 1846. In 1862, after receiving one
+or two additions, the district was brought into its present shape. In
+1901 the population was 940,334, showing a slight decrease, compared
+with an increase of 15% in the previous decade. A branch of the
+North-Western railway runs through the district. The largest town and
+chief commercial centre is Batala. There are important woollen mills at
+Dhariwal, and besides their products the district exports cotton, sugar,
+grain and oil-seeds.
+
+
+
+
+GURGAON, a town and district of British India, in the Delhi division of
+the Punjab. The town (pop. in 1901, 4765) is the headquarters of the
+district, but is otherwise unimportant. The district has an area of 1984
+sq. m. It is bounded on the N. by Rohtak, on the W. and S.W. by portions
+of the Alwar, Nabha and Jind native states, on the S. by the Muttra
+district of the United Provinces, on the E. by the river Jumna and on
+the N.E. by Delhi. It comprises the southernmost corner of the Punjab
+province, stretching away from the level plain towards the hills of
+Rajputana. Two low rocky ranges enter its borders from the south and run
+northward in a bare and unshaded mass toward the plain country. East of
+the western ridge the valley is wide and open, extending to the banks of
+the Jumna. To the west lies the subdivision of Rewari, consisting of a
+sandy plain dotted with isolated hills. Numerous torrents carry off the
+drainage from the upland ranges, and the most important among them empty
+themselves at last into the Najafgarh _jhil_. This swampy lake lies to
+the east of the civil station of Gurgaon, and stretches long arms into
+the neighbouring districts of Delhi and Rohtak. Salt is manufactured in
+wells at several villages. The mineral products are iron ore, copper
+ore, plumbago and ochre.
+
+In 1803 Gurgaon district passed into the hands of the British after Lord
+Lake's conquests. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in May 1857, the nawab
+of Farukhnagar, the principal feudatory of the district, rose in
+rebellion. The Meos and many Rajput families followed his example. A
+faithful native officer preserved the public buildings and records at
+Rewari from destruction; but with this exception, British authority
+became extinguished for a time throughout Gurgaon. After the fall of the
+rebel capital, a force marched into the district and either captured or
+dispersed the leaders of rebellion. The territory of the nawab was
+confiscated on account of his participation in the Mutiny. Civil
+administration was resumed under orders from the Punjab government, to
+which province the district was formally annexed on the final
+pacification of the country. The population in 1901 was 746,208, showing
+an increase of 11% in the decade. The largest town and chief trade
+centre is Rewari. The district is now traversed by several lines of
+railway, and irrigation is provided by the Agra canal. The chief trade
+is in cereals, but hardware is also exported.
+
+
+
+
+GURKHA (pronounced _góorka_; from Sans. _gau_, a cow, and _raks_, to
+protect), the ruling Hindu race in Nepal (q.v.). The Gurkhas, or
+Gurkhalis, claim descent from the rajas of Chitor in Rajputana. When
+driven out of their own country by the Mahommedan invasion, they took
+refuge in the hilly districts about Kumaon, whence they gradually
+invaded the country to the eastward as far as Gurkha, Noakote and
+ultimately to the valley of Nepal and even Sikkim. They were stopped by
+the English in an attempt to push south, and the treaty of Segauli,
+which ended the Gurkha War of 1814, definitely limited their
+territorial growth. The Gurkhas of the present day remain Hindus by
+religion, but show in their appearance a strong admixture of Mongolian
+blood. They make splendid infantry soldiers, and by agreement with their
+government about 20,000 have been recruited for the Gurkha regiments of
+the Indian army. As a rule they are bold, enduring, faithful, frank,
+independent and self-reliant. They despise other Orientals, but admire
+and fraternize with Europeans, whose tastes in sport and war they share.
+They strongly resemble the Japanese, but are of a sturdier build. Their
+national weapon is the _kukri_, a heavy curved knife, which they use for
+every possible purpose.
+
+  See Capt. Eden Vansittart, _Notes on the Gurkhas_ (1898); and P. D.
+  Bonarjee, _The Fighting Races of India_ (1899).
+
+
+
+
+GURNALL, WILLIAM (1617-1679), English author, was born in 1617 at King's
+Lynn, Norfolk. He was educated at the free grammar school of his native
+town, and in 1631 was nominated to the Lynn scholarship in Emmanuel
+College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1635 and M.A. in 1639. He
+was made rector of Lavenham in Suffolk in 1644; and before he received
+that appointment he seems to have officiated, perhaps as curate, at
+Sudbury. At the Restoration he signed the declaration required by the
+Act of Uniformity, and on this account he was the subject of a libellous
+attack, published in 1665, entitled _Covenant-Renouncers Desperate
+Apostates_. He died on the 12th of October 1679. Gurnall is known by his
+_Christian in Complete Armour_, published in three volumes, dated 1655,
+1658 and 1662. It consists of a series of sermons on the latter portion
+of the 6th chapter of Ephesians, and is described as a "magazine from
+whence the Christian is furnished with spiritual arms for the battle,
+helped on with his armour, and taught the use of his weapon; together
+with the happy issue of the whole war." The work is more practical than
+theological; and its quaint fancy, graphic and pointed style, and its
+fervent religious tone render it still popular with some readers.
+
+  See also _An Inquiry into the Life of the Rev. W. Gurnall_, by H.
+  M'Keon (1830), and a biographical introduction by Bishop Ryle to the
+  _Christian in Complete Armour_ (1865).
+
+
+
+
+GURNARD (_Trigla_), a genus of fishes forming a group of the family of
+"mailed cheeks" (_Triglidae_), and easily recognized by three detached
+finger-like appendages in front of the pectoral fins, and by their
+large, angular, bony head, the sides of which are protected by strong,
+hard and rough bones. The pectoral appendages are provided with strong
+nerves, and serve not only as organs of locomotion when the fish moves
+on the bottom, but also as organs of touch, by which it detects small
+animals on which it feeds. Gurnards are coast-fishes, generally
+distributed over the tropical and temperate areas; of the forty species
+known six occur on the coast of Great Britain, viz. the red gurnard (_T.
+pini_), the streaked gurnard (_T. lineata_), the sapphirine gurnard (_T.
+hirundo_), the grey gurnard (_T. gurnardus_), the piper (_T. lyra_) and
+the long-finned gurnard (_T. obscura_ or _T. lucerna_). Although never
+found very far from the coast, gurnards descend to depths of several
+hundred fathoms; and as they are bottom-fish they are caught chiefly by
+means of the trawl. Not rarely, however, they may be seen floating on
+the surface of the water, with their broad, finely coloured pectoral
+fins spread out like fans. In very young fishes, which abound in certain
+localities on the coast in the months of August and September, the
+pectorals are comparatively much longer than in the adult, extending to
+the end of the body; they are beautifully coloured and kept expanded,
+the little fishes looking like butterflies. When caught and taken out of
+the water, gurnards emit a grunting noise, which is produced by the
+vibrations of a diaphragm situated transversely across the cavity of the
+bladder and perforated in the centre. This grunting noise gave rise to
+the name "gurnard," which is probably an adaptation or variation of the
+Fr. _grognard_, grumbler, cf. the Fr. _grondin_, gurnard, from
+_gronder_, and Ger. _Knurrfisch_. Their flesh is very white, firm and
+wholesome.
+
+[Illustration: _Trigla pleuracanthica_.]
+
+
+
+
+GURNEY, the name of a philanthropic English family of bankers and
+merchants, direct descendants of Hugh de Gournay, lord of Gournay, one
+of the Norman noblemen who accompanied William the Conqueror to England.
+Large grants of land were made to Hugh de Gournay in Norfolk and
+Suffolk, and Norwich has since that time been the headquarters of the
+family, the majority of whom were Quakers. Here in 1770 the brothers
+John and Henry Gurney founded a banking-house, the business passing in
+1779 to Henry's son, Bartlett Gurney. On the death of Bartlett Gurney in
+1802 the bank became the property of his three cousins, of whom JOHN
+GURNEY (1750-1809) was the most remarkable. One of his daughters was
+Elizabeth Fry; another married Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton. Of his sons one
+was Joseph JOHN GURNEY (1788-1847), a well-known philanthropist of the
+day; another, SAMUEL GURNEY (1786-1856) assumed on his father's death
+the control of the Norwich bank. Samuel Gurney also took over about the
+same time the control of the London bill-broking business of Richardson,
+Overend & Company, in which he was already a partner. This business had
+been founded in 1800 by Thomas Richardson, clerk to a London
+bill-discounter, and John Overend, chief clerk in the bank of Smith,
+Payne & Company at Nottingham, the Gurneys supplying the capital. At
+that time bill-discounting was carried on in a spasmodic fashion by the
+ordinary merchant in addition to his regular business, but Richardson
+considered that there was room for a London house which should devote
+itself entirely to the trade in bills. This, at that time, novel idea
+proved an instant success. The title of the firm was subsequently
+changed to Overend, Gurney & Company, and for forty years it was the
+greatest discounting-house in the world. During the financial crisis of
+1825 Overend, Gurney & Company were able to make short loans to many
+other bankers. The house indeed became known as "the bankers' banker,"
+and secured many of the previous clients of the Bank of England. Samuel
+Gurney died in 1856. He was a man of very charitable disposition, and
+during the latter years of his life charitable and philanthropic
+undertakings almost monopolized his attention. In 1865 the business of
+Overend, Gurney & Company, which had come under less competent control,
+was converted into a joint stock company, but in 1866 the firm suspended
+payment with liabilities amounting to eleven millions sterling.
+
+
+
+
+GURNEY, EDMUND (1847-1888), English psychologist, was born at Hersham,
+near Walton-on-Thames, on the 23rd of March 1847. He was educated at
+Blackheath and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took a high place
+in the classical tripos and obtained a fellowship. His work for the
+schools was done, says his friend F. W. H. Myers, "in the intervals of
+his practice on the piano." Dissatisfied with his own executive skill as
+a musician, he wrote _The Power of Sound_ (1880), an essay on the
+philosophy of music. He then studied medicine with no intention of
+practising, devoting himself to physics, chemistry and physiology. In
+1880 he passed the second M.B. Cambridge examination in the science of
+the healing profession. These studies, and his great logical powers and
+patience in the investigation of evidence, he devoted to that outlying
+field of psychology which is called "Psychical Research." He asked
+whether, as universal tradition declares, there is an unexplored region
+of human faculty transcending the normal limitations of sensible
+knowledge. That there is such a region it was part of the system of
+Hegel to declare, and the subject had been metaphysically treated by
+Hartmann, Schopenhauer, Du Prel, Hamilton and others, as the philosophy
+of the Unconscious or Subconscious. But Gurney's purpose was to
+approach the subject by observation and experiment, especially in the
+hypnotic field, whereas vague and ill-attested anecdotes had hitherto
+been the staple of the evidence of metaphysicians. The tendency of his
+mind was to investigate whatever facts may give a colour of truth to the
+ancient belief in the persistence of the conscious human personality
+after the death of the body. Like Joseph Glanvill's, the natural bent of
+Gurney's mind was sceptical. Both thought the current and traditional
+reports of supernormal occurrences suggestive and worth investigating by
+the ordinary methods of scientific observation, and inquisition into
+evidence at first hand. But the method of Gurney was, of course, much
+more strict than that of the author of _Sadducismus Triumphatus_, and it
+included hypnotic and other experiments unknown to Glanvill. Gurney
+began at what he later saw was the wrong end by studying, with Myers,
+the "séances" of professed spiritualistic "mediums" (1874-1878). Little
+but detection of imposture came of this, but an impression was left that
+the subject ought not to be abandoned. In 1882 the Society for Psychical
+Research was founded. (See PSYCHICAL RESEARCH.) Paid mediums were
+discarded, at least for the time, and experiments were made in
+"thought-transference" and hypnotism. Personal evidence as to uninduced
+hallucinations was also collected. The first results are embodied in the
+volumes of _Phantasms of the Living_, a vast collection (Podmore, Myers
+and Gurney), and in Gurney's remarkable essay, _Hallucinations_. The
+chief consequence was to furnish evidence for the process called
+"telepathy," involving the provisional hypothesis that one human mind
+can affect another through no recognized channel of sense. The fact was
+supposed to be established by the experiments chronicled in the
+_Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research_, and it was argued
+that similar experiences occurred spontaneously, as, for example, in the
+many recorded instances of "deathbed wraiths" among civilized and savage
+races. (Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, i. chapter xi., especially pp.
+449-450, 1873. Lang, _Making of Religion_, pp. 120-124, 1898.) The dying
+man is supposed to convey the hallucination of his presence as one
+living person experimentally conveys his thought to another, by
+"thought-transference." Gurney's hypnotic experiments, marked by great
+exactness, patience and ingenuity, were undertaken in 1885-1888. Their
+tendency was, in Myers's words, "to prove--so far as any one operator's
+experience in this protean subject can be held to prove anything--that
+there is sometimes, in the induction of hypnotic phenomena, some agency
+at work which is neither ordinary nervous stimulation (monotonous or
+sudden) nor suggestion conveyed by any ordinary channel to the subject's
+mind." These results, if accepted, of course corroborate the idea of
+telepathy. (See Gurney, "Hypnotism and Telepathy," _Proceedings S. P.
+R._ vol. iv.) Experiments by MM. Gibert, Janet, Richet, Héricourt and
+others are cited as tending in the same direction. Other experiments
+dealt with "the relation of the memory in the hypnotic state to the
+memory in another hypnotic state, and of both to the normal or waking
+memory." The result of Gurney's labours, cut short by his early death,
+was to raise and strengthen the presumption that there exists an
+unexplored region of human faculty which ought not to be neglected by
+science as if the belief in it were a mere survival of savage
+superstition. Rather, it appears to have furnished the experiences
+which, misinterpreted, are expressed in traditional beliefs. That Gurney
+was credulous and easily imposed upon those who knew him, and knew his
+penetrating humour, cannot admit; nor is the theory likely to be
+maintained by those whom bias does not prevent from studying with care
+his writings. In controversy "he delighted in replying with easy
+courtesy to attacks envenomed with that _odium plus quam theologicum_
+which the very allusion to a ghost or the human soul seems in some
+philosophers to inspire." In discussion of themes unpopular and obscure
+Gurney displayed the highest tact, patience, good temper, humour and
+acuteness. There never was a more disinterested student. In addition to
+his work on music and his psychological writings, he was the author of
+_Tertium Quid_ (1887), a collection of essays, on the whole a protest
+against one-sided ideas and methods of discussion. He died at Brighton
+on 23rd June 1888, from the effects of an overdose of narcotic medicine.
+     (A. L.)
+
+
+
+
+GURWOOD, JOHN (1790-1845), British soldier, began his career in a
+merchant's office, but soon obtained an ensigncy in the 52nd (1808).
+With his regiment he served in the "Light Division" of Wellington's army
+throughout the earlier Peninsular campaigns, and at Ciudad Rodrigo (19th
+Jan. 1812) he led one of the forlorn hopes and was severely wounded. For
+his gallant conduct on this occasion Wellington presented Gurwood with
+the sword of the French governor of Ciudad Rodrigo. A little later,
+transferring to the 9th Light Dragoons, he was made brigade-major to the
+Guards' cavalry which had just arrived in the Peninsula. In the latter
+part of the war he served as brigade-major to Lambert's brigade of the
+sixth infantry division, and was present at the various actions in which
+that division played a conspicuous part--the Nivelle, the Nive, Orthes
+and Toulouse. At Waterloo Captain Gurwood was for the third time
+severely wounded. In the first twelve years of the peace he was promoted
+up to the grade of lieut.-colonel, and in 1841 became brevet-colonel. He
+was for many years the duke of Wellington's private secretary, and was
+entrusted by him with the collection and editing of the _Wellington
+Despatches_, which occupied Gurwood from 1837 to the end of his life.
+This work is a monument of industrious skill, and earned its author a
+Civil List Pension of £200. But overwork and the effects of his wounds
+had broken his health, and he committed suicide on Christmas day 1845.
+He was a C.B. and deputy-lieutenant of the Tower.
+
+
+
+
+GUSLA, or GUSLI, an ancient stringed instrument still in use among the
+Slavonic races. The modern Servian gusla is a kind of tanbur (see
+Pandura), consisting of a round, concave body covered with a parchment
+soundboard; there is but one horse-hair string, and the peg for tuning
+it is inserted in oriental fashion in the back of the head. The gusla is
+played with a primitive bow called _goudalo_. The _gouslars_ or blind
+bards of Servia and Croatia use it to accompany their chants. C. G.
+Anton[1] mentions an instrument of that name in the shape of a half-moon
+strung with eighteen strings in use among the Tatars. Prosper Merimée[2]
+has taken the _gusla_ as the title for a book of Servian poems, which
+are supposed to have been collected by him among the peasants, but which
+are thought to have been inspired by the _Viaggio in Dalmazia_ of
+Albarto Fortis.
+
+Among the Russians, the gusli is an instrument of a different type, a
+kind of psaltery having five or more strings stretched across a flat,
+shallow sound-chest in the shape of a wing. In the gusli the strings, of
+graduated length, are attached to little nails or pins at one end, and
+at the other they are wound over a rod having screw attachments for
+increasing and slackening the tension. There is no bridge to determine
+the vibrating length of the strings. The body of the instrument is
+shaped roughly like the tail of the grand piano, following the line of
+the strings; the longest being at the left of the instrument. Matthew
+Guthrie gives an illustration of the gusli.[3]     (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Erste Linien eines Versuchs über den Ursprung der alten Slaven_
+    (Leipzig, 1783-1789), p. 145.
+
+  [2] _La Guzla, ou choix de poésies lyriques recueillies dans la
+    Dalmatie, la Bosnie, la Croatie, &c._ (Paris, 1827).
+
+  [3] _Dissertations sur les antiquités de Russie_ (St Petersburg,
+    1795), pl. ii. No. 9, p. 31.
+
+
+
+
+GUSTAVUS I. ERIKSSON (1496-1560), king of Sweden, was born at his
+mother's estate at Lindholm on Ascension Day 1496. He came of a family
+which had shone conspicuously in 15th-century politics, though it
+generally took the anti-national side. His father, Erik Johansson of
+Rydboholm, "a merry and jocose gentleman," but, like all the Swedish
+Vasas, liable to sudden fierce gusts of temper, was one of the senators
+who voted for the deposition of Archbishop Trolle, at the _riksdag_ of
+1517 (see SWEDEN, _History_), for which act of patriotism he lost his
+head. Gustavus's mother, Cecilia Månsdåtter, was closely connected by
+marriage with the great Sture family. Gustavus's youthful experiences
+impressed him with a life-long distrust of everything Danish. In his
+eighteenth year he was sent to the court of his cousin Sten Sture. At
+the battle of Brännkyrka, when Sture defeated Christian II. of Denmark,
+the young Gustavus bore the governor's standard, and in the same year
+(1518) he was delivered with five other noble youths as a hostage to
+King Christian, who treacherously carried him prisoner to Denmark. He
+was detained for twelve months in the island fortress of Kalö, on the
+east coast of Jutland, but contrived to escape to Lübeck in September
+1519. There he found an asylum till the 20th of May 1520, when he
+chartered a ship to Kalmar, one of the few Swedish fortresses which held
+out against Christian II.
+
+It was while hunting near Lake Mälar that the news of the Stockholm
+massacre was brought to him by a peasant fresh from the capital, who
+told him, at the same time, that a price had been set upon his head. In
+his extremity, Gustavus saw only one way of deliverance, an appeal for
+help to the sturdy yeomen of the dales. How the dalesmen set Gustavus on
+the throne and how he and they finally drove the Danes out of Sweden
+(1521-1523) is elsewhere recorded (see SWEDEN: _History_). But his worst
+troubles only began after his coronation on the 6th of June 1523. The
+financial position of the crown was the most important of all the
+problems demanding solution, for upon that everything else depended. By
+releasing his country from the tyranny of Denmark, Gustavus had made the
+free independent development of Sweden a possibility. It was for him to
+realize that possibility. First of all, order had to be evolved from the
+chaos in which Sweden had been plunged by the disruption of the Union;
+and the shortest, perhaps the only, way thereto was to restore the royal
+authority, which had been in abeyance during ninety years. But an
+effective reforming monarchy must stand upon a sound financial basis;
+and the usual revenues of the crown, always inadequate, were so
+diminished that they did not cover half the daily expenses of
+government. New taxes could only be imposed with extreme caution, while
+the country was still bleeding from the wounds of a long war. And men
+were wanted even more than money. The lack of capable, trustworthy
+administrators in Sweden was grievous. The whole burden of government
+weighed exclusively on the shoulders of the new king, a young man of
+seven and twenty. Half his time was taken up in travelling from one end
+of the kingdom to the other, and doing purely clerical work for want of
+competent assistance. We can form some idea of his difficulties when we
+learn that, in 1533, he could not send an ambassador to Lübeck because
+not a single man in his council, except himself, knew German. It was
+this lack of native talent which compelled Gustavus frequently to employ
+the services of foreign adventurers like Berent von Mehlen, John von
+Hoja, Konrad von Pyhy and others.
+
+It was not the least of Gustavus's many anxieties that he had constantly
+to be on the watch lest a formidable democratic rival should encroach on
+his prerogative. That rival was the Swedish peasantry. He succeeded
+indeed in putting down the four formidable rebellions which convulsed
+the realm from 1525 to 1542, but the consequent strain upon his
+resources was very damaging, and more than once he was on the point of
+abdicating and emigrating, out of sheer weariness. Moreover he was in
+constant fear of the Danes. Necessity compelled him indeed (1534-1536)
+to take part in _Grevens fejde_ (Counts' War) (see DENMARK, _History_),
+as the ally of Christian III., but his exaggerated distrust of the Danes
+was invincible. "We advise and exhort you," he wrote to the governor of
+Kalmar, "to put no hope or trust in the Danes, or in their sweet
+scribbling, inasmuch as they mean nothing at all by it except how best
+they may deceive and betray us Swedes." Such instructions were not
+calculated to promote confidence between Swedish and Danish negotiators.
+A fresh cause of dispute was generated in 1548, when Christian III.'s
+daughter was wedded to Duke Augustus of Saxony. On that occasion,
+apparently by way of protest against the decree of the diet of Vesterås
+(15th of January 1544), declaring the Swedish crown hereditary in
+Gustavus's family, the Danish king caused to be quartered on his
+daughter's shield not only the three Danish lions and the Norwegian lion
+with the axe of St Olaf, but also "the three crowns" of Sweden.
+Gustavus, naturally suspicious, was much perturbed by the innovation,
+and warned all his border officials to be watchful and prepare for the
+worst. In 1557 he even wrote to the Danish king protesting against the
+placing of "the three crowns" in the royal Danish seal beneath the arms
+of Denmark. Christian III. replied that "the three crowns" signified not
+Sweden in especial, but the three Scandinavian kingdoms, and that their
+insertion in the Danish shield was only a reminiscence of the union of
+Kalmar. But Gustavus was not satisfied, and this was the beginning of
+"the three crowns" dispute which did so much damage to both kingdoms.
+
+The events which led to the rupture of Gustavus with the Holy See are
+set forth in the proper place (see SWEDEN: _History_). Here it need only
+be added that it was a purely political act, as Gustavus, personally,
+had no strong dogmatic leanings either way. He not unnaturally expressed
+his amazement when that very juvenile reformer Olavus Petri confidently
+informed him that the pope was antichrist. He consulted the older and
+graver Laurentius Andreae, who told him how "Doctor Martinus had clipped
+the wings of the pope, the cardinals and the big bishops," which could
+not fail to be pleasing intelligence to a monarch who was never an
+admirer of episcopacy, while the rich revenues of the church,
+accumulated in the course of centuries, were a tempting object to the
+impecunious ruler of an impoverished people. Subsequently, when the
+Protestant hierarchy was forcibly established in Sweden, matters were
+much complicated by the absolutist tendencies of Gustavus. The incessant
+labour, the constant anxiety, which were the daily portion of Gustavus
+Vasa during the seven and thirty years of his reign, told at last even
+upon his magnificent constitution. In the spring of 1560, conscious of
+an ominous decline of his powers, Gustavus summoned his last diet, to
+give an account of his stewardship. On the 16th of June 1560 the
+assembly met at Stockholm. Ten days later, supported by his sons,
+Gustavus greeted the estates in the great hall of the palace, when he
+took a retrospect of his reign, reminding them of the misery of the
+kingdom during the union and its deliverance from "that unkind tyrant,
+King Christian." Four days later the diet passed a resolution confirming
+the hereditary right of Gustavus's son, Prince Eric, to the throne. The
+old king's last anxieties were now over and he could die in peace. He
+expired on the 29th of September 1560.
+
+Gustavus was thrice married. His first wife, Catherine, daughter of
+Magnus I., duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, bore him in 1533 his eldest son Eric.
+This union was neither long nor happy, but the blame for its infelicity
+is generally attributed to the lady, whose abnormal character was
+reflected and accentuated in her unhappy son. Much more fortunate was
+Gustavus's second marriage, a year after the death of his first consort,
+with his own countrywoman, Margaret Lejonhufvud, who bore him five sons
+and five daughters, of whom three sons, John, Magnus and Charles, and
+one daughter, Cecilia, survived their childhood. Queen Margaret died in
+1551; and a twelvemonth later Gustavus wedded her niece, Catharine
+Stenbock, a handsome girl of sixteen, who survived him more than sixty
+years.
+
+Gustavus's outward appearance in the prime of life is thus described by
+a contemporary: "He was of the middle height, with a round head, light
+yellow hair, a fine long beard, sharp eyes, a ruddy countenance ... and
+a body as fitly and well proportioned as any painter could have painted
+it. He was of a sanguine-choleric temperament, and when untroubled and
+unvexed, a bright and cheerful gentleman, easy to get on with, and
+however many people happened to be in the same room with him, he was
+never at a loss for an answer to every one of them." Learned he was not,
+but he had naturally bright and clear understanding, an unusually good
+memory, and a marvellous capacity for taking pains. He was also very
+devout, and his morals were irreproachable. On the other hand, Gustavus
+had his full share of the family failings of irritability and
+suspiciousness, the latter quality becoming almost morbid under the
+pressure of adverse circumstances. His energy too not infrequently
+degenerated into violence, and when crossed he was apt to be tyrannical.
+
+  See A. Alberg, _Gustavus Vasa and his Times_ (London, 1882); R. N.
+  Bain, _Scandinavia_, chaps. iii. and v. (Cambridge, 1905); P. B.
+  Watson, _The Swedish Revolution under Gustavus Vasa_ (London, 1889);
+  O. Sjögren, _Gustaf Vasa_ (Stockholm, 1896); C. M. Butler, _The
+  Reformation in Sweden_ (New York, 1883); _Sveriges Historia_
+  (Stockholm, 1877-1881); J. Weidling, _Schwedische Geschichte im
+  Zeitalter der Reformation_ (Gotha, 1882).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GUSTAVUS II. ADOLPHUS (1594-1632), king of Sweden, the eldest son of
+Charles IX. and of Christina, daughter of Adolphus, duke of
+Holstein-Gottorp, was born at Stockholm castle on the 9th of December
+1594. From the first he was carefully nurtured to be the future prop of
+Protestantism by his austere parents. Gustavus was well grounded in the
+classics, and his linguistic accomplishments were extraordinary. He may
+be said to have grown up with two mother-tongues, Swedish and German; at
+twelve he had mastered Latin, Italian and Dutch; and he learnt
+subsequently to express himself in Spanish, Russian and Polish. But his
+practical father took care that he should grow up a prince, not a
+pedant. So early as his ninth year he was introduced to public life; at
+thirteen he received petitions and conversed officially with the foreign
+ministers; at fifteen he administered his duchy of Vestmanland and
+opened the Örebro diet with a speech from the throne; indeed from 1610
+he may be regarded as his father's co-regent. In all martial and
+chivalrous accomplishments he was already an adept; and when, a year
+later, he succeeded to supreme power, his superior ability was as
+uncontested as it was incontestable.
+
+The first act of the young king was to terminate the fratricidal
+struggle with Denmark by the peace of Knäred (28th of January 1613).
+Simultaneously, another war, also an heritage from Charles IX., had been
+proceeding in the far distant regions round lakes Ilmen, Peipus and
+Ladoga, with Great Novgorod as its centre. It was not, however, like the
+Danish War, a national danger, but a political speculation meant to be
+remunerative and compensatory, and was concluded very advantageously for
+Sweden by the peace of Stolbova on the 27th of February 1617 (see
+SWEDEN: _History_). By this peace Gustavus succeeded in excluding
+Muscovy from the Baltic. "I hope to God," he declared to the Stockholm
+diet in 1617, when he announced the conclusion of peace, "that the
+Russians will feel it a bit difficult to skip over _that_ little brook."
+The war with Poland which Gustavus resumed in 1621 was a much more
+difficult affair. It began with an attack upon Riga as the first step
+towards conquering Livonia. Riga was invested on the 13th of August and
+surrendered on the 15th of September; on the 3rd of October Mitau was
+occupied; but so great were the ravages of sickness during the campaign
+that the Swedish army had to be reinforced by no fewer than 10,000 men.
+A truce was thereupon concluded and hostilities were suspended till the
+summer of 1625, in the course of which Gustavus took Kokenhusen and
+invaded Lithuania. In January 1626 he attacked the Poles at Walhof and
+scattered the whole of their army after slaying a fifth part of it. This
+victory, remarkable besides as Gustavus's first pitched battle,
+completed the conquest of Livonia. As, however, it became every year
+more difficult to support an army in the Dvina district, Gustavus now
+resolved to transfer the war to the Prussian provinces of Poland with a
+view to securing the control of the Vistula, as he had already secured
+the control of the Dvina. At the end of 1626, the Swedish fleet, with
+14,000 men on board, anchored in front of the chain of sand-dunes which
+separates the Frische-Haff from the Baltic. Pillau, the only Baltic port
+then accessible to ships of war, was at once occupied, and Königsberg
+shortly afterwards was scared into an unconditional neutrality. July was
+passed in conquering the bishopric of Ermeland. The surrender of Elbing
+and Marienburg placed Gustavus in possession of the fertile and easily
+defensible delta of the Vistula, which he treated as a permanent
+conquest, making Axel Oxenstjerna its first governor-general.
+Communications between Danzig and the sea were cut off by the erection
+of the first of Gustavus's famous entrenched camps at Dirschau. From the
+end of August 1626 the city was blockaded, and in the meantime Polish
+irregulars, under the capable Stanislaus Koniecpolski, began to harass
+the Swedes. But the object of the campaign, a convenient basis of
+operations, was won; and in October the king departed to Sweden to get
+reinforcements. He returned in May 1627 with 7000 men, which raised his
+forces to 14,000, against which Koniecpolski could only oppose 9000.
+But his superior strategy frustrated all the efforts of the Swedish
+king, who in the course of the year was twice dangerously wounded and so
+disabled that he could never wear armour again. Gustavus had made
+extensive preparations for the ensuing campaign and took the field with
+32,000 men. But once again, though far outnumbered, and unsupported by
+his own government, the Polish grand-hetman proved more than a match for
+Gustavus, who, on the 10th of September, broke up his camp and returned
+to Prussia; the whole autumn campaign had proved a failure and cost him
+5000 men. During the ensuing campaign of 1629 Gustavus had to contend
+against the combined forces of Koniecpolski and 10,000 of Wallenstein's
+mercenaries. The Polish commander now showed the Swedes what he could do
+with adequate forces. At Stuhm, on the 29th of June, he defeated
+Gustavus, who lost most of his artillery and narrowly escaped capture.
+The result of the campaign was the conclusion of the six years' truce of
+Altmark, which was very advantageous to Sweden.
+
+And now Gustavus turned his attention to Germany. The motives which
+induced the Swedish king to intervene directly in the Thirty Years' War
+are told us by himself in his correspondence with Oxenstjerna. Here he
+says plainly that it was the fear lest the emperor should acquire the
+Baltic ports and proceed to build up a sea-power dangerous to
+Scandinavia. For the same reason, the king rejected the chancellor's
+alternative of waging a simply defensive war against the emperor by
+means of the fleet, with Stralsund as his base. He was convinced by the
+experience of Christian IV. of Denmark that the enemies' harbours could
+be wrested from them only by a successful offensive war on land; and,
+while quite alive to the risks of such an enterprise in the face of two
+large armies, Tilly's and Wallenstein's, each of them larger than his
+own, he argued that the vast extent of territory and the numerous
+garrisons which the enemy was obliged to maintain, more than neutralized
+his numerical superiority. Merely to blockade all the German ports with
+the Swedish fleet was equally impossible. The Swedish fleet was too weak
+for that; it would be safer to take and fortify the pick of them. In
+Germany itself, if he once got the upper hand, he would not find himself
+without resources. It is no enthusiastic crusader, but an anxious and
+farseeing if somewhat speculative statesman who thus opens his mind to
+us. No doubt religious considerations largely influenced Gustavus. He
+had the deepest sympathy for his fellow-Protestants in Germany; he
+regarded them as God's peculiar people, himself as their divinely
+appointed deliverer. But his first duty was to Sweden; and, naturally
+and rightly, he viewed the whole business from a predominantly Swedish
+point of view. Lutherans and Calvinists were to be delivered from a
+"soul-crushing tyranny"; but they were to be delivered by a foreign if
+friendly power; and that power claimed as her reward the hegemony of
+Protestant Europe and all the political privileges belonging to that
+exalted position.
+
+On the 19th of May 1630 Gustavus solemnly took leave of the estates of
+the realm assembled at Stockholm. He appeared before them holding in his
+arms his only child and heiress, the little princess Christina, then in
+her fourth year, and tenderly committed her to the care of his loyal and
+devoted people. Then he solemnly took the estates to witness, as he
+stood there "in the sight of the Almighty," that he had begun
+hostilities "out of no lust for war, as many will certainly devise and
+imagine," but in self-defence and to deliver his fellow-Christians from
+oppression. On the 7th of June 1630 the Swedish fleet set sail, and two
+days after midsummer day, the whole army, 16,000 strong, was disembarked
+at Peenemünde. Gustavus's plan was to take possession of the mouths of
+the Oder Haff, and, resting upon Stralsund in the west and Prussia in
+the east, penetrate into Germany. In those days rivers were what
+railways now are, the great military routes; and Gustavus's German war
+was a war waged along river lines. The opening campaign was to be fought
+along the line of the Oder. Stettin, the capital of Pomerania, and the
+key of the Oder line, was occupied and converted into a first-class
+fortress. He then proceeded to clear Pomerania of the piebald imperial
+host composed of every nationality under heaven, and officered by
+Italians, Irishmen, Czechs, Croats, Danes, Spaniards and Walloons.
+Gustavus's army has often been described by German historians as an army
+of foreign invaders; in reality it was far more truly Teutonic than the
+official defenders of Germany at that period. Gustavus's political
+difficulties (see SWEDEN: _History_) chained him to his camp for the
+remainder of the year. But the dismissal of Wallenstein and the
+declaration in Gustavus's favour of Magdeburg, the greatest city in the
+Lower Saxon Circle, and strategically the strongest fortress of North
+Germany, encouraged him to advance boldly. But first, honour as well as
+expediency moved him to attempt to relieve Magdeburg, now closely
+invested by the imperialists, especially as his hands had now been
+considerably strengthened by a definite alliance with France (treaty of
+Bärwalde, 13th of January 1631). Magdeburg, therefore, became the focus
+of the whole campaign of 1631; but the obstructive timidity of the
+electors of Brandenburg and Saxony threw insuperable obstacles in his
+way, and, on the very day when John George I. of Saxony closed his gates
+against Gustavus the most populous and prosperous city in North Germany
+became a heap of smoking ruins (20th of May). Gustavus, still too weak
+to meet the foe, entrenched himself at Werben, at the confluence of the
+Havel and Elbe. Only on the 12th of September did the elector of Saxony,
+alarmed for the safety of his own states, now invaded by the emperor,
+place himself absolutely at the disposal of Gustavus; and, five days
+later, at the head of the combined Swedish-Saxon army, though the Swedes
+did all the fighting, Gustavus routed Tilly at the famous battle of
+Breitenfeld, north of Leipzig.
+
+The question now was: In what way should Gustavus utilize his advantage?
+Should he invade the Austrian crown lands, and dictate peace to
+Ferdinand II. at the gates of Vienna? Or should he pursue Tilly
+westwards and crush the league at its own hearth and home? Oxenstjerna
+was the first alternative, but Gustavus decided in favour of the second.
+His decision has been greatly blamed. More than one modern historian has
+argued that if Gustavus had done in 1631 what Napoleon did in 1805 and
+1809, there would have been a fifteen instead of a thirty years' war.
+But it should be borne in mind that, in the days of Gustavus, Vienna was
+by no means so essential to the existence of the Habsburg monarchy as it
+was in the days of Napoleon; and even Gustavus could not allow so
+dangerous an opponent as Tilly time to recover himself. Accordingly, he
+set out for the Rhine, taking Marienberg and Frankfort on his way, and
+on the 20th of December entered Mainz, where he remained throughout the
+winter of 1631-1632. At the beginning of 1632, in order to bring about
+the general peace he so earnestly desired, he proposed to take the field
+with an overwhelming numerical majority. The signal for Gustavus to
+break up from the Rhine was the sudden advance of Tilly from behind the
+Danube. Gustavus pursued Tilly into Bavaria, forced the passage of the
+Danube at Donauwörth and the passage of the Lech, in the face of Tilly's
+strongly entrenched camp at Rain, and pursued the flying foe to the
+fortress of Ingolstadt where Tilly died of his wounds a fortnight later.
+Gustavus then liberated and garrisoned the long-oppressed Protestant
+cities of Augsburg and Ulm, and in May occupied Munich. The same week
+Wallenstein chased John George from Prague and manoeuvred the Saxons
+out of Bohemia. Then, armed as he was with plenipotentiary power, he
+offered the elector of Saxony peace on his own terms. Gustavus suddenly
+saw himself exposed to extreme peril. If Tilly had made John George such
+an offer as Wallenstein was now empowered to make, the elector would
+never have become Gustavus's ally; would he remain Gustavus's ally now?
+Hastily quitting his quarters in Upper Swabia, Gustavus hastened towards
+Nuremberg on his way to Saxony, but finding that Wallenstein and
+Maximilian of Bavaria had united their forces, he abandoned the attempt
+to reach Saxony, and both armies confronted each other at Nuremberg
+which furnished Gustavus with a point of support of the first order. He
+quickly converted the town into an entrenched and fortified camp.
+Wallenstein followed the king's example, and entrenched himself on the
+western bank of the Regnitz in a camp twelve English miles in
+circumference. His object was to pin Gustavus fast to Nuremberg and cut
+off his retreat northwards. Throughout July and August the two armies
+faced each other immovably. On the 24th of August, after an unsuccessful
+attempt to storm Alte Veste, the key of Wallenstein's position, the
+Swedish host retired southwards.
+
+Towards the end of October, Wallenstein, after devastating Saxony, was
+preparing to go into winter quarters at Lützen, when the king surprised
+him as he was crossing the Rippach (1st of November) and a rearguard
+action favourable to the Swedes ensued. Indeed, but for nightfall,
+Wallenstein's scattered forces might have been routed. During the night,
+however, Wallenstein re-collected his host for a decisive action, and at
+daybreak on the 6th of November, while an autumn mist still lay over the
+field, the battle began. It was obviously Gustavus's plan to drive
+Wallenstein away from the Leipzig road, north of which he had posted
+himself, and thus, in case of success, to isolate, and subsequently,
+with the aid of the Saxons in the Elbe fortresses, annihilate him. The
+king, on the Swedish right wing, succeeded in driving the enemy from the
+trenches and capturing his cannon. What happened after that is mere
+conjecture, for a thick mist now obscured the autumn sun, and the battle
+became a colossal mêlée the details of which are indistinguishable. It
+was in the midst of that awful obscurity that Gustavus met his
+death--how or where is not absolutely certain; but it would seem that he
+lost his way in the darkness while leading the Småland horse to the
+assistance of his infantry, and was despatched as he lay severely
+wounded on the ground by a hostile horseman.
+
+By his wife, Marie Eleonora, a sister of the elector of Brandenburg,
+whom he married in 1620, Gustavus Adolphus had one daughter, Christina,
+who succeeded him on the throne of Sweden.
+
+  See _Sveriges Historia_ (Stockholm, 1877, 81), vol. iv.; A.
+  Oxenstjerna, _Skrifter och Brefvexling_ (Stockholm, 1900, &c.); G.
+  Björlen, _Gustaf Adolf_ (Stockholm, 1890); R. N. Bain, _Scandinavia_
+  (Cambridge, 1905); C. R. L. Fletcher, _Gustavus Adolphus_ (London,
+  1892); J. L. Stevens, _History of Gustavus Adolphus_ (London, 1885);
+  J. Mankell, _Om Gustaf II. Adolfs politik_ (Stockholm, 1881); E.
+  Bluemel, _Gustav Adolf, König von Schweden_ (Eisleben, 1894); A.
+  Rydfors, _De diplomatiska förbindelserna mellan Sverige och England
+  1624-1630_ (Upsala, 1890).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GUSTAVUS III. (1746-1792), king of Sweden, was the eldest son of
+Adolphus Frederick, king of Sweden, and Louisa Ulrica of Prussia, sister
+of Frederick the Great, and was born on the 24th of January 1746.
+Gustavus was educated under the care of two governors who were amongst
+the most eminent Swedish statesmen of the day, Carl Gustaf Tessin and
+Carl Scheffer; but he owed most perhaps to the poet and historian Olof
+von Dalin. The interference of the state with his education, when he was
+quite a child, was, however, doubly harmful, as his parents taught him
+to despise the preceptors imposed upon him by the diet, and the
+atmosphere of intrigue and duplicity in which he grew up made him
+precociously experienced in the art of dissimulation. But even his most
+hostile teachers were amazed by the brilliance of his natural gifts,
+and, while still a boy, he possessed that charm of manner which was to
+make him so fascinating and so dangerous in later life, coupled with the
+strong dramatic instinct which won for him his honourable place in
+Swedish literature. On the whole, Gustavus cannot be said to have been
+well educated, but he read very widely; there was scarce a French author
+of his day with whose works he was not intimately acquainted; while his
+enthusiasm for the new French ideas of enlightenment was as sincere as,
+if more critical than, his mother's. On the 4th of November 1766,
+Gustavus married Sophia Magdalena, daughter of Frederick V. of Denmark.
+The match was an unhappy one, owing partly to incompatibility of temper,
+but still more to the mischievous interference of the jealous
+queen-mother.
+
+Gustavus first intervened actively in politics in 1768, at the time of
+his father's interregnum, when he compelled the dominant Cap faction to
+summon an extraordinary diet from which he hoped for the reform of the
+constitution in a monarchical direction. But the victorious Hats refused
+to redeem the pledges which they had given before the elections. "That
+we should have lost the constitutional battle does not distress us so
+much," wrote Gustavus, in the bitterness of his heart; "but what does
+dismay me is to see my poor nation so sunk in corruption as to place its
+own felicity in absolute anarchy." From the 4th of February to the 25th
+of March 1771, Gustavus was at Paris, where he carried both the court
+and the city by storm. The poets and the philosophers paid him
+enthusiastic homage, and all the distinguished women of the day
+testified to his superlative merits. With many of them he maintained a
+lifelong correspondence. But his visit to the French capital was no mere
+pleasure trip; it was also a political mission. Confidential agents from
+the Swedish court had already prepared the way for him, and the duc de
+Choiseul, weary of Swedish anarchy, had resolved to discuss with him the
+best method of bringing about a revolution in Sweden. Before he
+departed, the French government undertook to pay the outstanding
+subsidies to Sweden unconditionally, at the rate of one and a half
+million livres annually; and the comte de Vergennes, one of the great
+names of French diplomacy, was transferred from Constantinople to
+Stockholm. On his way home Gustavus paid a short visit to his uncle,
+Frederick the Great, at Potsdam. Frederick bluntly informed his nephew
+that, in concert with Russia and Denmark, he had guaranteed the
+integrity of the existing Swedish constitution, and significantly
+advised the young monarch to play the part of mediator and abstain from
+violence.
+
+On his return to Sweden Gustavus made a sincere and earnest attempt to
+mediate between the Hats and Caps who were ruining the country between
+them (see SWEDEN: _History_). On the 21st of June 1771 he opened his
+first parliament in a speech which awakened strange and deep emotions in
+all who heard it. It was the first time for more than a century that a
+Swedish king had addressed a Swedish diet from the throne in its native
+tongue. The orator laid especial stress on the necessity of the
+sacrifice of all party animosities to the common weal, and volunteered,
+as "the first citizen of a free people," to be the mediator between the
+contending factions. A composition committee was actually formed, but it
+proved illusory from the first, the patriotism of neither of the
+factions being equal to the puniest act of self-denial. The subsequent
+attempts of the dominant Caps still further to limit the prerogative,
+and reduce Gustavus to the condition of a _roi fainéant_, induced him at
+last to consider the possibility of a revolution. Of its necessity there
+could be no doubt. Under the sway of the Cap faction, Sweden, already
+the vassal, could not fail to become the prey of Russia. She was on the
+point of being absorbed in that northern system, the invention of the
+Russian vice-chancellor, Count Nikita Panin, which that patient
+statesman had made it the ambition of his life to realize. Only a swift
+and sudden _coup d'état_ could save the independence of a country
+isolated from the rest of Europe by a hostile league. At this juncture
+Gustavus was approached by Jakob Magnus Sprengtporten, a Finnish
+nobleman of determined character, who had incurred the enmity of the
+Caps, with the project of a revolution. He undertook to seize the
+fortress of Sveaborg by a _coup de main_, and, Finland once secured,
+Sprengtporten proposed to embark for Sweden, meet the king and his
+friends near Stockholm, and surprise the capital by a night attack, when
+the estates were to be forced, at the point of the bayonet, to accept a
+new constitution from the untrammelled king. The plotters were at this
+juncture reinforced by an ex-ranger from Scania (Skåne), Johan
+Kristoffer Toll, also a victim of Cap oppression. Toll proposed that a
+second revolt should break out in the province of Scania, to confuse the
+government still more, and undertook personally to secure the southern
+fortress of Kristianstad. After some debate, it was finally arranged
+that, a few days after the Finnish revolt had begun, Kristianstad should
+openly declare against the government. Prince Charles, the eldest of the
+king's brothers, was thereupon hastily to mobilize the garrisons of all
+the southern fortresses, for the ostensible purpose of crushing the
+revolt at Kristianstad; but on arriving before the fortress he was to
+make common cause with the rebels, and march upon the capital from the
+south, while Sprengtporten attacked it simultaneously from the east. On
+the 6th of August 1772 Toll succeeded, by sheer bluff, in winning the
+fortress of Kristianstad. On the 16th Sprengtporten succeeded in
+surprising Sveaborg. But contrary winds prevented him from crossing to
+Stockholm, and in the meanwhile events had occurred which made his
+presence there unnecessary.
+
+On the 16th of August the Cap leader, Ture Rudbeck, arrived at Stockholm
+with the news of the insurrection in the south, and Gustavus found
+himself isolated in the midst of enemies. Sprengtporten lay
+weather-bound in Finland, Toll was five hundred miles away, the Hat
+leaders were in hiding. Gustavus thereupon resolved to strike the
+decisive blow without waiting for the arrival of Sprengtporten. He acted
+with military promptitude. On the evening of the 18th all the officers
+whom he thought he could trust received secret instructions to assemble
+in the great square facing the arsenal on the following morning. At ten
+o'clock on the 19th Gustavus mounted his horse and rode straight to the
+arsenal. On the way his adherents joined him in little groups, as if by
+accident, so that by the time he reached his destination he had about
+two hundred officers in his suite. After parade he reconducted them to
+the guard-room of the palace and unfolded his plans to them. He then
+dictated a new oath of allegiance, and every one signed it without
+hesitation. It absolved them from their allegiance to the estates, and
+bound them solely to obey their lawful king, Gustavus III. Meanwhile the
+senate and the governor-general, Rudbeck, had been arrested and the
+fleet secured. Then Gustavus made a tour of the city and was everywhere
+received by enthusiastic crowds, who hailed him as a deliverer. On the
+evening of the 20th heralds perambulated the streets proclaiming that
+the estates were to meet in the Rikssaal on the following day; every
+deputy absenting himself would be regarded as the enemy of his country
+and his king. On the 21st, a few moments after the estates had
+assembled, the king in full regalia appeared, and taking his seat on the
+throne, delivered that famous philippic, one of the masterpieces of
+Swedish oratory, in which he reproached the estates for their
+unpatriotic venality and licence in the past. A new constitution was
+recited by the estates and accepted by them unanimously. The diet was
+then dissolved.
+
+Gustavus was inspired by a burning enthusiasm for the greatness and
+welfare of Sweden, and worked in the same reformatory direction as the
+other contemporary sovereigns of the "age of enlightenment." He took an
+active part in every department of business, but relied far more on
+extra-official counsellors of his own choosing than upon the senate. The
+effort to remedy the frightful corruption which had been fostered by the
+Hats and Caps engaged a considerable share of his time and he even found
+it necessary to put the whole of a supreme court of justice (_Göta
+Hofrätt_) on its trial. Measures were also taken to reform the
+administration and the whole course of judicial procedure, and torture
+as an instrument of legal investigation was abolished. In 1774 an
+ordinance providing for the liberty of the press was even issued. The
+national defences were at the same time developed on a "Great Power"
+scale, and the navy was so enlarged as to become one of the most
+formidable in Europe. The dilapidated finances were set in good order by
+the "currency realization ordinance" of 1777. Gustavus also introduced
+new national economic principles. In 1775 free trade in corn was
+promoted and a number of oppressive export-tolls were abolished. The
+poor law was also amended, absolute religious liberty was proclaimed,
+and he even succeeded in inventing and popularizing a national costume
+which was in general use from 1778 till his death. His one great
+economic blunder was the attempt to make the sale of spirits a
+government monopoly, which was an obvious infringement upon the
+privileges of the estates. His foreign policy, on the other hand, was at
+first both wise and wary. Thus, when the king summoned the estates to
+assemble at Stockholm on the 3rd of September 1778, he could give a
+brilliant account of his six years' stewardship. Never was a parliament
+more obsequious or a king more gracious. "There was no room for a single
+No during the whole session." Yet, short as the session was, it was
+quite long enough to open the eyes of the deputies to the fact that
+their political supremacy had departed. They had changed places with
+the king. He was now indeed their sovereign lord; and, for all his
+gentleness, the jealousy with which he guarded, the vigour with which he
+enforced the prerogative, plainly showed that he meant to remain so.
+Even the few who were patriotic enough to acquiesce in the change by no
+means liked it. The diet of 1778 had been obsequious; the diet of 1786
+was mutinous. The consequence was that nearly all the royal propositions
+were either rejected outright or so modified that Gustavus himself
+withdrew them.
+
+The diet of 1786 marks a turning-point in Gustavus's history. Henceforth
+we observe a determination on his part to rule without a parliament; a
+passage, cautious and gradual, yet unflinching, from
+semi-constitutionalism to semi-absolutism. His opportunity came in 1788,
+when the political complications arising out of his war with Catherine
+II. of Russia enabled him by the Act of Unity and Security (on the 17th
+of February 1789) to override the opposition of the rebellious and
+grossly unpatriotic gentry, and, with the approbation of the three lower
+estates, establish a new and revolutionary constitution, in which,
+though the estates still held the power of the purse, the royal
+authority largely predominated. Throughout 1789 and 1790 Gustavus, in
+the national interests, gallantly conducted the unequal struggle with
+Russia, finally winning in the Svensksund (9th-10th July) the most
+glorious naval victory ever gained by the Swedish arms, the Russians
+losing one-third of their fleet and 7000 men. A month later, on the 14th
+of August 1790, peace was signed between Russia and Sweden at Värälä.
+Only eight months before, Catherine had haughtily declared that "the
+odious and revolting aggression" of the king of Sweden would be
+"forgiven" only if he "testified his repentance" by agreeing to a peace
+granting a general and unlimited amnesty to all his rebels, and
+consenting to a guarantee by the Swedish diet ("as it would be imprudent
+to confide in his good faith alone") for the observance of peace in the
+future. The peace of Värälä saved Sweden from any such humiliating
+concession, and in October 1791 Gustavus took the bold but by no means
+imprudent step of concluding an eight years' defensive alliance with the
+empress, who thereby bound herself to pay her new ally annual subsidies
+amounting to 300,000 roubles.
+
+Gustavus now aimed at forming a league of princes against the Jacobins,
+and every other consideration was subordinated thereto. His profound
+knowledge of popular assemblies enabled him, alone among contemporary
+sovereigns, accurately to gauge from the first the scope and bearing of
+the French Revolution. But he was hampered by poverty and the jealousy
+of the other European Powers, and, after showing once more his
+unrivalled mastery over masses of men at the brief Gefle diet (22nd of
+January-24th of February 1792), he fell a victim to a widespread
+aristocratic conspiracy. Shot in the back by Anckarström at a midnight
+masquerade at the Stockholm opera-house, on the 16th of March 1792, he
+expired on the 29th.
+
+Although he may be charged with many foibles and extravagances, Gustavus
+III. was indisputably one of the greatest sovereigns of the 18th
+century. Unfortunately his genius never had full scope, and his
+opportunity came too late. Gustavus was, moreover, a most distinguished
+author. He may be said to have created the Swedish theatre, and some of
+the best acting dramas in the literature are by his hand. His historical
+essays, notably the famous anonymous eulogy on Torstenson crowned by the
+Academy, are full of feeling and exquisite in style,--his letters to his
+friends are delightful. Every branch of literature and art interested
+him, every poet and artist of his day found in him a most liberal and
+sympathetic protector.
+
+  See R. N. Bain, _Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries_ (London, 1904);
+  E. G. Geijer, _Konung Gustaf III.'s efterlemnade papper_ (Upsala,
+  1843-1845); C. T. Odhner, _Sveriges politiska historia under Konung
+  Gustaf III.'s regering_ (Stockholm, 1885-1896); B. von Beskow, _Om
+  Gustaf III. såsom Konung och människa_ (Stockholm, 1860-1861); O.
+  Levertin, _Gustaf III. som dramatisk författare_ (Stockholm, 1894);
+  _Gustaf III.'s bref till G. M. Armfelt_ (Fr.) (Stockholm, 1883); Y. K.
+  Grot, _Catharine II. and Gustavus III._ (Russ.) (St Petersburg, 1884).
+       (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+
+GUSTAVUS IV. (1778-1837), king of Sweden, the son of Gustavus III. and
+Queen Sophia Magdalena, was born at Stockholm on the 1st of November
+1778. Carefully educated under the direction of Nils von Rosenstein, he
+grew up serious and conscientious. In August 1796 his uncle the regent
+Charles, duke of Sudermania, visited St Petersburg for the purpose of
+arranging a marriage between the young king and Catherine II.'s
+granddaughter, the grand-duchess Alexandra. The betrothal was actually
+fixed for the 22nd of September, when the whole arrangement foundered on
+the obstinate refusal of Gustavus to allow his destined bride liberty of
+worship according to the rites of the Greek Orthodox Church--a rebuff
+which undoubtedly accelerated the death of the Russian empress. Nobody
+seems to have even suspected at the time that serious mental derangement
+lay at the root of Gustavus's abnormal piety. On the contrary, there
+were many who prematurely congratulated themselves on the fact that
+Sweden had now no disturbing genius, but an economical, God-fearing,
+commonplace monarch to deal with. Gustavus's prompt dismissal of the
+generally detested Gustaf Reuterholm added still further to his
+popularity. On the 31st of October 1797 Gustavus married Frederica
+Dorothea, daughter of Charles Frederick, grand-duke of Baden, a marriage
+which might have led to a war with Russia but for the fanatical hatred
+of the French republic shared by the emperor Paul and Gustavus IV.,
+which served as a bond of union between them. Indeed the king's horror
+of Jacobinism was morbid in its intensity, and drove him to adopt all
+sorts of reactionary measures and to postpone his coronation for some
+years, so as to avoid calling together a diet; but the disorder of the
+finances, caused partly by the continental war and partly by the almost
+total failure of the crops in 1798 and 1799, compelled him to summon the
+estates to Norrköping in March 1800, and on the 3rd of April Gustavus
+was crowned. The notable change which now took place in Sweden's foreign
+policy and its fatal consequences to the country are elsewhere set forth
+(see SWEDEN, _History_). By the end of 1808 it was obvious to every
+thinking Swede that the king was insane. His violence had alienated his
+most faithful supporters, while his obstinate incompetence paralysed the
+national efforts. To remove a madman by force was the one remaining
+expedient; and this was successfully accomplished by a conspiracy of
+officers of the western army, headed by Adlersparre, the Anckarsvärds,
+and Adlercreutz, who marched rapidly from Skåne to Stockholm. On the
+13th of March 1809 seven of the conspirators broke into the royal
+apartments in the palace unannounced, seized the king, and conducted him
+to the château of Gripsholm; Duke Charles was easily persuaded to accept
+the leadership of a provisional government, which was proclaimed the
+same day; and a diet, hastily summoned, solemnly approved of the
+revolution. On the 29th of March Gustavus, in order to save the crown
+for his son, voluntarily abdicated; but on the 10th of May the estates,
+dominated by the army, declared that not merely Gustavus but his whole
+family had forfeited the throne. On the 5th of June the duke regent was
+proclaimed king under the title of Charles XIII., after accepting the
+new liberal constitution, which was ratified by the diet the same day.
+In December Gustavus and his family were transported to Germany.
+Gustavus now assumed the title of count of Gottorp, but subsequently
+called himself Colonel Gustafsson, under which pseudonym he wrote most
+of his works. He led, separated from his family, an erratic life for
+some years; was divorced from his consort in 1812; and finally settled
+at St Gall in Switzerland in great loneliness and indigence. He died on
+the 7th of February 1837, and, at the suggestion of King Oscar II. his
+body was brought to Sweden and interred in the Riddarholmskyrka. From
+him descend both the Baden and the Oldenburg princely houses on the
+female side.
+
+  See H. G. Trolle-Wachtmeister, _Anteckningar och minnen_ (Stockholm,
+  1889); B. von Beskow, _Lefnadsminnen_ (Stockholm, 1870); K. V.
+  Key-Åberg, _De diplomatiska förbindelserna mellan Sverige och
+  Storbrittannien under Gustaf IV.'s Krig emot Napoléon_ (Upsala, 1890);
+  Colonel Gustafsson, _La Journée du treize mars_, &c. (St Gall, 1835);
+  _Memorial des Obersten Gustafsson_ (Leipzig, 1829).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GUSTAVUS V. (1858-   ), king of Sweden, son of Oscar II., king of Sweden
+and Norway, and Queen Sophia Wilhelmina, was born at Drottningholm on
+the 16th of June 1858. He entered the army, and was, like his father, a
+great traveller. As crown prince he held the title of duke of Wärmland.
+He married in 1881 Victoria (b. 1862), daughter of Frederick William
+Louis, grand duke of Baden, and of Louise, princess of Prussia. The
+duchess of Baden was the granddaughter of Sophia, princess of Sweden,
+and the marriage of the crown prince thus effected a union between the
+Bernadotte dynasty and the ancient Swedish royal house of Vasa. During
+the absence or illness of his father Gustavus repeatedly acted as
+regent, and was therefore already thoroughly versed in public affairs
+when he succeeded to the Swedish throne on the 8th of December 1907, the
+crown of Norway having been separated from that of Sweden in 1905. He
+took as his motto "With the people for the Fatherland."
+
+The crown prince, Oscar Frederick William Gustavus Adolphus, duke of
+Scania (b. 1882), married in 1905 Princess Margaret of Connaught (b.
+1882), niece of King Edward VII. A son was born to them at Stockholm on
+the 22nd of April 1906, and another son in the following year. The
+king's two younger sons were William, duke of Sudermania (b. 1884), and
+Eric, duke of Westmanland (b. 1889).
+
+
+
+
+GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS UNION (GUSTAV-ADOLF-STIFTUNG, GUSTAV-ADOLF-VEREIN,
+EVANGELISCHER VEREIN DER GUSTAV-ADOLF-STIFTUNG), a society formed of
+members of the Evangelical Protestant churches of Germany, which has for
+its object the aid of feeble sister churches, especially in Roman Catholic
+countries. The project of forming such a society was first broached in
+connexion with the bicentennial celebration of the battle of Lützen on the
+6th of November 1832; a proposal to collect funds for a monument to
+Gustavus Adolphus having been agreed to, it was suggested by
+Superintendent Grossmann that the best memorial to the great champion of
+Protestantism would be the formation of a union for propagating his ideas.
+For some years the society was limited in its area and its operations,
+being practically confined to Leipzig and Dresden, but at the Reformation
+festival in 1841 it received a new impulse through the energy and
+eloquence of Karl Zimmermann (1803-1877), court preacher at Darmstadt, and
+in 1843 a general meeting was held at Frankfort-on-the-Main, where no
+fewer than twenty-nine branch associations belonging to all parts of
+Germany except Bavaria and Austria were represented. The want of a
+positive creed tended to make many of the stricter Protestant churchmen
+doubtful of the usefulness of the union, and the stricter Lutherans have
+always held aloof from it. On the other hand, its negative attitude in
+relation to Roman Catholicism secured for it the sympathy of the masses.
+At a general convention held in Berlin in September 1846 a keen dispute
+arose about the admission of the Königsberg delegate, Julius Rupp
+(1809-1884), who in 1845 had been deprived for publicly repudiating the
+Athanasian Creed and became one of the founders of the "Free
+Congregations"; and at one time it seemed likely that the society would be
+completely broken up. Amid the political revolutions of the year 1848 the
+whole movement fell into stagnation; but in 1849 another general
+convention (the seventh), held at Breslau, showed that, although the
+society had lost both in membership and income, it was still possessed of
+considerable vitality. From that date the Gustav-Adolf-Verein has been
+more definitely "evangelical" in its tone than formerly; and under the
+direction of Karl Zimmermann it greatly increased both in numbers and in
+wealth. It has built over 2000 churches and assisted with some two million
+pounds over 5000 different communities. Apart from its influence in
+maintaining Protestantism in hostile areas, there can be no doubt that the
+union has had a great effect in helping the various Protestant churches of
+Germany to realize the number and importance of their common interests.
+
+  See K. Zimmermann, _Geschichte des Gustav-Adolf-Vereins_ (Darmstadt,
+  1877).
+
+
+
+
+GÜSTROW, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
+on the Nebel and the railway from Lübeck to Stettin, 20 m. S. of
+Rostock. Pop. (1875), 10,923; (1905) 17,163. The principal buildings are
+the castle, erected in the middle of the 16th century and now used as a
+workhouse; the cathedral, dating from the 13th century and restored in
+1868, containing many fine monuments and possessing a square tower 100
+ft. high; the Pfarrkirche, with fine altar-paintings; the town hall
+(Rathaus), dating from the 16th century; the music hall, and the
+theatre. Among the educational establishments are the ducal gymnasium,
+which possesses a library of 15,000 volumes, a modern and a commercial
+school. The town is one of the most prosperous in the duchy, and has
+machine works, foundries, tanneries, sawmills, breweries, distilleries,
+and manufactories of tobacco, glue, candles and soap. There is also a
+considerable trade in wool, corn, wood, butter and cattle, and an annual
+cattle show and horse races are held.
+
+Güstrow, capital of the Mecklenburg duchy of that name, or of the Wend
+district, was a place of some importance as early as the 12th century,
+and in 1219 it became the residence of Henry Borwin II., prince of
+Mecklenburg, from whom it received Schwerin privileges. From 1316 to
+1436 the town was the residence of the princes of the Wends, and from
+1556 to 1695 of the dukes of Mecklenburg-Güstrow. In 1628 it was
+occupied by the imperial troops, and Wallenstein resided in it during
+part of the years 1628 and 1629.
+
+
+
+
+GUTENBERG, JOHANN (c. 1398-1468), German printer, is supposed to have
+been born c. 1398-1399 at Mainz of well-to-do parents, his father being
+Friele zum Gensfleisch and his mother Elsgen Wyrich (or, from her
+birthplace, zu Gutenberg, the name he adopted). He is assumed to be
+mentioned under the name of "Henchen" in a copy of a document of 1420,
+and again in a document of c. 1427-1428, but it is not stated where he
+then resided. On January 16, 1430, his mother arranged with the city of
+Mainz about an annuity belonging to him; but when, in the same year,
+some families who had been expelled a few years before were permitted to
+return to Mainz, Gutenberg appears not to have availed himself of the
+privilege, as he is described in the act of reconciliation (dated March
+28) as "not being in Mainz." It is therefore assumed that the family had
+taken refuge in Strassburg, where Gutenberg was residing later. There he
+is said to have been in 1434, and to have seized and imprisoned the town
+clerk of Mainz for a debt due to him by the corporation of that city,
+releasing him, however, at the representations of the mayor and
+councillors of Strassburg, and relinquishing at the same time all claims
+to the money (310 Rhenish guilders = about 2400 mark).[1] Between 1436
+and 1439 certain documents represent him as having been engaged there
+in some experiments requiring money, with Andreas Dritzehn, a
+fellow-citizen, who became not only security for him but his partner to
+carry out Gutenberg's plan for polishing stones and the manufacture of
+looking-glasses, for which a lucrative sale was expected at the
+approaching pilgrimage of 1440 (subsequently postponed, according to the
+documents, although there is no evidence for this postponement) to
+Aix-la-Chapelle. Money was lent for this purpose by two other friends.
+In 1438 another partnership was arranged between Gutenberg, Andreas
+Dritzehn, and Andreas and Anton Heilmann, and that this had in view the
+art of printing has been inferred from the word "drucken" used by one of
+the witnesses in the law proceedings which soon after followed. An
+action was brought, after the death of Dritzehn, by his two brothers to
+force Gutenberg to accept them as partners in their brother's place, but
+the decision was in favour of the latter. In 1441 Gutenberg became
+surety to the St Thomas Chapter at Strassburg for Johann Karle, who
+borrowed 100 guilders (about £16) from the chapter, and on November 17,
+1442, he himself borrowed 80 livres through Martin Brechter (or Brehter)
+from the same chapter. Of his whereabouts from the 12th of March 1444
+(when he paid a tax at Strassburg) to the 17th of October 1448 nothing
+certain is known. But on the latter date we find him at Mainz, borrowing
+150 gold guilders of his kinsman, Arnold Gelthus, against an annual
+interest of 7½ gold guilders. We do not know whether the interest on
+this debt has ever been paid, but the debt itself appears never to have
+been paid off, as the contract of this loan was renewed (_vidimused_) on
+August 23, 1503, for other parties. It is supposed that soon afterwards
+Gutenberg must have been able to show some convincing results of his
+work, for it appears that about 1450 Johann Fust (q.v.) advanced him 800
+guilders to promote it, on no security except that of "tools" still to
+be made. Fust seems also to have undertaken to advance him 300 guilders
+a year for expenses, wages, house-rent, parchment, paper, ink, &c., but
+he does not appear to have ever done so. If at any time they disagreed,
+Gutenberg was to return the 800 guilders, and the "tools" were to cease
+to be security. It is not known to what purpose Gutenberg devoted the
+money advanced to him. In the minutes of the law-suit of 1455 he himself
+says that he had to make his "tools" with it. But he is presumed to have
+begun a large folio Latin Bible, and to have printed during its progress
+some smaller books[2] and likewise the Letter of Indulgence (granted on
+the 12th of April 1451 by Pope Nicholas V. in aid of John II., king of
+Cyprus, against the Turks), of 31 lines, having the earliest printed
+date 1454, of which several copies are preserved in various European
+libraries. A copy of the 1455 issue of the same Indulgence is in the
+Rylands Library at Manchester (from the Althorp Library).
+
+It is not known whether any books were printed while this partnership
+between Gutenberg and Fust lasted. Trithemius (_Ann. Hirsaug._ ii. 421)
+says they first printed, from wooden blocks, a vocabulary called
+_Catholicon_, which cannot have been the _Catholicon_ of Johannes de
+Janua, a folio of 748 pages in two columns of 66 lines each, printed in
+1460, but was perhaps a small glossary now lost.[3] The Latin _Bible of
+42 lines_, a folio of 1282 printed pages, in two columns with spaces
+left for illuminated initials (so called because each column contains 42
+lines, and also known as the _Mazarin Bible_, because the first copy
+described was found in the library of Cardinal Mazarin), was finished
+before the 15th of August 1456;[4] German bibliographers now claim this
+Bible for Gutenberg, but, according to bibliographical rules, it must be
+ascribed to Peter Schöffer, perhaps in partnership with Fust. It is in
+smaller type than the _Bible of 36 lines_, which latter is called either
+(a) the _Bamberg Bible_, because nearly all the known copies were found
+in the neighbourhood of Bamberg, or (b) _Schelhorn's Bible_, because J.
+G. Schelhorn was the first who described it in 1760, or (c) _Pfister's
+Bible_, because its printing is ascribed to Albrecht Pfister of Bamberg,
+who used the same type for several small German books, the chief of
+which is Boner's _Edelstein_ (1461, 4to), 88 leaves, with 85 woodcuts, a
+book of fables in German rhyme. Some bibliographers believe this 36-line
+Bible to have been begun, if not entirely printed, by Gutenberg during
+his partnership with Fust, as its type occurs in the 31-line Letters of
+Indulgence of 1454, was used for the 27-line Donatus (of 1451?), and,
+finally, when found in Pfister's possession in 1461, appears to be old
+and worn, except the additional letters k, w, z required for German,
+which are clear and sharp like the types used in the Bible. Again,
+others profess to prove (Dziatzko, _Gutenberg's früheste Druckerpraxis_)
+that B^36 was a reprint of B^42.
+
+Gutenberg's work, whatever it may have been, was not a commercial
+success, and in 1452 Fust had to come forward with another 800 guilders
+to prevent a collapse. But some time before November 1455 the latter
+demanded repayment of his advances (see the Helmasperger Notarial
+Document of November 6, 1455, in Dziatzko's _Beiträge zur
+Gutenbergfrage_, Berlin, 1889), and took legal proceedings against
+Gutenberg. We do not know the end of these proceedings, but if Gutenberg
+had prepared any printing materials it would seem that he was compelled
+to yield up the whole of them to Fust; that the latter removed them to
+his own house at Mainz, and there, with the assistance of Peter
+Schöffer, issued various books until the sack of the city in 1462 by
+Adolphus II. caused a suspension of printing for three years, to be
+resumed again in 1465.
+
+We have no Information as to Gutenberg's activity, and very little of
+his whereabouts, after his separation from Fust. In a document dated
+June 21, 1457, he appears as witness on behalf of one of his relatives,
+which shows that he was then still at Mainz. Entries in the registers of
+the St Thomas Church at Strassburg make it clear that the annual
+interest on the money which Gutenberg on the 17th of November 1442 (see
+above) had borrowed from the chapter of that church was regularly paid
+till the 11th of November 1457, either by himself or by his surety,
+Martin Brechter. But the payment due on the latter date appears to have
+been delayed, as an entry in the register of that year shows that the
+chapter had incurred expenses in taking steps to have both Gutenberg and
+Brechter arrested. This time the difficulties seem to have been removed,
+but on and after the 11th of November 1458 Gutenberg and Brechter
+remained in default. The chapter made various efforts, all recorded in
+their registers, to get their money, but in vain. Every year they
+recorded the arrears with the expenses to which they were put in their
+efforts to arrest the defaulters, till at last in 1474 (six years after
+Gutenberg's death) their names are no longer mentioned.
+
+Meantime Gutenberg appears to have been _printing_, as we learn from a
+document dated February 26, 1468, that a syndic of Mainz, Dr Conrad
+Homery (who had formerly been in the service of the elector Count
+Diether of Ysenburg), had at one time supplied him, not with money, but
+with some formes, types, tools, implements and other things belonging to
+printing, which Gutenberg had left after his death, and which had, and
+still, belonged to him (Homery); this material had come into the hands
+of Adolf, the archbishop of Mainz, who handed or sent it back to Homery,
+the latter undertaking to use it in no other town but Mainz, nor to sell
+it to any person except a citizen of Mainz, even if a stranger should
+offer him a higher price for the things. This material has never yet
+been identified, so that we do not know what types Gutenberg may have
+had at his disposal; they could hardly have included the types of the
+_Catholicon_ of 1460, as is suggested, this work being probably executed
+by Heinrich Bechtermünze (d. 1467), who afterwards removed to Eltville,
+or perhaps by Peter Schöffer, who, about 1470, advertises the book as
+his property (see K. Burger, _Buchhändler-Anzeigen_). It is uncertain
+whether Gutenberg remained in Mainz or removed to the neighbouring town
+of Eltville, where he may have been engaged for a while with the
+brothers Bechtermünze, who printed there for some time with the types of
+the 1460 _Catholicon_. On the 17th of January 1465 he accepted the post
+of salaried courtier from the archbishop Adolf, and in this capacity
+received annually a suit of livery together with a fixed allowance of
+corn and wine. Gutenberg seems to have died at Mainz at the beginning of
+1468, and was, according to tradition, buried in the Franciscan church
+in that city. His relative Arnold Gelthus erected a monument to his
+memory near his supposed grave, and forty years afterwards Ivo Wittig
+set up a memorial tablet at the legal college at Mainz. No books bearing
+the name of Gutenberg as printer are known, nor is any genuine portrait
+of him known, those appearing upon medals, statues or engraved plates
+being all fictitious.
+
+In 1898 the firm of L. Rosenthal, at Munich, acquired a _Missale
+speciale_ on paper, which Otto Hupp, in two treatises published in 1898
+and 1902, asserts to have been printed by Gutenberg about 1450, seven
+years before the 1457 Psalter. Various German bibliographers, however,
+think that it could not have been printed before 1480, and, judging from
+the facsimiles published by Hupp, this date seems to be approximately
+correct.
+
+On the 24th of June 1900 the five-hundredth anniversary of Gutenberg's
+birth was celebrated in several German cities, notably in Mainz and
+Leipzig, and most of the recent literature on the invention of printing
+dates from that time.
+
+So we may note that in 1902 a vellum fragment of an Astronomical
+Kalendar was discovered by the librarian of Wiesbaden, Dr G. Zedler
+(_Die älteste Gutenbergtype_, Mainz, 1902), apparently printed in the
+36-line Bible type, and as the position of the sun, moon and other
+planets described in this document suits the years 1429, 1448 and 1467,
+he ascribes the printing of this Kalendar to the year 1447. A paper
+fragment of a poem in German, entitled _Weltgericht_, said to be printed
+in the 36-line Bible type, appears to have come into the possession of
+Herr Eduard Beck at Mainz in 1892, and was presented by him in 1903 to
+the Gutenberg Museum in that city. Zedler published a facsimile of it in
+1904 (for the _Gutenberg Gesellschaft_), with a description, in which he
+places it before the 1447 _Kalendar_, c. 1444-1447. Moreover, fragments
+of two editions of Donatus different from that of 1451 (?) have recently
+been found; see Schwenke in _Centralbl. für Bibliothekwesen_ (1908).
+
+  The recent literature upon Gutenberg's life and work and early
+  printing in general includes the following: A. von der Linde,
+  _Geschichte und Erdichtung_ (Stuttgart, 1878); _id. Geschichte der
+  Buchdruckerkunst_ (Berlin, 1886); J. H. Hessels, _Gutenberg, Was he
+  the Inventor of Printing?_ (London, 1882); _id. Haarlem, the
+  Birthplace of Printing, not Mentz_ (London, 1886); O. Hartwig,
+  _Festschrift zum fünfhundertjährigen Geburtstag von Johann Gutenberg_
+  (Leipzig, 1900), which includes various treatises by Schenk zu
+  Schweinsberg, K. Schorbach, &c.; P. Schwenke, _Untersuchungen zur
+  Geschichte des ersten Buchdrucks_ (Berlin, 1900); A. Börckel,
+  _Gutenberg, sein Leben_, &c. (Giessen, 1897); _id. Gutenberg und seine
+  berühmten Nachfolger im ersten Jahrhundert der Typographie_
+  (Frankfort, 1900); F. Schneider, _Mainz und seine Drucker_ (1900); G.
+  Zedler, _Gutenberg-Forschungen_ (Leipzig, 1901); J. H. Hessels, _The
+  so-called Gutenberg Documents_ (London, 1910). For other works on the
+  subject see TYPOGRAPHY.     (J. H. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] It is difficult to know which of the Gutenberg documents can be
+    trusted and which not. Schorbach, in his recent biography of
+    Gutenberg, accepts and describes 27 of them (_Festschrift_, 1900, p.
+    163 sqq.), 17 of which are known only from (not always accurate)
+    copies or transcripts. Under ordinary circumstances history might be
+    based on them. But it is certain that some so-called Gutenberg
+    documents, not included in the above 27, are forgeries. Fr. J.
+    Bodmann (1754-1820), for many years professor and librarian at Mainz,
+    forged at least two; one (dated July 20, 1459) he even provided with
+    four forged seals; the other (dated Strassburg, March 24, 1424)
+    purported to be an autograph letter of Gutenberg to a fictitious
+    sister of his named Bertha. Of these two documents French and German
+    texts were published about 1800-1802; the forger lived for twenty
+    years afterwards but never undeceived the public. He enriched the
+    Gutenberg literature with other fabrications. In fact Bodmann had
+    trained himself for counterfeiting MSS. and documents; he openly
+    boasted of his abilities in this respect, and used them, sometimes to
+    amuse his friends who were searching for Gutenberg documents,
+    sometimes for himself to fill up gaps in Gutenberg's life. (For two
+    or three more specimens of his capacities see A. Wyss in _Zeitschr.
+    für Altert. u. Gesch. Schlesiens_, xv. 9 sqq.) To one of his friends
+    (Professor Gotthelf Fischer, who preceded him as librarian of Mainz)
+    one or two other fabrications may be ascribed. There are, moreover,
+    serious misgivings as to documents said to have been _discovered_
+    about 1740 (when the citizens of Strassburg claimed the honour of the
+    invention for their city) by Jacob Wencker (the then archivist of
+    Strassburg) and J. D. Schoepflin (professor and canon of St Thomas's
+    at Strassburg). For instance, of the above document of 1434 no
+    original has ever come to light; while the draft of the transaction,
+    alleged to have been written at the time in a register of contracts,
+    and to have been found about 1740 by Wencker, has also disappeared
+    with the register itself. The document (now only known from a copy
+    said to have been taken by Wencker from the draft) is upheld as
+    genuine by Schorbach, who favours an invention of printing at
+    Strassburg, but Bockenheimer, though supporting Gutenberg and Mainz,
+    declares it to be a fiction (_Gutenberg-Feier_, Mainz, 1900, pp.
+    24-33). Again, suspicions are justified with respect to the documents
+    recording Gutenberg's lawsuit of 1439 at Strassburg. Bockenheimer
+    explains at great length (_l.c._ pp. 41-72) that they are forgeries.
+    He even explains (_ibid._ pp. 97-107) that the so-called Helmasperger
+    document of November 6, 1455, may be a fabrication of the Faust von
+    Aschaffenburg family, who endeavoured to claim Johann Fust as their
+    ancestor. There are also (1) a fragment of a fictitious "press," said
+    to have been constructed by Gutenberg in 1441, and to have been
+    discovered (!) at Mainz in 1856; (2) a forged imprint with the date
+    1458 in a copy of Pope Gregory's _Dialogues_, really printed at
+    Strassburg about 1470; (3) a forged rubric in a copy of the
+    _Tractatus de celebratione missarum_, from which it would appear that
+    Johann Gutenberg and Johann Nummeister had presented it on June 19,
+    1463, to the Carthusian monastery near Mainz: (4) four forged copies
+    of the Indulgence of 1455, in the Culemann Collection in the Kästner
+    Museum at Hanover, &c. (see further, Hessels, "The so-called
+    Gutenberg Documents," in _The Library_, 1909).
+
+  [2] Among these were perhaps (1) one or two editions of the work of
+    Donatus, _De octo partibus orationis_, 27 lines to a page, of one of
+    which two leaves, now in the Paris National Library, were discovered
+    at Mainz in the original binding of an account book, one of them
+    having, but in a later hand, the year 1451 (?); (2) the
+    _Turk-Kalendar_ for 1455 (preserved in the Hof-Bibliothek at Munich);
+    (3) the _Cisianus_ (preserved in the Cambridge Univ. Libr.), and
+    perhaps others now lost.
+
+  [3] Ulric Zell states, in the Cologne Chronicle of 1499, that
+    Gutenberg and Fust printed a Bible in large type like that used in
+    missals. It has been said that this description applies to the
+    42-line Bible, as its type is as large as that of most missals
+    printed before 1500, and that the size now called missal type (double
+    pica) was not used in missals until late in the 16th century. This is
+    no doubt true of the smaller missals printed before 1500, some of
+    which are in even smaller type than the 42-line Bible. But many of
+    the large folio missals, as that printed at Mainz by Peter Schöffer
+    in 1483, the Carthusian missal printed at Spires by Peter Drach about
+    1490, and the Dominican missal printed by Andrea de Torresanis at
+    Venice in 1496, are in as large type as the 36-line Bible. Peter
+    Schöffer (1425-1502) of Gernsheim, between Mainz and Mannheim, who
+    was a copyist in Paris in 1449, and whom Fust called his servant
+    (_famulus_), is said by Trithemius to have discovered an easier way
+    of founding characters, whence Lambinet and others concluded that
+    Schöffer invented the punch. Schöffer himself, in the colophon of the
+    Psalter of 1457, a work which some suppose to have been planned and
+    partly printed by Gutenberg, claims only the mode of printing rubrics
+    and coloured capitals.
+
+  [4] The Leipzig copy of this Bible (which formerly belonged to Herr
+    Klemm of Dresden) has at the end the MS. year 1453 in old Arabic
+    numerals. But certain circumstances connected with this date make it
+    look very suspicious.
+
+
+
+
+GÜTERSLOH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, 11
+m. S.W. from Bielefeld by the railway to Dortmund. Pop. (1905), 7375. It
+is a seat of silk and cotton industries, and has a large trade in
+Westphalian hams and sausages. Printing, brewing and distilling are also
+carried on, and the town is famous for its rye-bread (_Pumpernickel_).
+Gütersloh has two Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, a
+synagogue, a school and other educational establishments.
+
+  See Eickhoff, _Geschichte der Stadt und Gemeinde Gütersloh_
+  (Gütersloh, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+GUTHRIE, SIR JAMES (1859-   ), Scottish painter, and one of the leaders
+of the so-called Glasgow school of painters, was born at Greenock. Though
+in his youth he was influenced by John Pettie in London, and
+subsequently studied in Paris, his style, which is remarkable for grasp
+of character, breadth and spontaneity, is due to the lessons taught him
+by observation of nature, and to the example of Crawhall, by which he
+benefited in Lincolnshire in the early 'eighties of the last century. In
+his early works, such as "The Gipsy Fires are Burning, for Daylight is
+Past and Gone" (1882), and the "Funeral Service in the Highlands," he
+favoured a thick impasto, but with growing experience he used his colour
+with greater economy and reticence. Subsequently he devoted himself
+almost exclusively to portraiture. Sir James Guthrie, like so many of
+the Glasgow artists, achieved his first successes on the Continent, but
+soon found recognition in his native country. He was elected associate
+of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1888, and full member in 1892,
+succeeded Sir George Reid as president of the Royal Scottish Academy in
+1902, and was knighted in 1903. His painting "Schoolmates" is at the
+Ghent Gallery. Among his most successful portraits are those of his
+mother, Mr R. Garroway, Major Hotchkiss, Mrs Fergus, Professor Jack, and
+Mrs Watson.
+
+
+
+
+GUTHRIE, THOMAS (1803-1873), Scottish divine, was born at Brechin,
+Forfarshire, on the 12th of July 1803. He entered the university of
+Edinburgh at the early age of twelve, and continued to attend classes
+there for more than ten years. On the 2nd of February 1825 the
+presbytery of Brechin licensed him as a preacher in connexion with the
+Church of Scotland, and in 1826 he was in Paris studying natural
+philosophy, chemistry, and comparative anatomy. For two years he acted
+as manager of his father's bank, and in 1830 was inducted to his first
+charge, Arbirlot, in Forfarshire, where he adopted a vivid dramatic
+style of preaching adapted to his congregation of peasants, farmers and
+weavers. In 1837 he became the colleague of John Sym in the pastorate of
+Old Greyfriars, Edinburgh, and at once attracted notice as a great
+pulpit orator. Towards the close of 1840 he became minister of St John's
+church, Victoria Street, Edinburgh. He declined invitations both from
+London and from India. He was an enthusiastic supporter of the movement
+which led to the Disruption of 1843; and his name is thenceforth
+associated with the Free Church, for which he collected £116,000 from
+July 1845 to June 1846 to provide manses for the seceding ministers. In
+1844 he became a teetotaller. In 1847 he began the greatest work of his
+life by the publication of his first "Plea for Ragged Schools." This
+pamphlet elicited a beautiful and sympathetic letter from Lord Jeffrey.
+A Ragged School was opened on the Castle Hill, which has been the parent
+of many similar institutions elsewhere, though Guthrie's relation to the
+movement is best described as that of an apostle rather than a founder.
+He insisted on bringing up all the children in his school as
+Protestants; and he thus made his schools proselytizing as well as
+educational institutions. This interference with religious liberty led
+to some controversy; and ultimately those who differed from Guthrie
+founded the United Industrial School, giving combined secular and
+separate religious instruction. In April 1847 the degree of D.D. was
+conferred on Guthrie by the university of Edinburgh; and in 1850 William
+Hanna (1808-1882), the biographer and son-in-law of Thomas Chalmers, was
+inducted as his colleague in Free St John's Church.
+
+In 1850 Guthrie published _A Plea on behalf of Drunkards and against
+Drunkenness_, which was followed by _The Gospel in Ezekiel_ (1855); _The
+City: its Sins and Sorrows_ (1857); _Christ and the Inheritance of the
+Saints_ (1858); _Seedtime and Harvest of Ragged Schools_ (1860),
+consisting of his three _Pleas for Ragged Schools_. These works had an
+enormous sale, and portions of them were translated into French and
+Dutch. His advocacy of temperance had much to do with securing the
+passing of the Forbes Mackenzie Act, which secured Sunday closing and
+shortened hours of sale for Scotland. Mr Gladstone specially quoted him
+in support of the Light Wines Bill (1860). In 1862 he was moderator of
+the Free Church General Assembly; but he seldom took a prominent part in
+the business of the church courts. His remarkable oratorical talents,
+rich humour, genuine pathos and inimitable power of story-telling,
+enabled him to do good service to the total abstinence movement. He was
+one of the vice-presidents of the Evangelical Alliance. In 1864, his
+health being seriously impaired, he resigned public work as pastor of
+Free St John's (May 17), although his nominal connexion with the
+congregation ceased only with his death. Guthrie had occasionally
+contributed papers to _Good Words_, and, about the time of his
+retirement from the ministry, he became first editor of the _Sunday
+Magazine_, himself contributing several series of papers which were
+afterwards published separately. In 1865 he was presented with £5000 as
+a mark of appreciation from the public. His closing years were spent
+mostly in retirement; and after an illness of several months' duration
+he died at St Leonards-on-Sea on the 24th of February 1873.
+
+  In addition to the books mentioned above he published a number of
+  books which had a remarkable circulation in England and America, such
+  as _Speaking to the Heart_ (1862); _The Way to Life_ (1862); _Man and
+  the Gospel_ (1865); _The Angel's Song_ (1865); _The Parables_ (1866);
+  _Our Father's Business_ (1867); _Out of Harness_ (1867); _Early Piety_
+  (1868); _Studies of Character from the Old Testament_ (1868-1870);
+  _Sundays Abroad_ (1871).
+
+  See _Autobiography of Thomas Guthrie, D.D., and Memoir_, by his sons
+  (2 vols., London, 1874-1875).
+
+
+
+
+GUTHRIE, THOMAS ANSTEY (1856-   ), known by the pseudonym of F. Anstey,
+English novelist, was born in Kensington, London, on the 8th of August
+1856. He was educated at King's College, London, and at Trinity Hall,
+Cambridge, and was called to the bar in 1880. But the popular success of
+his story _Vice-Versa_ (1882) with its topsy-turvy substitution of a
+father for his schoolboy son, at once made his reputation as a humorist
+of an original type. He published in 1883 a serious novel, _The Giant's
+Robe_; but, in spite of its excellence, he discovered (and again in 1889
+with _The Pariah_) that it was not as a serious novelist but as a
+humorist that the public insisted on regarding him. As such his
+reputation was further confirmed by _The Black Poodle_ (1884), _The
+Tinted Venus_ (1885), _A Fallen Idol_ (1886), and other works. He became
+an important member of the staff of _Punch_, in which his "Voces populi"
+and his humorous parodies of a reciter's stock-piece ("Burglar Bill,"
+&c.) represent his best work. In 1901 his successful farce _The Man from
+Blankley's_, based on a story which originally appeared in _Punch_, was
+first produced at the Prince of Wales's Theatre, in London.
+
+
+
+
+GUTHRIE, the capital of Oklahoma, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Logan
+county, extending on both sides of Cottonwood creek, and lying one mile
+south of the Cimarron river. Pop. (1890) 5333, (1900) 10,006, (1907)
+11,652 (2871 negroes); (1910) 11,654. It is served by the Atchison,
+Topeka & Santa Fé, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Missouri,
+Kansas & Texas, the Fort Smith & Western, and the St Louis, El Reno &
+Western railways. The city is situated about 940 ft. above the sea, in a
+prairie region devoted largely to stock-raising and the cultivation of
+Indian corn, wheat, cotton and various fruits, particularly peaches.
+Guthrie is one of the headquarters of the Federal courts in the state,
+the other being Muskogee. The principal public buildings at Guthrie are
+the state Capitol, the Federal building, the City hall, the Carnegie
+library, the Methodist hospital and a large Masonic temple. Among the
+schools are St Joseph's Academy and a state school for the deaf and
+dumb. Guthrie has a considerable trade with the surrounding country and
+has cotton gins, a cotton compress, and foundries and machine shops;
+among its manufactures are cotton-seed oil, cotton goods, flour,
+cereals, lumber, cigars, brooms and furniture. The total value of the
+factory product in 1905 was $1,200,662. The municipality owns and
+operates the waterworks. The city was founded in 1889, when Oklahoma was
+opened for settlement; in 1890 it was made the capital of the Territory,
+and in 1907 when Oklahoma was made a state, it became the state capital.
+
+
+
+
+GUTHRUM (GODRUM) (d. 890), king of East Anglia, first appears in the
+_English Annals_ in the year 875, when he is mentioned as one of three
+Danish kings who went with the host to Cambridge. He was probably
+engaged in the campaigns of the next three years, and after Alfred's
+victory at Edington in 878, Guthrum met the king at Aller in
+Somersetshire and was baptized there under the name of Æthelstan. He
+stayed there for twelve days and was greatly honoured by his godfather
+Alfred. In 890 Guthrum-Æthelstan died: he is then spoken of as "se
+nor[Pd]erna cyning" (probably) "the Norwegian king," referring to the
+ultimate origin of his family, and we are told that he was the first
+(Scandinavian) to settle East Anglia. Guthrum is perhaps to be
+identified with Gormr (= Guthrum) hinn heimski or hinn riki of the
+Scandinavian sagas, the foster-father of Hör[Pd]aknutr, the father of
+Gorm the old. There is a treaty known as the peace of Alfred and
+Guthrum.
+
+
+
+
+GUTSCHMID, ALFRED, BARON VON (1835-1887), German historian and
+Orientalist, was born on the 1st of July at Loschwitz (Dresden). After
+holding chairs at Kiel (1866), Königsberg (1873), and Jena (1876), he
+was finally appointed professor of history at Tübingen, where he died on
+the 2nd of March 1887. He devoted himself to the study of Eastern
+language and history in its pre-Greek and Hellenistic periods and
+contributed largely to the literature of the subject.
+
+  WORKS.--_Über die Fragmente des Pompeius Trogus_ (supplementary vol.
+  of _Jahrbücher für klass. Phil._, 1857); _Die makedonische Anagraphe_
+  (1864); _Beiträge zur Gesch. des alten Orients_ (Leipzig, 1858); _Neue
+  Beiträge zur Gesch. des alt. Or._, vol. i., _Die Assyriologie in
+  Deutschland_ (Leipzig, 1876); _Die Glaubwürdigkeit der armenischen
+  Gesch. des Moses von Khoren_ (1877); _Untersuchungen über die syrische
+  Epitome des eusebischen Canones_ (1886); _Untersuch. über die Gesch.
+  des Königreichs Osraëne_ (1887); _Gesch. Irans_ (Alexander the Great
+  to the fall of the Arsacidae) (Tübingen, 1887). He wrote on Persia and
+  Phoenicia in the 9th edition of the Ency. Brit. A collection of minor
+  works entitled _Kleine Schriften_ was published by F. Rühl at Leipzig
+  (1889-1894, 5 vols.), with complete list of his writings. See article
+  by Rühl in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, xlix. (1904).
+
+
+
+
+GUTS-MUTHS, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH (1759-1839), German teacher and
+the principal founder of the German school system of gymnastics, was
+born at Quedlinburg on the 9th of August 1759. He was educated at the
+gymnasium of his native town and at Halle University; and in 1785 he
+went to Schnepfenthal, where he taught geography and gymnastics. His
+method of teaching gymnastics was expounded by him in various handbooks;
+and it was chiefly through them that gymnastics very soon came to occupy
+such an important position in the school system of Germany. He also did
+much to introduce a better method of instruction in geography. He died
+on the 21st of May 1839.
+
+  His principal works are _Gymnastik für die Jugend_ (1793); _Spiele zur
+  Übung und Erholung des Körpers und Geistes für die Jugend_ (1796);
+  _Turnbuch_ (1817); _Handbuch der Geographie_ (1810); and a number of
+  books constituting a _Bibliothek für Pädagogik, Schulwesen, und die
+  gesammte pädagogische Literatur Deutschlands_. He also contributed to
+  the _Vollständiges Handbuch der neuesten Erdbeschreibung_, and along
+  with Jacobi published _Deutsches Land und deutsches Volk_, the first
+  part, _Deutsches Land_, being written by him.
+
+
+
+
+GUTTA (Latin for "drop"), an architectural term given to the small
+frusta of conical or cylindrical form carved below the triglyph and
+under the regula of the entablature of the Doric Order. They are
+sometimes known as "trunnels," a corruption of "tree-nail," and resemble
+the wooden pins which in framed timber work or in joinery are employed
+to fasten together the pieces of wood; these are supposed to be derived
+from the original timber construction of the Doric temple, in which the
+pins, driven through the regula, secured the latter to the taenia, and,
+according to C. Chipiez and F. A. Choisy, passed through the taenia to
+hold the triglyphs in place. In the earliest examples of the Doric Order
+at Corinth and Selinus, the guttae are completely isolated from the
+architrave, and in Temple C. at Selinus the guttae are 3 or 4 in. in
+front of it, as if to enable the pin to be driven in more easily. In
+later examples they are partly attached to the architrave. Similar
+guttae are carved under the mutules of the Doric cornice, representing
+the pins driven through the mutules to secure the rafters. In the
+temples at Bassae, Paestum and Selinus, instances have been found where
+the guttae had been carved separately and sunk into holes cut in the
+soffit of the mutules and the regula. Their constant employment in the
+Doric temples suggests that, although originally of constructive origin,
+they were subsequently employed as decorative features.
+
+
+
+
+GUTTA PERCHA, the name applied to the evaporated milky fluid or latex
+furnished by several trees chiefly found in the islands of the Malay
+Archipelago. The name is derived from two Malay words, _getah_ meaning
+gum, and _pertja_ being the name of the tree--probably a Bassia--from
+which the gum was (erroneously) supposed to be obtained.
+
+_Botanical Origin and Distribution._--The actual tree is known to the
+Malays as taban, and the product as _getah taban_. The best gutta percha
+of Malaya is chiefly derived from two trees, and is known as _getah
+taban merah_ (red) or _getah taban sutra_ (silky). The trees in
+question, which belong to the natural order Sapotaceae, have now been
+definitely identified, the first as _Dichopsis gutta_ (Bentham and
+Hooker), otherwise _Isonandra gutta_ (Hooker) or _Palaquium gutta_
+(Burck), and the second as _Dichopsis oblongifolia_ (Burck). Allied
+trees of the same genus and of the same natural order yield similar but
+usually inferior products. Among them may be mentioned species of
+_Payena_ (_getah soondie_).
+
+Gutta percha trees often attain a height of 70 to 100 ft. and the trunk
+has a diameter of from 2 to 3 ft. They are stated to be mature when
+about thirty years old. The leaves of _Dichopsis_, which are
+obovate-lanceolate, with a distinct pointed apex, occur in clusters at
+the end of the branches, and are bright green and smooth on the upper
+surface but on the lower surface are yellowish-brown and covered with
+silky hairs. The leaves are usually about 6 in. long and about 2 in.
+wide at the centre. The flowers are white, and the seeds are contained
+in an ovoid berry about 1 in. long.
+
+The geographical distribution of the gutta percha tree is almost
+entirely confined to the Malay Peninsula and its immediate
+neighbourhood. It includes a region within 6 degrees north and south of
+the equator and 93°-119° longitude, where the temperature ranges from
+66° to 90° F. and the atmosphere is exceedingly moist. The trees may be
+grown from seeds or from cuttings. Some planting has taken place in
+Malaya, but little has so far been done to acclimatize the plant in
+other regions. Recent information seems to point to the possibility of
+growing the tree in Ceylon and on the west coast of Africa.
+
+_Preparation of Gutta Percha._--The gutta is furnished by the greyish
+milky fluid known as the latex, which is chiefly secreted in cylindrical
+vessels or cells situated in the cortex, that is, between the bark and
+the wood (or cambium). Latex also occurs in the leaves of the tree to
+the extent of about 9% of the dried leaves, and this may be removed from
+the powdered leaves by the use of appropriate solvents, but the process
+is not practicable commercially. The latex flows slowly where an
+incision is made through the bark, but not nearly so freely, even in the
+rainy season, as the india-rubber latex. On this account the Malays
+usually fell the tree in order to collect the latex, which is done by
+chopping off the branches and removing circles of the bark, forming
+cylindrical channels about an inch wide at various points about a foot
+apart down the trunk. The latex exudes and fills these channels, from
+which it is removed and converted into gutta by boiling in open vessels
+over wood fires. The work is usually carried on in the wet season when
+the latex is more fluid and more abundant. Sometimes when the latex is
+thick water is added to it before boiling.
+
+The best results are said to be obtained from mature trees about thirty
+years old, which furnish about 2 to 3 lb. of gutta. Older trees do not
+appear to yield larger amounts of gutta, whilst younger trees are said
+to furnish less and of inferior quality. The trees have been so
+extensively felled for the gutta that there has been a great diminution
+in the total number during recent years, which has not been compensated
+for by the new plantations which have been established.
+
+_Uses of Gutta Percha._--The Chinese and Malays appear to have been
+acquainted with the characteristic property of gutta percha of softening
+in warm water and of regaining its hardness when cold, but this plastic
+property seems to have been only utilized for ornamental purposes, the
+construction of walking-sticks and of knife handles and whips, &c.
+
+The brothers Tradescant brought samples of the curious material to
+Europe about the middle of the 17th century. It was then regarded as a
+form of wood, to which the name of "mazer" wood was given on account of
+its employment in making mazers or goblets. A description of it is given
+in a book published by John Tradescant in 1656 entitled _Musaeum
+Tradescantianum or a Collection of Rarities preserved at South Lambeth
+near London_. Many of the curiosities collected from all parts of the
+world by the Tradescants subsequently formed the nucleus of the
+Ashmolean Museum at Oxford which was opened in 1683, but the specimen of
+"mazer wood" no longer exists.
+
+In 1843 samples of the material were sent to London by Dr William
+Montgomerie of Singapore, and were exhibited at the Society of Arts, and
+in the same year Dr José d'Almeida sent samples to the Royal Asiatic
+Society. Gutta percha was also exhibited at the Great Exhibition of
+1851.
+
+Dr Montgomerie's communication to the Society of Arts led to many
+experiments being made with the material. Casts of medals were
+successfully produced, and Sir William Siemens, in conjunction with
+Werner von Siemens, then made the first experiments with the material as
+an insulating covering for cable and telegraph wires, which led to the
+discovery of its important applications in this connexion and to a
+considerable commercial demand for the substance.
+
+The value of gutta percha depends chiefly on its quality, that is its
+richness in true gutta and freedom from resin and other impurities which
+interfere with its physical characters, and especially its insulating
+power or inability to conduct electricity.
+
+The chief use of gutta percha is now for electrical purposes. Other
+minor uses are in dentistry and as a means of taking impressions of
+medals, &c. It has also found application in the preparation of belting
+for machinery, as well as for the construction of the handles of knives
+and surgical instruments, whilst the inferior qualities are used for
+waterproofing.
+
+_Commercial Production._--The amount of gutta percha exported through
+Singapore from British and Dutch possessions in the East is subject to
+considerable fluctuation, depending chiefly on the demand for cable and
+telegraph construction. In 1886 the total export from Singapore was
+40,411 cwt., of which Great Britain took 31,666 cwt.; in 1896 the export
+was 51,982 cwt. of which 29,722 cwt. came to Great Britain; while in
+1905, 42,088 cwt. were exported (19,517 cwt. to Great Britain). It has
+to be remembered that the official returns include not only gutta
+percha of various grades of quality but also other inferior products
+sold under the name of gutta percha, some of which are referred to below
+under the head of substitutes. The value of gutta percha cannot
+therefore be correctly gauged from the value of the imports. In the ten
+years 1896-1906 the best qualities of gutta percha fetched from 4s. to
+about 7s. per lb. Gutta percha, however, is used for few and special
+purposes, and there is no free market, the price being chiefly a matter
+of arrangement between the chief producers and consumers.
+
+  _Characters and Properties._--Gutta percha appears in commerce in the
+  form of blocks or cakes of a dirty greyish appearance, often
+  exhibiting a reddish tinge, and just soft enough to be indented by the
+  nail. It is subject to considerable adulteration, various materials,
+  such as coco-nut oil, being added by the Malays to improve its
+  appearance. The solid, which is fibrous in texture, hard and inelastic
+  but not brittle at ordinary temperature, becomes plastic when immersed
+  in hot water or if otherwise raised to a temperature of about 65°-66°
+  C. in the case of gutta of the first quality, the temperature of
+  softening being dependent on the quality of the gutta employed. In
+  this condition it can be drawn out into threads, but is still
+  inelastic. On cooling again the gutta resumes its hardness without
+  becoming brittle. In this respect gutta percha differs from
+  india-rubber or caoutchouc, which does not become plastic and unlike
+  gutta percha is elastic. This property of softening on heating and
+  solidifying when cooled again, without change in its original
+  properties, enables gutta percha to be worked into various forms,
+  rolled into sheets or drawn into ropes. The specific gravity of the
+  best gutta percha lies between 0.96 and 1. Gutta percha is not
+  dissolved by most liquids, although some remove resinous constituents;
+  the best solvents are oil of turpentine, coal-tar oil, carbon
+  bisulphide and chloroform, and light petroleum when hot. Gutta percha
+  is not affected by alkaline solutions or by dilute acids. Strong
+  sulphuric acid chars it when warm, and nitric acid effects complete
+  oxidation.
+
+  When exposed to air and light, gutta percha rapidly deteriorates,
+  oxygen being absorbed, producing a brittle resinous material.
+
+  _Chemical Composition._--Chemically, gutta percha is not a single
+  substance but a mixture of several constituents. As the proportions of
+  these constituents in the crude material are not constant, the
+  properties of gutta percha are subject to variation. For electrical
+  purposes it should have a high insulating power and dielectric
+  strength and a low inductive capacity; the possession of these
+  properties is influenced by the resinous constituents present.
+
+  The principal constituent of the crude material is the pure gutta, a
+  hydrocarbon of the empirical formula C10H16. It is therefore isomeric
+  with the hydrocarbon of caoutchouc and with that of oil of turpentine.
+  Accompanying this are at least two oxygenated resinous
+  constituents--albane C10H16O and fluavil C20H32O--which can be
+  separated from the pure gutta by the use of solvents. Pure gutta is
+  not dissolved by ether and light petroleum in the cold, whereas the
+  resinous constituents are removed by these liquids. The true gutta
+  exhibits in an enhanced degree the valuable properties of gutta
+  percha, and the commercial value of the raw material is frequently
+  determined by ascertaining the proportion of true gutta present, the
+  higher the proportion of this the more valuable is the gutta percha.
+  The following are the results of analyses of gutta percha from trees
+  of the genus _Dichopsis_ or _Palaquium_:--
+
+    +--------------------------------------+-----------+----------+
+    |                                      |   Gutta   |   Resin  |
+    |                                      | per cent. | per cent.|
+    +--------------------------------------+-----------+----------+
+    |Dichopsis (or Palaquium) oblongifolia |    88.8   |   11.2   |
+    |    "      "      "      gutta        |    82.0   |   18.0   |
+    |    "      "      "      polyantha    |    49.3   |   50.7   |
+    |    "      "      "      pustulata    |    47.8   |   52.2   |
+    |    "      "      "      Maingayi     |    24.4   |   75.6   |
+    +--------------------------------------+-----------+----------+
+
+  The hydrocarbon of gutta percha, gutta, is closely related in chemical
+  constitution to caoutchouc. When distilled at a high temperature both
+  are resolved into a mixture of two simpler hydrocarbons, isoprene
+  (C5H8) and caoutchoucine or dipentene (C10H16), and the latter by
+  further heating can be resolved into isoprene, a hydrocarbon of known
+  constitution which has been produced synthetically and spontaneously
+  reverts to caoutchouc. The precise relationship of isoprene to gutta
+  has not been ascertained, but recently Harries has further elucidated
+  the connexion between gutta and caoutchouc by showing that under the
+  action of ozone both break up into laevulinic aldehyde and hydrogen
+  peroxide, but differ in the proportions of these products they
+  furnish. The two materials must therefore be regarded as very closely
+  related in chemical constitution. Like caoutchouc, gutta percha is
+  able to combine with sulphur, and this vulcanized product has found
+  some commercial applications.
+
+  _Manufacture of Gutta Percha._--Among the earliest patents taken out
+  for the manufacture of gutta percha were those of Charles Hancock, the
+  first of which is dated 1843.
+
+  Before being used for technical purposes the raw gutta percha is
+  cleaned by machinery whilst in the plastic state. The chopped or
+  sliced material is washed by mechanical means in hot water and forced
+  through a sieve or strainer of fine wire gauze to remove dirt. It is
+  then kneaded or "masticated" by machinery to remove the enclosed
+  water, and is finally transferred whilst still hot and plastic to the
+  rolling-machine, from which it emerges in sheets of different
+  thickness. Sometimes chemical treatment of the crude gutta percha is
+  resorted to for the purpose of removing the resinous constituents by
+  the action of alkaline solutions or of light petroleum.
+
+  _Substitutes for Gutta Percha._--For some purposes natural and
+  artificial substitutes for gutta percha have been employed. The
+  similar products furnished by other plants than those which yield
+  gutta percha are among the more important of the natural substitutes,
+  of which the material known as "balata" or "Surinam gutta percha," is
+  the most valuable. This is derived from a tree, _Mimusops balata_
+  (bullet tree), belonging to the same natural order as gutta percha
+  trees, viz. Sapotaceae. It is a large tree, growing to a height of 80
+  to 100 ft. or more, which occurs in the West Indies, in South America,
+  and is especially abundant in Dutch and British Guiana. The latex
+  which furnishes balata is secreted in the cortex between the bark and
+  wood of the tree. As the latex flows freely the trees are tapped by
+  making incisions in the same fashion as in india-rubber trees, and the
+  balata is obtained by evaporating the milky fluid. Crude balata varies
+  in composition. It usually contains nearly equal proportions of resin
+  and true gutta. The latter appears to be identical with the chief
+  constituent of gutta percha. The properties of balata correspond with
+  its composition, and it may therefore be classed as an inferior gutta
+  percha. Balata fetches from 1s. 6d. to 2s. 8d. per lb.
+
+  Among the inferior substitutes for gutta percha may be mentioned the
+  evaporated latices derived from _Butyrospermum Parkii_ (shea-butter
+  tree of West Africa or karite of the Sudan), _Calotropis gigantea_
+  (Madar tree of India), and _Dyera costulata_ of Malaya and Borneo,
+  which furnishes the material known as "Pontianac." All these contain a
+  small amount of gutta-like material associated with large quantities
+  of resinous and other constituents. They fetch only a few pence per
+  lb., and are utilized for waterproofing purposes.
+
+  Various artificial substitutes for gutta percha have been invented
+  chiefly for use as insulating materials. These often consist of
+  mixtures of bitumen with linseed and other oils, resins, &c., in some
+  cases incorporated with inferior grades of gutta percha.
+
+  For further information respecting gutta percha, and for figures of
+  the trees, the following works may be consulted: Jumelle, _Les Plantes
+  à caoutchouc et à gutta_ (Paris, Challamel, 1903); Obach, "Cantor
+  Lectures on Gutta Percha," _Journal of the Society of Arts_, 1898.
+       (W. R. D.)
+
+
+
+
+GUTTER (O. Fr. _goutiere_, mod. _gouttière_, from Lat. _gutta_, drop),
+in architecture, a horizontal channel or trough contrived to carry away
+the water from a flat or sloping roof to its discharge down a vertical
+pipe or through a spout or gargoyle; more specifically, but loosely, the
+similar channel at the side of a street, below the pavement. In Greek
+and Roman temples the cymatium of the cornice was the gutter, and the
+water was discharged through the mouths of lions, whose heads were
+carved on the same. Sometimes the cymatium was not carried along the
+flanks of a temple, in which case the rain fell off the lower edge of
+the roof tiles. In medieval work the gutter rested partly on the top of
+the wall and partly on corbel tables, and the water was discharged
+through gargoyles. Sometimes, however, a parapet or pierced balustrade
+was carried on the corbel table enclosing the gutter. In buildings of a
+more ordinary class the parapet is only a continuation of the wall
+below, and the gutter is set back and carried in a trough resting on the
+lower end of the roof timbers. The safest course is to have an eaves
+gutter which projects more or less in front of the wall and is secured
+to and carried by the rafters of the roof. In Renaissance architecture
+generally the pierced balustrade of the Gothic and transition work was
+replaced by a balustrade with vertical balusters. In France a compromise
+was effected, whereby instead of the horizontal coping of the ordinary
+balustrade a richly carved cresting was employed, of which the earliest
+example is in the first court of the Louvre by Pierre Lescot. This
+exists throughout the French Renaissance, and it is one of its chief
+characteristic features.
+
+
+
+
+GUTZKOW, KARL FERDINAND (1811-1878), German novelist and dramatist, was
+born on the 17th of March 1811 at Berlin, where his father held a
+clerkship in the war office. After leaving school he studied theology
+and philosophy at the university of his native town, and while still a
+student, began his literary career by the publication in 1831 of a
+periodical entitled _Forum der Journalliteratur_. This brought him to
+the notice of Wolfgang Menzel, who invited him to Stuttgart to assist
+in the editorship of the _Literaturblatt_. At the same time he continued
+his university studies at Jena, Heidelberg and Munich. In 1832 he
+published anonymously at Hamburg _Briefe eines Narren an eine Närrin_,
+and in 1833 appeared at Stuttgart _Maha-Guru, Geschichte eines Gottes_,
+a fantastic and satirical romance. In 1835 he went to Frankfort, where
+he founded the _Deutsche Revue_. In the same year appeared _Wally, die
+Zweiflerin_, from the publication of which may be said to date the
+school of writers who, from their opposition to the literary, social and
+religious traditions of romanticism, received the name of "Young
+Germany." The work was directed specially against the institution of
+marriage and the belief in revelation; and whatever interest it might
+have attracted from its own merits was enhanced by the action of the
+German federal diet, which condemned Gutzkow to three months'
+imprisonment, decreed the suppression of all he had written or might yet
+write, and prohibited him from exercising the functions of editor within
+the German confederation. During his term of imprisonment at Mannheim,
+Gutzkow employed himself in the composition of his treatise _Zur
+Philosophie der Geschichte_ (1836). On obtaining his freedom he returned
+to Frankfort, whence he went in 1837 to Hamburg. Here he inaugurated a
+new epoch of his literary activity by bringing out his tragedy _Richard
+Savage_ (1839), which immediately made the round of all the German
+theatres. Of his numerous other plays the majority are now neglected;
+but a few have obtained an established place in the repertory of the
+German theatre--especially the comedies _Zopf und Schwert_ (1844), _Das
+Urbild des Tartüffe_ (1847), _Der Königsleutnant_ (1849) and the blank
+verse tragedy, _Uriel Acosta_ (1847). In 1847 Gutzkow went to Dresden,
+where he succeeded Tieck as literary adviser to the court theatre.
+Meanwhile he had not neglected the novel. _Seraphine_ (1838) was
+followed by _Blasedow und seine Söhne_, a satire on the educational
+theories of the time. Between 1850 and 1852 appeared _Die Ritter vom
+Geiste_, which may be regarded as the starting-point for the modern
+German social novel. _Der Zauberer von Rom_ is a powerful study of Roman
+Catholic life in southern Germany. The success of _Die Ritter vom
+Geiste_ suggested to Gutzkow the establishment of a journal on the model
+of Dickens' _Household Words_, entitled _Unterhaltungen am häuslichen
+Herd_, which first appeared in 1852 and was continued till 1862. In 1864
+he had an epileptic fit, and his productions show henceforth decided
+traces of failing powers. To this period belong the historical novels
+_Hohenschwangau_ (1868) and _Fritz Ellrodt_ (1872), _Lebensbilder_
+(1870-1872), consisting of autobiographic sketches, and _Die Söhne
+Pestalozzis_ (1870), the plot of which is founded on the story of Kaspar
+Hauser. On account of a return of his nervous malady, Gutzkow in 1873
+made a journey to Italy, and on his return took up his residence in the
+country near Heidelberg, whence he removed to Frankfort-on-Main, dying
+there on the 16th of December 1878. With the exception of one or two of
+his comedies, Gutzkow's writings have fallen into neglect. But he
+exerted a powerful influence on the opinions of modern Germany; and his
+works will always be of interest as the mirror in which the intellectual
+and social struggles of his time are best reflected.
+
+  An edition of Gutzkow's collected works appeared at Jena (1873-1876,
+  new ed., 1879). E. Wolff has published critical editions of Gutzkow's
+  _Meisterdramen_ (1892) and _Wally die Zweiflerin_ (1905). His more
+  important novels have been frequently reprinted. For Gutzkow's life
+  see his various autobiographical writings such as _Aus der Knabenzeit_
+  (1852), _Rückblicke auf mein Leben_ (1876), &c. For an estimate of his
+  life and work see J. Proelss, _Das junge Deutschland_ (1892); also H.
+  H. Houben, _Studien über die Dramen Gutzkows_ (1898) and
+  _Gutzkow-Funde_ (1901).
+
+
+
+
+GÜTZLAFF, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1803-1851), German missionary to China,
+was born at Pyritz in Pomerania on the 8th of July 1803. When still
+apprenticed to a saddler in Stettin, he made known his missionary
+inclinations to the king of Prussia, through whom he went to the
+Pädagogium at Halle, and afterwards to the mission institute of Jänike
+in Berlin. In 1826, under the auspices of the Netherlands Missionary
+Society, he went to Java, where he was able to learn Chinese. Leaving
+the society in 1828, he went to Singapore, and in August of the same
+year removed to Bangkok, where he translated the Bible into Siamese. In
+1829 he married an English lady, who aided him in the preparation of a
+dictionary of Cochin Chinese, but she died in August 1831 before its
+completion. Shortly after her death he sailed to Macao in China, where,
+and subsequently at Hong Kong, he worked at a translation of the Bible
+into Chinese, published a Chinese monthly magazine, and wrote in Chinese
+various books on subjects of useful knowledge. In 1834 he published at
+London a _Journal of Three Voyages along the Coast of China in 1831,
+1832 and 1833_. He was appointed in 1835 joint Chinese secretary to the
+English commission, and during the opium war of 1840-42 and the
+negotiations connected with the peace that followed he rendered valuable
+service by his knowledge of the country and people. The Chinese
+authorities refusing to permit foreigners to penetrate into the
+interior, Gützlaff in 1844 founded an institute for training native
+missionaries, which was so successful that during the first four years
+as many as forty-eight Chinese were sent out from it to work among their
+fellow-countrymen. He died at Hong Kong on the 9th of August 1851.
+
+  Gützlaff also wrote _A Sketch of Chinese History, Ancient and Modern_
+  (London, 1834), and a similar work published in German at Stuttgart in
+  1847; China Opened (1838); and the _Life of Taow-Kwang_ (1851; German
+  edition published at Leipzig in 1852). A complete collection of his
+  Chinese writings is contained in the library at Munich.
+
+
+
+
+GUY OF WARWICK, English hero of romance. Guy, son of Siward or Seguard
+of Wallingford, by his prowess in foreign wars wins in marriage Félice
+(the Phyllis of the well-known ballad), daughter and heiress of Roalt,
+earl of Warwick. Soon after his marriage he is seized with remorse for
+the violence of his past life, and, by way of penance, leaves his wife
+and fortune to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. After years of
+absence he returns in time to deliver Winchester for King Æthelstan from
+the invading northern kings, Anelaph (Anlaf or Olaf) and Gonelaph, by
+slaying in single fight their champion the giant Colbrand. Local
+tradition fixes the duel at Hyde Mead near Winchester. Making his way to
+Warwick he becomes one of his wife's bedesmen, and presently retires to
+a hermitage in Arden, only revealing his identity at the approach of
+death. The versions of the Middle English romance of Guy which we
+possess are adaptations from the French, and are cast in the form of a
+_roman d'aventures_, opening with a long recital of Guy's wars in
+Lombardy, Germany and Constantinople, and embellished with fights with
+dragons and surprising feats of arms. The kernel of the tradition
+evidently lies in the fight with Colbrand, which represents, or at least
+is symbolic[1] of an historical fact. The religious side of the legend
+finds parallels in the stories of St Eustachius and St Alexius,[2] and
+makes it probable that the Guy-legend, as we have it, has passed through
+monastic hands. Tradition seems to be at fault in putting Guy's
+adventures under Æthelstan. The Anlaf of the story is probably Olaf
+Tryggvason, who, with Sweyn of Denmark, harried the southern counties of
+England in 993 and pitched his winter quarters in Southampton.
+Winchester was saved, however, not by the valour of an English champion,
+but by the payment of money. This Olaf was not unnaturally confused with
+Anlaf Cuaran or Havelok (i.e.).
+
+The name Guy (perhaps a Norman form of A. S. _wig_ = war) may be fairly
+connected with the family of Wigod, lord of Wallingford under Edward the
+Confessor, and a Filicia, who belongs to the 12th century and was
+perhaps the Norman poet's patroness, occurs in the pedigree of the
+Ardens, descended from Thurkill of Warwick and his son Siward. Guy's
+Cliffe, near Warwick, where in the 14th century Richard de Beauchamp,
+earl of Warwick, erected a chantry, with a statue of the hero, does not
+correspond with the site of the hermitage as described in the romance.
+The bulk of the legend is obviously fiction, even though it may be
+vaguely connected with the family history of the Ardens and the
+Wallingford family, but it was accepted as authentic fact in the
+chronicle of Pierre de Langtoft (Peter of Langtoft) written at the end
+of the 13th century. The adventures of Reynbrun, son of Guy, and his
+tutor Heraud of Arden, who had also educated Guy, have much in common
+with his father's history, and form an interpolation sometimes treated
+as a separate romance. There is a certain connexion between Guy and
+Count Guido of Tours (fl. 800), and Alcuin's advice to the count is
+transferred to the English hero in the _Speculum Gy of Warewyke_ (_c_.
+1327), edited for the Early English Text Society by G. L. Morrill, 1898.
+
+  The French romance (Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 3775) has not been printed,
+  but is described by Émile Littré in _Hist. litt. de la France_ (xxii.,
+  841-851, 1852). A French prose version was printed in Paris, 1525, and
+  subsequently (see G. Brunet, _Manuel du libraire_, _s.v._ "Guy de
+  Warvich"); the English metrical romance exists in four versions,
+  dating from the early 14th century; the text was edited by J. Zupitza
+  (1875-1876) for the E.E.T.S. from Cambridge University Lib. Paper MS.
+  Ff. 2, 38, and again (3 pts. 1883-1891, extra series, Nos. 42, 49,
+  59), from the Auchinleck and Caius College MSS. The popularity of the
+  legend is shown by the numerous versions in English: _Guy of Warwick_,
+  translated from the Latin of Girardus Cornubiensis (fl. 1350) into
+  English verse by John Lydgate between 1442 and 1468; _Guy of Warwick_,
+  a poem (written in 1617 and licensed, but not printed) by John Lane,
+  the MS. of which (Brit. Mus.) contains a sonnet by John Milton, father
+  of the poet; _The Famous Historie of Guy, Earl of Warwick_ (c. 1607),
+  by Samuel Rowlands; _The Booke of the Moste Victoryous Prince Guy of
+  Warwicke_ (William Copland, no date); other editions by J. Cawood and
+  C. Bates; chapbooks and ballads of the 17th and 18th centuries: _The
+  Tragical History, Admirable Achievements and Curious Events of Guy,
+  Earl of Warwick_, a tragedy (1661) which may possibly be identical
+  with a play on the subject Written by John Day and Thomas Dekker, and
+  entered at Stationers' Hall on the 15th of January 1618/19; three
+  verse fragments are printed by Hales and Furnivall in their edition of
+  the Percy Folio MS. vol. ii.; an early French MS. is described by J.
+  A. Herbert (_An Early MS. of Gui de Warwick_, London, 1905).
+
+  See also M. Weyrauch _Die mittelengl. Fassungen der Sage von Guy_ (2
+  pts., Breslau, 1899 and 1901); J. Zupitza in _Silzungsber. d.
+  phil.-hist. Kl. d. kgl. Akad. d. Wiss._ (vol. lxxiv., Vienna, 1874),
+  and _Zur Literaturgeschichte des Guy von Warwick_ (Vienna, 1873); a
+  learned discussion of the whole subject by H. L. Ward, _Catalogue of
+  Romances_ (i. 471-501, 1883); and an article by S. L. Lee in the
+  _Dictionary of National Biography_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Some writers have supposed that the fight with Colbrand
+    symbolizes the victory of Brunanburh. Anelaph and Gonelaph would then
+    represent the cousins Anlaf Sihtricson and Anlaf Godfreyson (see
+    HAVELOK).
+
+  [2] See the English legends in C. Horstmann, _Altenglische Legenden_,
+    Neue Folge (Heilbronn, 1881).
+
+
+
+
+GUY, THOMAS (1644-1724), founder of Guy's Hospital, London, was the son
+of a lighterman and coal-dealer at Southwark. After serving an
+apprenticeship of eight years with a bookseller, he in 1668 began
+business on his own account. He dealt largely in Bibles, which had for
+many years been poorly and incorrectly printed in England. These he at
+first imported from Holland, but subsequently obtained from the
+university of Oxford the privilege of printing. Thus, and by an
+extremely thrifty mode of life, and more particularly by investment in
+government securities, the subscription of these into the South Sea
+Company, and the subsequent sale of his stock in 1720, he became master
+of an immense fortune. He died unmarried on the 17th of December 1724.
+In 1707 he built three wards of St Thomas's Hospital, which institution
+he otherwise subsequently benefited; and at a cost of £18,793, 16s. he
+erected Guy's Hospital, leaving for its endowment £219,499; he also
+endowed Christ's Hospital with £400 a year, and in 1678 endowed
+almshouses at Tamworth, his mother's birthplace, which was represented
+by him in parliament from 1695 to 1707. The residue of his estate, which
+went to distant relatives, amounted to about £80,000.
+
+  See _A True Copy of the Last Will and Testament of Thomas Guy, Esq._
+  (London, 1725); J. Noorthouck, _A New Hist. of London_, bk. iii. ch.
+  i. p. 684 (1773); Nichols, _Literary Anecdotes_, iii. 599 (1812);
+  Charles Knight, _Shadows of the Old Booksellers_, pp. 3-23 (1865); and
+  _A Biographical History of Guy's Hospital_, by S. Wilkes and G. T.
+  Bettany (1892).
+
+
+
+
+GUYON, JEANNE MARIE BOUVIER DE LA MOTHE (1648-1717), French quietist
+writer, was born at Montargis, where her family were persons of
+consequence, on the 13th of April 1648. If her somewhat hysterical
+autobiography may be trusted she was much neglected in her youth; most
+of her time was spent as a boarder in various convent schools. Here she
+went through all the religious experiences common to neurotic young
+women; these were turned in a definitely mystical direction by the
+duchesse de Béthune, daughter of the disgraced minister, Fouquet, who
+spent some years at Montargis after her father's fall. In 1664 Jeanne
+Marie was married to a rich invalid of the name of Guyon, many years her
+senior. Twelve years later he died, leaving his widow with three small
+children and a considerable fortune. All through her unhappy married
+life the mystical attraction had grown steadily in violence; it now
+attached itself to a certain Father Lacombe, a Barnabite monk of weak
+character and unstable intellect. In 1681 she left her family and joined
+him; for five years the two rambled about together in Savoy and the
+south-east of France, spreading their mystical ideas. At last they
+excited the suspicion of the authorities; in 1686 Lacombe was recalled
+to Paris, put under surveillance, and finally sent to the Bastille in
+the autumn of 1687. He was presently transferred to the castle of
+Lourdes, where he developed softening of the brain and died in 1715.
+Meanwhile Madame Guyon had been arrested in January 1688, and been shut
+up in a convent as a suspected heretic. Thence she was delivered in the
+following year by her old friend, the duchesse de Béthune, who had
+returned from exile to become a power in the devout court-circle
+presided over by Madame de Maintenon. Before long Madame Guyon herself
+was introduced into this pious assemblage. Its members were far from
+critical; they were intensely interested in religion; and even Madame
+Guyon's bitterest critics bear witness to her charm of manner, her
+imposing appearance, and the force and eloquence with which she
+explained her mystical ideas. So much was Madame de Maintenon impressed,
+that she often invited Madame Guyon to give lectures at her girls'
+school of St Cyr. But by far the greatest of her conquests was Fénelon,
+now a rising young director of consciences, much in favour with
+aristocratic ladies. Dissatisfied with the formalism of average Catholic
+piety, he was already thinking out a mystical theory of his own; and
+between 1689 and 1693 they corresponded regularly. But as soon as ugly
+reports about Lacombe began to spread, he broke off all connexion with
+her. Meanwhile the reports had reached the prudent ears of Madame de
+Maintenon. In May 1693 she asked Madame Guyon to go no more to St Cyr.
+In the hope of clearing her orthodoxy, Madame Guyon appealed to Bossuet,
+who decided that her books contained "much that was intolerable, alike
+in form and matter." To this judgment Madame Guyon submitted, promised
+to "dogmatize no more," and disappeared into the country (1693). In the
+next year she again petitioned for an inquiry, and was eventually sent,
+half as a prisoner, half as a penitent, to Bossuet's cathedral town of
+Meaux. Here she spent the first half of 1695; but in the summer she
+escaped without his leave, bearing with her a certificate of orthodoxy
+signed by him. Bossuet regarded this flight as a gross act of
+disobedience; in the winter Madame Guyon was arrested and shut up in the
+Bastille. There she remained till 1703. In that year she was liberated,
+on condition she went to live on her son's estate near Blois, under the
+eye of a stern bishop. Here the rest of her life was spent in charitable
+and pious exercises; she died on the 9th of June 1717. During these
+latter years her retreat at Blois became a regular place of pilgrimage
+for admirers, foreign quite as often as French. Indeed, she is one of
+the many prophetesses whose fame has stood highest out of their own
+country. French critics of all schools of thought have generally
+reckoned her an hysterical degenerate; in England and Germany she has as
+often roused enthusiastic admiration.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Vie de Madame Guyon, écrite par elle-même_ (really a
+  compilation made from various fragments) (3 vols., Paris, 1791). There
+  is a life in English by T. C. Upham (New York, 1854); and an elaborate
+  study by L. Guerrier (Paris, 1881). For a remarkable review of this
+  latter work see Brunetière, _Nouvelles Études critiques_, vol. ii. The
+  complete edition of Madame Guyon's works, including the autobiography
+  and five volumes of letters, runs to forty volumes (1767-1791); the
+  most important works are published separately, _Opuscules spirituels_
+  (2 vols., Paris, 1790). They have been several times translated into
+  English. See also the literature of the article on QUIETISM; and H.
+  Delacroix, _Études sur le mysticisme_ (Paris, 1908).     (St C.)
+
+
+
+
+GUYON, RICHARD DEBAUFRE (1803-1856), British soldier, general in the
+Hungarian revolutionary army and Turkish pasha, was born at Walcot, near
+Bath, in 1803. After receiving a military education in England and in
+Austria he entered the Hungarian hussars in 1823, in which he served
+until after his marriage with a daughter of Baron Spleny, a general
+officer in the imperial service. At the outbreak of the Hungarian War in
+1848, he re-entered active service as an officer of the Hungarian
+Honvéds, and he won great distinction in the action of Sukoro (September
+29, 1848) and the battle of Schwechat (October 30). He added to his
+reputation as a leader in various actions in the winter of 1848-1849,
+and after the battle of Kapolna was made a general officer. He served in
+important and sometimes independent commands to the end of the war,
+after which he escaped to Turkey. In 1852 he entered the service of the
+sultan. He was made a pasha and lieutenant-general without being
+required to change his faith, and rendered distinguished service in the
+campaign against the Russians in Asia Minor (1854-55). General Guyon
+died of cholera at Scutari on the 12th of October 1856.
+
+  See A. W. Kinglake, _The Patriot and the Hero General Guyon_ (1856).
+
+
+
+
+GUYOT, ARNOLD HENRY (1807-1884), Swiss-American geologist and
+geographer, was born at Boudevilliers, near Neuchâtel, Switzerland, on
+the 28th of September 1807. He studied at the college of Neuchâtel and
+in Germany, where he began a lifelong friendship with Louis Agassiz. He
+was professor of history and physical geography at the short-lived
+Neuchâtel "Academy" from 1839 to 1848, when he removed, at Agassiz's
+instance, to the United States, settling in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
+For several years he was a lecturer for the Massachusetts State Board of
+Education, and he was professor of geology and physical geography at
+Princeton from 1854 until his death there on the 8th of February 1884.
+He ranked high as a geologist and meteorologist. As early as 1838, he
+undertook, at Agassiz's suggestion, the study of glaciers, and was the
+first to announce, in a paper submitted to the Geological Society of
+France, certain important observations relating to glacial motion and
+structure. Among other things he noted the more rapid flow of the centre
+than of the sides, and the more rapid flow of the top than of the bottom
+of glaciers; described the laminated or "ribboned" structure of the
+glacial ice, and ascribed the movement of glaciers to a gradual
+molecular displacement rather than to a sliding of the ice mass as held
+by de Saussure. He subsequently collected important data concerning
+erratic boulders. His extensive meteorological observations in America
+led to the establishment of the United States Weather Bureau, and his
+_Meteorological and Physical Tables_ (1852, revised ed. 1884) were long
+standard. His graded series of text-books and wall-maps were important
+aids in the extension and popularization of geological study in America.
+In addition to text-books, his principal publications were: _Earth and
+Man, Lectures on Comparative Physical Geography in its Relation to the
+History of Mankind_ (translated by Professor C. C. Felton, 1849); _A
+Memoir of Louis Agassiz_ (1883); and _Creation, or the Biblical
+Cosmogony in the Light of Modern Science_ (1884).
+
+  See James D. Dana's "Memoir" in the _Biographical Memoirs of the
+  National Academy of Science_, vol. ii. (Washington, 1886).
+
+
+
+
+GUYOT, YVES (1843-   ), French politician and economist, was born at
+Dinan on the 6th of September 1843. Educated at Rennes, he took up the
+profession of journalism, coming to Paris in 1867. He was for a short
+period editor-in-chief of _L'Indépendant du midi_ of Nîmes, but joined
+the staff of _La Rappel_ on its foundation, and worked subsequently on
+other journals. He took an active part in municipal life, and waged a
+keen campaign against the prefecture of police, for which he suffered
+six months' imprisonment. He entered the chamber of deputies in 1885 as
+representative of the first arrondissement of Paris and was _rapporteur
+général_ of the budget of 1888. He became minister of public works under
+the premiership of P. E. Tirard in 1889, retaining his portfolio in the
+cabinet of C. L. de Freycinet until 1892. Although of strong liberal
+views, he lost his seat in the election of 1893 owing to his militant
+attitude against socialism. An uncompromising free-trader, he published
+_La Comédie protectionniste_ (1905; Eng. trans. _The Comedy of
+Protection_); _La Science économique_ (1st ed. 1881; 3rd ed. 1907); _La
+Prostitution_ (1882); _La Tyrannie socialiste_ (1893), all three
+translated into English; _Les Conflits du travail et leur solution_
+(1903); _La Démocratie individualiste_ (1907).
+
+
+
+
+GUYTON DE MORVEAU, LOUIS BERNARD, BARON (1737-1816), French chemist, was
+born on the 4th of January 1737, at Dijon, where his father was
+professor of civil law at the university. As a boy he showed remarkable
+aptitude for practical mechanics, but on leaving school he studied law
+in the university of Dijon, and in his twenty-fourth year became
+advocate-general in the parlement of Dijon. This office he held till
+1782. Devoting his leisure to the study of chemistry, he published in
+1772 his _Digressions académiques_, in which he set forth his views on
+phlogiston, crystallization, &c., and two years later he established in
+his native town courses of lectures on materia medica, mineralogy and
+chemistry. An essay on chemical nomenclature, which he published in the
+_Journal de physique_ for May 1782, was ultimately developed with the
+aid of A. L. Lavoisier, C. L. Berthollet and A. F. Fourcroy, into the
+_Méthode d'une nomenclature chimique_, published in 1787, the principles
+of which were speedily adopted by chemists throughout Europe. Constantly
+in communication with the leaders of the Lavoisierian school, he soon
+became a convert to the anti-phlogistic doctrine; and he published his
+reasons in the first volume of the section "Chymie, Pharmacie et
+Metallurgie" of the _Encyclopédie méthodique_ (1786), the chemical
+articles in which were written by him, as well as some of those in the
+second volume (1792). In 1794 he was appointed to superintend the
+construction of balloons for military purposes, being known as the
+author of some aeronautical experiments carried out at Dijon some ten
+years previously. In 1791 he became a member of the Legislative
+Assembly, and in the following year of the National Convention, to which
+he was re-elected in 1795, but he retired from political life in 1797.
+In 1798 he acted as provisional director of the Polytechnic School, in
+the foundation of which he took an active part, and from 1800 to 1814 he
+held the appointment of master of the mint. In 1811 he was made a baron
+of the French Empire. He died in Paris on the 2nd of January 1816.
+
+  Besides being a diligent contributor to the scientific periodicals of
+  the day, Guyton wrote _Mémoire sur l'éducation publique_ (1762); a
+  satirical poem entitled _Le Rat iconoclaste, ou le Jésuite croqué_
+  (1763); _Discours publics et éloges_ (1775-1782); _Plaidoyers sur
+  plusieurs questions de droit_ (1785); and _Traité des moyens de
+  désinfecter l'air_ (1801), describing the disinfecting powers of
+  chlorine, and of hydrochloric acid gas which he had successfully used
+  at Dijon in 1773. With Hugues Maret (1726-1785) and Jean François
+  Durande (d. 1794) he also published the _Élémens de chymie théorique
+  et pratique_ (1776-1777).
+
+
+
+
+GUZMICS, IZIDÓR (1786-1839). Hungarian theologian, was born on the 7th
+of April 1786 at Vámos-Család, in the county of Sopron. At Sopron
+(Oedenburg) he was instructed in the art of poetry by Paul Horváth. In
+October 1805 he entered the Benedictine order, but left it in August of
+the following year, only again to assume the monastic garb on the 10th
+of November 1806. At the monastery of Pannonhegy he applied himself to
+the study of Greek under Farkas Tóth and in 1812 he was sent to Pesth to
+study theology. Here he read the best German and Hungarian authors, and
+took part in the editorship of the _Nemzeti_ (National) _Plutarkus_, and
+in the translation of Johann Hübner's _Lexicon_. On obtaining the degree
+of doctor of divinity in 1816, he returned to Pannonhegy, where he
+devoted himself to dogmatic theology and literature, and contributed
+largely to Hungarian periodicals. The most important of his theological
+works are: _A kath. anyaszentegyháznak hitbeli tanitása_ (The Doctrinal
+Teaching of the Holy Catholic Church), and _A keresztényeknek vallásbeli
+egyesülésökröl_ (On Religious Unity among Christians), both published at
+Pesth in 1822; also a Latin treatise entitled _Theologia Christiana
+fundamentalis et theologia dogmatica_ (4 vols., Györ, 1828-1829). His
+translation of Theocritus in hexameters was published in 1824. His
+versions of the _Oedipus_ of Sophocles and of the _Iphigenia_ of
+Euripides were rewarded by the Hungarian Academy, of which in 1838 he
+was elected honorary member. In 1832 he was appointed abbot of the
+wealthy Benedictine house at Bakonybél, a village in the county of
+Veszprém. There he built an asylum for 150 children, and founded a
+school of harmony and singing. He died on the 1st of September 1839.
+
+
+
+
+GWADAR, a port on the Makran coast of Baluchistan, about 290 m. W. of
+Karachi. Pop. (1903), 4350. In the last half of the 18th century it was
+handed over by the khan of Kalat to the sultan of Muscat, who still
+exercises sovereignty over the port, together with about 300 sq. m. of
+the adjoining country. It is a place of call for the steamers of the
+British India Navigation Company.
+
+
+
+
+GWALIOR, a native state of India, in the Central India agency, by far
+the largest of the numerous principalities comprised in that area. It is
+the dominion of the Sindhia family. The state consists of two
+well-defined parts which may roughly be called the northern and the
+southern. The former is a compact mass of territory, bounded N. and N.W.
+by the Chambal river, which separates it from the British districts of
+Agra and Etawah, and the native states of Dholpur, Karauli and Jaipur of
+Rajputana; E. by the British districts of Jalaun, Jhansi, Lalitpur and
+Saugor; S. by the states of Bhopal, Tonk, Khilchipur and Rajgarh; and W.
+by those of Jhalawar, Tonk and Kotah of Rajputana. The southern, or
+Malwa, portion is made up of detached or semi-detached districts,
+between which are interposed parts of other states, which again are
+mixed up with each other in bewildering intricacy. The two portions
+together have a total area of 25,041 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 2,933,001,
+showing a decrease of 13% in the decade.
+
+The state may be naturally divided into plain, plateau and hilly
+country. The plain country extends from the Chambal river in the extreme
+southwards for about 80 m., with a maximum width from east to west of
+about 120 m. This plain, though broken in its southern portion by low
+hills, has generally an elevation of only a few hundred feet above
+sea-level. In the summer season the climate is very hot, the shade
+temperature rising frequently to 112° F., but in the winter months (from
+November to February inclusive) it is usually temperate and for short
+periods extremely cold. The average rainfall is 30 in., but the period
+1891-1901 was a decade of low rainfall, and distress was caused by
+famine. South of this tract there is a gradual ascent to the Central
+India plateau, and at Sipri the general level is 1500 ft. above the sea.
+On this plateau lies the remainder of the state, with the exception of
+the small district of Amjhera in the extreme south. The elevation of
+this region gives it a moderate climate during the summer as compared
+with the plain country, while the winter is warmer and more equable. The
+average rainfall is 28 in. The remaining portion of the state, classed
+as hilly, comprises only the small district of Amjhera. This is known as
+the Bhil country, and lies among the Vindhya mountains with a mean
+elevation of about 1800 ft. The rainfall averages 23 in. In the two
+years 1899 and 1900 the monsoon was very weak, the result being a severe
+famine which caused great mortality among the Bhil population. Of these
+three natural divisions the plateau possesses the most fertile soil,
+generally of the kind known as "black cotton," but the low-lying plain
+has the densest population. The state is watered by numerous rivers. The
+Nerbudda, flowing west, forms the southern boundary. The greater part of
+the drainage is discharged into the Chambal, which forms the
+north-western and northern and eastern boundary. The Sind, with its
+tributaries the Kuwari, Asar and Sankh, flows through the northern
+division. The chief products are wheat, millets, pulses of various
+kinds, maize, rice, linseed and other oil-seeds; poppy, yielding the
+Malwa opium; sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, indigo, garlic, turmeric and
+ginger. About 60% of the population are employed in agricultural and
+only 15% in industrial occupations, the great majority of the latter
+being home workers. There is a leather-factory at Morar; cotton-presses
+at Morena, Baghana and Ujjain; ginning factories at Agar, Nalkhera,
+Shajapur and Sonkach; and a cotton-mill at Ujjain. The cotton industry
+alone shows possibilities of considerable development, there being
+55,000 persons engaged in it at the time of the census of 1901.
+
+The population is composed of many elements, among which Brahmans and
+Rajputs are specially numerous. The prevailing religion is Hinduism, 84%
+of the people being Hindus and only 6% Mahommedans. The revenue of the
+state is about one million sterling; and large reserves have been
+accumulated, from which two millions were lent to the government of
+India in 1887, and later on another million for the construction of the
+Gwalior-Agra and Indore-Neemuch railways. The railways undertaken by the
+state are: (1) from Bina on the Indian Midland to Goona; (2) an
+extension of this line to Baran, opened in 1899; (3) from Bhopal to
+Ujjain; (4) two light railways, from Gwalior to Sipri and Gwalior to
+Bhind, which were opened by the viceroy in November 1899. On the same
+occasion the viceroy opened the Victoria College, founded to commemorate
+the Diamond Jubilee; and the Memorial Hospital, built in memory of the
+maharaja's father. British currency has been introduced instead of
+Chandori rupees, which were much depreciated. The state maintains three
+regiments of Imperial Service cavalry, two battalions of infantry and a
+transport corps.
+
+_History._--The Sindhia family, the rulers of the Gwalior state, belong
+to the Mahratta nation and originally came from the neighbourhood of
+Poona. Their first appearance in Central India was early in the 18th
+century in the person of Ranoji (d. 1745), a scion of an impoverished
+branch of the family, who began his career as the peshwa's
+slipper-carrier and rose by his military abilities to be commander of
+his bodyguard. In 1726, together with Malhar Rao Holkar, the founder of
+the house of Indore, he was authorized by the peshwa to collect tribute
+(_chauth_) in the Malwa districts. He established his headquarters at
+Ujjain, which thus became the first capital of Sindhia's dominions.
+
+Ranoji's son and successor, Jayapa Sindhia, was killed at Nagaur in
+1759, and was in his turn succeeded by his son Jankoji Sindhia. But the
+real founder of the state of Gwalior was Mahadji Sindhia, a natural son
+of Ranoji, who, after narrowly escaping with his life from the terrible
+slaughter of Panipat in 1761 (when Jankoji was killed), obtained with
+some difficulty from the peshwa a re-grant of his father's possessions
+in Central India (1769). During the struggle which followed the death of
+Madhu Rao Peshwa in 1772 Mahadji seized every occasion for extending his
+power and possessions. In 1775, however, when Raghuba Peshwa threw
+himself on the protection of the British, the reverses which Mahadji
+encountered at their hands--Gwalior being taken by Major Popham in
+1780--opened his eyes to their power. By the treaty of Salbai (1782) it
+was agreed that Mahadji should withdraw to Ujjain, and the British
+retire north of the Jumna. Mahadji, who undertook to open negotiations
+with the other belligerents, was recognized as an independent ruler, and
+a British resident was established at his court. Mahadji, aided by the
+British policy of neutrality, now set to work to establish his supremacy
+over Hindustan proper. Realizing the superiority of European methods of
+warfare, he availed himself of the services of a Savoyard soldier of
+fortune, Benoît de Boigne, whose genius for military organization and
+command in the field was mainly instrumental in establishing the
+Mahratta power. Mahadji's disciplined troops made him invincible. In
+1785 he re-established Shah Alam on the imperial throne at Delhi, and as
+his reward obtained for the peshwa the title of _vakil-ul-mutlak_ or
+vicegerent of the empire, contenting himself with that of his deputy. In
+1788 he took advantage of the cruelties practised by Ghulam Kadir on
+Shah Alam, to occupy Delhi, where he established himself as the
+protector of the aged emperor. Though nominally a deputy of the peshwa
+he was now ruler of a vast territory, including the greater part of
+Central India and Hindustan proper, while his lieutenants exacted
+tribute from the chiefs of Rajputana. There can be no doubt that he
+looked with apprehension on the growing power of the British; but he
+wisely avoided any serious collision with them.
+
+Mahadji died in 1794, and was succeeded by his adopted son, Daulat Rao
+Sindhia, a grandson of his brother Tukoji. When, during the period of
+unrest that followed the deaths of the peshwa, Madhu Rao II., in 1795
+and of Tukoji Holkar in 1797, the Mahratta leaders fought over the
+question of supremacy, the peshwa, Baji Rao II., the titular head of the
+Mahratta confederation, fled from his capital and placed himself under
+British protection by the treaty of Bassein (December 31, 1802). This
+interposition of the British government was resented by the confederacy,
+and it brought on the Mahratta War of 1803. In the campaign that
+followed a combined Mahratta army, in which Daulat Rao's troops
+furnished the largest contingent, was defeated by General Arthur
+Wellesley at Assaye and Argaum in Central India; and Lord Lake routed
+Daulat Rao's European-trained battalions in Northern India at Agra,
+Aligarh and Laswari. Daulat Rao was then compelled to sign the treaty of
+Sarji Anjangaon (December 30, 1803), which stripped him of his
+territories between the Jumna and Ganges, the district of Broach in
+Gujarat and other lands in the south. By the same treaty he was deprived
+of the forts of Gwalior and Gohad; but these were restored by Lord
+Cornwallis in 1805, when the Chambal river was made the northern
+boundary of the state. By a treaty signed at Burhanpur in 1803 Daulat
+Rao further agreed to maintain a subsidiary force, to be paid out of the
+revenues of the territories ceded under the treaty of Sarji Anjangaon.
+When, however, in 1816 he was called upon to assist in the suppression
+of the Pindaris, though by the treaty of Gwalior (1817) he promised his
+co-operation, his conduct was so equivocal that in 1818 he was forced to
+sign a fresh treaty by which he ceded Ajmere and other lands.
+
+Daulat Rao died without issue in 1827, and his widow, Baiza Bai (d.
+1862), adopted Mukut Rao, a boy of eleven belonging to a distant branch
+of the family, who succeeded as Jankoji Rao Sindhia. His rule was weak;
+the state was distracted by interminable palace intrigues and military
+mutinies, and affairs went from bad to worse when, in 1843, Jankoji Rao,
+who left no heir, was succeeded by another boy, adopted by his widow,
+Tara Bai, under the name of Jayaji Rao Sindhia. The growth of turbulence
+and misrule now induced Lord Ellenborough to interpose, and a British
+force under Sir Hugh Gough advanced upon Gwalior (December 1843). The
+Mahratta troops were defeated simultaneously at Maharajpur and Punniar
+(December 29), with the result that the Gwalior government signed a
+treaty ceding territory with revenue sufficient for the maintenance of a
+contingent force to be stationed at the capital, and limiting the future
+strength of the Gwalior army, while a council of regency was appointed
+during the minority to act under the resident's advice. In 1857 the
+Gwalior contingent joined the mutineers; but the maharaja himself
+remained loyal to the British, and fled from his capital until the place
+was retaken and his authority restored by Sir Hugh Rose (Lord
+Strathnairn) on the 19th of June 1858. He was rewarded with the
+districts of Neemuch and Amjhera, but Gwalior fort was occupied by
+British troops and was only restored to his son in 1886 by Lord
+Dufferin. Jayaji Rao, who died in 1886, did much for the development of
+his state. He was created a G.C.S.I in 1861, and subsequently became a
+counsellor of the empress, a G.C.B. and C.I.E.
+
+His son, the maharaja, Madhava Rao Sindhia, G.C.S.I., was born in 1877.
+During his minority the state was administered for eight years by a
+council of regency. He was entrusted with ruling powers in 1894, and in
+all respects continued the reforming policy of the council, while paying
+personal attention to every department, being a keen soldier, an
+energetic administrator, and fully alive to the responsibilities
+attaching to his position. He was created an honorary aide-de-camp to
+the king-emperor and an honorary colonel in the British army. He went to
+China as orderly officer to General Gaselee in 1901, and provided the
+expedition with a hospital ship at his own expense, while his Imperial
+Service Transport Corps proved a useful auxiliary to the British army in
+the Chitral and Tirah expeditions.
+
+The CITY OF GWALIOR is 76 m. by rail S. of Agra, and had a population in
+1901 of 119,433. This total includes the new town of Lashkar or "the
+Camp" which is the modern capital of the state and old Gwalior. The old
+town has a threefold interest: first as a very ancient seat of Jain
+worship; secondly for its example of palace architecture of the best
+Hindu period (1486-1516); and thirdly as an historic fortress. There are
+several remarkable Hindu temples within the fort. One, known as the _Sas
+Bahu_, is beautifully adorned with bas-reliefs. It was finished in A.D.
+1093, and, though much dilapidated, still forms a most picturesque
+fragment. An older Jain temple has been used as a mosque. Another temple
+in the fortress of Gwalior is called the _Teli-Mandir_, or "Oilman's
+Temple." This building was originally dedicated to Vishnu, but
+afterwards converted to the worship of Siva. The most striking part of
+the Jain remains at Gwalior is a series of caves or rock-cut sculptures,
+excavated in the rock on all sides, and numbering nearly a hundred,
+great and small. Most of them are mere niches to contain statues, though
+some are cells that may have been originally intended for residences.
+One curious fact regarding them is that, according to inscriptions, they
+were all excavated within the short period of about thirty-three years,
+between 1441 and 1474. Some of the figures are of colossal size; one,
+for instance, is 57 ft. high, which is taller than any other in northern
+India.
+
+The palace built by Man Singh (1486-1516) forms the most interesting
+example of early Hindu work of its class in India. Another palace of
+even greater extent was added to this in 1516; both Jehangír and Shah
+Jahan added palaces to these two--the whole making a group of edifices
+unequalled for picturesqueness and interest by anything of their class
+in Central India. Among the apartments in the palace was the celebrated
+chamber, named the _Baradari_, supported on 12 columns, and 45 ft.
+square, with a stone roof, forming one of the most beautiful
+palace-halls in the world. It was, besides, singularly interesting from
+the expedients to which the Hindu architect was forced to resort to
+imitate the vaults of the Moslems. Of the buildings, however, which so
+excited the admiration of the emperor Baber, probably little now
+remains. The fort of Gwalior, within which the above buildings are
+situated, stands on an isolated rock. The face is perpendicular and
+where the rock is naturally less precipitous it has been scarped. Its
+greatest length from north-east to south-west is a mile and a half, and
+the greatest breadth 900 yds. The rock attains its maximum height of 342
+ft. at the northern end. A rampart, accessible by a steep road, and
+farther up by huge steps cut out of the rock, surrounds the fort. The
+citadel stands at the north-eastern corner of the enclosure, and
+presents a very picturesque appearance. The old town of Gwalior, which
+is of considerable size, but irregularly built, and extremely dirty,
+lies at the eastern base of the rock. It contains the tomb of Mahommed
+Ghaus, erected during the early part of Akbar's reign. The fort of
+Gwalior was traditionally built by one Surya Sen, the raja of the
+neighbouring country. In 1196 Gwalior was captured by Mahommed Ghori; it
+then passed into the hands of several chiefs until in 1559 Akbar gained
+possession of it, and made it a state prison for captives of rank. On
+the dismemberment of the Delhi empire, Gwalior was seized by the Jat
+rana of Gohad. Subsequently it was garrisoned by Sindhia, from whom it
+was wrested in 1780 by the forces of the East India Company, and to whom
+it was finally restored by the British in 1886. The modern town contains
+the palace of the chief, a college, a high school, a girls' school, a
+service school to train officials, a law school, hospitals for men and
+for women, a museum, paper-mills, and a printing-press issuing a state
+gazette.
+
+GWALIOR RESIDENCY, an administrative unit in the Central India agency,
+comprises Gwalior state and eleven smaller states and estates. Its total
+area is 17,825 sq. m., and its population in 1901 was 2,187,612. Of the
+area, 17,020 sq. m. belong to Gwalior State, and the agency also
+includes the small states of Raghugarh, Khaniadhana, Paron, Garha, Umri
+and Bhadaura, with the Chhabra _pargana_ of Tonk.
+
+
+
+
+GWEEDORE, a hamlet and tourist resort of Co. Donegal, Ireland, on the
+Londonderry & Lough Swilly & Letterkenny railway. The river Clady,
+running past the village from the Nacung Loughs, affords salmon and
+trout fishing. The fine surrounding scenery culminates to the east in
+the wild mountain Errigal (2466 ft.) at the upper end of the loughs. The
+place owes its popularity as a resort to Lord George Hill (d. 1879), who
+also laboured for the amelioration of the conditions of the peasantry on
+his estate, and combated the Rundale system of minute repartition of
+property. In 1889, during the troubles which arose out of evictions,
+Gweedore was the headquarters of the Irish constabulary, when District
+Inspector Martin was openly murdered on attempting to arrest a priest on
+his way to Mass.
+
+
+
+
+GWILT, JOSEPH (1784-1863), English architect and writer, was the younger
+son of George Gwilt, architect surveyor to the county of Surrey, and was
+born at Southwark on the 11th of January 1784. He was educated at St
+Paul's school, and after a short course of instruction in his father's
+office was in 1801 admitted a student of the Royal Academy, where in the
+same year he gained the silver medal for his drawing of the tower and
+steeple of St Dunstan-in-the-East. In 1811 he published a _Treatise on
+the Equilibrium of Arches_, and in 1815 he was elected F.S.A. After a
+visit to Italy in 1816, he published in 1818 _Notitia architectonica
+italiana, or Concise Notices of the Buildings and Architects of Italy_.
+In 1825 he published an edition of Sir William Chambers's _Treatise on
+Civil Architecture_; and among his other principal contributions to the
+literature of his profession are a translation of the _Architecture of
+Vitruvius_ (1826), a _Treatise on the Rudiments of Architecture,
+Practical and Theoretical_ (1826), and his valuable _Encyclopaedia of
+Architecture_ (1842), which was published with additions by Wyatt
+Papworth in 1867. In recognition of Gwilt's advocacy of the importance
+to architects of a knowledge of mathematics, he was in 1833 elected a
+member of the Royal Astronomical Society. He took a special interest in
+philology and music, and was the author of _Rudiments of the Anglo-Saxon
+Tongue_ (1829), and of the article "Music" in the _Encyclopaedia
+metropolitana_. His principal works as a practical architect were
+Markree Castle near Sligo in Ireland, and St Thomas's church at Charlton
+in Kent. He died on the 14th of September 1863.
+
+
+
+
+GWYN, NELL [ELEANOR] (1650-1687), English actress, and mistress of
+Charles II., was born on the 2nd of February 1650/1, probably in an
+alley off Drury Lane, London, although Hereford also claims to have been
+her birthplace. Her father, Thomas Gwyn, appears to have been a
+broken-down soldier of a family of Welsh origin. Of her mother little is
+known save that she lived for some time with her daughter, and that in
+1679 she was drowned, apparently when intoxicated, in a pond at Chelsea.
+Nell Gwyn, who sold oranges in the precincts of Drury Lane Theatre,
+passed, at the age of fifteen, to the boards, through the influence of
+the actor Charles Hart and of Robert Duncan or Dungan, an officer of the
+guards who had interest with the management. Her first recorded
+appearance on the stage was in 1665 as Cydaria, Montezuma's daughter, in
+Dryden's _Indian Emperor_, a serious part ill-suited to her. In the
+following year she was Lady Wealthy in the Hon. James Howard's comedy
+_The English Monsieur_. Pepys was delighted with the playing of "pretty,
+witty Nell," but when he saw her as Florimel in Dryden's _Secret Love,
+or the Maiden Queen_, he wrote "so great a performance of a comical part
+was never, I believe, in the world before" and, "so done by Nell her
+merry part as cannot be better done in nature" (_Diary_, March 25,
+1667). Her success brought her other leading rôles--Bellario, in
+Beaumont and Fletcher's _Philaster_; Flora, in Rhodes's _Flora's
+Vagaries_; Samira, in Sir Robert Howard's _Surprisal_; and she remained
+a member of the Drury Lane company until 1669, playing continuously save
+for a brief absence in the summer of 1667 when she lived at Epsom as the
+mistress of Lord Buckhurst, afterwards 6th earl of Dorset (q.v.). Her
+last appearance was as Almahide to the Almanzor of Hart, in Dryden's
+_The Conquest of Granada_ (1670), the production of which had been
+postponed some months for her return to the stage after the birth of her
+first son by the king.
+
+As an actress Nell Gwyn was largely indebted to Dryden, who seems to
+have made a special study of her airy, irresponsible personality, and
+who kept her supplied with parts which suited her. She excelled in the
+delivery of the risky prologues and epilogues which were the fashion,
+and the poet wrote for her some specially daring examples. It was,
+however, as the mistress of Charles II. that she endeared herself to the
+public. Partly, no doubt, her popularity was due to the disgust inspired
+by her rival, Louise de Kéroualle, duchess of Portsmouth, and to the
+fact that, while the Frenchwoman was a Catholic, she was a Protestant.
+But very largely it was the result of exactly those personal qualities
+that appealed to the monarch himself. She was _piquante_ rather than
+pretty, short of stature, and her chief beauty was her reddish-brown
+hair. She was illiterate, and with difficulty scrawled an awkward E. G.
+at the bottom of her letters, written for her by others. But her frank
+recklessness, her generosity, her invariable good temper, her ready wit,
+her infectious high spirits and amazing indiscretions appealed
+irresistibly to a generation which welcomed in her the living antithesis
+of Puritanism. "A true child of the London streets," she never pretended
+to be superior to what she was, nor to interfere in matters outside the
+special sphere assigned her; she made no ministers, she appointed to no
+bishoprics, and for the high issues of international politics she had no
+concern. She never forgot her old friends, and, as far as is known,
+remained faithful to her royal lover from the beginning of their
+intimacy to his death, and, after his death, to his memory.
+
+Of her two sons by the king, the elder was created Baron Hedington and
+earl of Burford and subsequently duke of St Albans; the younger, James,
+Lord Beauclerk, died in 1680, while still a boy. The king's death-bed
+request to his brother, "Let not poor Nelly starve," was faithfully
+carried out by James II., who paid her debts from the Secret Service
+fund, provided her with other moneys, and settled on her an estate with
+reversion to the duke of St Albans. But she did not long survive her
+lover's death. She died in November 1687, and was buried on the 17th,
+according to her own request, in the church of St Martin-in-the-Fields,
+her funeral sermon being preached by the vicar, Thomas Tenison,
+afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, who said "much to her praise."
+Tradition credits the foundation of Chelsea Hospital to her influence
+over the king.
+
+  See Peter Cunningham, _The Story of Nell Gwyn_, edited by Gordon
+  Goodwin (1903); Waldron's edition of John Downes's _Roscius
+  Anglicanus_ (1789); Osmund Airy, _Charles II._ (1904); Pepys, _Diary_;
+  Evelyn, _Diary and Correspondence_; _Origin and Early History of the
+  Royal Hospital at Chelsea_, edited by Major-General G. Hutt (1872);
+  _Memoirs of the Life of Eleanor Gwinn_ (1752); Burnet, _History of My
+  Own Time_, part i., edited by Osmund Airy (Oxford, 1897); _Louise de
+  Kéroualle, Duchess of Portsmouth_, by H. Forneron, translated by Mrs
+  Crawford (1887).
+
+
+
+
+GWYNIAD, the name given to a fish of the genus _Coregonus_ or White fish
+(_C. clupeoides_), inhabiting the large lakes of North Wales and the
+north of England. At Ullswater it is known by the name of "schelly," at
+Loch Lomond by that of "powen." It is tolerably abundant in Lake Bala,
+keeping to the deepest portion of the lake for the greater part of the
+year, but appearing in shoals near the shores at certain seasons. It is
+well flavoured, like all the species of _Coregonus_, but scarcely
+attains to the weight of a pound. The name gwyniad is a Welsh word, and
+signifies "shining"; and it is singular that a similar fish in British
+Columbia, also belonging to the family of Salmonoids, is called by the
+natives "quinnat," from the silvery lustre of its scales, the word
+having in their language the same meaning as the Welsh "gwyniad."
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 12, Slice 6, by Various
+
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 12, Slice 6, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 6
+       "Groups, Theory of" to "Gwyniad"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: December 14, 2011 [EBook #38304]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME XII SLICE VI<br /><br />
+Groups, Theory of to Gwyniad</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">GROUPS, THEORY OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">GUIDICCIONI, GIOVANNI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">GROUSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">GUIDO OF AREZZO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">GROVE, SIR GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">GUIDO OF SIENA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">GROVE, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">GUIDO RENI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">GROVE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">GUIENNE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">GROZNYI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">GUIGNES, JOSEPH DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">GRUB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">GUILBERT, YVETTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">GRUBER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">GUILDFORD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">GRUMBACH, WILHELM VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">GUILDHALL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">GRUMENTUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">GUILFORD, BARONS AND EARLS OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">GRÜN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">GUILFORD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">GRÜNBERG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">GUILLAUME, JEAN BAPTISTE CLAUDE EUGÈNE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">GRUNDTVIG, NIKOLAI FREDERIK SEVERIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">GUILLAUME DE LORRIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">GRUNDY, SYDNEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">GUILLAUME DE PALERME</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">GRUNDY, MRS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">GUILLAUME D&rsquo;ORANGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">GRUNER, GOTTLIEB SIGMUND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">GUILLEMOT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">GRÜNEWALD, MATHIAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">GUILLOCHE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">GRUTER, JAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">GUILLON, MARIE NICOLAS SYLVESTRE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">GRUYÈRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">GUILLOTINE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">GRYNAEUS, JOHANN JAKOB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">GUILT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">GRYNAEUS, SIMON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">GUIMARÃES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">GRYPHIUS, ANDREAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">GUIMARD, MARIE MADELEINE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">GUACHARO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">GUIMET, JEAN BAPTISTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">GUACO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">GUINEA</a> (Africa)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">GUADALAJARA</a> (city of Mexico)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">GUINEA</a> (gold coin)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">GUADALAJARA</a> (province of Spain)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">GUINEA FOWL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">GUADALAJARA</a> (city of Spain)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">GUINEA-WORM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">GUADALQUIVIR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">GÜINES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">GUADELOUPE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">GUINGAMP</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">GUADET, MARGUERITE ÉLIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">GUINNESS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">GUADIANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">GUINOBATAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">GUADIX</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">GUIPÚZCOA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">GUADUAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">GUIRAUD, ERNEST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">GUAIACUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">GUISBOROUGH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">GUALDO TADINO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">GUISE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">GUALEGUAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">GUISE, HOUSE OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">GUALEGUAYCHÚ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">GUITAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">GUALO, CARDINAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">GUITAR FIDDLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">GUAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">GUITRY, LUCIEN GERMAIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">GUAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">GUIZOT, FRANÇOIS PIERRE GUILLAUME</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">GUANABACOA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">GUJARAT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">GUANACO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">GUJARATI and RAJASTHANI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">GUANAJAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">GUJRANWALA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">GUANAJUATO</a> (state of Mexico)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">GUJRAT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">GUANAJUATO</a> (city of Mexico)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">GULA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">GUANCHES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">GULBARGA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">GUANIDINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">GULF STREAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">GUANO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">GULFWEED</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">GUANTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">GULL, SIR WILLIAM WITHEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">GUANTÁNAMO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">GULL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">GUARANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">GULLY, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">GUARANIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">GULPÁÏGÁN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">GUARANTEE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">GUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">GUARATINGUETÁ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">GÜMBEL, KARL WILHELM VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">GUARDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">GUMBINNEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">GUARDI, FRANCESCO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">GUMBO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">GUARDIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">GUMTI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">GUARDS, and HOUSEHOLD TROOPS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">GUMULJINA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">GUARD-SHIP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">GUMUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">GUÁRICO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">GÜMÜSH-KHANEH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">GUARIENTO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">GUN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">GUARINI, CAMILLO-GUARINO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">GUNA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">GUARINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">GUNCOTTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">GUARINO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">GUNDULICH, IVAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">GUARINO [GUARINUS] DA VERONA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">GUNG&rsquo;L, JOSEF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">GUARNIERI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">GUNNER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">GUASTALLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">GUNNING, PETER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">GUATEMALA</a> (republic)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">GUNNY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">GUATEMALA</a> (city of Guatemala)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">GUNPOWDER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">GUATOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">GUNPOWDER PLOT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">GUATUSOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">GUN-ROOM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">GUAVA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">GUNTER, EDMUND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">GUAYAMA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">GÜNTHER, JOHANN CHRISTIAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">GUAYAQUIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">GÜNTHER OF SCHWARZBURG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">GUAYAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">GUNTRAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">GUAYCURUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">GUNTUR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">GUAYMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">GUPTA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">GUBBIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">GURA, EUGEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">GUBEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">GURDASPUR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">GUBERNATIS, ANGELO DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">GURGAON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">GUDBRANDSDAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">GURKHA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">GUDE, MARQUARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">GURNALL, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">GUDEMAN, ALFRED</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">GURNARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">GUDGEON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">GURNEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">GUDRUN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">GURNEY, EDMUND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">GUÉBRIANT, JEAN BAPTISTE BUDES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">GURWOOD, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">GUELDER ROSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">GUSLA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">GUELPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">GUSTAVUS I. ERIKSSON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">GUSTAVUS II. ADOLPHUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">GUENEVERE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">GUSTAVUS III.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">GUENON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">GUSTAVUS IV.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">GUÉRET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">GUSTAVUS V.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">GUEREZA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS UNION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">GUERICKE, HEINRICH ERNST FERDINAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">GÜSTROW</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">GUERICKE, OTTO VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">GUTENBERG, JOHANN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">GUÉRIDON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">GÜTERSLOH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">GUÉRIN, JEAN BAPTISTE PAULIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">GUTHRIE, SIR JAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">GUÉRIN, PIERRE NARCISSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">GUTHRIE, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">GUÉRIN DU CAYLA, GEORGES MAURICE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">GUTHRIE, THOMAS ANSTEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">GUERNIERI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">GUTHRIE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">GUERNSEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">GUTHRUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">GUERRAZZI, FRANCESCO DOMENICO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">GUTSCHMID, ALFRED</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">GUERRERO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">GUTS-MUTHS, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">GUERRILLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">GUTTA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">GUERRINI, OLINDO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">GUTTA PERCHA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">GUESDE, JULES BASILE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar229">GUTTER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">GUEST, EDWIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar230">GUTZKOW, KARL FERDINAND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">GUEST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar231">GÜTZLAFF, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">GUETTARD, JEAN ÉTIENNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar232">GUY OF WARWICK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">GUEUX, LES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar233">GUY, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">GUEVARA, ANTONIO DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar234">GUYON, JEANNE MARIE BOUVIER DE LA MOTHE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">GUEVARA, LUIS VELEZ DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar235">GUYON, RICHARD DEBAUFRE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">GUGLIELMI, PIETRO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar236">GUYOT, ARNOLD HENRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">GUIANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar237">GUYOT, YVES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">GUIART, GUILLAUME</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar238">GUYTON DE MORVEAU, LOUIS BERNARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">GUIBERT</a> (of Ravenna)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar239">GUZMICS, IZIDÓR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">GUIBERT</a> (of Nogent)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar240">GWADAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">GUIBERT, JACQUES ANTOINE HIPPOLYTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar241">GWALIOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">GUICCIARDINI, FRANCESCO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar242">GWEEDORE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">GUICHARD, KARL GOTTLIEB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar243">GWILT, JOSEPH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">GUICHEN, LUC URBAIN DE BOUËXIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar244">GWYN, NELL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">GUIDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar245">GWYNIAD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">GUIDI, CARLO ALESSANDRO</a></td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page626" id="page626"></a>626</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">GROUPS,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span><a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> <b>THEORY OF.</b> The conception of an operation
+to be carried out on some object or set of objects underlies all
+mathematical science. Thus in elementary arithmetic there are
+the fundamental operations of the addition and the multiplication
+of integers; in algebra a linear transformation is an operation
+which may be carried out on any set of variables; while in
+geometry a translation, a rotation, or a projective transformation
+are operations which may be carried out on any figure.</p>
+
+<p>In speaking of an operation, an object or a set of objects to
+which it may be applied is postulated; and the operation may,
+and generally will, have no meaning except in regard to such a
+set of objects. If two operations, which can be performed on
+the same set of objects, are such that, when carried out in
+succession on any possible object, the result, whichever operation
+is performed first, is to produce no change in the object, then
+each of the operations is spoken of as a <i>definite</i> operation, and
+each of them is called the <i>inverse</i> of the other. Thus the operations
+which consist in replacing x by nx and by x/n respectively,
+in any rational function of x, are definite inverse operations,
+if n is any assigned number except zero. On the contrary, the
+operation of replacing x by an assigned number in any rational
+function of x is not, in the present sense, although it leads to a
+unique result, a definite operation; there is in fact no unique
+inverse operation corresponding to it. It is to be noticed that
+the question whether an operation is a definite operation or no
+may depend on the range of the objects on which it operates.
+For example, the operations of squaring and extracting the
+square root are definite inverse operations if the objects are
+restricted to be real positive numbers, but not otherwise.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>If O, O&prime;, O&Prime;, ... is the totality of the objects on which a definite
+operation S and its inverse S&prime; may be carried out, and if the result of
+carrying out S on O is represented by O·S, then O·S·S&prime;, O·S&prime;·S, and
+O are the same object whatever object of the set O may be. This
+will be represented by the equations SS&prime; = S&prime;S = 1. Now O·S·S&prime; has
+a meaning only if O·S is an object on which S&prime; may be performed.
+Hence whatever object of the set O may be, both O·S and O·S&prime;
+belong to the set. Similarly O·S·S, O·S·S·S, ... are objects of the
+set. These will be represented by O·S<span class="sp">2</span>, O·S<span class="sp">3</span>, ... Suppose now
+that T is another definite operation with the same set of objects as
+S, and that T&prime; is its inverse operation. Then O·S·T is a definite
+operation of the set, and therefore the result of carrying out S and
+then T on the set of objects is some operation U with a unique result.
+Represent by U&prime; the result of carrying out T&prime; and then S&prime;. Then
+O·UU&prime; = O·S·T·T&prime;·S&prime; = O·SS&prime; = O, and O·U&prime;U = O·T&prime;·S&prime;·S·T
+= O·T&prime;T = O, whatever object O may be. Hence UU&prime; = U&prime;U = 1;
+and U, U&prime; are definite inverse operations.</p>
+
+<p>If S, U, V are definite operations, and if S&prime; is the inverse of S, then</p>
+
+<p class="center">SU = SV</p>
+<p class="noind">implies</p>
+<p class="center">S&prime;SU = S&prime;SV,</p>
+<p class="noind">or</p>
+<p class="center">U = V.</p>
+<p class="noind">Similarly</p>
+<p class="center">US = VS</p>
+<p class="noind">implies</p>
+<p class="center">U = V.</p>
+
+<p>Let S, T, U, ... be a set of definite operations, capable of being
+<span class="sidenote">Definition of a group.</span>
+carried out on a common object or set of objects, and let
+the set contain&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>(i.) the operation ST, S and T being any two operations
+of the set;</p>
+
+<p>(ii.) the inverse operation of S, S being any operation of the set;
+the set of operations is then called a group.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The number of operations in a group may be either finite or infinite.
+When it is finite, the number is called the <i>order</i> of the group,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page627" id="page627"></a>627</span>
+and the group is spoken of as a <i>group of finite order</i>. If the number
+of operations is infinite, there are three possible cases. When the
+group is represented by a set of geometrical operations, for the specification
+of an individual operation a number of measurements will
+be necessary. In more analytical language, each operation will be
+specified by the values of a set of parameters. If no one of these
+parameters is capable of continuous variation, the group is called a
+<i>discontinuous group</i>. If all the parameters are capable of continuous
+variation, the group is called a <i>continuous group</i>. If some of the
+parameters are capable of continuous variation and some are not, the
+group is called a <i>mixed group</i>.</p>
+
+<p>If S&prime; is the inverse operation of S, a group which contains S must
+contain SS&prime;, which produces no change on any possible object.
+This is called the <i>identical operation</i>, and will always be represented
+by I. Since S<span class="sp">p</span>S<span class="sp">q</span> = S<span class="sp">p+q</span> when p and q are positive integers, and
+S<span class="sp">p</span>S&prime; = S<span class="sp">p&minus;1</span> while no meaning at present has been attached to S<span class="sp">q</span>
+when q is negative, S&prime; may be consistently represented by S<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>. The
+set of operations ..., S<span class="sp">&minus;2</span>, S<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>, 1, S, S<span class="sp">2</span>, ... obviously constitute a
+group. Such a group is called a <i>cyclical</i> group.</p>
+
+<p>It will be convenient, before giving some illustrations of the
+general group idea, to add a number of further definitions and explanations
+which apply to all groups alike. If from among
+the set of operations S, T, U, ... which constitute a group
+<span class="sidenote">Subgroups, conjugate operations, isomorphism, &amp;c.</span>
+G, a smaller set S&prime;, T&prime;, U&prime;, ... can be chosen which themselves
+constitute a group H, the group H is called a <i>subgroup</i>
+of G. Thus, in particular, if S is an operation of G,
+the cyclical group constituted by ..., S<span class="sp">&minus;2</span>, S<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>, 1, S, S<span class="sp">2</span>, ... is
+a subgroup of G, except in the special case when it coincides with
+G itself.</p>
+
+<p>If S and T are any two operations of G, the two operations S and
+T<span class="sp">-1</span>ST are called <i>conjugate</i> operations, and T<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>ST is spoken of as the
+result of <i>transforming</i> S by T. It is to be noted that since ST =
+T<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>, TS, T, ST and TS are always conjugate operations in any group
+containing both S and T. If T transforms S into itself, that is, if
+S = T<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>ST or TS = ST, S and T are called <i>permutable</i> operations. A
+group whose operations are all permutable with each other is called
+an <i>Abelian</i> group. If S is transformed into itself by every operation
+of G, or, in other words, if it is permutable with every operation of G,
+it is called a <i>self-conjugate</i> operation of G.</p>
+
+<p>The conception of operations being conjugate to each other is
+extended to subgroups. If S&prime;, T&prime;, U&prime;, ... are the operations of a
+subgroup H, and if R is any operation of G, then the operations
+R<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>S&prime;R, R<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>T&prime;R, R<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>U&prime;R, ... belong to G, and constitute a subgroup
+of G. For if S&prime;T&prime; = U&prime;, then R<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>S&prime;R·R<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>T&prime;R = R<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>S&prime;T&prime;R =
+R<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>U&prime;R. This subgroup may be identical with H. In particular,
+it is necessarily the same as H if R belongs to H. If it is not identical
+with H, it is said to be <i>conjugate</i> to H; and it is in any case represented
+by the symbol R<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>HR. If H = R<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>HR, the operation R is
+said to be permutable with the subgroup H. (It is to be noticed that
+this does not imply that R is permutable with each operation of H.)</p>
+
+<p>If H = R<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>HR, when for R is taken in turn each of the operations
+of G, then H is called a <i>self-conjugate</i> subgroup of G.</p>
+
+<p>A group is spoken of as <i>simple</i> when it has no self-conjugate
+subgroup other than that constituted by the identical operation
+alone. A group which has a self-conjugate subgroup is called
+<i>composite</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Let G be a group constituted of the operations S, T, U, ..., and g
+a second group constituted of s, t, u, ..., and suppose that to each
+operation of G there corresponds a single operation of g in such a
+way that if ST = U, then <i>st</i> = u, where s, t, u are the operations
+corresponding to S, T, U respectively. The groups are then said to
+be <i>isomorphic</i>, and the correspondence between their operations is
+spoken of as an <i>isomorphism</i> between the groups. It is clear that
+there may be two distinct cases of such isomorphism. To a single
+operation of g there may correspond either a single operation of G
+or more than one. In the first case the isomorphism is spoken of as
+<i>simple</i>, in the second as <i>multiple</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Two simply isomorphic groups considered abstractly&mdash;that is to
+say, in regard only to the way in which their operations combine
+among themselves, and apart from any concrete representation of
+the operations&mdash;are clearly indistinguishable.</p>
+
+<p>If G is multiply isomorphic with g, let A, B, C, ... be the operations
+of G which correspond to the identical operation of g. Then to
+the operations A<span class="sp">&minus;1</span> and AB of G there corresponds the identical
+operation of g; so that A, B, C, ... constitute a subgroup H of G.
+Moreover, if R is any operation of G, the identical operation of g
+corresponds to every operation of R<span class="sp">-1</span>HR, and therefore H is a self-conjugate
+subgroup of G. Since S corresponds to s, and every operation
+of H to the identical operation of g, therefore every operation of
+the set SA, SB, SC, ..., which is represented by SH, corresponds to s.
+Also these are the only operations that correspond to s. The operations
+of G may therefore be divided into sets, no two of which contain
+a common operation, such that the correspondence between the
+operations of G and g connects each of the sets H, SH, TH, UH, ... with
+the single operations 1, s, t, u, ... written below them. The sets
+into which the operations of G are thus divided combine among
+themselves by exactly the same laws as the operations of g. For if
+<i>st</i> = u, then SH·TH = UH, in the sense that any operation of the set
+SH followed by any operation of the set TH gives an operation of the
+set UH.</p>
+
+<p>The group g, abstractly considered, is therefore completely defined
+by the division of the operations of G into sets in respect of the self-conjugate
+subgroup H. From this point of view it is spoken of as the
+<i>factor-group</i> of G in respect of H, and is represented by the symbol
+G/H. Any composite group in a similar way defines abstractly a
+factor-group in respect of each of its self-conjugate subgroups.</p>
+
+<p>It follows from the definition of a group that it must always be
+possible to choose from its operations a set such that every operation
+of the group can be obtained by combining the operations of the set
+and their inverses. If the set is such that no one of the operations
+belonging to it can be represented in terms of the others, it is called a
+set of <i>independent generating</i> operations. Such a set of generating
+operations may be either finite or infinite in number. If A, B, ..., E
+are the generating operations of a group, the group generated by
+them is represented by the symbol {A, B, ..., E}. An obvious
+extension of this symbol is used such that {A, H} represents the group
+generated by combining an operation A with every operation of a
+group H; {H<span class="su">1</span>, H<span class="su">2</span>} represents the group obtained by combining in all
+possible ways the operations of the groups H<span class="su">1</span> and H<span class="su">2</span>; and so on.
+The independent generating operations of a group may be subject to
+certain relations connecting them, but these must be such that it is
+impossible by combining them to obtain a relation expressing one
+operation in terms of the others. For instance, AB = BA is a relation
+conditioning the group {A, B}; it does not, however, enable A to be
+expressed in terms of B, so that A and B are independent generating
+operations.</p>
+
+<p>Let O, O&prime;, O&Prime;, ... be a set of objects which are interchanged among
+themselves by the operations of a group G, so that if S is any operation
+of the group, and O any one of the objects, then O·S
+is an object occurring in the set. If it is possible to find an
+<span class="sidenote">Transitivity and primitivity.</span>
+operation S of the group such that O·S is any assigned one
+of the set of objects, the group is called <i>transitive</i> in respect
+of this set of objects. When this is not possible the group
+is called <i>intransitive</i> in respect of the set. If it is possible to find S so
+that any arbitrarily chosen n objects of the set, O<span class="su">1</span>, O<span class="su">2</span>, ..., O<span class="su">n</span> are
+changed by S into O&prime;<span class="su">1</span>, O&prime;<span class="su">2</span>, ..., O&prime;<span class="su">n</span> respectively, the latter being also
+arbitrarily chosen, the group is said to be n-ply transitive.</p>
+
+<p>If O, O&prime;, O&Prime;, ... is a set of objects in respect of which a group G is
+transitive, it may be possible to divide the set into a number of
+subsets, no two of which contain a common object, such that every
+operation of the group either interchanges the objects of a subset
+among themselves, or changes them all into the objects of some other
+subset. When this is the case the group is called <i>imprimitive</i> in
+respect of the set; otherwise the group is called <i>primitive</i>. A group
+which is doubly-transitive, in respect of a set of objects, obviously
+cannot be imprimitive.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing general definitions and explanations will now be
+illustrated by a consideration of certain particular groups. To begin
+with, as the operations involved are of the most familiar
+nature, the group of rational arithmetic may be considered.
+<span class="sidenote">Illustrations of the group idea.</span>
+The fundamental operations of elementary arithmetic
+consist in the addition and subtraction of integers, and
+multiplication and division by integers, division by zero
+alone omitted. Multiplication by zero is not a definite operation,
+and it must therefore be omitted in dealing with those operations of
+elementary arithmetic which form a group. The operation that
+results from carrying out additions, subtractions, multiplications and
+divisions, of and by integers a finite number of times, is represented
+by the relation x&prime; = ax + b, where a and b are rational numbers of which
+a is not zero, x is the object of the operation, and x&prime; is the result.
+The totality of operations of this form obviously constitutes a group.</p>
+
+<p>If S and T represent respectively the operations x&prime; = ax + b and
+x&prime; = cx + d, then T<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>ST represents x&prime; = ax + d &minus; ad + bc. When a and b
+are given rational numbers, c and d may be chosen in an infinite
+number of ways as rational numbers, so that d &minus; ad + bc shall be any
+assigned rational number. Hence the operations given by x&prime; = ax + b,
+where a is an assigned rational number and b is any rational number,
+are all conjugate; and no two such operations for which the a&rsquo;s are
+different can be conjugate. If a is unity and b zero, S is the identical
+operation which is necessarily self-conjugate. If a is unity and b
+different from zero, the operation x&prime; = x + b is an addition. The
+totality of additions forms, therefore, a single conjugate set of operations.
+Moreover, the totality of additions with the identical operation,
+<i>i.e.</i> the totality of operations of the form x&prime; = x + b, where b may
+be any rational number or zero, obviously constitutes a group. The
+operations of this group are interchanged among themselves when
+transformed by any operation of the original group. It is therefore
+a self-conjugate subgroup of the original group.</p>
+
+<p>The totality of multiplications, with the identical operation, <i>i.e.</i> all
+operations of the form x&prime; = ax, where a is any rational number other
+than zero, again obviously constitutes a group. This, however, is not
+a self-conjugate subgroup of the original group. In fact, if the
+operations x&prime; = ax are all transformed by x&prime; = cx + d, they give rise
+to the set x&prime; = ax + d(1 &minus; a). When d is a given rational number, the
+set constitutes a subgroup which is conjugate to the group of multiplications.
+It is to be noticed that the operations of this latter subgroup
+may be written in the form x&prime; &minus; d = a(x &minus; d).</p>
+
+<p>The totality of rational numbers, including zero, forms a set of
+objects which are interchanged among themselves by all operations
+of the group.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page628" id="page628"></a>628</span></p>
+
+<p>If x<span class="su">1</span> and x<span class="su">2</span> are any pair of distinct rational numbers, and y<span class="su">1</span> and y<span class="su">2</span>
+any other pair, there is just one operation of the group which changes
+x<span class="su">1</span> and x<span class="su">2</span> into y<span class="su">1</span> and y<span class="su">2</span> respectively. For the equations y<span class="su">1</span> = ax<span class="su">1</span> + b,
+y<span class="su">1</span> = ax<span class="su">2</span> + b determine a and b uniquely. The group is therefore
+doubly transitive in respect of the set of rational numbers. If H is
+the subgroup that leaves unchanged a given rational number x<span class="su">1</span>,
+and S an operation changing x<span class="su">1</span> into x<span class="su">2</span>, then every operation of
+S<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>HS leaves x<span class="su">2</span> unchanged. The subgroups, each of which leaves a
+single rational number unchanged, therefore form a single conjugate
+set. The group of multiplications leaves zero unchanged; and, as
+has been seen, this is conjugate with the subgroup formed of all
+operations x&prime; &minus; d = a(x &minus; d), where d is a given rational number.
+This subgroup leaves d unchanged.</p>
+
+<p>The group of multiplications is clearly generated by the operations
+x&prime; = px, where for p negative unity and each prime is taken in turn.
+Every addition is obtained on transforming x&prime; = x + 1 by the different
+operations of the group of multiplications. Hence x&prime; = x + 1, and
+x&prime; = px, (p = &minus;1, 3, 5, 7, ...), form a set of independent generating
+operations of the group. It is a discontinuous group.</p>
+
+<p>As a second example the group of motions in three-dimensional
+space will be considered. The totality of motions, <i>i.e.</i> of space
+displacements which leave the distance of every pair of points
+unaltered, obviously constitutes a set of operations which satisfies
+the group definition. From the elements of kinematics it is
+known that every motion is either (i.) a translation which leaves no
+point unaltered, but changes each of a set of parallel lines into
+itself; or (ii.) a rotation which leaves every point of one line unaltered
+and changes every other point and line; or (iii.) a twist which leaves
+no point and only one line (its axis) unaltered, and may be regarded
+as a translation along, combined with a rotation round, the axis.
+Let S be any motion consisting of a translation l along and a rotation
+a round a line AB, and let T be any other motion. There is some line
+CD into which T changes AB; and therefore T<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>ST leaves CD unchanged.
+Moreover, T<span class="sp">-1</span>ST clearly effects the same translation along
+and rotation round CD that S effects for AB. Two motions, therefore,
+are conjugate if and only if the amplitudes of their translation
+and rotation components are respectively equal. In particular, all
+translations of equal amplitude are conjugate, as also are all rotations
+of equal amplitude. Any two translations are permutable with each
+other, and give when combined another translation. The totality
+of translations constitutes, therefore, a subgroup of the general group
+of motions; and this subgroup is a self-conjugate subgroup, since a
+translation is always conjugate to a translation.</p>
+
+<p>All the points of space constitute a set of objects which are interchanged
+among themselves by all operations of the group of motions.
+So also do all the lines of space and all the planes. In respect of each
+of these sets the group is simply transitive. In fact, there is an
+infinite number of motions which change a point A to A&prime;, but no
+motion can change A and B to A&prime; and B&prime; respectively unless the
+distance AB is equal to the distance A&prime;B&prime;.</p>
+
+<p>The totality of motions which leave a point A unchanged forms a
+subgroup. It is clearly constituted of all possible rotations about all
+possible axes through A, and is known as the group of rotations about
+a point. Every motion can be represented as a rotation about some
+axis through A followed by a translation. Hence if G is the group of
+motions and H the group of translations, G/H is simply isomorphic
+with the group of rotations about a point.</p>
+
+<p>The totality of the motions which bring a given solid to congruence
+with itself again constitutes a subgroup of the group of motions.
+This will in general be the trivial subgroup formed of the identical
+operation above, but may in the case of a symmetrical body be more
+extensive. For a sphere or a right circular cylinder the subgroups
+are those that leave the centre and the axis respectively unaltered.
+For a solid bounded by plane faces the subgroup is clearly one
+of finite order. In particular, to each of the regular solids there
+corresponds such a group. That for the tetrahedron has 12 for its
+order, for the cube (or octahedron) 24, and for the icosahedron (or
+dodecahedron) 60.</p>
+
+<p>The determination of a particular operation of the group of motions
+involves six distinct measurements; namely, four to give the axis
+of the twist, one for the magnitude of the translation along the axis,
+and one for the magnitude of the rotation about it. Each of the six
+quantities involved may have any value whatever, and the group of
+motions is therefore a continuous group. On the other hand, a subgroup
+of the group of motions which leaves a line or a plane unaltered
+is a mixed group.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>We shall now discuss (i.) continuous groups, (ii.) discontinuous
+groups whose order is not finite, and (iii.) groups of finite order.
+For proofs of the statements, and the general theorems, the
+reader is referred to the bibliography.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Continuous Groups.</i></p>
+
+<p>The determination of a particular operation of a given continuous
+group depends on assigning special values to each one
+of a set of parameters which are capable of continuous variation.
+The first distinction regards the number of these parameters.
+If this number is finite, the group is called a <i>finite</i> continuous
+group; if infinite, it is called an <i>infinite</i> continuous group.
+In the latter case arbitrary functions must appear in the equations
+defining the operations of the group when these are reduced to
+an analytical form. The theory of infinite continuous groups
+is not yet so completely developed as that of finite continuous
+groups. The latter theory will mainly occupy us here.</p>
+
+<p>Sophus Lie, to whom the foundation and a great part of the
+development of the theory of continuous groups are due, undoubtedly
+approached the subject from a geometrical standpoint.
+His conception of an operation is to regard it as a geometrical
+transformation, by means of which each point of (<i>n</i>-dimensional)
+space is changed into some other definite point.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The representation of such a transformation in analytical form
+involves a system of equations,</p>
+
+<p class="center">x&prime;<span class="su">s</span> = &fnof;<span class="su">s</span> (x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span>), (s = 1, 2, ..., n),</p>
+
+<p class="noind">expressing x&prime;<span class="su">1</span>, x&prime;<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x&prime;<span class="su">n</span>, the co-ordinates of the transformed point
+in terms of x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span>, the co-ordinates of the original point.
+In these equations the functions &fnof;<span class="su">s</span> are analytical functions of their
+arguments. Within a properly limited region they must be one-valued,
+and the equations must admit a unique solution with respect
+to x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span>, since the operation would not otherwise be a
+definite one.</p>
+
+<p>From this point of view the operations of a continuous group,
+which depends on a set of r parameters, will be defined analytically
+by a system of equations of the form</p>
+
+<p class="center">x&prime;<span class="su">s</span> = &fnof;<span class="su">s</span>(x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span>; a<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>, ..., a<span class="su">r</span>), (s = 1, 2, ..., n),</p>
+<div class="author">(i.)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">where a<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>, ..., a<span class="su">r</span> represent the parameters. If this operation be
+represented by A, and that in which b<span class="su">1</span>, b<span class="su">2</span>, ..., b<span class="su">r</span> are the parameters
+by B, then the operation AB is represented by the elimination
+(assumed to be possible) of x&prime;<span class="su">1</span>, x&prime;<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x&prime;<span class="su">n</span> between the equations (i.)
+and the equations</p>
+
+<p class="center">x&Prime;<span class="su">s</span> = &fnof;<span class="su">s</span> (x&prime;<span class="su">1</span>, x&prime;<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x&prime;<span class="su">n</span>; b<span class="su">1</span>, b<span class="su">2</span>, ..., b<span class="su">r</span>), (s = 1, 2, ..., n).</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Since AB belongs to the group, the result of the elimination must be</p>
+
+<p class="center">x&Prime;<span class="su">s</span> = &fnof;<span class="su">s</span> (x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span>; c<span class="su">1</span>, c<span class="su">2</span>, ..., c<span class="su">r</span>),</p>
+
+<p class="noind">where c<span class="su">1</span>, c<span class="su">2</span>, ..., c<span class="su">r</span> represent another definite set of values of the
+parameters. Moreover, since A<span class="sp">&minus;1</span> belongs to the group, the result
+of solving equations (i.) with respect to x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span> must be</p>
+
+<p class="center">x<span class="su">s</span> = &fnof;<span class="su">s</span> (x&prime;<span class="su">1</span>, x&prime;<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x&prime;<span class="su">n</span>; d<span class="su">1</span>, d<span class="su">2</span>, ..., d<span class="su">r</span>), (s = 1, 2, ..., n).</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Conversely, if equations (i.) are such that these two conditions are
+satisfied, they do in fact define a finite continuous group.</p>
+
+<p>It will be assumed that the r parameters which enter in equations
+(i.) are independent, <i>i.e.</i> that it is impossible to choose
+r&prime; (&lt; r) quantities in terms of which a<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>, ..., a<span class="su">r</span> can
+<span class="sidenote">Infinitesimal operation of a continuous group.</span>
+be expressed. Where this is the case the group will
+be spoken of as a &ldquo;group of order r.&rdquo; Lie uses the
+term &ldquo;<i>r-gliedrige Gruppe</i>.&rdquo; It is to be noticed that the
+word order is used in quite a different sense from that
+given to it in connexion with groups of finite order.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to equations (i.), which define the general operation of
+the group, it is to be noticed that, since the group contains the
+identical operation, these equations must for some definite set of
+values of the parameters reduce to x&prime;<span class="su">1</span> = x<span class="su">1</span>, x&prime;<span class="su">2</span> = x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x&prime;<span class="su">n</span> = x<span class="su">n</span>.
+This set of values may, without loss of generality, be assumed to be
+simultaneous zero values. For if i<span class="su">1</span>, i<span class="su">2</span>, ..., i<span class="su">r</span> be the values of the
+parameters which give the identical operation, and if we write</p>
+
+<p class="center">a<span class="su">s</span> = i<span class="su">s</span> + a, (s = 1, 2, ..., r),</p>
+
+<p class="noind">then zero values of the new parameters a<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>, ..., a<span class="su">r</span> give the identical
+operation.</p>
+
+<p>To infinitesimal values of the parameters, thus chosen, will correspond
+operations which cause an infinitesimal change in each of the
+variables. These are called infinitesimal operations. The most
+general infinitesimal operation of the group is that given by the
+system</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">x&prime;<span class="su">s</span> &minus; x<span class="su">s</span> = &delta;x<span class="su">s</span> =</td> <td>&part;&fnof;<span class="su">s</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">&delta;a<span class="su">1</span> +</td> <td>&part;&fnof;<span class="su">s</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">&delta;a<span class="su">2</span> + ... +</td> <td>&part;&fnof;<span class="su">s</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">&delta;a<span class="su">r</span>, (s = 1, 2, ..., n),</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&part;a<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">&part;a<span class="su">2</span></td>
+<td class="denom">&part;a<span class="su">r</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">where, in &part;&fnof;<span class="su">s</span>/&part;a<span class="su">i</span>, zero values of the parameters are to be taken. Since
+a<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>, ..., a<span class="su">r</span> are independent, the ratios of &delta;a<span class="su">1</span>, &delta;a<span class="su">2</span>, ..., &delta;a<span class="su">r</span> are
+arbitrary. Hence the most general infinitesimal operation of the
+group may be written in the form</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&delta;x<span class="su">s</span> = <span class="f150">(</span> e<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>&part;&fnof;<span class="su">s</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ e<span class="su">2</span></td> <td>&part;&fnof;<span class="su">s</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ ... + e<span class="su">r</span></td> <td>&part;&fnof;<span class="su">s</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span> &delta;t, (s = 1, 2, ..., n),</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&part;a<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">&part;a<span class="su">2</span></td>
+<td class="denom">&part;a<span class="su">r</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">where e<span class="su">1</span>, e<span class="su">2</span>, ..., e<span class="su">r</span> are arbitrary constants, and &delta;t is an infinitesimal.</p>
+
+<p>If F(x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span>) is any function of the variables, and if an
+infinitesimal operation of the group be carried out on the variables in
+F, the resulting increment of F will be</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>&part;F </td>
+<td rowspan="2">&delta;x<span class="su">1</span> +</td> <td>&part;F </td>
+<td rowspan="2">&delta;x<span class="su">2</span> + ... +</td> <td>&part;F </td>
+<td rowspan="2">&delta;x<span class="su">n</span>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&part;x<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">&part;x<span class="su">2</span></td>
+<td class="denom">&part;x<span class="su">n</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>If the differential operator</p>
+
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>&part;&fnof;<span class="su">1</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>&part;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>&part;&fnof;<span class="su">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>&part;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ ... +</td> <td>&part;&fnof;<span class="su">n</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>&part;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&part;a<span class="su">i</span></td> <td class="denom">&part;x<span class="su">1</span></td>
+<td class="denom">&part;a<span class="su">i</span></td> <td class="denom">&part;x<span class="su">2</span></td>
+<td class="denom">&part;a<span class="su">i</span></td> <td class="denom">&part;x<span class="su">n</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page629" id="page629"></a>629</span></p>
+
+<p class="noind">be represented by X<span class="su">i</span>, (i = 1, 2, ..., r), then the increment of F is
+given by</p>
+
+<p class="center">(e<span class="su">1</span>X<span class="su">1</span> + e<span class="su">2</span>X<span class="su">2</span> + ... + e<span class="su">r</span>X<span class="su">r</span>) F&delta;t.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">When the equations (i.) defining the general operation of the group
+are given, the coefficients &part;&fnof;<span class="su">s</span>/&part;a<span class="su">i</span>, which enter in these differential
+operators are functions of the variables which can be directly calculated.</p>
+
+<p>The differential operator e<span class="su">1</span>X<span class="su">1</span> + e<span class="su">2</span>X<span class="su">2</span> + ... + e<span class="su">r</span>X<span class="su">r</span> may then be
+regarded as defining the most general infinitesimal operation of the
+group. In fact, if it be for a moment represented by X, then
+(1 + &delta;tX)F is the result of carrying out the infinitesimal operation on
+F; and by putting x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span> in turn for F, the actual infinitesimal
+operation is reproduced. By a very convenient, though perhaps
+hardly justifiable, phraseology this differential operator is itself
+spoken of as the general infinitesimal operation of the group. The
+sense in which this phraseology is to be understood will be made
+clear by the foregoing explanations.</p>
+
+<p>We suppose now that the constants e<span class="su">1</span>, e<span class="su">2</span>, ..., e<span class="su">r</span> have assigned
+values. Then the result of repeating the particular infinitesimal
+operation e<span class="su">1</span>X<span class="su">1</span> + e<span class="su">2</span>X<span class="su">2</span> + ... + e<span class="su">r</span>X<span class="su">r</span> or X an infinite number of times
+is some finite operation of the group. The effect of this finite operation
+on F may be directly calculated. In fact, if &delta;t is the infinitesimal
+already introduced, then</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>dF</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= X·F,</td> <td>d<span class="sp">2</span>F</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= X·X·F, ...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Hence</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">F&prime; = F + t</td> <td>dF</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>t<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>d<span class="sp">2</span>F</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ ...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">1·2</td> <td class="denom">dt<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">= F + tX·F +</td> <td>t<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">X·X·F + ...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">1·2</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">It must, of course, be understood that in this analytical representation
+of the effect of the finite operation on F it is implied that t is
+taken sufficiently small to ensure the convergence of the (in general)
+infinite series.</p>
+
+<p>When x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ... are written in turn for F, the system of equations</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">x&prime;<span class="su">s</span> = (1 + tX +</td> <td>t<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">X·X + ...)x<span class="su">s</span>, (s = 1, 2, ..., n)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">1·2</td></tr></table>
+<div class="author">(ii.)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">represent the finite operation completely. If t is here regarded as a
+parameter, this set of operations must in themselves constitute a
+group, since they arise by the repetition of a single infinitesimal
+operation. That this is really the case results immediately from
+noticing that the result of eliminating F&prime; between</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">F&prime; = F + tX·F +</td> <td>t<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">X·X·F + ...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">1·2</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">F&Prime; = F&prime; + t&prime;X·F&prime; +</td> <td>t&prime;<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">X·X·F&prime; + ...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">1·2</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">is</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">F&Prime; = F + (t + t&prime;) X·F +</td> <td>(t + t&prime;)<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">X·X·F + ...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">1·2</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">The group thus generated by the repetition of an infinitesimal
+operation is called a <i>cyclical</i> group; so that a continuous group
+contains a cyclical subgroup corresponding to each of its infinitesimal
+operations.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">The system of equations (ii.) represents an operation of the group
+whatever the constants e<span class="su">1</span>, e<span class="su">2</span>, ..., e<span class="su">r</span> may be. Hence if e<span class="su">1</span>t, e<span class="su">2</span>t, ..., e<span class="su">r</span>t
+be replaced by a<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>, ..., a<span class="su">r</span> the equations (ii.) represent a set of
+operations, depending on r parameters and belonging to the group.
+They must therefore be a form of the general equations for any
+operation of the group, and are equivalent to the equations (i.).
+The determination of the finite equations of a cyclical group, when
+the infinitesimal operation which generates it is given, will always
+depend on the integration of a set of simultaneous ordinary differential
+equations. As a very simple example we may consider the case in
+which the infinitesimal operation is given by X = x<span class="sp">2</span>&part;/&part;x, so that there
+is only a single variable. The relation between x&prime; and t is given by
+dx&prime;/dt = x&prime;<span class="sp">2</span>, with the condition that x&prime; = x when t = 0. This gives at
+once x&prime; = x/(1 &minus; tx), which might also be obtained by the direct use of
+(ii.).</p>
+
+<p>When the finite equations (i.) of a continuous group of order r are
+known, it has now been seen that the differential operator which
+defines the most general infinitesimal operation of the
+group can be directly constructed, and that it contains r
+<span class="sidenote">Relations between the infinitesimal operations of a finite continuous group.</span>
+arbitrary constants. This is equivalent to saying that
+the group contains r linearly independent infinitesimal
+operations; and that the most general infinitesimal
+operation is obtained by combining these linearly with
+constant coefficients. Moreover, when any r independent
+infinitesimal operations of the group are known, it has
+been seen how the general finite operation of the group
+may be calculated. This obviously suggests that it must be possible
+to define the group by means of its infinitesimal operations alone;
+and it is clear that such a definition would lend itself more readily to
+some applications (for instance, to the theory of differential equations)
+than the definition by means of the finite equations.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, r arbitrarily given linear differential operators
+will not, in general, give rise to a finite continuous group of order r;
+and the question arises as to what conditions such a set of operators
+must satisfy in order that they may, in fact, be the independent
+infinitesimal operations of such a group.</p>
+
+<p>If X, Y are two linear differential operators, XY &minus; YX is also a
+linear differential operator. It is called the &ldquo;combinant&rdquo; of X and
+Y (Lie uses the expression <i>Klammerausdruck</i>) and is denoted by
+(XY). If X, Y, Z are any three linear differential operators the
+identity (known as Jacobi&rsquo;s)</p>
+
+<p class="center">(X(YZ)) + (Y(ZX)) + (Z(XY)) = 0</p>
+
+<p class="noind">holds between them. Now it may be shown that any continuous
+group of which X, Y are infinitesimal operations contains also (XY)
+among its infinitesimal operations. Hence if r linearly independent
+operations X<span class="su">1</span>, X<span class="su">2</span>, ..., X<span class="su">r</span> give rise to a finite continuous group of
+order r, the combinant of each pair must be expressible linearly in
+terms of the r operations themselves: that is, there must be a system
+of relations</p>
+
+<p class="center">(X<span class="su">i</span>X<span class="su">j</span>) = <span class="f150">&Sigma;</span><span class="sp1">k=r</span><span class="su1">k=1</span> c<span class="su">ijk</span> X<span class="su">k</span>,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">where the c&rsquo;s are constants. Moreover, from Jacobi&rsquo;s identity and the
+identity (XY) + (YX) = 0 it follows that the c&rsquo;s are subject to the
+relations</p>
+
+<p class="noind">and</p>
+
+<p class="center">c<span class="su">ijt</span> + c<span class="su">jit</span> = 0,<br />
+
+&Sigma;<span class="su2">s</span> (c<span class="su">jks</span> c<span class="su">ist</span> + c<span class="su">kis</span> c<span class="su">jst</span> + c<span class="su">ijs</span> c<span class="su">kst</span>) = 0</p>
+<div class="author">(iii.)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">for all values of i, j, k and t.</p>
+
+<p>The fundamental theorem of the theory of finite continuous groups
+is now that these conditions, which are necessary in order
+<span class="sidenote">Determination of the distinct types of continuous groups of a given order.</span>
+that X<span class="su">1</span>, X<span class="su">2</span>, ..., X<span class="su">r</span> may generate, as infinitesimal
+operations, a continuous group of order r, are also
+sufficient.</p>
+
+<p>For the proof of this fundamental theorem see Lie&rsquo;s
+works (cf. Lie-Engel, i. chap. 9; iii. chap. 25).</p>
+
+<p>If two continuous groups of order r are such that, for
+each, a set of linearly independent infinitesimal operations
+X<span class="su">1</span>, X<span class="su">2</span>, ..., X<span class="su">r</span> and Y<span class="su">1</span>, Y<span class="su">2</span>, ..., Y<span class="su">r</span> can be chosen, so
+that in the relations</p>
+
+<p class="center">(X<span class="su">i</span>X<span class="su">j</span>) = &Sigma;c<span class="su">ijs</span> X<span class="su">s</span>, (Y<span class="su">i</span>Y<span class="su">j</span>) = &Sigma; d<span class="su">ijs</span> Y<span class="su">s</span>,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">the constants c<span class="su">ijs</span> and d<span class="su">ijs</span> are the same for all values of i, j and s, the
+two groups are simply isomorphic, X<span class="su">s</span> and Y<span class="su">s</span> being corresponding
+infinitesimal operations.</p>
+
+<p>Two continuous groups of order r, whose infinitesimal operations
+obey the same system of equations (iii.), may be of very different
+<i>form</i>; for instance, the number of variables for the one may be
+different from that for the other. They are, however, said to be of
+the same <i>type</i>, in the sense that the laws according to which their
+operations combine are the same for both.</p>
+
+<p>The problem of determining all distinct types of groups of order r
+is then contained in the purely algebraical problem of finding all the
+systems of r<span class="sp">3</span> quantities c<span class="su">ijs</span> which satisfy the relations</p>
+
+<p class="center">c<span class="su">ijt</span> + c<span class="su">ijt</span> = 0,<br />
+
+&Sigma;<span class="su2">s</span> c<span class="su">ijs</span> c<span class="su">skt</span> + c<span class="su">jks</span> c<span class="su">sit</span> + c<span class="su">kis</span> c<span class="su">sjt</span> = 0.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">for all values of i, j, k and t. To two distinct solutions of the algebraical
+problem, however, two distinct types of group will not
+necessarily correspond. In fact, X<span class="su">1</span>, X<span class="su">2</span>, ..., X<span class="su">r</span> may be replaced by
+any r independent linear functions of themselves, and the c&rsquo;s will
+then be transformed by a linear substitution containing r<span class="sp">2</span> independent
+parameters. This, however, does not alter the type of group
+considered.</p>
+
+<p>For a single parameter there is, of course, only one type of group,
+which has been called cyclical.</p>
+
+<p>For a group of order two there is a single relation</p>
+
+<p class="center">(X<span class="su">1</span>X<span class="su">2</span>) = &alpha;X<span class="su">1</span> + &beta;X<span class="su">2</span>.</p>
+
+<p>If &alpha; and &beta; are not both zero, let &alpha; be finite. The relation may then
+be written (&alpha;X<span class="su">1</span> + &beta;X<span class="su">2</span>, &alpha;<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>X<span class="su">2</span>) = &alpha;X<span class="su">1</span> + &beta;X<span class="su">2</span>. Hence if &alpha;X<span class="su">1</span> + &beta;X<span class="su">2</span> = X&prime;<span class="su">1</span>,
+and &alpha;<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>X<span class="su">2</span> = X&prime;<span class="su">2</span>, then (X&prime;<span class="su">1</span>X&prime;<span class="su">2</span>) = X&prime;<span class="su">1</span>. There are, therefore, just two
+types of group of order two, the one given by the relation last written,
+and the other by (X<span class="su">1</span>X<span class="su">2</span>) = 0.</p>
+
+<p>Lie has determined all distinct types of continuous groups of
+orders three or four; and all types of non-integrable groups (a term
+which will be explained immediately) of orders five and six (cf.
+Lie-Engel,
+iii. 713-744).</p>
+
+<p>A problem of fundamental importance in connexion with any given
+<span class="sidenote">Self-conjugate subgroups. Integrable groups.</span>
+continuous group is the determination of the self-conjugate
+subgroups which it contains. If X is an infinitesimal
+operation of a group, and Y any other, the general form
+of the infinitesimal operations which are conjugate to X is</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">X + t(XY) +</td> <td>t<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">((XY)Y) + ....</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">1·2</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Any subgroup which contains all the operations conjugate to X must
+therefore contain all infinitesimal operations (XY), ((XY)Y), ...,
+where for Y each infinitesimal operation of the group is taken in turn.
+Hence if X&prime;<span class="su">1</span>, X&prime;<span class="su">2</span>, ..., X&prime;<span class="su">s</span> are s linearly independent operations of
+the group which generate a self-conjugate subgroup of order s, then
+for <i>every</i> infinitesimal operation Y of the group relations of the form</p>
+
+<p class="center">(X&prime;<span class="su">i</span>Y) = &Sigma;<span class="sp1">e=s</span><span class="su1">e=1</span> a<span class="su">ie</span> X&prime;<span class="su">e</span>, (i = 1, 2, ..., s)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page630" id="page630"></a>630</span></p>
+
+<p>must be satisfied. Conversely, if such a set of relations is satisfied,
+X&prime;<span class="su">1</span>, X&prime;<span class="su">2</span>, ..., X&prime;<span class="su">s</span> generate a subgroup of order s, which contains
+every operation conjugate to each of the infinitesimal generating
+operations, and is therefore a self-conjugate subgroup.</p>
+
+<p>A specially important self-conjugate subgroup is that generated
+by the combinants of the r infinitesimal generating operations. That
+these generate a self-conjugate subgroup follows from the relations
+(iii.). In fact,</p>
+
+<p class="center">((X<span class="su">i</span>X<span class="su">j</span>) X<span class="su">k</span>) = &Sigma;<span class="su2">s</span> c<span class="su">ijs</span> (X<span class="su">s</span>X<span class="su">k</span>).</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Of the ½r(r &minus; 1) combinants not more than r can be linearly independent.
+When exactly r of them are linearly independent, the self-conjugate
+group generated by them coincides with the original group.
+If the number that are linearly independent is less than r, the self-conjugate
+subgroup generated by them is actually a subgroup; <i>i.e.</i>
+its order is less than that of the original group. This subgroup is
+known as the derived group, and Lie has called a group <i>perfect</i> when
+it coincides with its derived group. A simple group, since it contains
+no self-conjugate subgroup distinct from itself, is necessarily a perfect
+group.</p>
+
+<p>If G is a given continuous group, G<span class="su">1</span> the derived group of G, G<span class="su">2</span>
+that of G<span class="su">1</span>, and so on, the series of groups G, G<span class="su">1</span>, G<span class="su">2</span>, ... will terminate
+either with the identical operation or with a perfect group; for the
+order of G<span class="su">s+1</span> is less than that of G<span class="su">s</span> unless G<span class="su">s</span> is a perfect group.
+When the series terminates with the identical operation, G is said
+to be an <i>integrable</i> group; in the contrary case G is called <i>non-integrable</i>.</p>
+
+<p>If G is an integrable group of order r, the infinitesimal operations
+X<span class="su">1</span>, X<span class="su">2</span>, ..., X<span class="su">r</span> which generate the group may be chosen so
+that X<span class="su">1</span>, X<span class="su">2</span>, ..., X<span class="su">r1</span>, (r<span class="su">1</span> &lt; r) generate the first derived group,
+X<span class="su">1</span>, X<span class="su">2</span>, ..., X<span class="su">r2</span>, (r<span class="su">2</span> &lt; r<span class="su">1</span>) the second derived group, and so on.
+When they are so chosen the constants c<span class="su">ijs</span> are clearly such that if
+r<span class="su">p</span> &lt; i &le; r<span class="su">p+1</span>, r<span class="su">q</span> &lt; j &le; r<span class="su">q+1</span>, p &ge; q, then c<span class="su">ijs</span> vanishes unless s &le; r<span class="su">p+1</span>.</p>
+
+<p>In particular the generating operations may be chosen so that c<span class="su">ijs</span>
+vanishes unless s is equal to or less than the smaller of the two
+numbers i, j; and conversely, if the c&rsquo;s satisfy these relations, the
+group is integrable.</p>
+
+<p>A simple group, as already defined, is one which has no self-conjugate
+subgroup. It is a remarkable fact that the determination
+<span class="sidenote">Simple groups.</span>
+of all distinct types of simple continuous groups has been
+made, for in the case of discontinuous groups and groups
+of finite order this is far from being the case. Lie has
+demonstrated the existence of four great classes of simple groups:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(i.) The groups simply isomorphic with the general projective
+group in space of n dimensions. Such a group is defined analytically
+as the totality of the transformations of the form</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">x&prime;<span class="su">s</span> =</td> <td>a<span class="su">s</span>, <span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + a<span class="su">s</span>, <span class="su">2</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + ... + a<span class="su">s</span>, <span class="su">n</span>x<span class="su">n</span> + a<span class="su">s, n + 1</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">, (s = 1, 2, ..., n),</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">a<span class="su">n+1</span>, <span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + a<span class="su">n+1</span>, <span class="su">2</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + ... + a<span class="su">n+1</span>, <span class="su">n</span>x<span class="su">n</span> + 1</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">where the a&rsquo;s are parameters. The order of this group is clearly
+n(n + 2).</p>
+
+<p>(ii.) The groups simply isomorphic with the totality of the projective
+transformations which transform a non-special linear complex
+in space of 2n &minus; 1 dimensions with itself. The order of this group is
+n(2n + 1).</p>
+
+<p>(iii.) and (iv.) The groups simply isomorphic with the totality of
+the projective transformations which change a quadric of non-vanishing
+discriminant into itself. These fall into two distinct
+classes of types according as n is even or odd. In either case the
+order is ½n(n + 1). The case n = 3 forms an exception in which the
+corresponding group is not simple. It is also to be noticed that a
+cyclical group is a simple group, since it has no continuous self-conjugate
+subgroup distinct from itself.</p>
+
+<p>W. K. J. Killing and E. J. Cartan have separately proved that
+outside these four great classes there exist only five distinct types of
+simple groups, whose orders are 14, 52, 78, 133 and 248; thus
+completing the enumeration of all possible types.</p>
+
+<p>To prevent any misapprehension as to the bearing of these very
+general results, it is well to point out explicitly that there are no
+limitations on the parameters of a continuous group as it has been
+defined above. They are to be regarded as taking in general complex
+values. If in the finite equations of a continuous group the imaginary
+symbol does not explicitly occur, the finite equations will usually
+define a group (in the general sense of the original definition) when
+both parameters and variables are limited to real values. Such a
+group is, in a certain sense, a continuous group; and such groups
+have been considered shortly by Lie (cf. Lie-Engel, iii. 360-392),
+who calls them <i>real</i> continuous groups. To these real continuous
+groups the above statement as to the totality of simple groups does
+not apply; and indeed, in all probability, the number of types of
+<i>real</i> simple continuous groups admits of no such complete enumeration.
+The effect of limitation to real transformations may be illustrated
+by considering the groups of projective transformations which
+change</p>
+
+<p class="center">x<span class="sp">2</span> + y<span class="sp">2</span> + z<span class="sp">2</span> &minus; 1 = 0 and x<span class="sp">2</span> + y<span class="sp">2</span> &minus; z<span class="sp">2</span> &minus; 1 = 0</p>
+
+<p class="noind">respectively into themselves. Since one of these quadrics is changed
+into the other by the imaginary transformation</p>
+
+<p class="center">x&prime; = x, y&prime; = y, z&prime; = z&radic; (&minus;1),</p>
+
+<p class="noind">the general continuous groups which transform the two quadrics
+respectively into themselves are simply isomorphic. This is not,
+however, the case for the <i>real</i> continuous groups. In fact, the second
+quadric has two real sets of generators; and therefore the real group
+which transforms it into itself has two self-conjugate subgroups,
+either of which leaves unchanged each of one set of generators. The
+first quadric having imaginary generators, no such self-conjugate
+subgroups can exist for the real group which transforms it into
+itself; and this real group is in fact simple.</p>
+
+<p>Among the groups isomorphic with a given continuous group there
+<span class="sidenote">The adjunct group.</span>
+is one of special importance which is known as the <i>adjunct</i>
+group. This is a homogeneous linear group in a number of
+variables equal to the order of the group, whose infinitesimal
+operations are defined by the relations</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">X<span class="su">i</span> = &Sigma;<span class="su2">i, s</span> c<span class="su">ijs</span> x<span class="su">i</span></td> <td>&part;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">, (j = 1, 2, ..., r),</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&part;x<span class="su">s</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">where c<span class="su">ijs</span> are the often-used constants, which give the combinants of
+the infinitesimal operations in terms of the infinitesimal operations
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p>That the r infinitesimal operations thus defined actually generate a
+group isomorphic with the given group is verified by forming their
+combinants. It is thus found that (X<span class="su">p</span>X<span class="su">q</span>) = &Sigma;<span class="su2">s</span> c<span class="su">pqs</span>X<span class="su">s</span>. The X&rsquo;s,
+however, are not necessarily linearly independent. In fact, the
+sufficient condition that &Sigma;<span class="su2">j</span> a<span class="su">j</span>X<span class="su">j</span> should be identically zero is that
+&Sigma;<span class="su2">j</span> a<span class="su">j</span>c<span class="su">ijs</span> should vanish for all values of i and s. Hence if the equations
+&Sigma;<span class="su2">j</span> a<span class="su">j</span>c<span class="su">ijs</span> = 0 for all values of i and s  have r&prime; linearly independent
+solutions, only r &minus; r&prime; of the X&rsquo;s are linearly independent, and the
+isomorphism of the two groups is multiple. If Y<span class="su">1</span>, Y<span class="su">2</span>, ..., Y<span class="su">r</span> are
+the infinitesimal operations of the given group, the equations</p>
+
+<p class="center">&Sigma;<span class="su2">j</span> a<span class="su">j</span>c<span class="su">ijs</span> = 0, (s, i = 1, 2, ..., r)</p>
+
+<p class="noind">express the condition that the operations of the cyclical group
+generated by &Sigma;<span class="su2">j</span> a<span class="su">j</span>Y<span class="su">i</span> should be permutable with every operation of
+the group; in other words, that they should be self-conjugate
+operations. In the case supposed, therefore, the given group
+contains a subgroup of order r&prime; each of whose operations is self-conjugate.
+The adjunct group of a given group will therefore be
+simply isomorphic with the group, unless the latter contains self-conjugate
+operations; and when this is the case the order of the
+adjunct will be less than that of the given group by the order of the
+subgroup formed of the self-conjugate operations.</p>
+
+<p>We have been thus far mainly concerned with the abstract theory of
+continuous groups, in which no distinction is made between
+<span class="sidenote">Continuous groups of the line of the plane, and of three-dimensional space.</span>
+two simply isomorphic groups. We proceed to
+discuss the classification and theory of groups when
+their form is regarded as essential; and this is a return
+to a more geometrical point of view.</p>
+
+<p>It is natural to begin with the projective groups,
+which are the simplest in form and at the same time are
+of supreme importance in geometry. The general projective
+group of the straight line is the group of order three
+given by</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">x&prime; =</td> <td>ax + b</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">cx + d&prime;</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">where the parameters are the ratios of a, b, c, d. Since</p>
+
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>x&prime;<span class="su">3</span> &minus; x&prime;<span class="su">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>x&prime; &minus; x&prime;<span class="su">1</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>x<span class="su">3</span> &minus; x<span class="su">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>x &minus; x<span class="su">1</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">x&prime;<span class="su">3</span> &minus; x&prime;<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">x&prime; &minus; x&prime;<span class="su">2</span></td>
+<td class="denom">x<span class="su">3</span> &minus; x<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">x &minus; x<span class="su">2</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">is an operation of the above form, the group is triply transitive.
+Every subgroup of order two leaves one point unchanged, and all
+such subgroups are conjugate. A cyclical subgroup leaves either two
+distinct points or two coincident points unchanged. A subgroup
+which either leaves two points unchanged or interchanges them is
+an example of a &ldquo;mixed&rdquo; group.</p>
+
+<p>The analysis of the general projective group must obviously
+increase very rapidly in complexity, as the dimensions of the space
+to which it applies increase. This analysis has been completely
+carried out for the projective group of the plane, with the result of
+showing that there are thirty distinct types of subgroup. Excluding
+the general group itself, every one of these leaves either a point, a
+line, or a conic section unaltered. For space of three dimensions Lie
+has also carried out a similar investigation, but the results are extremely
+complicated. One general result of great importance at
+which Lie arrives in this connexion is that every projective group in
+space of three dimensions, other than the general group, leaves
+either a point, a curve, a surface or a linear complex unaltered.</p>
+
+<p>Returning now to the case of a single variable, it can be shown that
+any finite continuous group in one variable is either cyclical or of
+order two or three, and that by a suitable transformation any such
+group may be changed into a projective group.</p>
+
+<p>The genesis of an infinite as distinguished from a finite continuous
+group may be well illustrated by considering it in the case of a single
+variable. The infinitesimal operations of the projective group in
+one variable are d/dx, x(d/dx), x<span class="sp">2</span>(d/dx). If these combined with x<span class="sp">3</span>(d/dx) be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page631" id="page631"></a>631</span>
+taken as infinitesimal operations from which to generate a continuous
+group among the infinitesimal operations of the group, there must
+occur the combinant of x<span class="sp">2</span>(d/dx) and x<span class="sp">3</span>(d/dx). This is x<span class="sp">4</span>(d/dx). The combinant
+of this and x<span class="sp">2</span>(d/dx) is 2x<span class="sp">5</span>(d/dx) and so on. Hence x<span class="sp">r</span>(d/dx), where r is any
+positive integer, is an infinitesimal operation of the group. The
+general infinitesimal operation of the group is therefore &fnof;(x)(d/dx), where
+&fnof;(x) is an arbitrary integral function of x.</p>
+
+<p>In the classification of the groups, projective or non-projective
+of two or more variables, the distinction between primitive and
+imprimitive groups immediately presents itself. For groups of the
+plane the following question arises. Is there or is there not a singly-infinite
+family of curves &fnof;(x, y) = C, where C is an arbitrary constant
+such that every operation of the group interchanges the curves of the
+family among themselves? In accordance with the previously given
+definition of imprimitivity, the group is called imprimitive or
+primitive according as such a set exists or not. In space of three
+dimensions there are two possibilities; namely, there may either be
+a singly infinite system of surfaces F(x, y, z) = C, which are interchanged
+among themselves by the operations of the group; or
+there may be a doubly-infinite system of curves G(x, y, z) = a,
+H(x, y, z) = b, which are so interchanged.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to primitive groups Lie has shown that any primitive
+group of the plane can, by a suitably chosen transformation, be
+transformed into one of three definite types of projective groups;
+and that any primitive group of space of three dimensions can be
+transformed into one of eight definite types, which, however, cannot
+all be represented as projective groups in three dimensions.</p>
+
+<p>The results which have been arrived at for imprimitive groups in
+two and three variables do not admit of any such simple statement.</p>
+
+<p>We shall now explain the conception of contact-transformations
+and groups of contact-transformations. This conception,
+<span class="sidenote">Contact transformations.</span>
+like that of continuous groups, owes its origin to
+Lie.</p>
+
+<p>From a purely analytical point of view a contact-transformation
+may be defined as a point-transformation in 2n + 1
+variables, z, x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span>, p<span class="su">1</span>, p<span class="su">2</span>, ..., p<span class="su">n</span> which leaves unaltered
+the equation dz &minus; p<span class="su">1</span>dx<span class="su">1</span> &minus; p<span class="su">2</span>dx<span class="su">2</span> &minus; ... &minus; p<span class="su">n</span>dx<span class="su">n</span> = 0. Such a definition
+as this, however, gives no direct clue to the geometrical properties
+of the transformation, nor does it explain the name given.</p>
+
+<p>In dealing with contact-transformations we shall restrict ourselves
+to space of two or of three dimensions; and it will be necessary to
+begin with some purely geometrical considerations. An infinitesimal
+surface-element in space of three dimensions is completely specified,
+apart from its size, by its position and orientation. If x, y, z are the
+co-ordinates of some one point of the element, and if p, q, &minus;1 give
+the ratios of the direction-cosines of its normal, x, y, z, p, q are five
+quantities which completely specify the element. There are,
+therefore, &infin;<span class="sp">5</span> surface elements in three-dimensional space. The
+surface-elements of a surface form a system of &infin;<span class="sp">2</span> elements, for there
+are &infin;<span class="sp">2</span> points on the surface, and at each a definite surface-element.
+The surface-elements of a curve form, again, a system of &infin;<span class="sp">2</span> elements,
+for there are &infin;<span class="sp">1</span> points on the curve, and at each &infin;<span class="sp">1</span> surface-elements
+containing the tangent to the curve at the point. Similarly the
+surface-elements which contain a given point clearly form a system
+of &infin;<span class="sp">2</span> elements. Now each of these systems of &infin;<span class="sp">2</span> surface-elements has
+the property that if (x, y, z, p, q) and (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz, p + dp,
+q + dq) are consecutive elements from any one of them, then
+dz &minus; pdx &minus; qdy = 0. In fact, for a system of the first kind dx, dy, dz
+are proportional to the direction-cosines of a tangent line at a point of
+the surface, and p, q, &minus;1 are proportional to the direction-cosines of
+the normal. For a system of the second kind dx, dy, dz are proportional
+to the direction-cosines of a tangent to the curve, and
+p, q, &minus;1 give the direction-cosines of the normal to a plane touching
+the curve; and for a system of the third kind dx, dy, dz are zero.
+Now the most general way in which a system of &infin;<span class="sp">2</span> surface-elements
+can be given is by three independent equations between x, y, z, p
+and q. If these equations do not contain p, q, they determine one
+or more (a finite number in any case) points in space, and the system
+of surface-elements consists of the elements containing these points;
+<i>i.e.</i> it consists of one or more systems of the third kind.</p>
+
+<p>If the equations are such that two distinct equations independent
+of p and q can be derived from them, the points of the system of
+surface-elements lie on a curve. For such a system the equation
+dz &minus; pdx &minus; qdy = 0 will hold for each two consecutive elements only
+when the plane of each element touches the curve at its own point.</p>
+
+<p>If the equations are such that only one equation independent of
+p and q can be derived from them, the points of the system of surface-elements
+lie on a surface. Again, for such a system the equation
+dz &minus; pdx &minus; qdy = 0 will hold for each two consecutive elements only
+when each element touches the surface at its own point. Hence,
+when all possible systems of &infin;<span class="sp">2</span> surface-elements in space are
+considered, the equation dz &minus; pdx &minus; qdy = 0 is characteristic of the
+three special types in which the elements belong, in the sense explained
+above, to a point or a curve or a surface.</p>
+
+<p>Let us consider now the geometrical bearing of any transformation
+x&prime; = &fnof;<span class="su">1</span>(x, y, z, p, q), ..., q&prime; = &fnof;<span class="su">5</span>(x, y, z, p, q), of the five variables. It
+will interchange the surface-elements of space among themselves,
+and will change any system of &infin;<span class="sp">2</span> elements into another system of
+&infin;<span class="sp">2</span> elements. A special system, <i>i.e.</i> a system which belongs to a
+point, curve or surface, will not, however, in general be changed into
+another special system. The necessary and sufficient condition that
+a special system should always be changed into a special system is
+that the equation dz&prime; &minus; p&prime;dx&prime; &minus; q&prime;dy&prime; = 0 should be a consequence of
+the equation dz &minus; pdx &minus; qdy = 0; or, in other words, that this latter
+equation should be invariant for the transformation.</p>
+
+<p>When this condition is satisfied the transformation is such as to
+change the surface-elements of a surface in general into surface-elements
+of a surface, though in particular cases they may become
+the surface-elements of a curve or point; and similar statements
+may be made with respect to a curve or point. The transformation
+is therefore a veritable geometrical transformation in space of three
+dimensions. Moreover, two special systems of surface-elements
+which have an element in common are transformed into two new
+special systems with an element in common. Hence two curves or
+surfaces which touch each other are transformed into two new curves
+or surfaces which touch each other. It is this property which leads
+to the transformations in question being called contact-transformations.
+It will be noticed that an ordinary point-transformation is
+always a contact-transformation, but that a contact-transformation
+(in space of n dimensions) is not in general a point-transformation
+(in space of n dimensions), though it may always be regarded as a
+point-transformation in space of 2n + 1 dimensions. In the analogous
+theory for space of two dimensions a line-element, defined by (x, y, p),
+where 1 : p gives the direction-cosines of the line, takes the place of
+the surface-element; and a transformation of x, y and p which leaves
+the equation dy &minus; pdx = 0 unchanged transforms the &infin;<span class="sp">1</span> line-elements,
+which belong to a curve, into &infin;<span class="sp">1</span> line-elements which again belong
+to a curve; while two curves which touch are transformed into two
+other curves which touch.</p>
+
+<p>One of the simplest instances of a contact-transformation that can
+be given is the transformation by reciprocal polars. By this transformation
+a point P and a plane p passing through it are changed into
+a plane p&prime; and a point P&prime; upon it; <i>i.e.</i> the surface-element defined by
+P, p is changed into a definite surface-element defined by P&prime;, p&prime;.
+The totality of surface-elements which belong to a (non-developable)
+surface is known from geometrical considerations to be changed into
+the totality which belongs to another (non-developable) surface.
+On the other hand, the totality of the surface-elements which belong
+to a curve is changed into another set which belong to a developable.
+The analytical formulae for this transformation, when the reciprocation
+is effected with respect to the paraboloid x<span class="sp">2</span> + y<span class="sp">2</span> &minus; 2z = 0, are
+x&prime; = p, y&prime; = q, z&prime; = px + qy &minus; z, p&prime; = x, q&prime; = y. That this is, in fact, a
+contact-transformation is verified directly by noticing that</p>
+
+<p class="center">dz&prime; &minus; p&prime;dx&prime; &minus; q&prime;dy&prime; = &minus;d (z &minus; px &minus; qy) &minus; xdp &minus; ydq = &minus;(dz &minus; pdx &minus; qdy).</p>
+
+<p class="noind">A second simple example is that in which every surface-element is
+displaced, without change of orientation, normal to itself through a
+constant distance t. The analytical equations in this case are easily
+found in the form</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">x&prime; = x +</td> <td>pt</td>
+<td rowspan="2">, &emsp; y&prime; = y +</td> <td>qt</td>
+<td rowspan="2">, &emsp; z&prime; = z &minus;</td> <td>t</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&radic;<span class="ov">(1 + p<span class="sp">2</span> + q<span class="sp">2</span>)</span></td> <td class="denom">&radic;<span class="ov">(1 + p<span class="sp">2</span> + q<span class="sp">2</span>)</span></td>
+<td class="denom">&radic;<span class="ov">(1 + p<span class="sp">2</span> + q<span class="sp">2</span>)</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center">p&prime; = q, q&prime; = q.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">That this is a contact-transformation is seen geometrically by noticing
+that it changes a surface into a parallel surface. Every point is
+changed by it into a sphere of radius t, and when t is regarded as a
+parameter the equations define a cyclical group of
+contact-transformations.</p>
+
+<p>The formal theory of continuous groups of contact-transformations
+is, of course, in no way distinct from the formal theory of continuous
+groups in general. On what may be called the geometrical side, the
+theory of groups of contact-transformations has been developed with
+very considerable detail in the second volume of Lie-Engel.</p>
+
+<p>To the manifold applications of the theory of continuous groups
+in various branches of pure and applied mathematics
+<span class="sidenote">Applications of the theory of continuous groups.</span>
+it is impossible here to refer in any detail. It must
+suffice to indicate a few of them very briefly. In some
+of the older theories a new point of view is obtained which
+presents the results in a fresh light, and suggests the
+natural generalization. As an example, the theory of
+the invariants of a binary form may be considered.</p>
+
+<p>If in the form &fnof; = a<span class="su">0</span>x<span class="sp">n</span> + na<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="sp">n&minus;1</span>y + ... + a<span class="su">n</span>y<span class="sp">n</span>, the variables be
+subjected to a homogeneous substitution</p>
+
+<p class="center">x&prime; = &alpha;x + &beta;y, y&prime; = &gamma;x + &delta;y,</p>
+<div class="author">(i.)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and if the coefficients in the new form be represented by accenting the
+old coefficients, then</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>a&prime;<span class="su">0</span> = a<span class="su">0</span>&alpha;<span class="sp">n</span> + a<span class="su">1</span>n&alpha;<span class="sp">n&minus;1</span>&gamma; + ... + a<span class="su">n</span>&gamma;<span class="sp">n</span>,</p>
+
+<p>a&prime;<span class="su">1</span> = a<span class="su">0</span>&alpha;<span class="sp">n&minus;1</span>&beta; + a<span class="su">1</span> {(n&minus;1) &alpha;<span class="sp">n&minus;2</span>&beta;&gamma; + &alpha;<span class="sp">n&minus;1</span>&delta;} + ... + a<span class="su">n</span>&gamma;<span class="sp">n&minus;1</span>&delta;,</p>
+<p>&emsp; · &emsp;&emsp;&emsp; · &emsp;&emsp;&emsp; · &emsp;&emsp;&emsp; ·  &emsp;&emsp;&emsp; ·</p>
+<p>a&prime;<span class="su">n</span> = a<span class="su">0</span>&beta;<span class="sp">n</span> + a<span class="su">1</span>n&beta;<span class="sp">n&minus;1</span>&delta; + ... + a<span class="su">n</span>&delta;<span class="sp">n</span>;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+<div class="author">(ii.)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and this is a homogeneous linear substitution performed on the
+coefficients. The totality of the substitutions, (i.), for which &alpha;&delta; &minus; &beta;&gamma; = 1,
+constitutes a continuous group of order 3, which is generated
+by the two infinitesimal transformations y(&part;/&part;x) and x(&part;/&part;y). Hence with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page632" id="page632"></a>632</span>
+the same limitations on &alpha;, &beta;, &gamma;, &delta; the totality of the substitutions
+(ii.) forms a simply isomorphic continuous group of order 3, which is
+generated by the two infinitesimal transformations</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">a<span class="su">0</span></td> <td>&part;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ 2a<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>&part;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ 3a<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>&part;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ ... + na<span class="su">n &minus; 1</span></td> <td>&part;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&part;a<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">&part;a<span class="su">2</span></td>
+<td class="denom">&part;a<span class="su">3</span></td> <td class="denom">&part;a<span class="su">n</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">na<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>&part;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ (n &minus; 1)a<span class="su">2</span></td> <td>&part;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ (n &minus; 2)a<span class="su">3</span></td> <td>&part;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ ... + a<span class="su">u</span></td> <td>&part;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&part;a<span class="su">0</span></td> <td class="denom">&part;a<span class="su">1</span></td>
+<td class="denom">&part;a<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="denom">&part;a<span class="su">u&minus;1</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">The invariants of the binary form, <i>i.e.</i> those functions of the coefficients
+which are unaltered by all homogeneous substitutions on
+x, y of determinant unity, are therefore identical with the functions
+of the coefficients which are invariant for the continuous group
+generated by the two infinitesimal operations last written. In other
+words, they are given by the common solutions of the differential
+equations</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">a<span class="su">0</span></td> <td>&part;&fnof;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ 2a<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>&part;&fnof;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ 3a<span class="su">2</span></td> <td>&part;&fnof;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ ... = 0,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&part;a<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">&part;a<span class="su">1</span></td>
+<td class="denom">&part;a<span class="su">2</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">na<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>&part;&fnof;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ (n &minus; 1)a<span class="su">2</span></td> <td>&part;&fnof;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ (n &minus; 2)a<span class="su">3</span></td> <td>&part;&fnof;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ ... = 0.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&part;a<span class="su">0</span></td> <td class="denom">&part;a<span class="su">1</span></td>
+<td class="denom">&part;a<span class="su">2</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Both this result and the method by which it is arrived at are well
+known, but the point of view by which we pass from the transformation
+group of the variables to the isomorphic transformation group
+of the coefficients, and regard the invariants as invariants rather of
+the group than of the forms, is a new and a fruitful one.</p>
+
+<p>The general theory of curvature of curves and surfaces may in a
+similar way be regarded as a theory of their invariants for the group
+of motions. That something more than a mere change of phraseology
+is here implied will be evident in dealing with minimum curves, <i>i.e.</i>
+with curves such that at every point of them dx<span class="sp">2</span> + dy<span class="sp">2</span> + dz<span class="sp">2</span> = 0.
+For such curves the ordinary theory of curvature has no meaning,
+but they nevertheless have invariant properties in regard to the
+group of motions.</p>
+
+<p>The curvature and torsion of a curve, which are invariant for all
+transformations by the group of motions, are special instances of
+what are known as <i>differential invariants</i>. If &xi;(&part;/&part;x) + &eta;(&part;/&part;y) is the
+general infinitesimal transformation of a group of point-transformations
+in the plane, and if y<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">2</span>, ... represent the successive differential
+coefficients of y, the infinitesimal transformation may be written in
+the extended form</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&xi;</td> <td>&part;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ &eta;</td> <td>&part;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ &eta;<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>&part;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ &eta;<span class="su">2</span></td> <td>&part;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ ...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&part;x</td> <td class="denom">&part;y</td>
+<td class="denom">&part;y<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">&part;y<span class="su">2</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">where &eta;<span class="su">1</span>&delta;t, &eta;<span class="su">2</span>&delta;t, ... are the increments of y<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">2</span>, .... By including
+a sufficient number of these variables the group must be intransitive
+in them, and must therefore have one or more invariants. Such
+invariants are known as differential invariants of the original group,
+being necessarily functions of the differential coefficients of the
+original variables. For groups of the plane it may be shown that not
+more than two of these differential invariants are independent, all
+others being formed from these by algebraical processes and differentiation.
+For groups of point-transformations in more than two
+variables there will be more than one set of differential invariants.
+For instance, with three variables, one may be regarded as independent
+and the other two as functions of it, or two as independent
+and the remaining one as a function. Corresponding to
+these two points of view, the differential invariants for a curve or
+for a surface will arise.</p>
+
+<p>If a differential invariant of a continuous group of the plane be
+equated to zero, the resulting differential equation remains unaltered
+when the variables undergo any transformation of the group. Conversely,
+if an ordinary, differential equation &fnof;(x, y, y<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">2</span>, ...) = 0
+admits the transformations of a continuous group, <i>i.e.</i> if the equation
+is unaltered when x and y undergo any transformation of the group,
+then &fnof;(x, y, y<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">2</span>, ...) or some multiple of it must be a differential
+invariant of the group. Hence it must be possible to find two independent
+differential invariants &alpha;, &beta; of the group, such that when
+these are taken as variables the differential equation takes the form
+F(&alpha;, &beta;, d&beta;/d&alpha;, d<span class="sp">2</span>&beta;/d&alpha;<span class="sp">2</span>, ...) = 0. This equation in &alpha;, &beta; will be of lower order
+than the original equation, and in general simpler to deal with.
+Supposing it solved in the form &beta; = &phi;(&alpha;), where for &alpha;, &beta; their values
+in terms of x, y, y<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">2</span>, ... are written, this new equation, containing
+arbitrary constants, is necessarily again of lower order than the
+original equation. The integration of the original equation is thus
+divided into two steps. This will show how, in the case of an ordinary
+differential equation, the fact that the equation admits a continuous
+group of transformations may be taken advantage of for its integration.</p>
+
+<p>The most important of the applications of continuous groups are
+to the theory of systems of differential equations, both ordinary and
+partial; in fact, Lie states that it was with a view to systematizing
+and advancing the general theory of differential equations that he
+was led to the development of the theory of continuous groups. It
+is quite impossible here to give any account of all that Lie and his
+followers have done in this direction. An entirely new mode of
+regarding the problem of the integration of a differential equation
+has been opened up, and in the classification that arises from it all
+those apparently isolated types of equations which in the older sense
+are said to be integrable take their proper place. It may, for instance,
+be mentioned that the question as to whether Monge&rsquo;s method will
+apply to the integration of a partial differential equation of the
+second order is shown to depend on whether or not a contact-transformation
+can be found which will reduce the equation to either
+&part;<span class="sp">2</span>z/&part;x<span class="sp">2</span> = 0 or &part;<span class="sp">2</span>z/&part;x&part;y = 0. It is in this direction that further advance in the
+theory of partial differential equations must be looked for. Lastly,
+it may be remarked that one of the most thorough discussions of the
+axioms of geometry hitherto undertaken is founded entirely upon the
+theory of continuous groups.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Discontinuous Groups.</i></p>
+
+<p>We go on now to the consideration of discontinuous groups.
+Although groups of finite order are necessarily contained under
+this general head, it is convenient for many reasons to deal with
+them separately, and it will therefore be assumed in the present
+section that the number of operations in the group is not finite.
+Many large classes of discontinuous groups have formed the
+subject of detailed investigation, but a general formal theory
+of discontinuous groups can hardly be said to exist as yet. It
+will thus be obvious that in considering discontinuous groups
+it is necessary to proceed on different lines from those followed
+with continuous groups, and in fact to deal with the subject
+almost entirely by way of example.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The consideration of a discontinuous group as arising from a set
+of independent generating operations suggests a purely abstract point
+of view in which any two simply isomorphic groups are
+indistinguishable. The number of generating operations
+<span class="sidenote">Generating operations.</span>
+may be either finite or infinite, but the former case alone
+will be here considered. Suppose then that S<span class="su">1</span>, S<span class="su">2</span>, ..., S<span class="su">n</span>
+is a set of independent operations from which a group G is generated.
+The general operation of the group will be represented by the symbol
+S<span class="sp1">&alpha;</span><span class="su1">a</span>S<span class="sp1">&beta;</span><span class="su1">b</span> ... S<span class="sp1">&delta;</span><span class="su1">d</span>, or &Sigma;, where a, b, ..., d are chosen from 1, 2, ..., n,
+and &alpha;, &beta;, ..., &delta; are any positive or negative integers. It may be
+assumed that no two successive suffixes in &Sigma; are the same, for if b = a,
+then S<span class="sp1">&alpha;</span><span class="su1">a</span>S<span class="sp1">&beta;</span><span class="su1">b</span> may be replaced by S<span class="sp1">&alpha;+&beta;</span><span class="su1">a</span>. If there are no relations connecting
+the generating operations and the identical operation, every
+distinct symbol &Sigma; represents a distinct operation of the group. For if
+&Sigma; = &Sigma;<span class="su">1</span>, or S<span class="sp1">&alpha;</span><span class="su1">a</span>S<span class="sp1">&beta;</span><span class="su1">b</span> ... S<span class="sp1">&delta;</span><span class="su1">d</span> = S<span class="sp1">&alpha;1</span><span class="su1">a1</span>S<span class="sp1">&beta;1</span><span class="su1">b1</span> ... S<span class="sp1">&delta;1</span><span class="su1">d1</span>, then S<span class="sp1">&minus;&delta;1</span><span class="su1">d1</span> ... S<span class="sp1">&minus;&beta;1</span><span class="su1">b1</span>S<span class="sp1">&minus;&alpha;1</span><span class="su1">a1</span>S<span class="sp1">&alpha;</span><span class="su1">a</span>S<span class="sp1">&beta;</span><span class="su1">b</span> ... S<span class="sp1">&delta;</span><span class="su1">d</span>
+= 1; and unless a = a<span class="su">1</span>, b = b<span class="su">1</span>, ..., &alpha; = &alpha;<span class="su">1</span>, &beta; = &beta;<span class="su">1</span>, ..., this is a relation
+connecting the generating operations.</p>
+
+<p>Suppose now that T<span class="su">1</span>, T<span class="su">2</span>, ... are operations of G, and that H is
+that self-conjugate subgroup of G which is generated by T<span class="su">1</span>, T<span class="su">2</span>, ...
+and the operations conjugate to them. Then, of the operations that
+can be formed from S<span class="su">1</span>, S<span class="su">2</span>, ..., S<span class="su">n</span>, the set &Sigma;H, and no others, reduce
+to the same operation &Sigma; when the conditions T<span class="su">1</span> = 1, T<span class="su">2</span> = 1, ... are
+satisfied by the generating operations. Hence the group which is
+generated by the given operations, when subjected to the conditions
+just written, is simply isomorphic with the factor-group G/H.
+Moreover, this is obviously true even when the conditions are such
+that the generating operations are no longer independent. Hence
+any discontinuous group may be defined abstractly, that is, in regard
+to the laws of combination of its operations apart from their actual
+form, by a set of generating operations and a system of relations
+connecting them. Conversely, when such a set of operations and
+system of relations are given arbitrarily they define in abstract
+form a single discontinuous group. It may, of course, happen that
+the group so defined is a group of finite order, or that it reduces to
+the identical operation only; but in regard to the general statement
+these will be particular and exceptional cases.</p>
+
+<p>An operation of a discontinuous group must necessarily be specified
+<span class="sidenote">Properly and improperly discontinuous groups.</span>
+analytically by a system of equations of the form</p>
+
+<p class="center">x&prime;<span class="su">s</span> = &fnof;<span class="su">s</span> (x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span>; a<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>, ..., a<span class="su">r</span>), (s = 1, 2, ..., n),</p>
+
+<p class="noind">and the different operations of the group will be given by
+different sets of values of the parameters a<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>, ..., a<span class="su">r</span>.
+No one of these parameters is susceptible of continuous
+variations, but at least one must be capable of taking a
+number of values which is not finite, if the group is not one
+of finite order. Among the sets of values of the parameters
+there must be one which gives the identical transformation.
+No other transformation makes each of the differences x&prime;<span class="su">1</span> &minus; x<span class="su">1</span>,
+x&prime;<span class="su">2</span> &minus; x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x&prime;<span class="su">n</span> &minus; x<span class="su">n</span> vanish. Let d be an arbitrary assigned positive
+quantity. Then if a transformation of the group can be found such
+that the modulus of each of these differences is less than d when the
+variables have arbitrary values within an assigned range of variation,
+however small d may be chosen, the group is said to be <i>improperly</i>
+discontinuous. In the contrary case the group is called <i>properly</i>
+discontinuous. The range within which the variables are allowed to
+vary may clearly affect the question whether a given group is
+properly or improperly discontinuous. For instance, the group
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page633" id="page633"></a>633</span>
+defined by the equation x&prime; = ax + b, where a and b are any rational
+numbers, is improperly discontinuous; and the group defined by
+x&prime; = x + a, where a is an integer, is properly discontinuous, whatever
+the range of the variable. On the other hand, the group, to be later
+considered, defined by the equation x&prime; = (ax + b) / (cx + d), where a, b, c, d are
+integers satisfying the relation ad &minus; bc = 1, is properly discontinuous
+when x may take any complex value, and improperly discontinuous
+when the range of x is limited to real values.</p>
+
+<p>Among the discontinuous groups that occur in analysis, a large
+number may be regarded as arising by imposing limitations on the
+range of variation of the parameters of continuous groups. If</p>
+
+<p class="center">x&prime;<span class="su">s</span> = &fnof;<span class="su">s</span> (x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span>; a<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>, ..., a<span class="su">r</span>), (s = 1, 2, ..., n),</p>
+
+<p class="noind">are the finite equations of a continuous group, and if C with parameters
+c<span class="su">1</span>, c<span class="su">2</span>, ..., c<span class="su">r</span> is the operation which results from carrying out
+A and B with corresponding parameters in succession, then the c&rsquo;s
+are determined uniquely by the a&rsquo;s and the b&rsquo;s. If the c&rsquo;s are rational
+functions of the a&rsquo;s and b&rsquo;s, and if the a&rsquo;s and b&rsquo;s are arbitrary
+rational numbers of a given corpus (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Number</a></span>), the c&rsquo;s will be
+rational numbers of the same corpus. If the c&rsquo;s are rational integral
+functions of the a&rsquo;s and b&rsquo;s, and the latter are arbitrarily chosen
+integers of a corpus, then the c&rsquo;s are integers of the same corpus.
+Hence in the first case the above equations, when the a&rsquo;s are limited
+to be rational numbers of a given corpus, will define a discontinuous
+group; and in the second case they will define such a group when
+<span class="sidenote">Linear discontinuous groups.</span>
+the a&rsquo;s are further limited to be integers of the corpus.
+A most important class of discontinuous groups are those
+that arise in this way from the general linear continuous
+group in a given set of variables. For n variables the
+finite equations of this continuous group are</p>
+
+<p class="center">x&prime;<span class="su">s</span> = a<span class="su">s1</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + a<span class="su">s2</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + ... + a<span class="su">sn</span>x<span class="su">n</span>, (s = 1, 2, ..., n),</p>
+
+<p class="noind">where the determinant of the a&rsquo;s must not be zero. In this case the
+c&rsquo;s are clearly integral lineo-linear functions of the a&rsquo;s and b&rsquo;s.
+Moreover, the determinant of the c&rsquo;s is the product of the determinant
+of the a&rsquo;s and the determinant of the b&rsquo;s. Hence equations (ii.),
+where the parameters are restricted to be integers of a given corpus,
+define a discontinuous group; and if the determinant of the coefficients
+is limited to the value unity, they define a discontinuous
+group which is a (self-conjugate) subgroup of the previous one.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest case which thus presents itself is that in which there
+are two variables while the coefficients are rational integers. This is
+the group defined by the equations</p>
+
+<p class="center">x&prime; = ax + by,<br />
+y&prime; = cx + dy,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">where a, b, c, d are integers such that ad &minus; bc = 1. To every operation
+of this group there corresponds an operation of the set defined by</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">z&prime; =</td> <td>az + b</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">cz + d</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">in such a way that to the product of two operations of the group
+there corresponds the product of the two analogous operations of
+the set. The operations of the set (iv.), where ad &minus; bc = 1, therefore
+constitute a group which is isomorphic with the previous group.
+The isomorphism is multiple, since to a single operation of the second
+set there correspond the two operations of the first for which a, b, c, d
+and &minus;a, &minus;b, &minus;c, &minus;d are parameters. These two groups, which are
+of fundamental importance in the theory of quadratic forms and in
+the theory of modular functions, have been the object of very many
+investigations.</p>
+
+<p>Another large class of discontinuous groups, which have far-reaching
+applications in analysis, are those which arise in the first
+instance from purely geometrical considerations. By the
+combination and repetition of a finite number of geometrical
+<span class="sidenote">Discontinuous groups arising from geometrical operations.</span>
+operations such as displacements, projective
+transformations, inversions, &amp;c., a discontinuous group of
+such operations will arise. Such a group, as regards the
+points of the plane (or of space), will in general be improperly
+discontinuous; but when the generating operations
+are suitably chosen, the group may be properly
+discontinuous. In the latter case the group may be
+represented in a graphical form by the division of the plane (or space)
+into regions such that no point of one region can be transformed into
+another point of the same region by any operation of the group,
+while any given region can be transformed into any other by a
+suitable transformation. Thus, let ABC be a triangle bounded by
+three circular arcs BC, CA, AB; and consider the figure produced
+from ABC by inversions in the three circles of which BC, CA, AB are
+part. By inversion at BC, ABC becomes an equiangular triangle
+A&prime;BC. An inversion in AB changes ABC and A&prime;BC into equiangular
+triangles ABC&prime; and A&Prime;BC&prime;. Successive inversions at AB and BC
+then will change ABC into a series of equiangular triangles with B
+for a common vertex. These will not overlap and will just fill in the
+space round B if the angle ABC is a submultiple of two right angles.
+If then the angles of ABC are submultiples of two right angles (or
+zero), the triangles formed by any number of inversions will never
+overlap, and to each operation consisting of a definite series of
+inversions at BC, CA and AB will correspond a distinct triangle into
+which ABC is changed by the operation. The network of triangles so
+formed gives a graphical representation of the group that arises from
+the three inversions in BC, CA, AB. The triangles may be divided
+into two sets, those, namely, like A&Prime;BC&prime;, which are derived from ABC
+by an even number of inversions, and those like A&prime;BC or ABC&prime; produced
+by an odd number. Each set are interchanged among themselves
+by any even number of inversions. Hence the operations
+consisting of an even number of inversions form a group by themselves.
+For this group the quadrilateral formed by ABC and A&prime;BC constitutes
+a region, which is changed by every operation of the group into
+a distinct region (formed of two adjacent triangles), and these regions
+clearly do not overlap. Their distribution presents in a graphical
+form the group that arises by pairs of inversions at BC, CA, AB; and
+this group is generated by the operation which consists of successive
+inversions at AB, BC and that which consists of successive inversions
+at BC, CA. The group defined thus geometrically may be presented
+in many analytical forms. If x, y and x&prime;, y&prime; are the rectangular co-ordinates
+of two points which are inverse to each other with respect
+to a given circle, x&prime; and y&prime; are rational functions of x and y, and conversely.
+Thus the group may be presented in a form in which each
+operation gives a birational transformation of two variables. If
+x + iy = z, x&prime; + iy&prime; = z&prime;, and if x&prime;, y&prime; is the point to which x, y is transformed
+by any even number of inversions, then z&prime; and z are connected
+by a linear relation z&prime; = (&alpha;z + &beta;) / (&gamma;z + &delta;), where &alpha;, &beta;, &gamma;, &delta; are constants (in
+general complex) depending on the circles at which the inversions are
+taken. Hence the group may be presented in the form of a group
+of linear transformations of a single variable generated by the two
+linear transformations z&prime; = (&alpha;<span class="su">1</span>z + &beta;<span class="su">1</span>) / (&gamma;<span class="su">1</span>z + &delta;<span class="su">1</span>), z&prime; = (&alpha;<span class="su">2</span>z + &beta;<span class="su">2</span>) / (&gamma;<span class="su">2</span>z + &delta;<span class="su">2</span>), which correspond
+to pairs of inversions at AB, BC and BC, CA respectively. In
+particular, if the sides of the triangle are taken to be x = 0, x<span class="sp">2</span> + y<span class="sp">2</span> &minus;
+1 = 0, x<span class="sp">2</span> + y<span class="sp">2</span> + 2x = 0, the generating operations are found to be
+z&prime; = z + 1, z&prime; = &minus;z<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>; and the group is that consisting of all transformations
+of the form z&prime; = (az + b) / (cz + d), where ad &minus; bc = 1, a, b, c, d being
+integers. This is the group already mentioned which underlies the
+theory of the elliptic modular functions; a modular function being
+a function of z which is invariant for some subgroup of finite index of
+the group in question.</p>
+
+<p>The triangle ABC from which the above geometrical construction
+started may be replaced by a polygon whose sides are circles. If
+each angle is a submultiple of two right angles or zero, the construction
+is still effective to give a set of non-overlapping regions, which
+represent graphically the group which arises from pairs of inversions
+in the sides of the polygon. In their analytical form, as groups of
+linear transformations of a single variable, the groups are those on
+which the theory of automorphic functions depends. A similar
+construction in space, the polygons bounded by circular arcs being
+replaced by polyhedra bounded by spherical faces, has been used by
+F. Klein and Fricke to give a geometrical representation for groups
+which are improperly discontinuous when represented as groups of
+the plane.</p>
+
+<p>The special classes of discontinuous groups that have been dealt with
+<span class="sidenote">Group of a linear differential equation.</span>
+in the previous paragraphs arise directly from geometrical
+considerations. As a final example we shall refer briefly
+to a class of groups whose origin is essentially analytical.
+Let</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>d<span class="sp">n</span>y</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ P<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>d<span class="sp">n&minus;1</span>y</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ ... + P<span class="su">n&minus;1</span></td> <td>dy</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ P<span class="su">n</span>y = 0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dx<span class="sp">n</span></td> <td class="denom">dx<span class="sp">n&minus;1</span></td>
+<td class="denom">dx</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">be a linear differential equation, the coefficients in which are
+rational functions of x, and let y<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">2</span>, ..., y<span class="su">n</span> be a linearly independent
+set of integrals of the equation. In the neighbourhood of a
+finite value x<span class="su">0</span> of x, which is not a singularity of any of the coefficients
+in the equation, these integrals are ordinary power-series in x &minus; x<span class="su">0</span>.
+If the analytical continuations of y<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">2</span>, ..., y<span class="su">n</span> be formed for any
+closed path starting from and returning to x<span class="su">0</span>, the final values arrived
+at when x<span class="su">0</span> is again reached will be another set of linearly independent
+integrals. When the closed path contains no singular point of the
+coefficients of the differential equation, the new set of integrals is
+identical with the original set. If, however, the closed path encloses
+one or more singular points, this will not in general be the case.
+Let y&prime;<span class="su">1</span>, y&prime;<span class="su">2</span>, ..., y&prime;<span class="su">n</span> be the new integrals arrived at. Since in the
+neighbourhood of x<span class="su">0</span> every integral can be represented linearly in
+terms of y<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">2</span>, ..., y<span class="su">n</span>, there must be a system of equations</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>y&prime;<span class="su">1</span> = a<span class="su">11</span>y<span class="su">1</span> + a<span class="su">12</span>y<span class="su">2</span> + ... + a<span class="su">1n</span>y<span class="su">n</span>,</p>
+
+<p>y&prime;<span class="su">2</span> = a<span class="su">21</span>y<span class="su">1</span> + a<span class="su">22</span>y<span class="su">2</span> + ... + a<span class="su">2n</span>y<span class="su">n</span>,</p>
+
+<p>&emsp; · &emsp;&emsp; · &emsp;&emsp; · &emsp;&emsp; · &emsp;&emsp;</p>
+
+<p>y&prime;<span class="su">n</span> = a<span class="su">n1</span>y<span class="su">1</span> + a<span class="su">n2</span>y<span class="su">2</span> + ... + a<span class="su">nn</span>y<span class="su">n</span>,</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">where the a&rsquo;s are constants, expressing the new integrals in terms of
+the original ones. To each closed path described by x<span class="su">0</span> there therefore
+corresponds a definite linear substitution performed on the y&rsquo;s.
+Further, if S<span class="su">1</span> and S<span class="su">2</span> are the substitutions that correspond to two
+closed paths L<span class="su">1</span> and L<span class="su">2</span>, then to any closed path which can be continuously
+deformed, without crossing a singular point, into L<span class="su">1</span>
+followed by L<span class="su">2</span>, there corresponds the substitution S<span class="su">1</span>S<span class="su">2</span>. Let L<span class="su">1</span>,
+L<span class="su">2</span>, ..., L<span class="su">r</span> be arbitrarily chosen closed paths starting from and returning
+to the same point, and each of them enclosing a single one of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page634" id="page634"></a>634</span>
+(r) finite singular points of the equation. Every closed path in the
+plane can be formed by combinations of these r paths taken either
+in the positive or in the negative direction. Also a closed path which
+does not cut itself, and encloses all the r singular points within it, is
+equivalent to a path enclosing the point at infinity and no finite
+singular point. If S<span class="su">1</span>, S<span class="su">2</span>, S<span class="su">3</span>, ..., S<span class="su">r</span> are the linear substitutions that
+correspond to these r paths, then the substitution corresponding to
+every possible path can be obtained by combination and repetition
+of these r substitutions, and they therefore generate a discontinuous
+group each of whose operations corresponds to a definite closed path.
+The group thus arrived at is called the group of the equation. For
+a given equation it is unique in type. In fact, the only effect of
+starting from another set of independent integrals is to transform
+every operation of the group by an arbitrary substitution, while
+choosing a different set of paths is equivalent to taking a new set of
+generating operations. The great importance of the group of the
+equation in connexion with the nature of its integrals cannot here
+be dealt with, but it may be pointed out that if all the integrals of
+the equation are algebraic functions, the group must be a group of
+finite order, since the set of quantities y<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">2</span> ..., y<span class="su">n</span> can then only
+take a finite number of distinct values.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Groups of Finite Order.</i></p>
+
+<p>We shall now pass on to groups of finite order. It is clear
+that here we must have to do with many properties which have
+no direct analogues in the theory of continuous groups or in
+that of discontinuous groups in general; those properties,
+namely, which depend on the fact that the number of distinct
+operations in the group is finite.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Let S<span class="su">1</span>, S<span class="su">2</span>, S<span class="su">3</span>, ..., S<span class="su">N</span> denote the operations of a group G of finite
+order N, S<span class="su">1</span> being the identical operation. The tableau</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">S<span class="su">1</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">S<span class="su">2</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">S<span class="su">3</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">...,</td> <td class="tcl">S<span class="su">N</span>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">S<span class="su">1</span>S<span class="su">2</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">S<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">2</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">S<span class="su">3</span>S<span class="su">3</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">...,</td> <td class="tcl">S<span class="su">N</span>S<span class="su">2</span>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">S<span class="su">1</span>S<span class="su">3</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">S<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">S<span class="su">3</span>S<span class="su">3</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">...,</td> <td class="tcl">S<span class="su">N</span>S<span class="su">3</span>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">·</td> <td class="tcc">·</td> <td class="tcc">·</td> <td class="tcc">·</td> <td class="tcc">·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">S<span class="su">1</span>S<span class="su">N</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">S<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">N</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">S<span class="su">3</span>S<span class="su">N</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">...,</td> <td class="tcl">S<span class="su">N</span>S<span class="su">N</span>,</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">when in it each compound symbol S<span class="su">p</span>S<span class="su">q</span> is replaced by the single
+symbol S<span class="su">r</span> that is equivalent to it, is called the multiplication table
+of the group. It indicates directly the result of multiplying together
+in an assigned sequence any number of operations of the group.
+In each line (and in each column) of the tableau every operation of
+the group occurs just once. If the letters in the tableau are regarded
+as mere symbols, the operation of replacing each symbol in the first
+line by the symbol which stands under it in the pth line is a permutation
+performed on the set of N symbols. Thus to the N lines of the
+tableau there corresponds a set of N permutations performed on the
+N symbols, which includes the identical permutation that leaves each
+unchanged. Moreover, if S<span class="su">p</span>S<span class="su">q</span> = S<span class="su">r</span>, then the result of carrying out in
+succession the permutations which correspond to the pth and qth
+lines gives the permutation which corresponds to the rth line.
+Hence the set of permutations constitutes a group which is simply
+isomorphic with the given group.</p>
+
+<p>Every group of finite order N can therefore be represented in
+concrete form as a transitive group of permutations on N symbols.</p>
+
+<p>The order of any subgroup or operation of G is necessarily finite.
+If T<span class="su">1</span>(= S<span class="su">1</span>), T<span class="su">2</span>, ..., T<span class="su">n</span> are the operations of a subgroup H of G,
+and if &Sigma; is any operation of G which is not contained in H,
+<span class="sidenote">Properties of a group which depend on the order.</span>
+the set of operations &Sigma;T<span class="su">1</span>, &Sigma;T<span class="su">2</span>, ..., &Sigma;T<span class="su">n</span>, or &Sigma;H, are all
+distinct from each other and from the operations of H.
+If the sets H and &Sigma;H do not exhaust the operations of G,
+and if &Sigma;&prime; is an operation not belonging to them, then the
+operations of the set &Sigma;&prime;H are distinct from each other and
+from those of H and &Sigma;H. This process may be continued till the
+operations of G are exhausted. The order n of H must therefore be a
+factor of the order N of G. The ratio N/n is called the index of the
+subgroup H. By taking for H the cyclical subgroup generated by
+any operation S of G, it follows that the order of S must be a factor of
+the order of G.</p>
+
+<p>Every operation S is permutable with its own powers. Hence
+there must be some subgroup H of G of greatest possible order, such
+that every operation of H is permutable with S. Every operation of
+H transforms S into itself, and every operation of the set H&Sigma; transforms
+S into the same operation. Hence, when S is transformed by
+every operation of G, just N/n distinct operations arise if n is the
+order of H. These operations, and no others, are conjugate to S
+within G; they are said to form a set of conjugate operations.
+The number of operations in every conjugate set is therefore a factor
+of the order of G. In the same way it may be shown that the number
+of subgroups which are conjugate to a given subgroup is a factor of
+the order of G. An operation which is permutable with every operation
+of the group is called a <i>self-conjugate</i> operation. The totality
+of the self-conjugate operations of a group forms a self-conjugate
+Abelian subgroup, each of whose operations is permutable with every
+operation of the group.</p>
+
+<p>An Abelian group contains subgroups whose orders are any given
+factors of the order of the group. In fact, since every subgroup H
+of an Abelian group G and the corresponding factor groups G/H are
+<span class="sidenote">Sylow&rsquo;s theorem.</span>
+Abelian, this result follows immediately by an induction from the
+case in which the order contains n prime factors to that in which it
+contains n + 1. For a group which is not Abelian no general
+law can be stated as to the existence or non-existence of a
+subgroup whose order is an arbitrarily assigned factor
+of the order of the group. In this connexion the most important
+general result, which is independent of any supposition as to the
+order of the group, is known as Sylow&rsquo;s theorem, which states that if
+p<span class="sp">a</span> is the highest power of a prime p which divides the order of a
+group G, then G contains a single conjugate set of subgroups of
+order p<span class="sp">a</span>, the number in the set being of the form 1 + kp. Sylow&rsquo;s
+theorem may be extended to show that if p<span class="sp">a&prime;</span> is a factor of the order
+of a group, the number of subgroups of order p<span class="sp">a&prime;</span> is of the form 1 + kp.
+If, however, p<span class="sp">a&prime;</span> is not the highest power of p which divides the order,
+these groups do not in general form a single conjugate set.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of Sylow&rsquo;s theorem in discussing the structure of
+a group of given order need hardly be insisted on. Thus, as a very
+simple instance, a group whose order is the product p<span class="su">1</span>p<span class="su">2</span> of two
+primes (p<span class="su">1</span> &lt; p<span class="su">2</span>) must have a self-conjugate subgroup of order p<span class="su">2</span>, since
+the order of the group contains no factor, other than unity, of the
+form 1 + kp<span class="su">2</span>. The same again is true for a group of order p<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">2</span>p<span class="su">2</span>,
+unless p<span class="su">1</span> = 2, and p<span class="su">2</span> = 3.</p>
+
+<p>There is one other numerical property of a group connected with
+its order which is quite general. If N is the order of G, and n a
+factor of N, the number of operations of G, whose orders are equal to
+or are factors of n, is a multiple of n.</p>
+
+<p>As already defined, a composite group is a group which contains
+one or more self-conjugate subgroups, whose orders are greater than
+unity. If H is a self-conjugate subgroup of G, the factor-group
+<span class="sidenote">Composition-series of a group.</span>
+G/H may be either simple or composite. In the
+former case G can contain no self-conjugate subgroup K,
+which itself contains H; for if it did K/H would be a self-conjugate
+subgroup of G/H. When G/H is simple, H is said to be a
+maximum self-conjugate subgroup of G. Suppose now that G
+being a given composite group, G, G<span class="su">1</span>, G<span class="su">2</span>, ..., G<span class="su">n</span>, 1 is a series of
+subgroups of G, such that each is a maximum self-conjugate subgroup
+of the preceding; the last term of the series consisting of the
+identical operation only. Such a series is called a <i>composition-series</i>
+of G. In general it is not unique, since a group may have two or
+more maximum self-conjugate subgroups. A composition-series of
+a group, however it may be chosen, has the property that the number
+of terms of which it consists is always the same, while the factor-groups
+G/G<span class="su">1</span>, G<span class="su">1</span>/G<span class="su">2</span>, ..., G<span class="su">n</span> differ only in the sequence in which
+they occur. It should be noticed that though a group defines uniquely
+the set of factor-groups that occur in its composition-series, the set
+of factor-groups do not conversely in general define a single type of
+group. When the orders of all the factor-groups are primes the group
+is said to be <i>soluble</i>.</p>
+
+<p>If the series of subgroups G, H, K, ..., L, 1 is chosen so that each
+is the greatest self-conjugate subgroup of G contained in the previous
+one, the series is called a chief composition-series of G. All such
+series derived from a given group may be shown to consist of the same
+number of terms, and to give rise to the same set of factor-groups,
+except as regards sequence. The factor-groups of such a series will
+not, however, necessarily be simple groups. From any chief composition-series
+a composition-series may be formed by interpolating
+between any two terms H and K of the series for which H/K is not
+a simple group, a number of terms h<span class="su">1</span>, h<span class="su">2</span>, ..., h<span class="su">r</span>; and it may be
+shown that the factor-groups H/h<span class="su">1</span>, h<span class="su">1</span>/h<span class="su">2</span>, ..., h<span class="su">r</span>/K are all simply
+isomorphic with each other.</p>
+
+<p>A group may be represented as isomorphic with itself by transforming
+all its operations by any one of them. In fact, if S<span class="su">p</span>S<span class="su">q</span> = S<span class="su">r</span>,
+then S<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>S<span class="su">p</span>S·S<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>S<span class="su">q</span>S = S<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>S<span class="su">r</span>S. An isomorphism of the
+<span class="sidenote">Isomorphism of a group with itself.</span>
+group with itself, established in this way, is called an
+inner isomorphism. It may be regarded as an operation
+carried out on the symbols of the operations, being indeed
+a permutation performed on these symbols. The totality
+of these operations clearly constitutes a group isomorphic with the
+given group, and this group is called the group of inner isomorphisms.
+A group is simply or multiply isomorphic with its group of inner
+isomorphisms according as it does not or does contain self-conjugate
+operations other than identity. It may be possible to establish a
+correspondence between the operations of a group other than those
+given by the inner isomorphisms, such that if S&prime; is the operation
+corresponding to S, then S&prime;<span class="su">p</span>S&prime;<span class="su">q</span> = S&prime;<span class="su">r</span> is a consequence of S<span class="su">p</span>S<span class="su">q</span> = S<span class="su">r</span>.
+The substitution on the symbols of the operations of a group resulting
+from such a correspondence is called an outer isomorphism. The
+totality of the isomorphisms of both kinds constitutes the group of
+isomorphisms of the given group, and within this the group of inner
+isomorphisms is a self-conjugate subgroup. Every set of conjugate
+operations of a group is necessarily transformed into itself by an
+inner isomorphism, but two or more sets may be interchanged by an
+outer isomorphism.</p>
+
+<p>A subgroup of a group G, which is transformed into itself by every
+isomorphism of G, is called a <i>characteristic</i> subgroup. A series of
+groups G, G<span class="su">1</span>, G<span class="su">2</span>, ..., 1, such that each is a maximum characteristic
+subgroup of G contained in the preceding, may be shown to have the
+same invariant properties as the subgroups of a composition series.
+A group which has no characteristic subgroup must be either a simple
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page635" id="page635"></a>635</span>
+group or the direct product of a number of simply isomorphic
+simple groups.</p>
+
+<p>It has been seen that every group of finite order can be represented
+as a group of permutations performed on a set of symbols whose
+number is equal to the order of the group. In general such
+<span class="sidenote">Permutation-groups.</span>
+a representation is possible with a smaller number of
+symbols. Let H be a subgroup of G, and let the operations
+of G be divided, in respect of H, into the sets H, S<span class="su">2</span>H,
+S<span class="su">3</span>H, ..., S<span class="su">m</span>H. If S is any operation of G, the sets SH, SS<span class="su">2</span>H,
+SS<span class="su">3</span>H, ..., SS<span class="su">m</span>H differ from the previous sets only in the sequence
+in which they occur. In fact, if SS<span class="su">p</span> belong to the set S<span class="su">q</span>H, then since
+H is a group, the set SS<span class="su">p</span>H is identical with the set S<span class="su">q</span>H. Hence, to
+each operation S of the group will correspond a permutation performed
+on the symbols of the m sets, and to the product of two
+operations corresponds the product of the two analogous permutations.
+The set of permutations, therefore, forms a group isomorphic
+with the given group. Moreover, the isomorphism is simple unless
+for one or more operations, other than identity, the sets all remain
+unaltered. This can only be the case for S, when every operation
+conjugate to S belongs to H. In this case H would contain a self-conjugate
+subgroup, and the isomorphism is multiple.</p>
+
+<p>The fact that every group of finite order can be represented,
+generally in several ways, as a group of permutations, gives special
+importance to such groups. The number of symbols involved in such
+a representation is called the <i>degree</i> of the group. In accordance with
+the general definitions already given, a permutation-group is called
+transitive or intransitive according as it does or does not contain
+permutations changing any one of the symbols into any other. It is
+called imprimitive or primitive according as the symbols can or
+cannot be arranged in sets, such that every permutation of the group
+changes the symbols of any one set either among themselves or into
+the symbols of another set. When a group is imprimitive the
+number of symbols in each set must clearly be the same.</p>
+
+<p>The total number of permutations that can be performed on n
+symbols is n!, and these necessarily constitute a group. It is known
+as the <i>symmetric</i> group of degree n, the only rational functions of the
+symbols which are unaltered by all possible permutations being the
+symmetric functions. When any permutation is carried out on the
+product of the n(n &minus; 1)/2, differences of the n symbols, it must either
+remain unaltered or its sign must be changed. Those permutations
+which leave the product unaltered constitute a group of order n!/2,
+which is called the <i>alternating</i> group of degree n; it is a self-conjugate
+subgroup of the symmetric group. Except when n = 4 the alternating
+group is a simple group. A group of degree n, which is not contained
+in the alternating group, must necessarily have a self-conjugate
+subgroup of index 2, consisting of those of its permutations which
+belong to the alternating group.</p>
+
+<p>Among the various concrete forms in which a group of finite order
+can be presented the most important is that of a group of linear
+<span class="sidenote">Groups of linear substitutions.</span>
+substitutions. Such groups have already been referred
+to in connexion with discontinuous groups. Here the
+number of distinct substitutions is necessarily finite; and
+to each operation S of a group G of finite order there will
+correspond a linear substitution s, viz.</p>
+
+<p class="center">x<span class="su">i</span> = <span class="f150">&Sigma;</span><span class="sp1">j=m</span><span class="su1">j=1</span> s<span class="su">ij</span> x<span class="su">j</span> (i, j = 1, 2, ..., m),</p>
+
+<p class="noind">on a set of m variables, such that if ST = U, then st = u. The linear
+substitutions s, t, u, ... then constitute a group g with which G is
+isomorphic; and whether the isomorphism is simple or multiple g is
+said to give a &ldquo;representation&rdquo; of G as a group of linear substitutions.
+If all the substitutions of g are transformed by the same
+substitution on the m variables, the (in general) new group of linear
+substitutions so constituted is said to be &ldquo;equivalent&rdquo; with g as a
+representation of G; and two representations are called &ldquo;non-equivalent,&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;distinct,&rdquo; when one is not capable of being transformed
+into the other.</p>
+
+<p>A group of linear substitutions on m variables is said to be &ldquo;reducible&rdquo;
+when it is possible to choose m&prime; (&lt; m) linear functions of
+the variables which are transformed among themselves by every
+substitution of the group. When this cannot be done the group is
+called &ldquo;irreducible.&rdquo; It can be shown that a group of linear substitutions,
+of finite order, is always either irreducible, or such that the
+variables, when suitably chosen, may be divided into sets, each set
+being irreducibly transformed among themselves. This being so, it
+is clear that when the irreducible representations of a group of finite
+order are known, all representations may be built up.</p>
+
+<p>It has been seen at the beginning of this section that every group
+of finite order N can be presented as a group of permutations (<i>i.e.</i>
+linear substitutions in a limited sense) on N symbols. This group is
+obviously reducible; in fact, the sum of the symbols remain unaltered
+by every substitution of the group. The fundamental
+theorem in connexion with the representations, as an irreducible
+group of linear substitutions, of a group of finite order N is the
+following.</p>
+
+<p>If r is the number of different sets of conjugate operations in the
+group, then, when the group of N permutations is completely
+reduced,</p>
+
+<p>(i.) just r distinct irreducible representations occur:</p>
+
+<p>(ii.) each of these occurs a number of times equal to the number
+of symbols on which it operates:</p>
+
+<p>(iii.) these irreducible representations exhaust all the distinct
+irreducible representations of the group.</p>
+
+<p>Among these representations what is called the &ldquo;identical&rdquo;
+representation necessarily occurs, <i>i.e.</i> that in which each operation
+of the group corresponds to leaving a single symbol unchanged. If
+these representations are denoted by &Gamma;<span class="su">1</span>, &Gamma;<span class="su">2</span>, ..., &Gamma;<span class="su">r</span>, then any representation
+of the group as a group of linear substitutions, or in
+particular as a group of permutations, may be uniquely represented
+by a symbol &Sigma;&alpha;<span class="su">i</span>&Gamma;<span class="su">i</span>, in the sense that the representation when completely
+reduced will contain the representation &Gamma;<span class="su">i</span> just &alpha;<span class="su">i</span> times for
+each suffix i.</p>
+
+<p>A representation of a group of finite order as an irreducible group
+<span class="sidenote">Group characteristics.</span>
+of linear substitutions may be presented in an infinite
+number of equivalent forms. If</p>
+
+<p class="center">x&prime;<span class="su">i</span> = &Sigma;s<span class="su">ij</span> x<span class="su">j</span> (i, j = 1, 2, ..., m),</p>
+
+<p class="noind">is the linear substitution which, in a given irreducible representation
+of a group of finite order G, corresponds to the operation
+S, the determinant</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">s<span class="su">11</span> &minus; &lambda;</td> <td class="tcl">s<span class="su">12</span></td> <td class="tcl">...</td> <td class="tcl rb">s<span class="su">1m</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">s<span class="su">21</span></td> <td class="tcl">s<span class="su">22</span> &minus; &lambda;</td> <td class="tcl">...</td> <td class="tcl rb">s<span class="su">2m</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb">.</td> <td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcl">...</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb">.</td> <td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcl">...</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb">.</td> <td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcl">...</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">s<span class="su">m1</span></td> <td class="tcl">s<span class="su">2m</span></td> <td class="tcl">...</td> <td class="tcl rb">s<span class="su">mm</span> &minus; &lambda;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">is invariant for all equivalent representations, when written as a
+polynomial in &lambda;. Moreover, it has the same value for S and S&prime;, if
+these are two conjugate operations in G. Of the various invariants
+that thus arise the most important is s<span class="su">11</span> + s<span class="su">22</span> + ... + s<span class="su">mm</span>, which is
+called the &ldquo;characteristic&rdquo; of S. If S is an operation of order p, its
+characteristic is the sum of m pth roots of unity; and in particular, if
+S is the identical operation its characteristic is m. If r is the number
+of sets of conjugate operations in G, there is, for each representation
+of G as an irreducible group, a set of r characteristics: X<span class="su">1</span>, X<span class="su">2</span>, ... X<span class="su">r</span>,
+one corresponding to each conjugate set; so that for the r irreducible
+representations just r such sets of characteristics arise. These are
+distinct, in the sense that if &Psi;<span class="su">1</span>, &Psi;<span class="su">2</span>, ..., &Psi;<span class="su">r</span> are the characteristics for
+a distinct representation from the above, then X<span class="su">i</span> and &Psi;<span class="su">i</span> are not
+equal for all values of the suffix i. It may be the case that the r
+characteristics for a given representation are all real. If this is so
+the representation is said to be self-inverse. In the contrary case
+there is always another representation, called the &ldquo;inverse&rdquo; representation,
+for which each characteristic is the conjugate imaginary
+of the corresponding one in the original representation. The
+characteristics are subject to certain remarkable relations. If h<span class="su">p</span>
+denotes the number of operations in the <i>p</i>th conjugate set, while
+X<span class="sp1">i</span><span class="su">p</span>, and X<span class="sp1">j</span><span class="su">p</span> are the characteristics of the <i>p</i>th conjugate set in &Gamma;<span class="su">i</span> and
+&Gamma;<span class="su">j</span>, then</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="f150">&Sigma;</span><span class="sp1">p=r</span><span class="su1">p=1</span> h<span class="su">p</span> X<span class="sp1">i</span><span class="su">p</span> X<span class="sp1">j</span><span class="su">p</span> = 0 or n,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">according to &Gamma;<span class="su">i</span> and &Gamma;<span class="su">j</span> are not or are inverse representations, n being
+the order of G.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Again</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="f150">&Sigma;</span><span class="sp1">i=r</span><span class="su1">i=1</span> X<span class="sp1">i</span><span class="su">p</span> X<span class="sp1">i</span><span class="su">q</span> = 0 or n/h<span class="su">p</span></p>
+
+<p class="noind">according as the pth and qth conjugate sets are not or are inverse;
+the qth set being called the inverse of the <i>p</i>th if it consists of the
+inverses of the operations constituting the <i>p</i>th.</p>
+
+<p>Another form in which every group of finite order can be represented
+<span class="sidenote">Linear homogeneous groups.</span>
+is that known as a linear homogeneous group. If
+in the equations</p>
+
+<p class="center">x&prime;<span class="su">r</span> = a<span class="su">r1</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + a<span class="su">r2</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + ... + a<span class="su">rm</span>x<span class="su">m</span>, (r = 1, 2, ..., m),</p>
+
+<p class="noind">which define a linear homogeneous substitution, the coefficients
+are integers, and if the equations are replaced
+by congruences to a finite modulus n, the system of congruences
+will give a definite operation, provided that the determinant of
+the coefficients is relatively prime to n. The product of two such
+operations is another operation of the same kind; and the total
+number of distinct operations is finite, since there is only a
+limited number of choices for the coefficients. The totality of these
+operations, therefore, constitutes a group of finite order; and such a
+group is known as a <i>linear homogeneous</i> group. If n is a prime the
+order of the group is</p>
+
+<p class="center">(n<span class="sp">m</span> &minus; 1) (n<span class="sp">m</span> &minus; n) ... (n<span class="sp">m</span> &minus; n<span class="sp">m&minus;1</span>).</p>
+
+<p>The totality of the operations of the linear homogeneous group for
+which the determinant of the coefficients is congruent to unity forms
+a subgroup. Other subgroups arise by considering those operations
+which leave a function of the variables unchanged (mod. n). All
+such subgroups are known as linear homogeneous groups.</p>
+
+<p>When the ratios only of the variables are considered, there arises a
+<i>linear fractional</i> group, with which the corresponding linear homogeneous
+group is isomorphic. Thus, if p is a prime the totality of the
+congruences</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">z&prime; &equiv;</td> <td>az + b</td>
+<td rowspan="2">, ad &minus; bc &#8800; 0, (mod. p)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">cz + d</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page636" id="page636"></a>636</span></p>
+
+<p class="noind">constitutes a group of order p(p<span class="sp">2</span> &minus; 1). This class of groups for various
+values of p is almost the only one which has been as yet exhaustively
+analysed. For all values of p except 3 it contains a simple
+self-conjugate
+subgroup of index 2.</p>
+
+<p>A great extension of the theory of linear homogeneous groups has
+been made in recent years by considering systems of congruences of
+the form</p>
+
+<p class="center">x&prime;<span class="su">r</span> &equiv; a<span class="su">r1</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + a<span class="su">r2</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + ... + a<span class="su">rm</span>x<span class="su">m</span>, (r = 1, 2, ..., m),</p>
+
+<p class="noind">in which the coefficients a<span class="su">rs</span>, are integral functions with real integral
+coefficients of a root of an irreducible congruence to a prime modulus.
+Such a system of congruences is obviously limited in numbers and
+defines a group which contains as a subgroup the group defined by
+the same congruences with ordinary integral coefficients.</p>
+
+<p>The chief application of the theory of groups of finite order is to
+the theory of algebraic equations. The analogy of equations of the
+second, third and fourth degrees would give rise to the
+<span class="sidenote">Applications.</span>
+expectation that a root of an equation of any finite degree
+could be expressed in terms of the coefficients by a finite
+number of the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
+division, and the extraction of roots; in other words, that the
+equation could be solved by radicals. This, however, as proved by
+Abel and Galois, is not the case: an equation of a higher degree than
+the fourth in general defines an algebraic irrationality which cannot
+be expressed by means of radicals, and the cases in which such an
+equation can be solved by radicals must be regarded as exceptional.
+The theory of groups gives the means of determining whether an
+equation comes under this exceptional case, and of solving the
+equation when it does. When it does not, the theory provides the
+means of reducing the problem presented by the equation to a
+normal form. From this point of view the theory of equations of the
+fifth degree has been exhaustively treated, and the problems presented
+by certain equations of the sixth and seventh degrees have
+actually been reduced to normal form.</p>
+
+<p>Galois (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Equation</a></span>) showed that, corresponding to every irreducible
+equation of the <i>n</i>th degree, there exists a transitive substitution-group
+of degree n, such that every function of the roots,
+the numerical value of which is unaltered by all the substitutions of
+the group can be expressed rationally in terms of the coefficients,
+while conversely every function of the roots which is expressible
+rationally in terms of the coefficients is unaltered by the substitutions
+of the group. This group is called the group of the equation. In
+general, if the equation is given arbitrarily, the group will be the
+symmetric group. The necessary and sufficient condition that the
+equation may be soluble by radicals is that its group should be a
+soluble group. When the coefficients in an equation are rational
+integers, the determination of its group may be made by a finite
+number of processes each of which involves only rational arithmetical
+operations. These processes consist in forming resolvents of the
+equation corresponding to each distinct type of subgroup of the
+symmetric group whose degree is that of the equation. Each of the
+resolvents so formed is then examined to find whether it has rational
+roots. The group corresponding to any resolvent which has a rational
+root contains the group of the equation; and the least of the groups
+so found is the group of the equation. Thus, for an equation of the
+fifth degree the various transitive subgroups of the symmetric group
+of degree five have to be considered. These are (i.) the alternating
+group; (ii.) a soluble group of order 20; (iii.) a group of order 10,
+self-conjugate in the preceding; (iv.) a cyclical group of order 5,
+self-conjugate in both the preceding. If x<span class="su">0</span>, x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, x<span class="su">3</span>, x<span class="su">4</span> are the roots
+of the equation, the corresponding resolvents may be taken to be
+those which have for roots (i.) the square root of the discriminant;
+(ii.) the function (x<span class="su">0</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + x<span class="su">2</span>x<span class="su">3</span> + x<span class="su">3</span>x<span class="su">4</span> + x<span class="su">4</span>x<span class="su">0</span>) (x<span class="su">0</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + x<span class="su">2</span>x<span class="su">4</span> + x<span class="su">4</span>x<span class="su">1</span> +
+x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">3</span> + x<span class="su">3</span>x<span class="su">0</span>); (iii.) the function x<span class="su">0</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + x<span class="su">2</span>x<span class="su">3</span> + x<span class="su">3</span>x<span class="su">4</span> + x<span class="su">4</span>x<span class="su">0</span>; and
+(iv.) the function x<span class="su">0</span><span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + x<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + x<span class="su">2</span><span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="su">3</span> + x<span class="su">3</span><span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="su">4</span> + x<span class="su">4</span><span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="su">0</span>. Since the groups
+for which (iii.) and (iv.) are invariant are contained in that for
+which (ii.) is invariant, and since these are the only soluble groups
+of the set, the equation will be soluble by radicals only when the
+function (ii.) can be expressed rationally in terms of the coefficients.
+If</p>
+
+<p class="center">(x<span class="su">0</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + x<span class="su">2</span>x<span class="su">3</span> + x<span class="su">3</span>x<span class="su">4</span> + x<span class="su">4</span>x<span class="su">0</span>) (x<span class="su">0</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + x<span class="su">2</span>x<span class="su">4</span> + x<span class="su">4</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">3</span> + x<span class="su">3</span>x<span class="su">0</span>)</p>
+
+<p class="noind">is known, then clearly x<span class="su">0</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + x<span class="su">2</span>x<span class="su">3</span> + x<span class="su">3</span>x<span class="su">4</span> + x<span class="su">4</span>x<span class="su">0</span> can be determined
+by the solution of a quadratic equation. Moreover, the
+sum and product (x<span class="su">0</span> + &epsilon;x<span class="su">1</span> + &epsilon;<span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="su">2</span> +
+&epsilon;<span class="sp">3</span>x<span class="su">3</span> + &epsilon;<span class="sp">4</span>x<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="sp">5</span> and (x<span class="su">0</span> +
+&epsilon;<span class="sp">4</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + &epsilon;<span class="sp">3</span>x<span class="su">2</span> +
+&epsilon;<span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="su">3</span> + &epsilon;x<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="sp">5</span> can be expressed rationally in terms of x<span class="su">0</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + x<span class="su">2</span>x<span class="su">3</span> +
+x<span class="su">3</span>x<span class="su">4</span> + x<span class="su">4</span>x<span class="su">0</span>, &epsilon;, and the symmetric functions; &epsilon; being a fifth root of
+unity. Hence (x<span class="su">0</span> + &epsilon;x<span class="su">1</span> + &epsilon;<span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="su">2</span> +
+&epsilon;<span class="sp">3</span>x<span class="su">3</span> + &epsilon;<span class="sp">4</span>X<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="sp">5</span> can be determined by the
+solution of a quadratic equation. The roots of the original equation
+are then finally determined by the extraction of a fifth root. The
+problem of reducing an equation of the fifth degree, when not
+soluble by radicals, to a normal form, forms the subject of Klein&rsquo;s
+<i>Vorlesungen über das Ikosaeder</i>. Another application of groups of
+finite order is to the theory of linear differential equations whose
+integrals are algebraic functions. It has been already seen, in the
+discussion of discontinuous groups in general, that the groups of such
+equations must be groups of finite order. To every group of finite
+order which can be represented as an irreducible group of linear
+substitutions on n variables will correspond a class of irreducible
+linear differential equations of the <i>n</i>th order whose integrals are
+algebraic. The complete determination of the class of linear differential
+equations of the second order with all their integrals algebraic,
+whose group has the greatest possible order, viz. 120, has been
+carried out by Klein.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<b>Continuous groups:</b> Lie and Engel, <i>Theorie der
+Transformationsgruppen</i> (Leipzig, vol. i., 1888; vol. ii., 1890; vol.
+iii., 1893); Lie and Scheffers, <i>Vorlesungen über gewöhnliche Differentialgleichungen
+mit bekannten infinitesimalen Transformationen</i>
+(Leipzig, 1891); <i>Idem, Vorlesungen über continuierliche Gruppen</i>
+(Leipzig, 1893); <i>Idem, Geometrie der Berührungstransformationen</i>
+(Leipzig, 1896); Klein and Schilling, <i>Höhere Geometrie</i>, vol. ii.
+(lithographed) (Göttingen, 1893, for both continuous and discontinuous
+groups). Campbell, <i>Introductory Treatise on Lie&rsquo;s Theory of
+Finite Continuous Transformation Groups</i> (Oxford, 1903). Discontinuous
+groups: Klein and Fricke, <i>Vorlesungen über die Theorie
+der elliptischen Modulfunktionen</i> (vol. i., Leipzig, 1890) (for a full
+discussion of the modular group); <i>Idem, Vorlesungen über die
+Theorie der automorphen Funktionen</i> (vol. i., Leipzig, 1897; vol. ii.
+pt. i., 1901) (for the general theory of discontinuous groups);
+Schoenflies, <i>Krystallsysteme und Krystallstruktur</i> (Leipzig, 1891) (for
+discontinuous groups of motions); <b>Groups of finite order:</b> Galois,
+<i>&OElig;uvres mathématiques</i> (Paris, 1897, reprint); Jordan, <i>Traité des
+substitutions et des équations algébriques</i> (Paris, 1870); Netto,
+<i>Substitutionentheorie und ihre Anwendung auf die Algebra</i> (Leipzig,
+1882; Eng. trans. by Cole, Ann Arbor, U.S.A., 1892); Klein,
+<i>Vorlesungen über das Ikosaeder</i> (Leipzig, 1884; Eng. trans. by
+Morrice, London, 1888); H. Vogt, <i>Leçons sur la résolution algébrique
+des équations</i> (Paris, 1895); Weber, <i>Lehrbuch der Algebra</i> (Braunschweig,
+vol. i., 1895; vol. ii., 1896; a second edition appeared in
+1898); Burnside, <i>Theory of Groups of Finite Order</i> (Cambridge, 1897);
+Bianchi, <i>Teoria dei gruppi di sostituzioni e delle equazioni algebriche</i>
+(Pisa, 1899); Dickson, <i>Linear Groups with an Exposition of the Galois
+Field Theory</i> (Leipzig, 1901); De Séguier, <i>Éléments de la théorie des
+groupes abstraits</i> (Paris, 1904), A summary with many references
+will be found in the <i>Encyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften</i>
+(Leipzig, vol. i., 1898, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. Bu.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word &ldquo;group,&rdquo; which appears first in English in the sense
+of an assemblage of figures in an artistic design, picture, &amp;c., is
+adapted from the Fr. <i>groupe</i>, which is to be referred to the Teutonic
+word meaning &ldquo;knot,&rdquo; &ldquo;mass,&rdquo; &ldquo;bunch,&rdquo; represented in English
+by &ldquo;crop&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>). The technical mathematical sense is not older
+than 1870.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROUSE,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> a word of uncertain origin,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> now used generally by
+ornithologists to include all the &ldquo;rough-footed&rdquo; Gallinaceous
+birds, but in common speech applied almost exclusively, when
+used alone, to the <i>Tetrao scoticus</i> of Linnaeus, the <i>Lagopus
+scoticus</i> of modern systematists&mdash;more particularly called in
+English the red grouse, but till the end of the 18th century
+almost invariably spoken of as the Moor-fowl or Moor-game.
+The effect which this species is supposed to have had on the
+British legislature, and therefore on history, is well known, for
+it was the common belief that parliament always rose when the
+season for grouse-shooting began (August 12th); while according
+to the <i>Orkneyinga Saga</i> (ed. Jonaeus, p. 356; ed. Anderson,
+p. 168) events of some importance in the annals of North Britain
+followed from its pursuit in Caithness in the year 1157.</p>
+
+<p>The red grouse is found on moors from Monmouthshire and
+Derbyshire northward to the Orkneys, as well as in most of the
+Hebrides. It inhabits similar situations throughout Wales and
+Ireland, but it does not naturally occur beyond the limits of
+the British Islands,<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and is the only species among birds peculiar
+to them. The word &ldquo;species&rdquo; may in this case be used advisedly
+(since the red grouse invariably &ldquo;breeds true,&rdquo; it admits of an
+easy diagnosis, and it has a definite geographical range); but
+scarcely any zoologist can doubt of its common origin with the
+willow-grouse, <i>Lagopus albus</i> (<i>L. subalpinus</i> or <i>L. saliceti</i> of some
+authors), that inhabits a subarctic zone from Norway across the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page637" id="page637"></a>637</span>
+continents of Europe and Asia, as well as North America from
+the Aleutian Islands to Newfoundland. The red grouse indeed
+is rarely or never found away from the heather on which chiefly
+it subsists; while the willow-grouse in many parts of the Old
+World seems to prefer the shrubby growth of berry-bearing
+plants (<i>Vaccinium</i> and others) that, often thickly interspersed
+with willows and birches, clothes the higher levels or the lower
+mountain-slopes, and it flourishes in the New World where
+heather scarcely exists, and a &ldquo;heath&rdquo; in its strict sense is
+unknown. It is true that the willow-grouse always becomes
+white in winter, which the red grouse never does; but in summer
+there is a considerable resemblance between the two species,
+the cock willow-grouse having his head, neck and breast of nearly
+the same rich chestnut-brown as his British representative, and,
+though his back be lighter in colour, as is also the whole plumage
+of his mate, than is found in the red grouse, in other respects the
+two species are precisely alike. No distinction can be discovered
+in their voice, their eggs, their build, nor in their anatomical
+details, so far as these have been investigated and compared.<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a>
+Moreover, the red grouse, restricted as is its range, varies in
+colour not inconsiderably according to locality.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:454px; height:396px" src="images/img637a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Red Grouse.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Though the red grouse does not, after the manner of other
+members of the genus <i>Lagopus</i>, become white in winter, Scotland
+possesses a species of the genus which does. This is the ptarmigan,
+<i>L. mutus</i> or <i>L. alpinus</i>, which differs far more in structure,
+station and habits from the red grouse than that does from the
+willow-grouse, and in Scotland is far less abundant, haunting
+only the highest and most barren mountains. It is said to have
+formerly inhabited both Wales and England, but there is no
+evidence of its appearance in Ireland. On the continent of
+Europe it is found most numerously in Norway, but at an
+elevation far above the growth of trees, and it occurs on the
+Pyrenees and on the Alps. It also inhabits northern Russia.
+In North America, Greenland and Iceland it is represented by a
+very nearly allied form&mdash;so much so indeed that it is only at
+certain seasons that the slight difference between them can be
+detected. This form is the <i>L. rupestris</i> of authors, and it would
+appear to be found also in Siberia (<i>Ibis</i>, 1879, p. 148). Spitzbergen
+is inhabited by a large form which has received recognition
+as <i>L. hemileucurus</i>, and the northern end of the chain of
+the Rocky Mountains is tenanted by a very distinct species, the
+smallest and perhaps the most beautiful of the genus, <i>L. leucurus</i>,
+which has all the feathers of the tail white.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:446px; height:474px" src="images/img637b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Ptarmigan.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:449px; height:430px" src="images/img637c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Blackcock.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The bird, however, to which the name of grouse in all strictness
+belongs is probably the <i>Tetrao tetrix</i> of Linnaeus&mdash;the blackcock
+and greyhen, as the sexes are respectively called. It is distributed
+over most of the heath-country of England, except in
+East Anglia, where attempts to introduce it have been only
+partially successful. It also occurs in North Wales and very
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page638" id="page638"></a>638</span>
+generally throughout Scotland, though not in Orkney, Shetland
+or the Outer Hebrides, nor in Ireland. On the continent of
+Europe it has a very wide range, and it extends into Siberia.
+In Georgia its place is taken by a distinct species, on which a
+Polish naturalist (<i>Proc. Zool. Society</i>, 1875, p. 267) has conferred
+the name of <i>T. mlokosiewiczi</i>. Both these birds have much in
+common with their larger congener the capercally and its eastern
+representative.</p>
+
+<p>The species of the genus <i>Bonasa</i>, of which the European
+<i>B. sylvestris</i> is the type, does not inhabit the British Islands.
+It is perhaps the most delicate game-bird that comes to table.
+It is the <i>gelinotte</i> of the French, the <i>Haselhuhn</i> of Germans,
+and <i>Hjerpe</i> of Scandinavians. Like its transatlantic congener
+<i>B. umbellus</i>, the ruffed grouse or birch-partridge (of which there
+are two other local forms, <i>B. umbelloides</i> and <i>B. sabinii</i>), it is
+purely a forest-bird. The same may be said of the species of
+<i>Canace</i>, of which two forms are found in America, <i>C. canadensis</i>,
+the spruce-partridge, and <i>C. franklini</i>, and also of the Siberian
+<i>C. falcipennis</i>. Nearly allied to these birds is the group known
+as <i>Dendragapus</i>, containing three large and fine forms <i>D. obscurus</i>,
+<i>D. fuliginosus</i>, and <i>D. richardsoni</i>&mdash;all peculiar to North America.
+Then there are <i>Centrocercus urophasianus</i>, the sage-cock of the
+plains of Columbia and California, and <i>Pedioecetes</i>, the sharp-tailed
+grouse, with its two forms, <i>P. phasianellus</i> and <i>P. columbianus</i>,
+while finally <i>Cupidonia</i>, the prairie-hen, also with two
+local forms, <i>C. cupido</i> and <i>C. pallidicincta</i>, is a bird that in the
+United States of America possesses considerable economic value,
+enormous numbers being consumed there, and also exported
+to Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The various sorts of grouse are nearly all figured in Elliot&rsquo;s <i>Monograph
+of the Tetraoninae</i>, and an excellent account of the American
+species is given in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway&rsquo;s <i>North American
+Birds</i> (iii. 414-465). See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Shooting</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It seems first to occur (O. Salusbury Brereton, <i>Archaeologia</i>,
+iii. 157) as &ldquo;grows&rdquo; in an ordinance for the regulation of the royal
+household dated &ldquo;apud Eltham, mens. Jan. 22 Hen. VIII.,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i>
+1531, and considering the locality must refer to black game. It is
+found in an Act of Parliament 1 Jac. I. cap. 27, § 2, <i>i.e.</i> 1603, and,
+as reprinted in the <i>Statutes at Large</i>, stands as now commonly spelt,
+but by many writers or printers the final <i>e</i> was omitted in the 17th
+and 18th centuries. In 1611 Cotgrave had &ldquo;Poule griesche. A
+Moore-henne; the henne of the Grice [in ed. 1673 &ldquo;Griece&rdquo;] or
+Mooregame&rdquo; (<i>Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues,
+s.v. Poule</i>). The most likely derivation seems to be from the old
+French word <i>griesche</i>, <i>greoche</i> or <i>griais</i> (meaning speckled, and
+cognate with <i>griseus</i>, grisly or grey), which was applied to some kind
+of partridge, or according to Brunetto Latini (<i>Trés.</i> p. 211) to a
+quail, &ldquo;porce que ele fu premiers trovée en Grece.&rdquo; The Oxford
+Dictionary repudiates the possibility of &ldquo;grouse&rdquo; being a spurious
+singular of an alleged plural &ldquo;grice,&rdquo; and, with regard to the possibility
+of &ldquo;grows&rdquo; being a plural of &ldquo;grow,&rdquo; refers to Giraldus
+Cambrensis (<i>c.</i> 1210), <i>Topogr. Hib. opera</i> (Rolls) v. 47: &ldquo;gallinae
+campestres, quas vulgariter <i>grutas</i> vocant.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It was successfully, though with much trouble, introduced by
+Mr Oscar Dickson on a tract of land near Gottenburg in Sweden
+(<i>Svenska Jägarförbundets Nya Tidskrift</i>, 1868, p. 64 <i>et alibi</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> A very interesting subject for discussion would be whether
+<i>Lagopus scoticus</i> or <i>L. albus</i> has varied most from the common stock
+of both. Looking to the fact that the former is the only species of
+the genus which does not assume white clothing in winter, an
+evolutionist might at first deem the variation greatest in its case;
+but then it must be borne in mind that the species of <i>Lagopus</i>
+which turn white differ in that respect from all other groups of the
+family <i>Tetraonidae</i>. Furthermore every species of <i>Lagopus</i> (even
+<i>L. leucurus</i>, the whitest of all) has its first set of <i>remiges</i> coloured
+brown. These are dropped when the bird is about half-grown, and
+in all the species but <i>L. scoticus</i> white <i>remiges</i> are then produced.
+If therefore the successive phases assumed by any animal in the
+course of its progress to maturity indicate the phases through which
+the species has passed, there may have been a time when all the
+species of <i>Lagopus</i> wore a brown livery even when adult, and the
+white dress donned in winter has been imposed upon the wearers
+by causes that can be easily suggested. The white plumage of the
+birds of this group protects them from danger during the snows of
+a protracted winter. But the red grouse, instead of perpetuating
+directly the more ancient properties of an original <i>Lagopus</i> that
+underwent no great seasonal change of plumage, may derive its
+ancestry from the widely-ranging willow-grouse, which in an epoch
+comparatively recent (in the geological sense) may have stocked
+Britain, and left descendants that, under conditions in which the
+assumption of a white garb would be almost fatal to the preservation
+of the species, have reverted (though doubtless with some modifications)
+to a comparative immutability essentially the same as that
+of the primal <i>Lagopus</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROVE, SIR GEORGE<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1820-1900), English writer on music,
+was born at Clapham on the 13th of August 1820. He was
+articled to a civil engineer, and worked for two years in a factory
+near Glasgow. In 1841 and 1845 he was employed in the West
+Indies, erecting lighthouses in Jamaica and Bermuda. In 1849
+he became secretary to the Society of Arts, and in 1852 to the
+Crystal Palace. In this capacity his natural love of music and
+enthusiasm for the art found a splendid opening, and he threw
+all the weight of his influence into the task of promoting the best
+music of all schools in connexion with the weekly and daily
+concerts at Sydenham, which had a long and honourable career
+under the direction of Mr (afterwards Sir) August Manns.
+Without Sir George Grove that eminent conductor would hardly
+have succeeded in doing what he did to encourage young composers
+and to educate the British public in music. Grove&rsquo;s
+analyses of the Beethoven symphonies, and the other works
+presented at the concerts, set the pattern of what such things
+should be; and it was as a result of these, and of the fact that
+he was editor of <i>Macmillan&rsquo;s Magazine</i> from 1868 to 1883, that
+the scheme of his famous <i>Dictionary of Music and Musicians</i>,
+published from 1878 to 1889 (new edition, edited by J. A. Fuller
+Maitland, 1904-1907), was conceived and executed. His own
+articles in that work on Beethoven, Mendelssohn and Schubert
+are monuments of a special kind of learning, and that the rest
+of the book is a little thrown out of balance owing to their great
+length is hardly to be regretted. Long before this he had contributed
+to the <i>Dictionary of the Bible</i>, and had promoted the
+foundation of the Palestine Exploration Fund. On a journey to
+Vienna, undertaken in the company of his lifelong friend, Sir
+Arthur Sullivan, the important discovery of a large number of
+compositions by Schubert was made, including the music to
+<i>Rosamunde</i>. When the Royal College of Music was founded in
+1882 he was appointed its first director, receiving the honour of
+knighthood. He brought the new institution into line with the
+most useful European conservatoriums. On the completion of
+the new buildings in 1894 he resigned the directorship, but
+retained an active interest in the institution to the end of his
+life. He died at Sydenham on the 28th of May 1900.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His life, a most interesting one, was written by Mr Charles Graves.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. A. F. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROVE, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1811-1896), English judge
+and man of science, was born on the 11th of July 1811 at Swansea,
+South Wales. After being educated by private tutors, he went
+to Brasenose College, Oxford, where he took an ordinary degree
+in 1832. Three years later he was called to the bar at Lincoln&rsquo;s
+Inn. His health, however, did not allow him to devote himself
+strenuously to practice, and he occupied his leisure with scientific
+studies. About 1839 he constructed the platinum-zinc voltaic
+cell that bears his name, and with the aid of a number of these
+exhibited the electric arc light in the London Institution,
+Finsbury Circus. The result was that in 1840 the managers
+appointed him to the professorship of experimental philosophy,
+an office which he held for seven years. His researches dealt very
+largely with electro-chemistry and with the voltaic cell, of which
+he invented several varieties. One of these, the Grove gas-battery,
+which is of special interest both intrinsically and as
+the forerunner of the secondary batteries now in use for the
+&ldquo;storage&rdquo; of electricity, was based on his observation that a
+current is produced by a couple of platinum plates standing
+in acidulated water and immersed, the one in hydrogen, the
+other in oxygen. At one of his lectures at the Institution he
+anticipated the electric lighting of to-day by illuminating the
+theatre with incandescent electric lamps, the filaments being of
+platinum and the current supplied by a battery of his nitric acid
+cells. In 1846 he published his famous book on <i>The Correlation
+of Physical Forces</i>, the leading ideas of which he had already
+put forward in his lectures: its fundamental conception was
+that each of the forces of nature&mdash;light, heat, electricity, &amp;c.&mdash;is
+definitely and equivalently convertible into any other, and that
+where experiment does not give the full equivalent, it is because
+the initial force has been dissipated, not lost, by conversion into
+other unrecognized forces. In the same year he received a Royal
+medal from the Royal Society for his Bakerian lecture on
+&ldquo;Certain phenomena of voltaic ignition and the decomposition
+of water into its constituent gases.&rdquo; In 1866 he presided over
+the British Association at its Nottingham meeting and delivered
+an address on the continuity of natural phenomena. But while he
+was thus engaged in scientific research, his legal work was not
+neglected, and his practice increased so greatly that in 1853 he
+became a Q.C. One of the best-known cases in which he appeared
+as an advocate was that of William Palmer, the Rugeley poisoner,
+whom he defended. In 1871 he was made a judge of the Common
+Pleas in succession to Sir Robert Collier, and remained on the
+bench till 1887. He died in London on the 1st of August 1896.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A selection of his scientific papers is given in the sixth edition of
+<i>The Correlation of Physical Forces</i>, published in 1874.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROVE<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (O.E. <i>graf</i>, cf. O.E. <i>gr&aelig;fa</i>, brushwood, later &ldquo;greave&rdquo;;
+the word does not appear in any other Teutonic language, and
+the <i>New English Dictionary</i> finds no Indo-European root to
+which it can be referred; Skeat considers it connected with
+&ldquo;grave,&rdquo; to cut, and finds the original meaning to be a glade
+cut through a wood), a small group or cluster of trees, growing
+naturally and forming something smaller than a wood, or planted
+in particular shapes or for particular purposes, in a park, &amp;c.
+Groves have been connected with religious worship from the
+earliest times, and in many parts of India every village has its
+sacred group of trees. For the connexion of religion with sacred
+groves see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tree-Worship</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The word &ldquo;grove&rdquo; was used by the authors of the Authorized
+Version of the Bible to translate two Hebrew words: (1) <i>&rsquo;&#275;shel</i>, as
+in Gen. xxi. 33, and 1 Sam. xxii. 6; this is rightly given in the
+Revised Version as &ldquo;tamarisk&rdquo;; (2) <i>asherah</i> in many places
+throughout the Old Testament. Here the translators followed the
+Septuagint <span class="grk" title="alsos">&#7940;&#955;&#963;&#959;&#962;</span> and the Vulgate <i>lucus</i>. The <i>&rsquo;&#259;shéráh</i> was a
+wooden post erected at the Canaanitish places of worship, and also
+by the altars of Yahweh. It may have represented a tree.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROZNYI,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> a fortress and town of Russia, North Caucasia,
+in the province of Terek, on the Zunzha river, 82 m. by rail N.E.
+of Vladikavkaz, on the railway to Petrovsk. There are naphtha
+wells close by. The fortifications were constructed in 1819.
+Pop. (1897) 15,599.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRUB,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> the larva of an insect, a caterpillar, maggot. The
+word is formed from the verb &ldquo;to grub,&rdquo; to dig, break up the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page639" id="page639"></a>639</span>
+surface of the ground, and clear of stumps, roots, weeds, &amp;c.
+According to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, &ldquo;grub&rdquo; may be
+referred to an ablaut variant of the Old Teutonic <i>grab</i>-, to dig,
+cf. &ldquo;grave.&rdquo; Skeat (<i>Etym. Dict.</i> 1898) refers it rather to the root
+seen in &ldquo;grope,&rdquo; &ldquo;grab,&rdquo; &amp;c., the original meaning &ldquo;to search
+for.&rdquo; The earliest quotation of the slang use of the word in the
+sense of food in the <i>New English Dictionary</i> is dated 1659 from
+<i>Ancient Poems, Ballads</i>, &amp;c., Percy Society Publications. &ldquo;Grub-street,&rdquo;
+as a collective term for needy hack-writers, dates from
+the 17th century and is due to the name of a street near Moorfields,
+London, now Milton Street, which was as Johnson says &ldquo;much
+inhabited by writers of small histories, dictionaries and temporary
+poems.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRUBER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1774-1851), German critic
+and literary historian, was born at Naumburg on the Saale, on
+the 29th of November 1774. He received his education at the
+town school of Naumburg and the university of Leipzig, after
+which he resided successively at Göttingen, Leipzig, Jena and
+Weimar, occupying himself partly in teaching and partly in
+various literary enterprises, and enjoying in Weimar the friendship
+of Herder, Wieland and Goethe. In 1811 he was appointed
+professor at the university of Wittenberg, and after the division
+of Saxony he was sent by the senate to Berlin to negotiate the
+union of the university of Wittenberg with that of Halle. After
+the union was effected he became in 1815 professor of philosophy
+at Halle. He was associated with Johann Samuel Ersch in the
+editorship of the great work <i>Allgemeine Encyklopädie der Wissenschaften
+und Künste</i>; and after the death of Ersch he continued
+the first section from vol. xviii. to vol. liv. He also succeeded
+Ersch in the editorship of the <i>Allgemeine Literaturzeitung</i>. He
+died on the 7th of August 1851.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Gruber was the author of a large number of works, the principal
+of which are <i>Charakteristik Herders</i> (Leipzig, 1805), in conjunction
+with Johann T. L. Danz (1769-1851), afterwards professor of
+theology at Jena; <i>Geschichte des menschlichen Geschlechts</i> (2 vols.,
+Leipzig, 1806); <i>Wörterbuch der altklassischen Mythologie</i> (3 vols.,
+Weimar, 1810-1815); <i>Wielands Leben</i> (2 parts, Weimar, 1815-1816),
+and <i>Klopstocks Leben</i> (Weimar, 1832). He also edited Wieland&rsquo;s
+<i>Sämtliche Werke</i> (Leipzig, 1818-1828).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRUMBACH, WILHELM VON<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1503-1567), German
+adventurer, chiefly known through his connexion with the
+so-called &ldquo;Grumbach feuds&rdquo; (<i>Grumbachsche Händel</i>), the last
+attempt of the German knights to destroy the power of the
+territorial princes. A member of an old Franconian family,
+he was born on the 1st of June 1503, and having passed some
+time at the court of Casimir, prince of Bayreuth (d. 1527), fought
+against the peasants during the rising in 1524 and 1525. About
+1540 Grumbach became associated with Albert Alcibiades, the
+turbulent prince of Bayreuth, whom he served both in peace
+and war. After the conclusion of the peace of Passau in 1552,
+Grumbach assisted Albert in his career of plunder in Franconia
+and was thus able to take some revenge upon his enemy, Melchior
+von Zobel, bishop of Würzburg. As a landholder Grumbach
+was a vassal of the bishops of Würzburg, and had held office
+at the court of Conrad of Bibra, who was bishop from 1540
+to 1544. When, however, Zobel was chosen to succeed Conrad
+the harmonious relations between lord and vassal were quickly
+disturbed. Unable to free himself and his associates from the
+suzerainty of the bishop by appealing to the imperial courts he
+decided to adopt more violent measures, and his friendship with
+Albert was very serviceable in this connexion. Albert&rsquo;s career,
+however, was checked by his defeat at Sievershausen in July
+1553 and his subsequent flight into France, and the bishop took
+advantage of this state of affairs to seize Grumbach&rsquo;s lands.
+The knight obtained an order of restitution from the imperial
+court of justice (<i>Reichskammergericht</i>), but he was unable to
+carry this into effect; and in April 1558 some of his partisans
+seized and killed the bishop. Grumbach declared he was
+innocent of this crime, but his story was not believed, and he
+fled to France. Returning to Germany he pleaded his cause in
+person before the diet at Augsburg in 1559, but without success.
+Meanwhile he had found a new patron in John Frederick,
+duke of Saxony, whose father, John Frederick, had been obliged
+to surrender the electoral dignity to the Albertine branch of his
+family. Chafing under this deprivation the duke listened
+readily to Grumbach&rsquo;s plans for recovering the lost dignity,
+including a general rising of the German knights and the deposition
+of Frederick II., king of Denmark. Magical charms were
+employed against the duke&rsquo;s enemies, and communications
+from angels were invented which helped to stir up the zeal of
+the people. In 1563 Grumbach attacked Würzburg, seized and
+plundered the city and compelled the chapter and the bishop to
+restore his lands. He was consequently placed under the
+imperial ban, but John Frederick refused to obey the order of the
+emperor Maximilian II. to withdraw his protection from him.
+Meanwhile Grumbach sought to compass the assassination of the
+Saxon elector, Augustus; proclamations were issued calling
+for assistance; and alliances both without and within Germany
+were concluded. In November 1566 John Frederick was placed
+under the ban, which had been renewed against Grumbach
+earlier in the year, and Augustus marched against Gotha.
+Assistance was not forthcoming, and a mutiny led to the capitulation
+of the town. Grumbach was delivered to his foes, and,
+after being tortured, was executed at Gotha on the 18th of April
+1567.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F. Ortloff, <i>Geschichte der Grumbachschen Händel</i> (Jena,
+1868-1870), and J. Voigt, <i>Wilhelm von Grumbach und seine Händel</i>
+(Leipzig, 1846-1847).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRUMENTUM,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> an ancient town in the centre of Lucania,
+33 m. S. of Potentia by the direct road through Anxia, and 52 m.
+by the Via Herculia, at the point of divergence of a road eastward
+to Heraclea. It seems to have been a native Lucanian town,
+not a Greek settlement. In 215 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Carthaginian general
+Hanno was defeated under its walls, and in 207 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Hannibal
+made it his headquarters. In the Social War it appears as a
+strong fortress, and seems to have been held by both sides at
+different times. It became a colony, perhaps in the time of
+Sulla, at latest under Augustus, and seems to have been of some
+importance. Its site, identified by Holste from the description
+of the martyrdom of St Laverius, is a ridge on the right bank
+of the Aciris (Agri) about 1960 ft. above sea-level, ½ m. below
+the modern Saponara, which lies much higher (2533 ft.). Its
+ruins (all of the Roman period) include those of a large amphitheatre
+(arena 205 by 197 ft.), the only one in Lucania, except
+that at Paestum. There are also remains of a theatre. Inscriptions
+record the repair of its town walls and the construction
+of <i>thermae</i> (of which remains were found) in 57-51 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the
+construction in 43 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, of a portico, remains of which may be
+seen along an ancient road, at right angles to the main road,
+which traversed Grumentum from S. to N.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F. P. Caputi in <i>Notizie degli scavi</i> (1877), 129, and G. Patroni,
+<i>ibid.</i> (1897) 180.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRÜN.<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> <span class="sc">Hans Baldung</span> (<i>c.</i> 1470-1545), commonly called
+Grün, a German painter of the age of Dürer, was born at Gmünd
+in Swabia, and spent the greater part of his life at Strassburg and
+Freiburg in Breisgau. The earliest pictures assigned to him are
+altarpieces with the monogram H. B. interlaced, and the date
+of 1496, in the monastery chapel of Lichtenthal near Baden.
+Another early work is a portrait of the emperor Maximilian,
+drawn in 1501 on a leaf of a sketch-book now in the print-room at
+Carlsruhe. The &ldquo;Martyrdom of St Sebastian&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Epiphany&rdquo;
+(Berlin Museum), fruits of his labour in 1507, were painted for
+the market-church of Halle in Saxony. In 1509 Grün purchased
+the freedom of the city of Strassburg, and resided there till 1513,
+when he moved to Freiburg in Breisgau. There he began a
+series of large compositions, which he finished in 1516, and placed
+on the high altar of the Freiburg cathedral. He purchased anew
+the freedom of Strassburg in 1517, resided in that city as his
+domicile, and died a member of its great town council 1545.</p>
+
+<p>Though nothing is known of Grün&rsquo;s youth and education,
+it may be inferred from his style that he was no stranger to
+the school of which Dürer was the chief. Gmünd is but
+50 m. distant on either side from Augsburg and Nuremberg.
+Grün prints were often mistaken for those of Dürer; and
+Dürer himself was well acquainted with Grün&rsquo;s woodcuts and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page640" id="page640"></a>640</span>
+copper-plates in which he traded during his trip to the Netherlands
+(1520). But Grün&rsquo;s prints, though Düreresque, are far below
+Dürer, and his paintings are below his prints. Without absolute
+correctness as a draughtsman, his conception of human form is
+often very unpleasant, whilst a questionable taste is shown in
+ornament equally profuse and &ldquo;baroque.&rdquo; Nothing is more
+remarkable in his pictures than the pug-like shape of the faces,
+unless we except the coarseness of the extremities. No trace is
+apparent of any feeling for atmosphere or light and shade.
+Though Grün has been commonly called the Correggio of the
+north, his compositions are a curious medley of glaring and
+heterogeneous colours, in which pure black is contrasted with pale
+yellow, dirty grey, impure red and glowing green. Flesh is a
+mere glaze under which the features are indicated by lines.
+His works are mainly interesting because of the wild and fantastic
+strength which some of them display. We may pass lightly over
+the &ldquo;Epiphany&rdquo; of 1507, the &ldquo;Crucifixion&rdquo; of 1512, or the
+&ldquo;Stoning of Stephen&rdquo; of 1522, in the Berlin Museum. There is
+some force in the &ldquo;Dance of Death&rdquo; of 1517, in the museum of
+Basel, or the &ldquo;Madonna&rdquo; of 1530, in the Liechtenstein Gallery
+at Vienna. Grün&rsquo;s best effort is the altarpiece of Freiburg,
+where the &ldquo;Coronation of the Virgin,&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Twelve
+Apostles,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Annunciation, Visitation, Nativity and Flight
+into Egypt,&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Crucifixion,&rdquo; with portraits of donors,
+are executed with some of that fanciful power which Martin
+Schön bequeathed to the Swabian school. As a portrait painter
+he is well known. He drew the likeness of Charles V., as well
+as that of Maximilian; and his bust of Margrave Philip in the
+Munich Gallery tells us that he was connected with the reigning
+family of Baden as early as 1514. At a later period he had
+sittings from Margrave Christopher of Baden, Ottilia his wife,
+and all their children, and the picture containing these portraits is
+still in the grand-ducal gallery at Carlsruhe. Like Dürer and
+Cranach, Grün became a hearty supporter of the Reformation.
+He was present at the diet of Augsburg in 1518, and one of his
+woodcuts represents Luther under the protection of the Holy
+Ghost, which hovers over him in the shape of a dove.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRÜNBERG,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> a town of Germany, in Prussian Silesia, beautifully
+situated between two hills on an affluent of the Oder,
+and on the railway from Breslau to Stettin via Küstrin, 36 m.
+N.N.W. of Glogau. Pop. (1905) 20,987. It has a Roman Catholic
+and two Evangelical churches, a modern school and a technical
+(textiles) school. There are manufactures of cloth, paper,
+machinery, straw hats, leather and tobacco. The prosperity
+of the town depends chiefly on the vine culture in the neighbourhood,
+from which, besides the exportation of a large quantity
+of grapes, about 700,000 gallons of wine are manufactured
+annually.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRUNDTVIG, NIKOLAI FREDERIK SEVERIN<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1783-1872),
+Danish poet, statesman and divine, was born at the parsonage
+of Udby in Zealand on the 8th of September 1783. In 1791 he
+was sent to live at the house of a priest in Jutland, and studied
+at the free school of Aarhuus until he went up to the university
+of Copenhagen in 1800. At the close of his university life he
+made Icelandic his special study, until in 1805 he took the position
+of tutor in a house on the island of Langeland. The next three
+years were spent in the study of Shakespeare, Schiller and Fichte.
+His cousin, the philosopher Henrik Steffens, had returned to
+Copenhagen in 1802 full of the teaching of Schelling and his
+lectures and the early poetry of Öhlenschläger opened the eyes
+of Grundtvig to the new era in literature. His first work, <i>On the
+Songs in the Edda</i>, attracted no attention. Returning to Copenhagen
+in 1808 he achieved greater success with his <i>Northern
+Mythology</i>, and again in 1809-1811 with a long epic poem, the
+<i>Decline of the Heroic Life in the North</i>. The boldness of the
+theological views expressed in his first sermon in 1810 offended
+the ecclesiastical authorities, and he retired to a country parish
+as his father&rsquo;s assistant for a while. From 1812 to 1817 he published
+five or six works, of which the <i>Rhyme of Roskilde</i> is the
+most remarkable. From 1816 to 1819 he was editor of a polemical
+journal entitled <i>Dannevirke</i>, and in 1818 to 1822 appeared his
+Danish paraphrases (6 vols.) of Saxo Grammaticus and Snorri.
+During these years he was preaching against rationalism to an
+enthusiastic congregation in Copenhagen, but he accepted in
+1821 the country living of Praestö, only to return to the metropolis
+the year after. In 1825 he published a pamphlet, <i>The Church&rsquo;s
+Reply</i>, against H. N. Clausen, who was professor of theology in
+the university of Copenhagen. Grundtvig was publicly prosecuted
+and fined, and for seven years he was forbidden to preach,
+years which he spent in publishing a collection of his theological
+works, in paying two visits to England, and in studying Anglo-Saxon.
+In 1832 he obtained permission to preach again, and in
+1839 he became priest of the workhouse church of Vartov
+hospital, Copenhagen, a post he continued to hold until his death.
+In 1837-1841 he published <i>Songs for the Danish Church</i>, a rich
+collection of sacred poetry; in 1838 he brought out a selection
+of early Scandinavian verse; in 1840 he edited the Anglo-Saxon
+poem of the <i>Phoenix</i>, with a Danish translation. He
+visited England a third time in 1843. From 1844 until after the
+first German war Grundtvig took a very prominent part in
+politics. In 1861 he received the titular rank of bishop, but
+without a see. He went on writing occasional poems till 1866,
+and preached in the Vartov every Sunday until a month before
+his death. His preaching attracted large congregations, and he
+soon had a following. His hymn-book effected a great change
+in Danish church services, substituting the hymns of the national
+poets for the slow measures of the orthodox Lutherans. The
+chief characteristic of his theology was the substitution of the
+authority of the &ldquo;living word&rdquo; for the apostolic commentaries,
+and he desired to see each congregation a practically independent
+community. His patriotism was almost a part of his religion,
+and he established popular schools where the national poetry
+and history should form an essential part of the instruction.
+His followers are known as Grundtvigians. He was married three
+times, the last time in his seventy-sixth year. He died on the
+2nd of September 1872. Grundtvig holds a unique position in
+the literature of his country; he has been styled the Danish
+Carlyle. He was above all things a man of action, not an artist;
+and the formless vehemence of his writings, which have had a
+great influence over his own countrymen, is hardly agreeable
+or intelligible to a foreigner. The best of his poetical works were
+published in a selection (7 vols., 1880-1889) by his eldest son,
+Svend Hersleb Grundtvig (1824-1883), who was an authority on
+Scandinavian antiquities, and made an admirable collection of
+old Danish poetry (<i>Danmarks gamle Folkeviser</i>, 1853-1883,
+5 vols.; completed in 1891 by A. Olrik).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His correspondence with Ingemann was edited by S. Grundtvig
+(1882); his correspondence with Christian Molbech by L. Schröder
+(1888); see also F. Winkel Horn, <i>Grundtvigs Liv og Gjerning</i> (1883);
+and an article by F. Nielsen in Bricka&rsquo;s <i>Dansk Biografisk Lexikon</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRUNDY, SYDNEY<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1848-&emsp;&emsp;), English dramatist, was born
+at Manchester on the 23rd of March 1848, son of Alderman
+Charles Sydney Grundy. He was educated at Owens College,
+Manchester, and was called to the bar in 1869, practising in
+Manchester until 1876. His farce, <i>A Little Change</i>, was produced
+at the Haymarket Theatre in 1872. He became well known
+as an adapter of plays, among his early successes in this direction
+being <i>The Snowball</i> (Strand Theatre, 1879) from <i>Oscar, ou le
+mari qui trompe sa femme</i> by MM. Scribe and Duvergne, and
+<i>In Honour Bound</i> (1880) from Scribe&rsquo;s <i>Une Chaîne</i>. In 1887
+he made a popular success with <i>The Bells of Haslemere</i>, written
+with Mr H. Pettitt and produced at the Adelphi. In 1889-1890
+he produced two ingenious original comedies, <i>A White Lie</i>
+(Court Theatre) and <i>A Fool&rsquo;s Paradise</i> (Gaiety Theatre), which
+had been played two years earlier at Greenwich as <i>The Mouse-Trap</i>.
+These were followed by <i>Sowing the Wind</i> (Comedy, 1893),
+<i>An Old Jew</i> (Garrick, 1894), and by an adaptation of Octave
+Feuillet&rsquo;s <i>Montjoye as A Bunch of Violets</i> (Haymarket, 1894). In
+1894 he produced <i>The New Woman</i> and <i>The Slaves of the Ring</i>;
+in 1895, <i>The Greatest of These</i>, played by Mr and Mrs Kendal
+at the Garrick Theatre; <i>The Degenerates</i> (Haymarket, 1899),
+and <i>A Debt of Honour</i> (St James&rsquo;s 1900). Among Mr Grundy&rsquo;s
+most successful adaptations were the charming <i>Pair of Spectacles</i>
+(Garrick, 1890) from <i>Les Petits Oiseaux</i> of MM. Labiche and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page641" id="page641"></a>641</span>
+Delacour. Others were <i>A Village Priest</i> (Haymarket, 1890)
+from <i>Le Secret de la terreuse</i>, a melodrama by MM. Busnach and
+Cauvin; <i>A Marriage of Convenience</i> (Haymarket, 1897) from
+<i>Un Mariage de Louis XV</i>, by Alex. Dumas, père, <i>The Silver
+Key</i> (Her Majesty&rsquo;s, 1897) from his <i>Mlle de Belle-isle</i>, and <i>The
+Musqueteers</i> (1899) from the same author&rsquo;s novel; <i>Frocks and
+Frills</i> (Haymarket, 1902) from the <i>Doigts de fées</i> of MM. Scribe
+and Legouvé; <i>The Garden of Lies</i> (St James&rsquo;s Theatre, 1904)
+from Mr Justus Miles Forman&rsquo;s novel; <i>Business is Business</i>
+(His Majesty&rsquo;s Theatre, 1905), a rather free adaptation from
+Octave Mirbeau&rsquo;s <i>Les Affaires sont les affaires</i>; and <i>The Diplomatists</i>
+(Royalty Theatre, 1905) from <i>La Poudre aux yeux</i>,
+by Labiche.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRUNDY, MRS,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> the name of an imaginary English character,
+who typifies the disciplinary control of the conventional &ldquo;proprieties&rdquo;
+of society over conduct, the tyrannical pressure of
+the opinion of neighbours on the acts of others. The name
+appears in a play of Thomas Morton, <i>Speed the Plough</i> (1798),
+in which one of the characters, Dame Ashfield, continually refers
+to what her neighbour Mrs Grundy will say as the criterion
+of respectability. Mrs Grundy is not a character in the play,
+but is a kind of &ldquo;Mrs Harris&rdquo; to Dame Ashfield.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRUNER, GOTTLIEB SIGMUND<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1717-1778), the author of
+the first connected attempt to describe in detail the snowy
+mountains of Switzerland. His father, Johann Rudolf Gruner
+(1680-1761), was pastor of Trachselwald, in the Bernese
+Emmenthal (1705), and later (1725) of Burgdorf, and a great
+collector of information relating to historical and scientific
+matters; his great <i>Thesaurus topographico-historicus totius
+ditionis Bernensis</i> (4 vols. folio, 1729-1730) still remains in MS.,
+but in 1732 he published a small work entitled <i>Deliciae urbis
+Bernae</i>, while he possessed an extensive cabinet of natural
+history objects. Naturally such tastes had a great influence
+on the mind of his son, who was born at Trachselwald, and
+educated by his father and at the Latin school at Burgdorf, not
+going to Berne much before 1736, when he published a dissertation
+on the use of fire by the heathen. In 1739 he qualified as a
+notary, in 1741 became the archivist of Hesse-Homburg, and in
+1743 accompanied Prince Christian of Anhalt-Schaumburg to
+Silesia and the university of Halle. He returned to his native
+land before 1749, when he obtained a post at Thorberg, being
+transferred in 1764 to Landshut and Fraubrunnen. It was in
+1760 that he published in 3 vols. at Berne his chief work, <i>Die
+Eisgebirge des Schweizerlandes</i> (bad French translation by M.
+de Kéralio, Paris, 1770). The first two volumes are filled by
+a detailed description of the snowy Swiss mountains, based not
+so much on personal experience as on older works, and a very
+large number of communications received by Gruner from
+numerous friends; the third volume deals with glaciers in
+general, and their various properties. Though in many respects
+imperfect, Gruner&rsquo;s book sums up all that was known on the
+subject in his day, and forms the starting-point for later writers.
+The illustrations are very curious and interesting. In 1778 he
+republished (nominally in London, really at Berne) much of
+the information contained in his larger work, but thrown into
+the form of letters, supposed to be written in 1776 from various
+spots, under the title of <i>Reisen durch die merkwürdigsten Gegenden
+Helvetiens</i> (2 vols.).</p>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRÜNEWALD, MATHIAS.<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> The accounts which are given of
+this German painter, a native of Aschaffenburg, are curiously
+contradictory. Between 1518 and 1530, according to statements
+adopted by Waagen and Passavant, he was commissioned by
+Albert of Brandenburg, elector and archbishop of Mainz, to
+produce an altarpiece for the collegiate church of St Maurice
+and Mary Magdalen at Halle on the Saale; and he acquitted
+himself of this duty with such cleverness that the prelate in
+after years caused the picture to be rescued from the Reformers
+and brought back to Aschaffenburg. From one of the churches
+of that city it was taken to the Pinakothek of Munich in 1836.
+It represents St Maurice and Mary Magdalen between four
+saints, and displays a style so markedly characteristic, and so
+like that of Lucas Cranach, that Waagen was induced to call
+Grünewald Cranach&rsquo;s master. He also traced the same hand
+and technical execution in the great altarpieces of Annaberg
+and Heilbronn, and in various panels exhibited in the museums
+of Mainz, Darmstadt, Aschaffenburg, Vienna and Berlin. A
+later race of critics, declining to accept the statements of Waagen
+and Passavant, affirm that there is no documentary evidence to
+connect Grünewald with the pictures of Halle and Annaberg,
+and they quote Sandrart and Bernhard Jobin of Strassburg
+to show that Grünewald is the painter of pictures of a different
+class. They prove that he finished before 1516 the large altarpiece
+of Issenheim, at present in the museum of Colmar, and
+starting from these premises they connect the artist with Altdorfer
+and Dürer to the exclusion of Cranach. That a native of the
+Palatinate should have been asked to execute pictures for a
+church in Saxony can scarcely be accounted strange, since we
+observe that Hans Baldung (Grün) was entrusted with a commission
+of this kind. But that a painter of Aschaffenburg should
+display the style of Cranach is strange and indeed incredible,
+unless vouched for by first-class evidence. In this case documents
+are altogether wanting, whilst on the other hand it is beyond
+the possibility of doubt, even according to Waagen, that the
+altarpiece of Issenheim is the creation of a man whose teaching
+was altogether different from that of the painter of the pictures
+of Halle and Annaberg. The altarpiece of Issenheim is a fine
+and powerful work, completed as local records show before
+1516 by a Swabian, whose distinguishing mark is that he followed
+the traditions of Martin Schongauer, and came under the influence
+of Altdorfer and Dürer. As a work of art the altarpiece
+is important, being a poliptych of eleven panels, a carved central
+shrine covered with a double set of wings, and two side pieces
+containing the Temptation of St Anthony, the hermits Anthony
+and Paul in converse, the Virgin adored by Angels, the Resurrection,
+the Annunciation, the Crucifixion, St Sebastian, St Anthony,
+and the Marys wailing over the dead body of Christ. The author
+of these compositions is also the painter of a series of monochromes
+described by Sandrart in the Dominican convent, and
+now in part in the Saalhof at Frankfort, and a Resurrection in
+the museum of Basel, registered in Amerbach&rsquo;s inventory as
+the work of Grünewald.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRUTER<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Gruytère</span>), <b>JAN</b> (1560-1627), a critic and
+scholar of Dutch parentage by his father&rsquo;s side and English by
+his mother&rsquo;s, was born at Antwerp on the 3rd of December
+1560. To avoid religious persecution his parents while he was
+still young came to England; and for some years he prosecuted
+his studies at Cambridge, after which he went to Leiden, where
+he graduated M. A. In 1586 he was appointed professor of history
+at Wittenberg, but as he refused to subscribe the <i>formula concordiae</i>
+he was unable to retain his office. From 1589 to 1592
+he taught at Rostock, after which he went to Heidelberg, where
+in 1602 he was appointed librarian to the university. He died
+at Heidelberg on the 20th of September 1627.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Gruter&rsquo;s chief works were his <i>Inscriptiones antiquae totius orbis
+Romani</i> (2 vols., Heidelberg, 1603), and <i>Lampas, sive fax artium
+liberalium</i> (7 vols., Frankfort, 1602-1634).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRUYÈRE<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Greyerz</i>), a district in the south-eastern
+portion of the Swiss canton of Fribourg, famed for its cattle
+and its cheese, and the original home of the &ldquo;Ranz des Vaches,&rdquo;
+the melody by which the herdsmen call their cows home at
+milking time. It is composed of the middle reach (from Montbovon
+to beyond Bulle) of the Sarine or Saane valley, with its
+tributary glens of the Hongrin (left), the Jogne (right) and the
+Trême (left), and is a delightful pastoral region (in 1901 it
+contained 17,364 cattle). It forms an administrative district
+of the canton of Fribourg, its population in 1900 being 23,111,
+mainly French-speaking and Romanists. From Montbovon
+(11 m. by rail from Bulle) there are mountain railways leading
+S.W. past Les Avants to Montreux (14 m.), and E. up the
+Sarine valley past Château d&rsquo;Oex to Saanen or Gessenay (14 m.),
+and by a tunnel below a low pass to the Simme valley and Spiez
+on the Lake of Thun. The modern capital of the district is the
+small town of Bulle [Ger. <i>Boll</i>], with a 13th-century castle and in
+1900 3330 inhabitants, French-speaking and Romanists. But
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page642" id="page642"></a>642</span>
+the historical capital is the very picturesque little town of
+<i>Gruyères</i> (which keeps its final &ldquo;s&rdquo; in order to distinguish it from
+the district), perched on a steep hill (S.E. of Bulle) above the
+left bank of the Sarine, and at a height of 2713 ft. above the
+sea-level. It is only accessible by a rough carriage road, and
+boasts of a very fine old castle, at the foot of which is the solitary
+street of the town, which in 1900 had 1389 inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>The castle was the seat of the counts of the Gruyère, who are
+first mentioned in 1073. The name is said to come from the
+word <i>gruyer</i>, meaning the officer of woods and forests, but the
+counts bore the canting arms of a crane (<i>grue</i>), which are seen
+all over the castle and the town. That valiant family ended
+(in the legitimate line) with Count Michel (d. 1575) whose extravagance
+and consequent indebtedness compelled him in 1555 to
+sell his domains to Bern and Fribourg. Bern took the upper
+Sarine valley (it still keeps Saanen at its head, but in 1798 lost
+the Pays d&rsquo;En-Haut to the canton du Léman, which in 1803
+became the canton of Vaud). Fribourg took the rest of the
+county, which it added to Bulle and Albeuve (taken in 1537 from
+the bishop of Lausanne), and to the lordship of Jaun in the Jaun
+or Jogne valley (bought in 1502-1504 from its lords), in order to
+form the present administrative district of Gruyère, which is
+not co-extensive with the historical county of that name.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the materials collected by J. J. Hisely and published in successive
+vols. of the <i>Mémoires et documents de la suisse romande ...
+introa. à l&rsquo;hist.</i> (1851); Histoire (2 vols., 1855-1857); and Monuments
+de l&rsquo;histoire (2 vols., 1867-1869); K. V. von Bonstetten,
+<i>Briefe über ein schweiz. Hirtenland</i> (1781) (Eng. trans., 1784); J.
+Reichlen, <i>La Gruyère illustrée</i> (1890), seq.; H. Raemy, <i>La Gruyère</i>
+(1867); and <i>Les Alpes fribourgeoises</i>, by many authors (Lausanne,
+1908).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRYNAEUS<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Gryner</span>), <b>JOHANN JAKOB</b> (1540-1617),
+Swiss Protestant divine, was born on the 1st of October 1540 at
+Bern. His father, Thomas (1512-1564), was for a time professor
+of ancient languages at Basel and Bern, but afterwards became
+pastor of Röteln in Baden. He was nephew of the more eminent
+Simon Grynaeus (<i>q.v.</i>). Johann was educated at Basel, and in
+1559 received an appointment as curate to his father. In 1563 he
+proceeded to Tübingen for the purpose of completing his theological
+studies, and in 1565 he returned to Röteln as successor
+to his father. Here he felt compelled to abjure the Lutheran
+doctrine of the Lord&rsquo;s Supper, and to renounce the <i>formula
+concordiae</i>. Called in 1575 to the chair of Old Testament
+exegesis at Basel, he became involved in unpleasant controversy
+with Simon Sulzer and other champions of Lutheran orthodoxy;
+and in 1584 he was glad to accept an invitation to assist in the
+restoration of the university of Heidelberg. Returning to Basel
+in 1586, after Simon Sulzer&rsquo;s death, as <i>antistes</i> or superintendent
+of the church there and as professor of the New Testament, he
+exerted for upwards of twenty-five years a considerable influence
+upon both the church and the state affairs of that community,
+and acquired a wide reputation as a skilful theologian of the
+school of Ulrich Zwingli. Amongst other labours he helped to
+reorganize the gymnasium in 1588. Five years before his death
+he became totally blind, but continued to preach and lecture
+till his death on the 13th of August 1617.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His many works include commentaries on various books of the
+Old and New Testament, <i>Theologica theoremata el problemata</i> (1588),
+and a collection of patristic literature entitled <i>Monumenta S. patrum
+orthodoxographa</i> (2 vols., fol., 1569).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRYNAEUS, SIMON<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1493-1541), German scholar and theologian
+of the Reformation, son of Jacob Gryner, a Swabian
+peasant, was born in 1493 at Vehringen, in Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen.
+He adopted the name Grynaeus from the epithet
+of Apollo in Virgil. He was a schoolfellow with Melanchthon
+at Pforzheim, whence he went to the university of Vienna,
+distinguishing himself there as a Latinist and Grecian. His
+appointment as rector of a school at Buda was of no long continuance;
+his views excited the zeal of the Dominicans and he
+was thrown into prison. Gaining his freedom at the instance
+of Hungarian magnates, he visited Melanchthon at Wittenberg,
+and in 1524 became professor of Greek at the university of
+Heidelberg, being in addition professor of Latin from 1526.
+His Zwinglian view of the Eucharist disturbed his relations with
+his Catholic colleagues. From 1526 he had corresponded with
+Oecolampadius, who in 1529 invited him to Basel, which Erasmus
+had just left. The university being disorganized, Grynaeus
+pursued his studies, and in 1531 visited England for research
+in libraries. A commendatory letter from Erasmus gained him
+the good offices of Sir Thomas More. He returned to Basel
+charged with the task of collecting the opinions of continental
+reformers on the subject of Henry VIII.&rsquo;s divorce, and was
+present at the death of Oecolampadius (Nov. 24, 1531). He now,
+while holding the chair of Greek, was appointed extraordinary
+professor of theology, and gave exegetical lectures on the New
+Testament. In 1534 Duke Ulrich called him to Württemberg in
+aid of the reformation there, as well as for the reconstitution of
+the university of Tübingen, which he carried out in concert with
+Ambrosius Blarer of Constanz. Two years later he had an active
+hand in the so-called First Helvetic Confession (the work of
+Swiss divines at Basel in January 1536); also in the conferences
+which urged the Swiss acceptance of the Wittenberg Concord
+(1536). At the Worms conference (1540) between Catholics
+and Protestants he was the sole representative of the Swiss
+churches, being deputed by the authorities of Basel. He was
+carried off suddenly in his prime by the plague at Basel on the
+1st of August 1541. A brilliant scholar, a mediating theologian,
+and personally of lovable temperament, his influence was great
+and wisely exercised. Erasmus and Calvin were among his
+correspondents. His chief works were Latin versions of Plutarch,
+Aristotle and Chrysostom.</p>
+
+<p>His son <span class="sc">Samuel</span> (1539-1599) was professor of jurisprudence
+at Basel. His nephew <span class="sc">Thomas</span> (1512?-1564) was professor at
+Basel and minister in Baden, and left four distinguished sons
+of whom <span class="sc">Johann Jakob</span> (1540-1617) was a leader in the religious
+affairs of Basel. The last of the direct descendants of Simon
+Grynaeus was his namesake <span class="sc">Simon</span> (1725-1799), translator into
+German of French and English anti-deistical works, and author
+of a version of the Bible in modern German (1776).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Bayle&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire</i>; W. T. Streuber in Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>
+(1899); and for bibliography, Streuber&rsquo;s <i>S. Grynaei epistolae</i>
+(1847).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRYPHIUS, ANDREAS<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (1616-1664), German lyric poet and
+dramatist, was born on the 11th of October 1616, at Grossglogau
+in Silesia, where his father was a clergyman. The family name
+was Greif, latinized, according to the prevailing fashion, as
+Gryphius. Left early an orphan and driven from his native
+town by the troubles of the Thirty Years&rsquo; War, he received his
+schooling in various places, but notably at Fraustadt, where he
+enjoyed an excellent classical education. In 1634 he became
+tutor to the sons of the eminent jurist Georg von Schönborn
+(1579-1637), a man of wide culture and considerable wealth,
+who, after filling various administrative posts and writing many
+erudite volumes on law, had been rewarded by the emperor
+Ferdinand II. with the title and office of imperial count-palatine
+(<i>Pfalzgraf</i>). Schönborn, who recognized Gryphius&rsquo;s genius,
+crowned him <i>poëta laureatus</i>, gave him the diploma of master
+of philosophy, and bestowed on him a patent of nobility, though
+Gryphius never used the title. A month later, on the 23rd of
+December 1637, Schönborn died; and next year Gryphius went
+to continue his studies at Leiden, where he remained six years,
+both hearing and delivering lectures. Here he fell under the
+influence of the great Dutch dramatists, Pieter Cornelissen Hooft
+(1581-1647) and Joost van den Vondel (1587-1679), who largely
+determined the character of his later dramatic works. After
+travelling in France, Italy and South Germany, Gryphius settled
+in 1647 at Fraustadt, where he began his dramatic work, and in
+1650 was appointed syndic of Glogau, a post he held until his
+death on the 16th of July 1664. A short time previously he had
+been admitted under the title of &ldquo;The Immortal&rdquo; into the
+<i>Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft</i>, a literary society, founded in 1617
+by Ludwig, prince of Anhalt-Köthen on the model of the Italian
+academies.</p>
+
+<p>Gryphius was a man of morbid disposition, and his melancholy
+temperament, fostered by the misfortunes of his childhood,
+is largely reflected in his lyrics, of which the most famous are the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page643" id="page643"></a>643</span>
+<i>Kirchhofsgedanken</i> (1656). His best works are his comedies,
+one of which, <i>Absurda Comica, oder Herr Peter Squentz</i> (1663),
+is evidently based on the comic episode of Pyramus and Thisbe
+in <i>The Midsummer Night&rsquo;s Dream</i>. <i>Die geliebte Dornrose</i> (1660),
+which is written in a Silesian dialect, contains many touches of
+natural simplicity and grace, and ranks high among the comparatively
+small number of German dramas of the 17th century.
+<i>Horribilicribrifax</i> (1663), founded on the <i>Miles gloriosus</i> of
+Plautus, is a rather laboured attack on pedantry. Besides
+these three comedies, Gryphius wrote five tragedies. In all of
+them his tendency is to become wild and bombastic, but he
+had the merit of at least attempting to work out artistically
+conceived plans, and there are occasional flashes both of passion
+and of imagination. His models seem to have been Seneca and
+Vondel. He had the courage, in <i>Carolus Stuardus</i> (1649) to deal
+with events of his own day; his other tragedies are <i>Leo Armenius</i>
+(1646); <i>Katharina von Georgien</i> (1657), <i>Cardenio und Celinde</i>
+(1657) and <i>Papinianus</i> (1663). No German dramatic writer
+before him had risen to so high a level, nor had he worthy
+successors until about the middle of the 18th century.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A complete edition of Gryphius&rsquo;s dramas and lyric poetry has
+been published by H. Palm in the series of the Stuttgart Literarische
+Verein (3 vols., 1878, 1882, 1884). Volumes of selected works will
+be found in W. Muller&rsquo;s <i>Bibliothek der deutschen Dichter des 17ten
+Jahrhunderts</i> (1822) and in J. Tittmann&rsquo;s <i>Deutsche Dichter des 17ten
+Jahrhunderts</i> (1870). There is also a good selection by H. Palm in
+Kürschner&rsquo;s <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i>.</p>
+
+<p>See O. Klopp, <i>Andreas Gryphius als Dramatiker</i> (1851); J. Hermann,
+<i>Über Andreas Gryphius</i> (1851); T. Wissowa, <i>Beiträge zur
+Kenntnis von Andreas Gryphius&rsquo; Leben und Schriften</i> (1876); J.
+Wysocki, <i>Andreas Gryphius et la tragédie allemande au XVII<span class="sp">e</span>
+siècle</i>; and V. Mannheimer, <i>Die Lyrik des Andreas Gryphius</i> (1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUACHARO<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (said to be an obsolete Spanish word signifying
+one that cries, moans or laments loudly), the Spanish-American
+name of what English writers call the oil-bird, the <i>Steatornis
+caripensis</i> of ornithologists, a very remarkable bird, first described
+by Alexander von Humboldt (<i>Voy. aux rég. équinoxiales</i>
+i. 413, Eng. trans. iii. 119; <i>Obs. Zoologie</i> ii. 141, pl. xliv.)
+from his own observation and from examples obtained by
+Aimé J. A. Bonpland, on the visit of those two travellers, in
+September 1799, to a cave near Caripé (at that time a monastery
+of Aragonese Capuchins) some forty miles S.E. of Cumaná
+on the northern coast of South America. A few years later it
+was discovered, says Latham (<i>Gen. Hist. Birds</i>, 1823, vii. 365),
+to inhabit Trinidad, where it appears to bear the name of <i>Diablotin</i>;<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+but by the receipt of specimens procured at Sarayacu
+in Peru, Cajamarca in the Peruvian Andes, and Antioquia
+in Colombia (<i>Proc. Zool. Society</i>, 1878, pp. 139, 140; 1879,
+p. 532), its range has been shown to be much greater than had
+been supposed. The singularity of its structure, its curious
+habits, and its peculiar economical value have naturally attracted
+no little attention from zoologists. First referring it to the genus
+<i>Caprimulgus</i>, its original describer soon saw that it was no true
+goatsucker. It was subsequently separated as forming a subfamily,
+and has at last been regarded as the type of a distinct
+family, <i>Steatornithidae</i>&mdash;a view which, though not put forth till
+1870 (<i>Zool. Record</i>, vi. 67), seems now to be generally deemed
+correct. Its systematic position, however, can scarcely be
+considered settled, for though on the whole its predominating
+alliance may be with the <i>Caprimulgidae</i>, nearly as much affinity
+may be traced to the <i>Strigidae</i>, while it possesses some characters
+in which it differs from both (<i>Proc. Zool. Society</i>, 1873, pp.
+526-535). About as big as a crow, its plumage exhibits the
+blended tints of chocolate-colour and grey, barred and pencilled
+with dark-brown or black, and spotted in places with white,
+that prevail in the two families just named. The beak is hard,
+strong and deeply notched, the nostrils are prominent, and the
+gape is furnished with twelve long hairs on each side. The legs
+and toes are comparatively feeble, but the wings are large. In
+habits the guacharo is wholly nocturnal, slumbering by day
+in deep and dark caverns which it frequents in vast numbers.
+Towards evening it arouses itself, and, with croaking and
+clattering which has been likened to that of castanets, it
+approaches the exit of its retreat, whence at nightfall it issues
+in search of its food, which, so far as is known, consists entirely
+of oily nuts or fruits, belonging especially to the genera <i>Achras</i>,
+<i>Aiphanas</i>, <i>Laurus</i> and <i>Psichotria</i>, some of them sought, it would
+seem, at a very great distance, for Funck (<i>Bull. Acad. Sc. Bruxelles</i>
+xi. pt. 2, pp. 371-377) states that in the stomach of one he
+obtained at Caripé he found the seed of a tree which he believed
+did not grow nearer than 80 leagues. The hard, indigestible
+seed swallowed by the guacharo are found in quantities on the
+floor and the ledges of the caverns it frequents, where many of
+them for a time vegetate, the plants thus growing being etiolated
+from want of light, and, according to travellers, forming a
+singular feature of the gloomy scene which these places present.
+The guacharo is said to build a bowl-like nest of clay, in which
+it lays from two to four white eggs, with a smooth but lustreless
+surface, resembling those of some owls. The young soon after
+they are hatched become a perfect mass of fat, and while yet in
+the nest are sought by the Indians, who at Caripé, and perhaps
+elsewhere, make a special business of taking them and extracting
+the oil they contain. This is done about midsummer, when
+by the aid of torches and long poles many thousands of the
+young birds are slaughtered, while their parents in alarm and
+rage hover over the destroyers&rsquo; heads, uttering harsh and
+deafening cries. The grease is melted over fires kindled at the
+cavern&rsquo;s mouth, run into earthen pots, and preserved for use
+in cooking as well as for the lighting of lamps. It is said to be
+pure and limpid, free from any disagreeable taste or smell, and
+capable of being kept for a year without turning rancid. In
+Trinidad the young are esteemed s great delicacy for the table
+by many, though some persons object to their peculiar scent,
+which resembles that of a cockroach (<i>Blatta</i>), and consequently
+refuse to eat them. The old birds also, according to E. C.
+Taylor (<i>Ibis</i>, 1864, p. 90), have a strong crow-like odour. But
+one species of the genus <i>Steatornis</i> is known.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In addition to the works above quoted valuable information about
+this curious bird may be found under the following references:
+L&rsquo;Herminier, <i>Ann. Sc. Nat.</i> (1836), p. 60, and <i>Nouv. Ann. Mus.</i>
+(1838), p. 321; Hautessier, Rev. Zool. (1838), p. 164; J. Müller,
+<i>Monatsb. Berl. Acad.</i> (1841), p. 172, and <i>Archiv für Anat.</i> (1862),
+pp. 1-11; des Murs, <i>Rev. zool.</i> (1843), p. 32, and <i>Ool. Orn.</i> pp. 260-263;
+Blanchard, <i>Ann. Mus.</i> (1859), xi. pl. 4, fig. 30; König-Warthausen,
+<i>Journ. für Orn.</i> (1868), pp. 384-387; Goering, <i>Vargasia</i>
+(1869), pp. 124-128; Murie, <i>Ibis</i> (1873), pp. 81-86.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Not to be confounded with the bird so called in the French
+Antilles, which is a petrel (<i>Oestrelata</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUACO,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> <span class="sc">Huaco</span> or <span class="sc">Guao</span>, also Vejuco and Bejuco, terms
+applied to various Central and South American and West Indian
+plants, in repute for curative virtues. The Indians and negroes
+of Colombia believe the plants known to them as guaco to
+have been so named after a species of kite, thus designated in
+imitation of its cry, which they say attracts to it the snakes
+that serve it principally for food; they further hold the tradition
+that their antidotal qualities were discovered through the
+observation that the bird eats of their leaves, and even spreads
+the juice of the same on its wings, during contests with its
+prey. The disputes that have arisen as to what is &ldquo;the true
+guaco&rdquo; are to be attributed mainly to the fact that the names
+of the American Indians for all natural objects are generic, and
+their genera not always in coincidence with those of naturalists.
+Thus any twining plant with a heart-shaped leaf, white and green
+above and purple beneath, is called by them guaco (R. Spruce,
+in Howard&rsquo;s <i>Neueva Quinologia</i>, &ldquo;Cinchona succirubra,&rdquo; p. 22,
+note). What is most commonly recognized in Colombia as
+guaco, or <i>Vejuco del guaco</i>, would appear to be <i>Mikania Guaco</i>
+(Humboldt and Bonpland, <i>Pl. équinox</i>, ii. 84, pl. 105, 1809),
+a climbing Composite plant of the tribe <i>Eupatoriaceae</i>, affecting
+moist and shady situations, and having a much-branched and
+deep-growing root, variegated, serrate, opposite leaves and dull-white
+flowers, in axillary clusters. The whole plant emits a
+disagreeable odour. It is stated that the Indians of Central
+America, after having &ldquo;guaconized&rdquo; themselves, <i>i.e.</i> taken
+guaco, catch with impunity the most dangerous snakes, which
+writhe in their hands as though touched by a hot iron (B. Seemann,
+<i>Hooker&rsquo;s Journ. of Bot.</i> v. 76, 1853). The odour alone of guaco
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page644" id="page644"></a>644</span>
+has been said to cause in snakes a state of stupor and torpidity;
+and Humboldt, who observed that the near approach of a rod
+steeped in guaco-juice was obnoxious to the venomous <i>Coluber
+corallinus</i>, was of opinion that inoculation with it imparts to the
+perspiration an odour which makes reptiles unwilling to bite.
+The drug is not used in modern therapeutics.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUADALAJARA,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> an inland city of Mexico and capital of the
+state of Jalisco, 275 m. (direct) W.N.W. of the Federal capital,
+in lat. 20° 41&prime; 10&Prime; N., long. 103° 21&prime; 15&Prime; W. Pop. (1895)
+83,934; (1900) 101,208. Guadalajara is served by a short
+branch of the Mexican Central railway from Irapuato.
+The city is in the Antemarac valley near the Rio Grande de
+Santiago, 5092 ft. above sea-level. Its climate is dry, mild and
+healthy, though subject to sudden changes. The city is well
+built, with straight and well-paved streets, numerous plazas,
+public gardens and shady promenades. Its public services
+include tramways and electric lighting, the Juanacatlán falls
+of the Rio Grande near the city furnishing the electric power.
+Guadalajara is an episcopal see, and its cathedral, built between
+1571 and 1618, is one of the largest and most elaborately
+decorated churches in Mexico. The government palace, which
+like the cathedral faces upon the <i>plaza mayor</i>, is generally
+considered one of the finest specimens of Spanish architecture
+in Mexico. Other important edifices and institutions are the
+university, with its schools of law and medicine, the mint, built
+in 1811, the modern national college and high schools, a public
+library of over 28,000 volumes, an episcopal seminary, an
+academy of fine arts, the Teatro Degollado, and the large modern
+granite building of the penitentiary. There are many interesting
+churches and eleven conventual establishments in the city.
+Charitable institutions of a high character are also prominent,
+among which are the Hospicio, which includes an asylum for
+the aged, infirm, blind, deaf and dumb, foundlings and orphans,
+a primary school for both sexes, and a girls&rsquo; training school,
+and the Hospital de San Miguel de Belen, which is a hospital,
+an insane asylum, and a school for little children. One of the
+most popular public resorts of the city is the <i>Paseo</i>, a beautiful
+drive and promenade extending along both banks of the Rio San
+Juan de Dios for 1¼ m. and terminating in the <i>alameda</i>, or public
+garden. The city has a good water-supply, derived from springs
+and brought in through an aqueduct 8 m. long. Guadalajara
+is surrounded by a fertile agricultural district and is an important
+commercial town, but the city is chiefly distinguished as the
+centre of the iron, steel and glass industries of Mexico. It is also
+widely known for the artistic pottery manufactured by the
+Indians of the city and of its suburb, San Pedro. Among other
+prominent industries are the manufacture of cotton and woollen
+goods, leather, furniture, hats and sweetmeats. Guadalajara
+was founded in 1531 by Nuño de Guzman, and became the seat
+of a bishop in 1549. The Calderon bridge near the city was the
+scene of a serious defeat of the revolutionists under Hidalgo in
+January 1811. The severe earthquake of the 31st of May 1818
+partially destroyed the two cathedral steeples; and that of the
+11th of March 1875 damaged many of the larger buildings. The
+population includes large Indian and mestizo elements.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUADALAJARA,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> a province of central Spain, formed in 1833
+of districts taken from New Castile; bounded on the N. by
+Segovia, Soria and Saragossa, E. by Saragossa and Teruel,
+S. by Cuenca and W. by Madrid. Pop. (1900) 200,186; area,
+4676 sq. m. Along the northern frontier of Guadalajara rise the
+lofty Guadarrama mountains, culminating in the peaks of La
+Cebollera (6955 ft.) and Ocejon (6775 ft.); the rest of the
+province, apart from several lower ranges in the east, belongs
+to the elevated plateau of New Castile, and has a level or slightly
+undulating surface, which forms the upper basin of the river
+Tagus, and is watered by its tributaries the Tajuña, Henares,
+Jarama and Gallo. The climate of this region, as of Castile
+generally, is marked by the extreme severity of its winter cold
+and summer heat; the soil varies very much in quality, but
+is fertile enough in many districts, notably the cornlands of the
+Alcarria, towards the south. Few of the cork and oak forests
+which formerly covered the mountains have escaped destruction;
+and the higher tracts of land are mainly pasture for the sheep
+and goats which form the principal wealth of the peasantry.
+Grain, olive oil, wine, saffron, silk and flax are produced, but
+agriculture makes little progress, owing to defective communications
+and unscientific farming. In 1903, the only
+minerals worked were common salt and silver, and the total
+output of the mines was valued at £25,000. Deposits of iron,
+lead and gold also exist and were worked by the Romans; but
+their exploitation proved unprofitable when renewed in the
+19th century. Trade is stagnant and the local industries are
+those common to almost all Spanish towns and villages, such as
+the manufacture of coarse cloth and pottery. The Madrid-Saragossa
+railway traverses the province for 70 m.; the roads
+are ill-kept and insufficient. Guadalajara (11,144) is the capital,
+and the only town with more than 5000 inhabitants; Molina
+de Aragon, a fortified town built at the foot of the Parameras
+de Molina (2500-3500 ft.), and on the right bank of the Gallo,
+a tributary of the Tagus, is of some importance as an agricultural
+centre. Siguënza, on the railway, is an episcopal city, with a
+fine Romanesque cathedral dating from the 11th century. It
+is probably the ancient <i>Segontia</i>, founded in 218 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by refugees
+from Saguntum. The population of the province, which numbers
+only 42 per sq. m., decreased slightly between 1870 and 1900,
+and extreme poverty compels many families to emigrate (see
+also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Castile</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUADALAJARA,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> the capital of the Spanish province of
+Guadalajara, on the left bank of the river Henares, and on
+the Madrid-Saragossa railway, 35 m. E.N.E. of Madrid. Pop.
+(1900) 11,144. Guadalajara is a picturesque town, occupying
+a somewhat sterile plain, 2100 ft. above the sea. A Roman
+aqueduct and the Roman foundations of the bridge built in
+1758 across the Henares bear witness to its antiquity. Under
+Roman and Visigothic rule it was known as <i>Arriaca</i> or <i>Caraca</i>;
+its present name, which sometimes appears in medieval chronicles
+as <i>Godelfare</i>, represents the <i>Wad-al-hajarah</i>, or &ldquo;Valley of
+Stones,&rdquo; of the Moors, who occupied the town from 714 until
+1081, when it was captured by Alvar Yañez de Minaya, a comrade
+of the more famous Cid. The church of Santa Maria contains
+the image of the &ldquo;Virgin of Battles,&rdquo; which accompanied
+Alphonso VI. of Castile (1072-1109) on his campaigns against
+the Moors; and there are several other ancient and interesting
+churches in Guadalajara, besides two palaces, dating from the
+15th century, and built with that blend of Christian and Moorish
+architecture which Spaniards call the <i>Mudéjar</i> style. The more
+important of these is the palace of the ducal house del Infantado,
+formerly owned by the Mendoza family, whose <i>panteon</i>, or
+mausoleum, added between 1696 and 1720 to the 13th-century
+church of San Francisco, is remarkable for the rich sculpture
+of its tombs. The town and provincial halls date from 1585,
+and the college of engineers was originally built by Philip V.,
+early in the 18th century, as a cloth factory. Manufactures of
+soap, leather, woollen fabrics and bricks have superseded the
+original cloth-weaving industry for which Guadalajara was long
+celebrated; there is also a considerable trade in agricultural
+produce.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUADALQUIVIR<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (ancient <i>Baetis</i>, Moorish <i>Wadi al Kebir</i>, &ldquo;the
+Great River&rdquo;), a river of southern Spain. What is regarded as
+the main stream rises 4475 ft. above sea-level between the
+Sierra de Cazorla and Sierra del Pozo, in the province of Jaen.
+It does not become a large river until it is joined by the Guadiana
+Menor (Guadianamenor) on the left, and the Guadalimar on the
+right. Lower down it receives many tributaries, the chief being
+the Genil or Jenil, from the left. The general direction of the
+river is west by south, but a few miles above Seville it changes
+to south by west. Below Coria it traverses the series of broad
+fens known as Las Marismas, the greatest area of swamp in the
+Iberian Peninsula. Here it forms two subsidiary channels, the
+western 31 <span class="correction" title="amended from M.">m.</span>, the eastern 12 m. long, which rejoin the main
+stream on the borders of the province of Cadiz. Below Sanlúcar
+the river enters the Atlantic after a total course of 360 m.
+It drains an area of 21,865 sq. m. Though the shortest of the great
+rivers of the peninsula, it is the only one which flows at all seasons
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page645" id="page645"></a>645</span>
+with a full stream, being fed in winter by the rains, in summer by
+the melted snows of the Sierra Nevada. In the time of the Moors
+it was navigable up to Cordova, but owing to the accumulation
+of silt in its lower reaches it is now only navigable up to Seville
+by vessels of 1200 to 1500 tons.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUADELOUPE,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> a French colony in the West Indies, lying
+between the British islands of Montserrat on the N., and Dominica
+on the S., between 15° 59&prime; and 16° 20&prime; N. and 61° 31&prime; and 61° 50&prime;
+W. It consists of two entirely distinct islands, separated by a
+narrow arm of the sea, Rivière Salée (Salt river), varying from
+100 ft. to 400 ft. in width and navigable for small vessels. The
+western island, a rugged mass of ridges, peaks and lofty uplands,
+is called Basse-Terre, while the eastern and smaller island, the
+real low-land, is known as Grande-Terre. A sinuous ridge runs
+through Basse-Terre from N. to S. In the north-west rises the
+peak of Grosse Montagne (2370 ft.), from which sharp spurs radiate
+in all directions; near the middle of the west coast are the twin
+heights of Les Mamelles (2536 ft. and 2368 ft.). Farther south
+the highest elevation is attained in La Soufrière (4900 ft.). In
+1797 this volcano was active, and in 1843 its convulsions laid
+several towns in ruins; but a few thermal springs and solfataras
+emitting vapour are now its only signs of activity. The range
+terminates in the extreme south in the jagged peak of Caraibe
+(2300 ft.). Basse-Terre is supremely beautiful, its cloud-capped
+mountains being clothed with a mantle of luxuriant vegetation.
+On Grande-Terre the highest elevation is only 450 ft., and this
+island is the seat of extensive sugar plantations. It consists of
+a plain composed mainly of limestone and a conglomerate of sand
+and broken shells known as <i>maconne de bon dieu</i>, much used for
+building. The bay between the two sections of Guadeloupe
+on the north is called Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin, that on the
+south being Petit Cul-de-Sac Marin. Basse-Terre (364 sq. m.)
+is 28 m. long by 12 m. to 15 m. wide; Grande-Terre (255 sq. m.)
+is 22 m. long from N. to S., of irregular shape, with a long
+peninsula, Chateaux Point, stretching from the south-eastern
+extremity. Basse-Terre is watered by a considerable number
+of streams, most of which in the rainy season are liable to sudden
+floods (locally called <i>galions</i>), but Grande-Terre is practically
+destitute of springs, and the water-supply is derived almost
+entirely from ponds and cisterns.</p>
+
+<p>The west half of the island consists of a foundation of old
+eruptive rocks upon which rest the recent accumulations of the
+great volcanic cones, together with mechanical deposits derived
+from the denudation of the older rocks. Grande-Terre on the
+other hand, consists chiefly of nearly horizontal limestones
+lying conformably upon a series of fine tuffs and ashes, the whole
+belonging to the early part of the Tertiary system (probably
+Eocene and Oligocene). Occasional deposits of marl and limestone
+of late Pliocene age rest unconformably upon these older beds;
+and near the coast there are raised coral reefs of modern date.</p>
+
+<p>The mean annual temperature is 78° F., and the minimum
+61° F., and the maximum 101° F. From July to November
+heavy rains fall, the annual average on the coast being 86 in.,
+while in the interior it is much greater. Guadeloupe is subject
+to terrible storms. In 1825 a hurricane destroyed the town of
+Basse-Terre, and Grand Bourg in Marie Galante suffered a
+like fate in 1865. The soil is rich and fruitful, sugar having long
+been its staple product. The other crops include cereals, cocoa,
+cotton, manioc, yams and rubber; tobacco, vanilla, coffee and
+bananas are grown, but in smaller quantities. Over 30% of the
+total area is under cultivation, and of this more than 50% is
+under sugar. The centres of this industry are St Anne, Pointe-à-Pitre
+and Le Moule, where there are well-equipped <i>usines</i>, and
+there is also a large <i>usine</i> at Basse-Terre. The forests, confined
+to the island of Basse-Terre, are extensive and rich in valuable
+woods, but, being difficult of access, are not worked. Salt and
+sulphur are the only minerals extracted, and in addition to the
+sugar <i>usines</i>, there are factories for the making of rum, liqueurs,
+chocolate, besides fruit-canning works and tanneries. France
+takes most of the exports; and next to France, the United
+States, Great Britain and India are the countries most interested
+in the import trade.</p>
+
+<p>The inhabitants of Guadeloupe consist of a few white officials
+and planters, a few East Indian immigrants from the French
+possessions in India, and the rest negroes and mulattoes. These
+mulattoes are famous for their grace and beauty of both form
+and feature. The women greatly outnumber the men, and there
+is a very large percentage of illegitimate births. Pop. (1900)
+182,112.</p>
+
+<p>The governor is assisted by a privy council, a director of the
+interior, a procurator-general and a paymaster, and there is
+also an elected legislative council of 30 members. The colony
+forms a department of France and is represented in the French
+parliament by a senator and two deputies. Political elections
+are very eagerly contested, the mulatto element always striving
+to gain the preponderance of power.</p>
+
+<p>The seat of government, of the Apostolic administration and
+of the court of appeal is at Basse-Terre (7762), which is situated
+on the south-west coast of the island of that name. It is
+a picturesque, healthy town standing on an open roadstead.
+Pointe-à-Pitre (17,242), the largest town, lies in Grande-Terre
+near the mouth of the Rivière Salée. Its excellent harbour has
+made it the chief port and commercial capital of the colony.
+Le Moule (10,378) on the east coast of Grande-Terre does a
+considerable export trade in sugar, despite its poor harbour.
+Of the other towns, St Anne (9497), Morne à l&rsquo;Eau (8442), Petit
+Canal (6748), St François (5265), Petit Bourg (5110) and Trois
+Rivières (5016), are the most important.</p>
+
+<p>Round Guadeloupe are grouped its dependencies, namely,
+La Desirade, 6 m. E., a narrow rugged island 10 sq. m. in area;
+Marie Galante 16 m. S.E. Les Saintes, a group of seven small
+islands, 7 m. S., one of the strategic points of the Antilles,
+with a magnificent and strongly fortified naval harbour; St
+Martin, 142 m. N.N.W.; and St Bartholomew, 130 m. N.N.W.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Guadeloupe was discovered by Columbus in 1493,
+and received its name in honour of the monastery of S. Maria
+de Guadalupe at Estremadura in Spain. In 1635 l&rsquo;Olive and
+Duplessis took possession of it in the name of the French Company
+of the Islands of America, and l&rsquo;Olive exterminated the Caribs
+with great cruelty. Four chartered companies were ruined in
+their attempts to colonize the island, and in 1674 it passed
+into the possession of the French crown and long remained a
+dependency of Martinique. After unsuccessful attempts in 1666,
+1691 and 1703, the British captured the island in 1759, and
+held it for four years. Guadeloupe was finally separated from
+Martinique in 1775, but it remained under the governor of the
+French Windward Islands. In 1782 Rodney defeated the French
+fleet near the island, and the British again obtained possession
+in April 1794, but in the following summer they were driven out
+by Victor Hugues with the assistance of the slaves whom he had
+liberated for the purpose. In 1802 Bonaparte, then first consul,
+sent an expedition to the island in order to re-establish slavery,
+but, after a heroic defence, many of the negroes preferred suicide
+to submission. During the Hundred Days in 1810, the British
+once more occupied the island, but, in spite of its cession to
+Sweden by the treaty of 1813 and a French invasion in 1814,
+they did not withdraw till 1816. Between 1816 and 1825 the
+code of laws peculiar to the island was introduced. Municipal
+institutions were established in 1837; and slavery was finally
+abolished in 1848.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUADET, MARGUERITE ÉLIE<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1758-1794), French Revolutionist,
+was born at St Émilion near Bordeaux on the 20th
+of July 1758. When the Revolution broke out he had already
+gained a reputation as a brilliant advocate at Bordeaux. In
+1790 he was made administrator of the Gironde and in 1791
+president of the criminal tribunal. In this year he was elected
+to the Legislative Assembly as one of the brilliant group of
+deputies known subsequently as Girondins or Girondists. As
+a supporter of the constitution of 1791 he joined the Jacobin
+club, and here and in the Assembly became an eloquent advocate
+of all the measures directed against real or supposed traitors to
+the constitution. He bitterly attacked the ministers of Louis
+XVI., and was largely instrumental in forcing the king to accept
+the Girondist ministry of the 15th of March 1792. He was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page646" id="page646"></a>646</span>
+an ardent advocate of the policy of forcing Louis XVI. into
+harmony with the Revolution; moved (May 3) for the dismissal
+of the king&rsquo;s non-juring confessor, for the banishment of all
+non-juring priests (May 16), for the disbandment of the royal
+guard (May 30), and the formation in Paris of a camp of <i>fédérés</i>
+(June 4). He remained a royalist, however, and with Gensonné
+and Vergniaud even addressed a letter to the king soliciting a
+private interview. Whatever negotiations may have resulted,
+however, were cut short by the insurrection of the 10th of
+August. Guadet, who presided over the Assembly during part
+of this fateful day, put himself into vigorous opposition to the
+insurrectionary Commune of Paris, and it was on his motion
+that on the 30th of August the Assembly voted its dissolution&mdash;a
+decision reversed on the following day. In September Guadet
+was returned by a large majority as deputy to the Convention.
+At the trial of Louis XVI. he voted for an appeal to the people
+and for the death sentence, but with a respite pending appeal.
+In March 1793 he had several conferences with Danton, who was
+anxious to bring about a <i>rapprochement</i> between the Girondists
+and the Mountain during the war in La Vendée, but he unconditionally
+refused to join hands with the man whom he held
+responsible for the massacres of September. Involved in the fall
+of the Girondists, and his arrest being decreed on the 2nd of
+June 1793, he fled to Caen, and afterwards hid in his father&rsquo;s
+house at St Émilion. He was discovered and taken to Bordeaux,
+where, after his identity had been established, he was guillotined
+on the 17th of June 1794.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Guadet, <i>Les Girondins</i> (Paris, 1889); and F. A. Aulard,
+<i>Les Orateurs de la législative et de la convention</i> (Paris, 2nd ed., 1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUADIANA<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (anc. <i>Anas</i>, Moorish <i>Wadi Ana</i>), a river of Spain
+and Portugal. The Guadiana was long believed to rise in the
+lowland known as the Campo de Montiel, where a chain of small
+lakes, the Lagunas de Ruidera (partly in Ciudad Real, partly
+in Albacete), are linked together by the Guadiana Alto or Upper
+Guadiana. This stream flows north-westward from the last
+lake and vanishes underground within 3 m. of the river Zancara
+or Giguela. About 22 m. S.W. of the point of disappearance,
+the Guadiana Alto was believed to re-emerge in the form of
+several large springs, which form numerous lakes near the
+Zancara and are known as the &ldquo;eyes of the Guadiana&rdquo; (<i>los
+ojos de Guadiana</i>). The stream which connects them with the
+Zancara is called the Guadiana Bajo or Lower Guadiana. It is
+now known that the Guadiana Alto has no such course, but
+flows underground to the Zancara itself, which is the true
+&ldquo;Upper Guadiana.&rdquo; The Zancara rises near the source of the
+Júcar, in the east of the tableland of La Mancha; thence it
+flows westward, assuming the name of Guadiana near Ciudad
+Real, and reaching the Portuguese frontier 6 m. S.W. of Badajoz.
+In piercing the Sierra Morena it forms a series of foaming rapids,
+and only begins to be navigable at Mertola, 42 m. from its mouth.
+From the neighbourhood of Badajoz it forms the boundary
+between Spain and Portugal as far as a point near Monsaraz,
+where it receives the small river Priega Muñoz on the left, and
+passes into Portuguese territory, with a southerly direction.
+At Pomarão it again becomes a frontier stream and forms a
+broad estuary 25 m. long. It enters the Gulf of Cadiz between
+the Portuguese town of Villa Real de Santo Antonio and the
+Spanish Ayamonte, after a total course of 510 m. Its mouth
+is divided by sandbanks into many channels. The Guadiana
+drains an area of 31,940 sq. m. Its principal tributaries are
+the Zujar, Jabalón, Matachel and Ardila from the left; the
+Bullaque, Ruecas, Botoa, Degebe and Cobres from the right.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">Guadiana Menor</span> (or <i>Guadianamenor</i>, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;Lesser
+Guadiana&rdquo;) rises in the Sierra Nevada, receives two large
+tributaries, the Fardes from the right and Barbata from the left,
+and enters the Guadalquivir near Ubeda, after a course of 95 m.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUADIX,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> a city of southern Spain, in the province of Granada;
+on the left bank of the river Guadix, a subtributary of the
+Guadiana Menor, and on the Madrid-Valdepeñas-Almería railway.
+Pop. (1900) 12,652. Guadix occupies part of an elevated plateau
+among the northern foothills of the Sierra Nevada. It is surrounded
+by ancient walls, and was formerly dominated by a
+Moorish castle, now in ruins. It is an episcopal see of great
+antiquity, but its cathedral, built in the 18th century on the site
+of a mosque, possesses little architectural merit. The city was
+once famous for its cutlery; but its modern manufactures
+(chiefly earthenware, hempen goods, and hats) are inconsiderable.
+It has some trade in wool, cotton, flax, corn and liqueurs. The
+warm mineral springs of Graena, much frequented during the
+summer, are 6 m. W. Guadix el Viejo, 5 m. N.W., was the
+Roman <i>Acci</i>, and, according to tradition, the seat of the first
+Iberian bishopric, in the 2nd century. After 711 it rose to some
+importance as a Moorish fortress and trading station, and was
+renamed <i>Wad Ash</i>, &ldquo;Water of Life.&rdquo; It was surrendered without
+a siege to the Spaniards, under Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1489.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUADUAS,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> a town of the department of Cundinamarca,
+Colombia, 53 m. N.W. of Bogotá on the old road between that
+city and the Magdalena river port of Honda. Pop. (1900,
+estimate) 9000, chiefly Indians or of mixed blood. It stands
+in a narrow and picturesque valley formed by spurs of the
+Eastern Cordillera, and on a small stream bearing the same name,
+which is that of the South American bamboo (<i>guaduas</i>), found
+in great abundance along its banks. Sugar-cane and coffee are
+cultivated in the vicinity, and fruits of various kinds are produced
+in great abundance. The elevation of the town is 3353 ft. above
+the sea, and it has a remarkably uniform temperature throughout
+the whole year. Guaduas has a pretty church facing upon its
+<i>plaza</i>, and an old monastery now used for secular purposes.
+The importance of the town sprang from its position on the old
+<i>camino real</i> between Bogotá and Honda, an importance that has
+passed away with the completion of the railway from Girardot
+to the Bogotá plateau. Guaduas was founded in 1614.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUAIACUM,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> a genus of trees of the natural order <i>Zygophyllaceae</i>.
+The guaiacum or lignum-vitae tree (Ger. <i>Guajakbaum</i>,
+<i>Franzosenbaum</i>, <i>Pockenholzbaum</i>; Fr. <i>Gayac</i>, <i>Gaïac</i>),
+<i>G. officinale</i>, is a native of the West Indies and the north coast
+of South America, where it attains a height of 20 to 30 ft. Its
+branches are numerous, flexuous and knotted; the leaves
+opposite and pinnate, with caducous (falling early) stipules,
+and entire, glabrous, obovate or oval leaflets, arranged in 2 or,
+more rarely, 3 pairs; the flowers are in axillary clusters (cymes),
+and have 5 oval pubescent sepals, 5 distinct pale-blue petals
+three times the length of the sepals, 10 stamens, and a 2-celled
+superior ovary. The fruit is about ¾ in. long, with a leathery
+pericarp, and contains in each of its two cells a single seed
+(see fig.). <i>G. sanctum</i> grows in the Bahamas and Cuba, and at
+Key West in Florida. It is distinguished from <i>G. officinale</i> by
+its smaller and narrow leaflets, which are in 4 to 5 pairs, by its
+shorter and glabrous sepals, and 5-celled and 5-winged fruit.
+<i>G. arboreum</i>, the guaiacum tree of Colombia, is found in the valley
+of the Magdalena up to altitudes 800 metres (2625 ft.) above
+sea-level, and reaches considerable dimensions. Its wood is of a
+yellow colour merging into green, and has an almost pulverulent
+fracture; the flowers are yellow and conspicuous; and the fruit
+is dry and 4-winged.</p>
+
+<p>The lignum vitae of commerce, so named on account of its high
+repute as a medicinal agent in past times, when also it was known
+as <i>lignum sanctum</i> and <i>lignum Indicum</i>, <i>lignum guaycanum</i>, or
+simply <i>guayacan</i>, is procured from <i>G. officinale</i>, and in smaller
+amount from <i>G. sanctum</i>. It is exported in large logs or blocks,
+generally divested of bark, and presents in transverse section
+very slightly marked concentric rings of growth, and scarcely
+any traces of pith; with the aid of a magnifying glass the
+medullary rays are seen to be equidistant and very numerous.
+The outer wood, the sapwood or alburnum, is of a pale yellow
+hue, and devoid of resin; the inner, the heartwood or duramen,
+which is by far the larger proportion, is of a dark greenish-brown,
+contains in its pores 26% of resin, and has a specific gravity of
+1.333, and therefore sinks in water on which the alburnum
+floats. Owing to the diagonal and oblique arrangement of the
+successive layers of its fibres, the wood cannot be split; and on
+account of its hardness, density and durability it is much valued
+for the manufacture of ships&rsquo; pulleys, rulers, skittle-balls,
+mallets and other articles.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page647" id="page647"></a>647</span></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:511px; height:388px" src="images/img647.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Bentley &amp; Trimen&rsquo;s <i>Medicinal Plants</i>, by permission of J. &amp; A. Churchill.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">Guaiacum or Lignum Vitae, <i>Guaiacum officinale</i> shoot-bearing leaves
+and flowers. 1, Fruit; 2, Vertical section of fruit, showing the
+solitary pendulous seed in each chamber. All about ½ natural size.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Chips or turnings of the heartwood of <i>G. officinale</i> (<i>guaiaci
+lignum</i>) are employed in the preparation of the <i>liquor sarsae
+compositus concentratus</i> of British pharmacy. They may be
+recognized by being either yellow of greenish-brown in colour,
+and by turning bluish-green when treated with nitric acid, or
+when heated with corrosive sublimate, and green with solution
+of chloride of lime. They are occasionally adulterated with
+boxwood shavings. Lignum vitae is imported chiefly from
+St Domingo, the Bahamas and Jamaica.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The bark was formerly used in medicine; it contains much
+calcium oxalate, and yields on incineration 23% of ash. Guaiacum
+resin, the <i>guaiaci resina</i> of pharmacopoeias, is obtained from the
+wood as an exudation from natural fissures or from incisions; by
+heating billets about 3 ft. in length, bored to permit of the outflow
+of the resin; or by boiling chips and raspings in water to which
+salt has been added to raise the temperature of ebullition. It
+occurs in rounded or oval tears, commonly coated with a greyish-green
+dust, and supposed to be the produce of <i>G. sanctum</i>, or in large
+brownish or greenish-brown masses, translucent at the edges;
+fuses at 85° C.; is brittle, and has a vitreous fracture, and a slightly
+balsamic odour, increased by pulverization and by heat; and is at
+first tasteless when chewed, but produces subsequently a sense of
+heat in the throat. It is readily soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform,
+creosote, oil of cloves and solutions of caustic alkalies; and its
+solution gives a blue colour with gluten, raw potato parings and the
+roots of horse-radish, carrot and various other plants. The alcoholic
+tincture becomes green with sodium hypochlorite, and with nitric
+acid turns in succession green, blue and brown. With glycerin it
+gives a clear solution, and with nitrous ether a bluish-green gelatinous
+mass. It is blued by various oxidizing agents, <i>e.g.</i> ozone, and, as
+Schönbein discovered, by the juice of certain fungi. The chief
+constituents are three distinct resins, <i>guaiaconic acid</i>, C<span class="su">19</span>H<span class="su">20</span>O<span class="su">5</span>
+(70%), <i>guaiac acid</i>, which is closely allied to benzoic acid, and
+<i>guaiaretic acid</i>. Like all resins, these are insoluble in water, soluble
+in alkalies, but precipitated on neutralization of the alkaline solution.</p>
+
+<p>Guaiacum wood was first introduced into Europe by the Spaniards
+in 1508, and Nicolaus Poll, writing in 1517 (see Luisinus, <i>De morbo
+gallico</i>, p. 210, Ven., 1566), states that some three thousand persons
+in Spain had already been restored to health by it. The virtues of
+the resin, however, were not known until a later period, and in
+Thomas Paynel&rsquo;s translation (<i>Of the Wood called Guaiacum</i>, &amp;c.,
+p. 9, ed. of 1540) of Ulrich von Hutten&rsquo;s treatise <i>De morbi gallici
+curatione per administrationem ligni guaiaci</i> (1519) we read of the
+wood: &ldquo;There followeth fro it, whan it bourneth a gomme, which
+we yet knowe not, for what pourpose it serueth.&rdquo; Flückiger and
+Hanbury (<i>Pharmacographia</i>, p. 95) state that the first edition of
+the <i>London Pharmacopoeia</i> in which they find the resin mentioned
+is that of 1677. The decoction of the wood was administered in gout,
+the stone, palsy, leprosy, dropsy, epilepsy, and other diseases,
+but principally in the &ldquo;morbus gallicus,&rdquo; or syphilis, for which it
+was reckoned a certain specific, insomuch that at first &ldquo;the physitions
+wolde not allowe it, perceyuynge that theyr profite wolde
+decay therby&rdquo; (Paynel, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 8). Minute instructions are
+given in old works as to the mode of administering guaiacum.
+The patient was confined in a closed and heated chamber, was
+placed on the lowest possible diet, and, after liberal purgation, was
+made twice a day to drink a milk-warm decoction of the wood. The
+use of salt was specially to be avoided. A decoction of 1 &#8468; of
+guaiacum was held to be sufficient for the four first days of the
+treatment. The earlier opinions as to the efficacy of guaiacum
+came to be much modified in the course of time, and Dr Pearson
+(<i>Observations on the Effects of Various Articles of the Mat. Med. in
+the Cure of Lues Venerea</i>, c. i., 2nd ed., 1807) says:&mdash;&ldquo;I never
+saw one single instance in which the powers of this medicine eradicated
+the venereal virus.&rdquo; He found its beneficial effects to be most
+marked in cases of secondary symptoms. Guaiacum resin is given
+medicinally in doses of 5-15 grains. Its important preparations in
+the British Pharmacopoeia are the <i>mistura guiaci</i> (dose ½-1 oz.),
+the ammoniated tincture of guaiacum (dose ½-1 drachm), in which
+the resin is dissolved by means of ammonia, and the trochiscus or
+lozenge, containing 3 grains of the resin. This lozenge is undoubtedly
+of value when given early in cases of sore throat, especially
+of rheumatic origin. Powdered guaiacum is also used.</p>
+
+<p>Guaiacum resin differs pharmacologically from other resins in
+being less irritant, so that it is absorbed from the bowel and exerts
+remote stimulant actions, notably upon the skin and kidneys. It
+affects the bronchi but slightly, since it contains no volatile oil.</p>
+
+<p>The drug is useful both in acute and chronic sore throat, the
+mixture, according to Sir Lauder Brunton, being more effective
+than the tincture. The aperient action, which it exerts less markedly
+than other members of its class, renders it useful in the treatment
+of chronic constipation. Sir Alfred Garrod has urged the claims of
+this drug in the treatment of chronic gout. Both in this disease and
+in other forms of chronic arthritis guaiacum may be given in combination
+with iodides, which it often enables the patient to tolerate.
+Guaiacum is not now used in the treatment of syphilis.</p>
+
+<p>The tincture of guaiacum is universally used as a test for the
+presence of blood, or rather of haemoglobin, the red colouring matter
+of the blood, in urine or other secretions. This test was first suggested
+by Dr John Day of Geelong, Australia. A <i>single drop</i> of the
+tincture should be added to, say, an inch of urine in a test-tube.
+The resin is at once precipitated, yielding a milky fluid. If &ldquo;ozonic
+ether&rdquo;&mdash;an ethereal solution of hydrogen peroxide&mdash;be now poured
+gently into the test-tube, a deep blue coloration is produced along
+the line of contact if haemoglobin be present. The reaction is due
+to the oxidation of the resin by the peroxide of hydrogen&mdash;such
+oxidation occurring only if haemoglobin be present to act as an
+oxygen-carrier.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUALDO TADINO<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (anc. <i>Tadinum</i>, 1 m. to the W.), a town
+and episcopal see of Umbria, Italy, 1755 ft. above sea-level, in
+the province of Perugia, 22 m. N. of Foligno by rail. Pop. (1901),
+town, 4440; commune, 10,756. The suffix Tadino distinguishes
+it from Gualdo in the province of Macerata, and Gualdo Cattaneo,
+S.W. of Foligno. The cathedral has a good rose-window and
+possesses, like several of the other churches, 15th-century
+paintings by Umbrian artists, especially works by Niccolò Alunno.
+The town is still surrounded by walls. The ancient Tadinum
+lay 1 m. to the W. of the modern town. It is mentioned in the
+Eugubine tablets (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Iguvium</a></span>) as a hostile city against which
+imprecations are directed. In its neighbourhood Narses defeated
+and slew Totila in 552. No ruins are now visible, though they
+seem to have been extant in the 17th century. The new town
+seems to have been founded in 1237. It was at first independent,
+but passed under Perugia in 1292, and later became dependent
+on the duchy of Spoleto.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUALEGUAY,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> a flourishing town and river port of the province
+of Entre Rios, Argentine Republic, on the Gualeguay river,
+32 m. above its confluence with the Ibicuy branch of the Paraná,
+and about 120 m. N.N.W. of Buenos Aires. Pop. (1895) 7810.
+The Gualeguay is the largest of the Entre Rios rivers, traversing
+almost the whole length of the province from N. to S., but it is
+of but slight service in the transportation of produce except the
+few miles below Gualeguay, whose port, known as Puerto Ruiz,
+is 7 m. lower down stream. A steam tramway connects the
+town and port, and a branch line connects with Entre Rios
+railways at the station of Tala. The principal industry in this
+region is that of stock-raising, and there is a large exportation of
+cattle, jerked beef, hides, tallow, mutton, wool and sheep-skins.
+Wood and charcoal are also exported to Buenos Aires. The
+town was founded in 1783.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUALEGUAYCHÚ,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> a prosperous commercial and industrial
+town and port of the province of Entre Rios, Argentine Republic,
+on the left bank of the Gualeguaychú river, 11 m. above its
+confluence with the Uruguay, and 120 m. N. of Buenos Aires.
+Pop. (1892, est.) 14,000. It is the chief town of a department
+of the same name, the largest in the province. A bar at the
+mouth of the river prevents the entrance of larger vessels and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page648" id="page648"></a>648</span>
+compels the transfer of cargoes to and from lighters. The town
+is surrounded by a rich grazing country, and exports cattle,
+jerked beef, mutton, hides, pelts, tallow, wool and various
+by-products. A branch line running N. connects with the Entre
+Rios railways at Basavilbaso. The town was founded in
+1783.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUALO, CARDINAL<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (fl. 1216), was sent to England by Pope
+Innocent III. in 1216. He supported John with all the weight
+of papal authority. After John&rsquo;s death he crowned the infant
+Henry III. and played an active part in organizing resistance
+to the rebels led by Louis of France, afterwards king Louis VIII.
+As representing the pope, the suzerain of Henry, he claimed the
+regency and actually divided the chief power with William
+Marshal, earl of Pembroke. He proclaimed a crusade against
+Louis and the French, and, after the peace of Lambeth, he forced
+Louis to make a public and humiliating profession of penitence
+(1217). He punished the rebellious clergy severely, and ruled
+the church with an absolute hand till his departure from England
+in 1218. Gualo&rsquo;s character has been severely criticized by English
+writers; but his chief offence seems to have been that of representing
+unpopular papal claims.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUAM<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (Span. <i>Guajan</i>; <i>Guahan</i>, in the native Chamorro),
+the largest and most populous of the Ladrone or Mariana Islands,
+in the North Pacific, in 13° 26&prime; N. lat. and 144° 39&prime; E. long.,
+about 1823 m. E. by S. of Hong Kong, and about 1450 m. E.
+of Manila. Pop. (1908) about 11,360, of whom 363 were foreigners,
+140 being members of the U.S. naval force. Guam extends about
+30 m. from N.N.E. to S.S.W., has an average width of about
+6½ m., and has an area of 207 sq. m. The N. portion is a plateau
+from 300 to 600 ft. above the sea, lowest in the interior and
+highest along the E. and W. coast, where it terminates abruptly
+in bluffs and headlands; Mt Santa Rosa, toward the N.
+extremity, has an elevation of 840 ft. A range of hills from
+700 to nearly 1300 ft. in height traverses the S. portion from
+N. to S. a little W. of the middle&mdash;Mt Jumullong Mangloc, the
+highest peak, has an elevation of 1274 ft. Between the foot of the
+steep W. slope of these hills and the sea is a belt of rolling
+lowlands and to the E. the surface is broken by the valleys of
+five rivers with a number of tributaries, has a general slope
+toward the sea, and terminates in a coast-line of bluffs. Apra
+(formerly San Luis d&rsquo;Apra) on the middle W. coast is the only good
+harbour; it is about 3½ m. across, has a depth of 4-27 fathoms,
+and is divided into an inner and an outer harbour by a peninsula
+and an island. It serves as a naval station and as a port of transit
+between America and the Philippines, at which army transports
+call monthly. Deer, wild hog, duck, curlew, snipe and pigeon
+are abundant game, and several varieties of fish are caught.
+Some of the highest points of the island are nearly bare of vegetation,
+and the more elevated plateau surface is covered with
+sword grass, but in the valleys and on the lower portions of the
+plateaus there is valuable timber. The lowlands have a rich
+soil; in lower parts of the highlands raised coralliferous limestone
+with a light covering of soil appears, and in the higher parts the
+soil is entirely of clay and silt. The climate is agreeable and
+healthy. From December to June the N.E. trade winds prevail
+and the rainfall is relatively light; during the other six months
+the monsoon blows and produces the rainy season. Destructive
+typhoons and earthquakes sometimes visit Guam. The island
+is thought to possess little if any mineral wealth, with the
+possible exception of coal. Only a small part of Guam is under
+cultivation, and most of this lies along the S.W. coast, its chief
+products being cocoanuts, rice, sugar, coffee and cacao. A
+United States Agricultural Experiment Station in Guam (at
+Agaña) was provided for in 1908.</p>
+
+<p>The inhabitants are of the Chamorro (Indonesian) stock,
+strongly intermixed with Philippine Tagals and Spaniards;
+their speech is a dialect of Malay, corrupted by Tagal and
+Spanish. There are very few full-blood Chamorros. The
+aboriginal native was of a very dark mahogany or chocolate
+colour. A majority of the total number of natives live in Agaña.
+The natives are nearly all farmers, and most of them are poor, but
+their condition has been improved under American rule. Public
+schools have been established; in 1908 the enrolment was 1700.
+On the island there is a small colony of lepers, segregated only
+after American occupation. Gangrosa is a disease said to be
+peculiar to Guam and the neighbouring islands; it is due to
+a specific bacillus and usually destroys the nasal septum. The
+victims of this disease also are segregated. There is a good general
+hospital.</p>
+
+<p>Agaña (or San Ignacio de Agaña) is the capital and principal
+town; under the Spanish régime it was the capital of the
+Ladrones. It is about 5 m. N.E. of Piti, the landing-place of
+Apra harbour and port of entry, with which it is connected by
+an excellent road. Agaña has paved streets and sewer and water
+systems. Other villages, all small, are Asan, Piti, Sumay,
+Umata, Merizo and Inarajan. Guam is governed by a &ldquo;naval
+governor,&rdquo; an officer of the U.S. navy who is commandant of
+the naval station. The island is divided into four administrative
+districts, each with an executive head called a gobernadorcillo
+(commissioner), and there are a court of appeals, a court of first
+instance and courts of justices of the peace. Peonage was
+abolished in the island by the United States in February 1900.
+Telegraphic communication with the Caroline Islands was
+established in 1905; in 1908 there were four cables ending at
+the relay station at Sumay on the Shore of Apra harbour.</p>
+
+<p>Guam was discovered by Magellan in 1521, was occupied
+by Spain in 1688, was captured by the United States cruiser
+&ldquo;Charleston&rdquo; in June 1899, and was ceded to the United States
+by the Treaty of Paris on the 10th of December 1898.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>A List of Books</i> (<i>with References to Periodicals</i>) <i>on Samoa and
+Guam</i> (1901; issued by the Library of Congress); L. M. Cox, &ldquo;The
+Island of Guam,&rdquo; in <i>Bulletin of the American Geographical Society</i>,
+vol. 36 (New York, 1904); Gen. Joseph Wheeler, <i>Report on the
+Island of Guam</i>, June 1900 (War Department, Document No. 123);
+F. W. Christian, <i>The Caroline Islands</i> (London, 1899); an account
+of the flora of Guam by W. E. Safford in the publications of the
+National Herbarium (Smithsonian Institution); and the reports
+of the naval governor.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUAN,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> a word apparently first introduced into the ornithologist&rsquo;s
+vocabulary about 1743 by Edwards,<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> who said that a
+bird he figured (<i>Nat. Hist. Uncommon Birds</i>, pl. xiii.) was
+&ldquo;so called in the West Indies,&rdquo; and the name has hence been
+generally applied to all the members of the subfamily <i>Penelopinae</i>,
+which are distinguished from the kindred subfamily <i>Cracinae</i>
+or curassows by the broad postacetabular area of the pelvis
+as pointed out by Huxley (<i>Proc. Zool. Society</i>, 1868, p. 297)
+as well as by their maxilla being wider than it is high, with its
+culmen depressed, the crown feathered, and the nostrils bare&mdash;the
+last two characters separating the <i>Penelopinae</i> from the
+<i>Oreophasinae</i>, which form the third subfamily of the <i>Cracidae</i>,<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> a
+family belonging to that taxonomer&rsquo;s division <i>Peristeropodes</i>
+of the order <i>Gallinae</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Penelopinae</i> have been separated into seven genera, of
+which <i>Penelope</i> and <i>Ortalis</i>, containing respectively about
+sixteen and nineteen species, are the largest, the others numbering
+from one to three only. Into their minute differences it would be
+useless to enter: nearly all have the throat bare of feathers, and
+from that of many of them hangs a wattle; but one form,
+<i>Chamaepetes</i>, has neither of these features, and <i>Stegnolaema</i>,
+though wattled, has the throat clothed. With few exceptions
+the guans are confined to the South-American continent; one
+species of <i>Penelope</i> is however found in Mexico (<i>e.g.</i> at Mazatlan),
+<i>Pipile cumanensis</i> inhabits Trinidad as well as the mainland,
+while three species of <i>Ortalis</i> occur in Mexico or Texas, and one,
+which is also common to Venezuela, in Tobago. Like curassows,
+guans are in great measure of arboreal habit. They also readily
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page649" id="page649"></a>649</span>
+become tame, but all attempts to domesticate them in the full
+sense of the word have wholly failed, and the cases in which they
+have even been induced to breed and the young have been
+reared in confinement are very few. Yet it would seem that
+guans and curassows will interbreed with poultry (<i>Ibis</i>, 1866,
+p. 24; <i>Bull. Soc. Imp. d&rsquo;Acclimatation</i>, 1868, p. 559; 1869,
+p. 357), and what is more extraordinary is that in Texas the
+hybrids between the chiacalacca (<i>Ortalis vetula</i>) and the domestic
+fowl are asserted to be far superior to ordinary game-cocks for
+fighting purposes.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Edwards also gives &ldquo;quan&rdquo; as an alternative spelling, and this
+may be nearer the original form, since we find Dampier in 1676 writing
+(Voy. ii. pt. 2, p. 66) of what was doubtless an allied if not the same
+bird as the &ldquo;quam.&rdquo; The species represented by Edwards does
+not seem to have been identified.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See the excellent <i>Synopsis</i> by Sclater and Salvin in the <i>Proceedings
+of the Zoological Society</i> for 1870 (pp. 504-544), while further
+information on the Cracinae was given by Sclater in the <i>Transactions</i>
+of the same society (ix. pp. 273-288, pls. xl.-liii.). Some additions
+have since been made to the knowledge of the family, but none of
+very great importance.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUANABACOA<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (an Indian name meaning &ldquo;site of the
+waters&rdquo;), a town of Cuba, in Havana province, about 6 m. E.
+of Havana. Pop. (1907) 14,368. Guanabacoa is served by railway
+to Havana, with which it is connected by the Regla ferry across
+the bay. It is picturesquely situated amid woods, on high hills
+which furnish a fine view. There are medicinal springs in the
+town, and deposits of liquid bitumen in the neighbouring hills.
+The town is essentially a residence suburb of the capital, and has
+some rather pretty streets and squares and some old and interesting
+churches (including Nuestra Señora de la Asuncion, 1714-1721).
+Just outside the city is the church of Potosi with a
+famous &ldquo;wonder-working&rdquo; shrine and image. An Indian
+pueblo of the same name existed here before 1555, and a church
+was established in 1576. Already at the end of the 17th century
+Guanabacoa was the fashionable summer residence of Havana.
+It enjoyed its greatest popularity in this respect from the end
+of the 18th to the middle of the 19th century. It was created
+a <i>villa</i> with an <i>ayuntamiento</i> (city council) in 1743. In 1762 its
+fort, the Little Morro, on the N. shore near Cojimar (a bathing
+beach, where the Key West cable now lands), was taken by the
+English.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:328px; height:335px" src="images/img649.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Head of Guanaco.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">GUANACO,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> sometimes spelt Huanaca, the larger of the two
+wild representatives in South America of the camel tribe; the
+other being the vicugña. The guanaco (<i>Lama huanacus</i>), which
+stands nearly 4 ft. at the shoulder, is an elegant creature, with
+gracefully curved neck and long slender legs, the hind-pair of the
+latter bearing two naked patches or callosities. The head and
+body are covered with long soft hair of a fawn colour above and
+almost pure white
+beneath. Guanaco
+are found throughout
+the southern half of
+South America, from
+Peru in the north to
+Cape Horn in the
+south, but occur in
+greatest abundance
+in Patagonia. They
+live in herds usually
+of from six to thirty,
+although these occasionally
+contain
+several hundreds,
+while solitary individuals
+are sometimes
+met. They are exceedingly
+timid, and
+therefore wary and
+difficult of approach; like many other ruminants, however,
+their curiosity sometimes overcomes their timidity, so as
+to bring them within range of the hunter&rsquo;s rifle. Their cry
+is peculiar, being something between the belling of a deer
+and the neigh of a horse. The chief enemies of the
+guanaco are the Patagonian Indians and the puma, as it forms
+the principal food of both. Its flesh is palatable although
+wanting in fat, while its skin forms the chief clothing material
+of the Patagonians. Guanaco are readily domesticated, and in
+this state become very bold and will attack man, striking him
+from behind with both knees. In the wild state they never
+defend themselves, and if approached from different points,
+according to the Indian fashion of hunting, get completely
+bewildered and fall an easy prey. They take readily to the
+water, and have been observed swimming from one island to
+another, while they have been seen drinking salt-water. They
+have a habit of depositing their droppings during successive
+days on the same spot&mdash;a habit appreciated by the Peruvian
+Indians, who use those deposits for fuel. Guanaco also have
+favourite localities in which to die, as appears from the great
+heaps of their bones found in particular spots.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUANAJAY,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> a town of western Cuba, in Pinar del Rio province,
+about 36 m. (by rail) S.W. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 6400.
+Guanajay is served by the W. branch of the United railways
+of Havana, of which it is the W. terminus. The town lies among
+hills, has an excellent climate, and in colonial times was (like
+Holguín) an acclimatization station for troops fresh from Spain;
+it now has considerable repute as a health resort. The surrounding
+country is a fertile sugar and tobacco region. Guanajay
+has always been important as a distributing point in the commerce
+of the western end of the island. It was an ancient pueblo,
+of considerable size and importance as early as the end of the
+18th century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUANAJUATO,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Guanaxuato</span>, an inland state of Mexico,
+bounded N. by Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi, E. by Querétaro,
+S. by Michoacan and W. by Jalisco. Area, 11,370 sq. m. It
+is one of the most densely populated states of the republic;
+pop. (1895) 1,047,817; (1900) 1,061,724. The state lies
+wholly within the limits of the great central plateau of Mexico,
+and has an average elevation of about 6000 ft. The surface
+of its northern half is broken by the Sierra Gorda and Sierra
+de Guanajuato, but its southern half is covered by fertile plains
+largely devoted to agriculture. It is drained by the Rio Grande
+de Lerma and its tributaries, which in places flow through deeply
+eroded valleys. The climate is semi-tropical and healthy,
+and the rainfall is sufficient to insure good results in agriculture
+and stock-raising. In the warm valleys sugar-cane is grown,
+and at higher elevations Indian corn, beans, barley and wheat.
+The southern plains are largely devoted to stock-raising. Guanajuato
+has suffered much from the destruction of its forests,
+but there remain some small areas on the higher elevations of
+the north. The principal industry of the state is mining, the
+mineral wealth of the mountain ranges of the north being
+enormous. Among its mineral products are silver, gold, tin,
+lead, mercury, copper and opals. Silver has been extracted
+since the early days of the Spanish conquest, over $800,000,000
+having been taken from the mines during the subsequent three
+and a half centuries. Some of the more productive of these
+mines, or groups of mines, are the Veta Madre (mother lode),
+the San Bernabé lode, and the Rayas mines of Guanajuato, and
+the La Valenciana mine, the output of which is said to have
+been $226,000,000 between 1766 and 1826. The manufacturing
+establishments include flour mills, tanneries and manufactories
+of leather, cotton and woollen mills, distilleries, foundries and
+potteries. The Mexican Central and the Mexican National
+railway lines cross the state from N. to S., and the former
+operates a short branch from Silao to the state capital and
+another westward from Irapuato to Guadalajara. The capital
+is Guanajuato, and other important cities and towns are León,
+or León de las Aldamas; Celaya (pop. 25,565 in 1900), an
+important railway junction 22 m. by rail W. from Querétaro,
+and known for its manufactures of broadcloth, saddlery, soap
+and sweetmeats; Irapuato (18,593 in 1900), a railway junction
+and commercial centre, 21 m. S. by W. of Guanajuato; Silao
+(15,355), a railway junction and manufacturing town (woollens
+and cottons), 14 m. S.W. of Guanajuato; Salamanca (13,583).
+on the Mexican Central railway and Lerma river, 25 m. S. by E. of
+Guanajuato, with manufactures of cottons and porcelain;
+Allende (10,547), a commercial town 30 m. E. by S. of Guanajuato,
+with mineral springs; Valle de Santiago (12,660). 50 m. W. by S.
+of Querétaro; Salvatierra (10,393), 60 m. S.E. of Guanajuato;
+Cortazar (8633); La Luz (8318), in a rich mining district;
+Pénjamo (8262); Santa Cruz (7239); San Francisco del Rincón
+(10,904), 39 m. W. of Guanajuato in a rich mining district;
+and Acambaro (8345), a prosperous town of the plain, 76 m.
+S.S.E. of <span class="correction" title="amended from Guanaiuato">Guanajuato</span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page650" id="page650"></a>650</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">GUANAJUATO,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Santa Fé de Guanajuato</span>, a city of Mexico
+and capital of the above state, 155 m. (direct) N.W. of the
+Federal capital, on a small tributary of the Rio Grande de Lerma
+or Santiago. Pop. (1895) 39,404; (1900) 41,486. The city is
+built in the Cañada de Marfil at the junction of three ravines
+about 6500 ft. above the sea, and its narrow, tortuous streets
+rise steeply as they follow the ravines upward to the mining
+villages clustered about the opening of the mines in the hillsides.
+Guanajuato is sometimes described as a collection of mining
+villages; but in addition there is the central city with its crowded
+winding streets, its substantial old Spanish buildings, its fifty
+ore-crushing mills and busy factories and its bustling commercial
+life. Enclosing the city are the steep, barren mountain sides
+honeycombed with mines. The climate is semi-tropical and is
+considered healthy. The noteworthy public buildings and
+institutions are an interesting old Jesuit church with arches
+of pink stone and delicate carving, eight monasteries, the
+government palace, a mint dating from 1812, a national college,
+the fine Teatro Juárez, and the Pantheon, or public cemetery,
+with catacombs below. The Alhóndiga de Granaditas, originally
+a public granary, was used as a fort during the War of Independence,
+and is celebrated as the scene of the first battle (1810) in
+that long struggle. Among the manufactures are cottons, prints,
+soaps, chemicals, pottery and silverware, but mining is the
+principal interest and occupation of the population. The silver
+mines of the vicinity were long considered the richest in Mexico,
+the celebrated Veta Madre (mother lode) even being described
+as the richest in the world; and Guanajuato has the largest
+reduction works in Mexico. The railway outlet for the city
+consists of a short branch of the Mexican Central, which joins
+the trunk line at Silao. Guanajuato was founded in 1554. It
+attained the dignity of a city in 1741. It was celebrated for its
+vigorous resistance to the invaders at the time of the Spanish
+conquest, and was repeatedly sacked during that war.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUANCHES,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> <span class="sc">Guanchis</span> or <span class="sc">Guanchos</span> (native Guanchinet;
+<i>Guan</i> = person, <i>Chinet</i> = Teneriffe,&mdash;&ldquo;man of Teneriffe,&rdquo; corrupted,
+according to Nuñez de la Peña, by Spaniards into
+Guanchos), the aboriginal inhabitants of the Canary Islands.
+Strictly the Guanches were the primitive inhabitants of Teneriffe,
+where they seem to have preserved racial purity to the time of
+the Spanish conquest, but the name came to be applied to the
+indigenous populations of all the islands. The Guanches, now
+extinct as a distinct people, appear, from the study of skulls
+and bones discovered, to have resembled the Cro-Magnon race
+of the Quaternary age, and no real doubt is now entertained that
+they were an offshoot of the great race of Berbers which from
+the dawn of history has occupied northern Africa from Egypt
+to the Atlantic. Pliny the Elder, deriving his knowledge from
+the accounts of Juba, king of Mauretania, states that when
+visited by the Carthaginians under Hanno the archipelago was
+found by them to be uninhabited, but that they saw ruins of
+great buildings. This would suggest that the Guanches were not
+the first inhabitants, and from the absence of any trace of
+Mahommedanism among the peoples found in the archipelago
+by the Spaniards it would seem that this extreme westerly
+migration of Berbers took place between the time of which Pliny
+wrote and the conquest of northern Africa by the Arabs. Many
+of the Guanches fell in resisting the Spaniards, many were sold
+as slaves, and many conformed to the Roman Catholic faith and
+married Spaniards.</p>
+
+<p>Such remains as there are of their language, a few expressions
+and the proper names of ancient chieftains still borne by certain
+families, connect it with the Berber dialects. In many of the
+islands signs are engraved on rocks. Domingo Vandewalle,
+a military governor of Las Palmas, was the first, in 1752, to
+investigate these; and it is due to the perseverance of D. Aquilino
+Padran, a priest of Las Palmas, that anything about the inscription
+on the island Hierro has been brought to light. In 1878
+Dr R. Verneau discovered in the ravines of Las Balos some
+genuine Libyan inscriptions. Without exception the rock
+inscriptions have proved to be Numidic. In two of the islands
+(Teneriffe and Gomera) the Guanche type has been retained with
+more purity than in the others. No inscriptions have been found
+in these two islands, and therefore it would seem that the true
+Guanches did not know how to write. In the other islands
+numerous Semitic traces are found, and in all of them are the
+rock-signs. From these facts it would seem that the Numidians,
+travelling from the neighbourhood of Carthage and intermixing
+with the dominant Semitic race, landed in the Canary Islands,
+and that it is they who have written the inscriptions at Hierro
+and Grand Canary.</p>
+
+<p>The political and social institutions of the Guanches varied.
+In some islands hereditary autocracy prevailed; in others the
+government was elective. In Teneriffe all the land belonged to
+the chiefs who leased it to their subjects. In Grand Canary
+suicide was regarded as honourable, and on a chief inheriting,
+one of his subjects willingly honoured the occasion by throwing
+himself over a precipice. In some islands polyandry was
+practised; in others the natives were monogamous. But everywhere
+the women appear to have been respected, an insult
+offered any woman by an armed man being a capital offence.
+Almost all the Guanches used to wear garments of goat-skins,
+and others of vegetable fibres, which have been found in the
+tombs of Grand Canary. They had a taste for ornaments,
+necklaces of wood, bone and shells, worked in different designs.
+Beads of baked earth, cylindrical and of all shapes, with smooth
+or polished surfaces, mostly black and red in colour, were chiefly
+in use. They painted their bodies; the <i>pintaderas</i>, baked clay
+objects like seals in shape, have been explained by Dr Verneau
+as having been used solely for painting the body in various colours.
+They manufactured rough pottery, mostly without decorations,
+or ornamented by means of the finger-nail. The Guanches&rsquo;
+weapons were those of the ancient races of south Europe. The
+polished battle-axe was more used in Grand Canary, while stone
+and obsidian, roughly cut, were commoner in Teneriffe. They
+had, besides, the lance, the club, sometimes studded with pebbles,
+and the javelin, and they seem to have known the shield. They
+lived in natural or artificial caves in their mountains. In
+districts where cave-dwellings were impossible, they built small
+round houses and, according to the Spaniards, they even practised
+rude fortification. In Palma the old people were at their own
+wish left to die alone. After bidding their family farewell they
+were carried to the sepulchral cave, nothing but a bowl of milk
+being left them. The Guanches embalmed their dead; many
+mummies have been found in an extreme state of desiccation,
+each weighing not more than 6 or 7 &#8468;. Two almost inaccessible
+caves in a vertical rock by the shore 3 m. from Santa Cruz
+(Teneriffe) are said still to contain bones. The process of embalming
+seems to have varied. In Teneriffe and Grand Canary the
+corpse was simply wrapped up in goat and sheep skins, while
+in other islands a resinous substance was used to preserve the
+body, which was then placed in a cave difficult of access, or buried
+under a tumulus. The work of embalming was reserved for a
+special class, women for female corpses, men for male. Embalming
+seems not to have been universal, and bodies were often
+simply hidden in caves or buried.</p>
+
+<p>Little is known of the religion of the Guanches. They appear
+to have been a distinctly religious race. There was a general
+belief in a supreme being, called Acoran, in Grand Canary,
+Achihuran in Teneriffe, Eraoranhan in Hierro, and Abora in
+Palma. The women of Hierro worshipped a goddess called
+Moneiba. According to tradition the male and female gods lived
+in mountains whence they descended to hear the prayers of the
+people. In other islands the natives venerated the sun, moon,
+earth and stars. A belief in an evil spirit was general. The
+demon of Teneriffe was called Guayota and lived in the peak of
+Teyde, which was the hell called Echeyde. In times of drought
+the Guanches drove their flocks to consecrated grounds, where
+the lambs were separated from their mothers in the belief that
+their plaintive bleatings would melt the heart of the Great
+Spirit. During the religious feasts all war and even personal
+quarrels were stayed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;S. Berthelot, <i>Antiquités canariennes</i> (Paris,
+1839); Baker Webb and S. Berthelot, <i>Histoire naturelle des îles</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page651" id="page651"></a>651</span>
+<i>Canaries</i> (Paris, 1839); Paul Broca, <i>Revue d&rsquo;anthropologie</i>, iv. (1874);
+General L. L. C. Faidherbe, <i>Quelque mots sur l&rsquo;ethnologie de l&rsquo;archipel
+canarien</i> (Paris, 1875); Chil y Naranjo, <i>Estudios historicos, climatologicos
+y Patologicos de las Islas Canarias</i> (Las Palmas, 1876-1889);
+&ldquo;De la pluralité des races humaines de l&rsquo;archipel canarien,&rdquo; <i>Bull.
+Soc. Anthrop. Paris</i>, 1878; &ldquo;Habitations et sépultures des anciens
+habitants des îles Canaries,&rdquo; <i>Revue d&rsquo;anthrop.</i>, 1879; R. Verneau,
+&ldquo;Sur les Sémites aux îles Canaries,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Sur les anciens habitants
+de la Isleta, Grande Canarie,&rdquo; <i>Bull. Soc. Anthrop. Paris</i>, 1881;
+<i>Rapport sur une mission scientifique dans l&rsquo;archipel canarien</i> (Paris,
+1887); <i>Cinq années de séjour aux îles Canaries</i> (Paris, 1891); H.
+Meyer, <i>Die Insel Tenerife</i> (Leipzig, 1896), &ldquo;Über die Urbewohner
+der canarischen Inseln,&rdquo; in <i>Adolf Bastian Festschrift</i> (Berlin, 1896);
+F. von Luschan, <i>Anhang über eine Schädelsammlung von den canarischen
+Inseln</i>; R. Virchow, &ldquo;Schädel mit Carionecrosis der Sagittalgegend,&rdquo;
+<i>Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesellschaft</i> (1896);
+G. Sergi, <i>The Mediterranean Race</i> (London, 1901); <i>The Guanches
+of Tenerife ...</i>, by Alonso de Espinosa, translated by Sir Clements
+Markham, with bibliography (Hakluyt Society, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUANIDINE,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> CN<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span> or HN:C(NH<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">2</span>, the amidine of amidocarbonic
+acid. It occurs in beet juice. It was first prepared
+in 1861 by A. Strecker, who oxidized guanine with hydrochloric
+acid and potassium chlorate. It may be obtained synthetically
+by the action of ammonium iodide on cyanamide, CN·NH<span class="su">2</span> + NH<span class="su">4</span>I = CN<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·HI·;
+by heating ortho-carbonic esters with
+ammonia to 150° C.; but best by heating ammonium thiocyanate
+to 180°-190° C., when the thiourea first formed is converted into
+guanidine thiocyanate, 2CS(NH<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">2</span> = HN:C(NH<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·HCNS + H<span class="su">2</span>S.
+It is a colourless crystalline solid, readily soluble in water and
+alcohol; it deliquesces on exposure to air. It has strong basic
+properties, absorbs carbon dioxide readily, and forms well-defined
+crystalline salts. Baryta water hydrolyses it to urea.
+By direct union with glycocoll acid, it yields glycocyamine,
+NH<span class="su">2</span>·(HN):C·NH·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>H, whilst with methyl glycocoll
+(sarcosine) it forms creatine, NH<span class="su">2</span>·(NH):C·N(CH<span class="su">3</span>)·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>H.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Many derivatives of guanidine were obtained by J. Thiele (<i>Ann.</i>,
+1892, 270, p. 1; 1893, 273, p. 133; <i>Ber.</i>, 1893, 26, pp. 2598, 2645).
+By the action of nitric acid on guanidine in the presence of sulphuric
+acid, nitroguanidine, HN:C(NH<span class="su">2</span>)·NH·NO<span class="su">2</span> (a substance
+possessing acid properties) is obtained; from which, by reduction
+with zinc dust, amidoguanidine, HN:C(NH<span class="su">2</span>)·NH·NH<span class="su">2</span>, is formed.
+This amidoguanidine decomposes on hydrolysis with the formation
+of semicarbazide, NH<span class="su">2</span>·CO·NH·NH<span class="su">2</span>, which, in its turn, breaks
+down into carbon dioxide, ammonia and hydrazine. Amidoguanidine
+is a body of hydrazine type, for it reduces gold and silver salts
+and yields a benzylidine derivative. On oxidation with potassium
+permanganate, it gives azodicarbondiamidine nitrate,
+NH<span class="su">2</span>·(HN):C·N:N·C:(NH)·NH<span class="su">2</span>·2HNO<span class="su">3</span>, which, when reduced by sulphuretted
+hydrogen, is converted into the corresponding hydrazodicarbondiamidine,
+NH<span class="su">2</span>·(HN):C·NH·NH·C:(NH)·NH<span class="su">2</span>. By the action of
+nitrous acid on a nitric acid solution of amidoguanidine, diazoguanidine
+nitrate, NH<span class="su">2</span>·(HN):C·NH·N<span class="su">2</span>·NO<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained. This diazo
+compound is decomposed by caustic alkalis with the formation
+of cyanamide and hydrazoic acid,
+CH<span class="su">4</span>N<span class="su">5</span>·NO<span class="su">3</span> = N<span class="su">3</span>H + CN·NH<span class="su">2</span> + HNO<span class="su">3</span>,
+whilst acetates and carbonates convert it into amidotetrazotic
+acid,
+<img style="width:111px; height:40px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img651.jpg" alt="" />
+Amidotetrazotic acid yields addition
+compounds with amines, and by the further action of nitrous acid
+yields a very explosive derivative, diazotetrazol, CN<span class="su">6</span>. By fusing
+guanidine with urea, dicyandiamidine H<span class="su">2</span>N·(HN):C·NH·CO·NH<span class="su">2</span>, is
+formed.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUANO<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (a Spanish word from the Peruvian <i>huanu</i>, dung),
+the excrement of birds, found as large deposits on certain islands
+off the coast of Peru, and on others situated in the Southern
+ocean and off the west coast of Africa. The large proportions
+of phosphorus in the form of phosphates and of nitrogen as
+ammonium oxalate and urate renders it a valuable fertilizer.
+Bat&rsquo;s guano, composed of the excrement of bats, is found in
+certain caves in New Zealand and elsewhere; it is similar in
+composition to Peruvian guano. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manures and Manuring</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUANTA,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> a port on the Caribbean coast of the state of Bermúdez,
+Venezuela, 12 m. N.E. of Barcelona, with which it is
+connected by rail. It dates from the completion of the railway
+to the coal mines of Naricual and Capiricual nearly 12 m. beyond
+Barcelona, and was created for the shipment of coal. The
+harbour is horseshoe-shaped, with its entrance, 1998 ft. wide,
+protected by an island less than 1 m. off the shore. The entrance
+is easy and safe, and the harbour affords secure anchorage for
+large vessels, with deep water alongside the iron railway wharf.
+These advantages have made Guanta the best port on this part of
+the coast, and the trade of Barcelona and that of a large inland
+district have been transferred to it. A prominent feature in its
+trade is the shipment of live cattle. Among its exports are sugar,
+coffee, cacáo, tobacco and fruit.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUANTÁNAMO,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> the easternmost important town of the S.
+coast of Cuba, in the province of Santiago, about 40 m. E. of
+Santiago. Pop. (1907) 14,559. It is situated by the Guazo
+(or Guaso) river, on a little open plain between the mountains.
+The beautiful, land-locked harbour, 10 m. long from N. to S.
+and 4 m. wide in places, has an outer and an inner basin. The
+latter has a very narrow entrance, and 2 to 2.5 fathoms depth
+of water. From the port of Caimanera to the city of
+Guantánamo, 13 m. N., there is a railway, and the city has
+railway connexion with Santiago. Guantánamo is one of the
+two ports leased by Cuba to the United States for a naval
+station. It is the shipping-port and centre of a surrounding
+coffee-, sugar- and lime-growing district. In 1741 an English
+force under Admiral Edward Vernon and General Thomas
+Wentworth landed here to attack Santiago. They named the
+harbour Cumberland bay. After their retreat fortifications
+were begun. The history of the region practically dates, however,
+from the end of the 18th century, when it gained prosperity
+from the settlement of French refugees from Santo Domingo;
+the town, as such, dates only from 1822. Almost all the old
+families are of French descent, and French was the language
+locally most used as late as the last third of the 19th century.
+In recent years, especially since the Spanish-American War of
+1898, the region has greatly changed socially and economically.
+Guantánamo was once a fashionable summer residence resort
+for wealthy Cubans.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUARANA<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (so called from the Guaranis, an aboriginal American
+tribe), the plant <i>Paullinia Cupana</i> (or <i>P. sorbilis</i>) of the natural
+order <i>Sapindaceae</i>, indigenous to the north and west of Brazil. It
+has a smooth erect stem; large pinnate alternate leaves, composed
+of 5 oblong-oval leaflets; narrow panicles of short-stalked
+flowers; and ovoid or pyriform fruit about as large as a grape,
+and containing usually one seed only, which is shaped like a
+minute horse-chestnut. What is commonly known as guarana,
+guarana bread or Brazilian cocoa, is prepared from the seeds
+as follows. In October and November, at which time they
+become ripe, the seeds are removed from their capsules and
+sun-dried, so as to admit of the ready removal by hand of the
+white aril; they are next ground in a stone mortar or deep dish
+of hard sandstone; the powder, moistened by the addition of a
+small quantity of water, or by exposure to the dews, is then
+made into a paste with a certain proportion of whole or broken
+seeds, and worked up sometimes into balls, but usually into rolls
+not unlike German sausages, 5 to 8 in. in length, and 12 to 16 oz.
+in weight. After drying by artificial or solar heat, the guarana
+is packed between broad leaves in sacks or baskets. Thus prepared,
+it is of extreme hardness, and has a brown hue, a bitter
+astringent taste, and an odour faintly resembling that of roasted
+coffee. An inferior kind, softer and of a lighter colour, is manufactured
+by admixture of cocoa or cassava. Rasped or grated
+into sugar and water, guarana forms a beverage largely consumed
+in S. America. Its manufacture, originally confined to the
+Mauhés Indians, has spread into various parts of Brazil.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The properties of guarana as a nervous stimulant and restorative
+are due to the presence of what was originally described as a new
+principle and termed guaranine, but is now known to be identical
+with caffeine or theine. Besides this substance, which is stated to
+exist in it in the form of tannate, guarana yields on analysis the
+glucoside saponin, with tannin, starch, gum, three volatile oils, and
+an acrid green fixed oil (Fournier, <i>Journ. de Pharm.</i> vol. xxxix.,
+1861, p. 291).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUARANIS<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span>, a tribe and stock of South American Indians,
+having their home in Paraguay, Uruguay and on the Brazilian
+coast. The Guaranis had developed some civilization before
+the arrival of the Spaniards, and being a peaceable people
+quickly submitted. They form to-day the chief element in the
+populations of Paraguay and Uruguay. Owing to its patronage
+by the Jesuit missionaries the Guarani language became a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page652" id="page652"></a>652</span>
+widespread medium of communication, and in a corrupted form
+is still the common language in Paraguay.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUARANTEE<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (sometimes spelt &ldquo;guarantie&rdquo; or &ldquo;guaranty&rdquo;;
+an O. Fr. form of &ldquo;warrant,&rdquo; from the Teutonic word which
+appears in German as <i>wahren</i>, to defend or make safe and binding),
+a term more comprehensive and of higher import than either
+&ldquo;warrant&rdquo; or &ldquo;security,&rdquo; and designating either some international
+treaty whereby claims, rights or possessions are secured,
+or more commonly a mere private transaction, by means of which
+one person, to obtain some trust, confidence or credit for another,
+engages to be answerable for him.</p>
+
+<p>In English law, a guarantee is a contract to answer for the
+payment of some debt, or the performance of some duty, by
+a third person who is <i>primarily</i> liable to such payment or performance.
+It is a <i>collateral</i> contract, which does not extinguish
+the original liability or obligation to which it is accessory, but
+on the contrary is itself rendered null and void should the latter
+fail, as without a principal there can be no accessory. The
+liabilities of a surety are in law dependent upon those of the
+principal debtor, and when the latter cease the former do so
+likewise (<i>per</i> Collins, L.J., in <i>Stacey</i> v. <i>Hill</i>, 1901, 1 K.B., at
+p. 666; see <i>per</i> Willes, J., in <i>Bateson</i> v. <i>Gosling</i>, 1871, L.R. 7 C.P.,
+at p. 14), except in certain cases where the discharge of the
+principal debtor is by operation of law (see <i>In re Fitzgeorge&mdash;ex
+parte Robson</i>, 1905, 1 K.B. p. 462). If, therefore, persons
+wrongly suppose that a third person is liable to one of them,
+and a guarantee is given on that erroneous supposition, it is
+invalid <i>ab initio</i>, by virtue of the <i>lex contractûs</i>, because its
+foundation (which was that another was taken to be liable)
+has failed (<i>per</i> Willes, J., in <i>Mountstephen</i> v. <i>Lakeman</i>, L.R.
+7 Q.B. p. 202). According to various existing codes civil,
+a suretyship, in respect of an obligation &ldquo;non-valable,&rdquo;
+is null and void save where the invalidity is the result
+of personal incapacity of the principal debtor (Codes Civil,
+France and Belgium, 2012; Spain, 1824; Portugal, 822; Italy,
+1899; Holland, 1858; Lower Canada, 1932). In some countries,
+however, the mere personal incapacity of a son under age to
+borrow suffices to vitiate the guarantee of a loan made to him
+(Spain, 1824; Portugal, 822, s. 2, 1535, 1536). The Egyptian codes
+sanction guarantees expressly entered into &ldquo;in view of debtor&rsquo;s
+want of legal capacity&rdquo; to contract a valid principal obligation
+(<span class="correction" title="amended from Egyptain">Egyptian</span> Codes, Mixed Suits, 605; Native Tribunals, 496).
+The Portuguese code (art. 822, s. 1) retains the surety&rsquo;s liability,
+in respect of an invalid principal obligation, until the latter has
+been legally rescinded.</p>
+
+<p>The giver of a guarantee is called &ldquo;the surety,&rdquo; or &ldquo;the
+guarantor&rdquo;; the person to whom it is given &ldquo;the creditor,&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;the guarantee&rdquo;; while the person whose payment or
+performance is secured thereby is termed &ldquo;the principal debtor,&rdquo;
+or simply &ldquo;the principal.&rdquo; In America, but not apparently
+elsewhere, there is a recognized distinction between &ldquo;a surety&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;a guarantor&rdquo;; the former being usually bound with the
+principal, at the same time and on the same consideration, while
+the contract of the latter is his own separate undertaking, in
+which the principal does not join, and in respect of which he is
+not to be held liable, until due diligence has been exerted to
+compel the principal debtor to make good his default. There
+is no privity of contract between the surety and the principal
+debtor, for the surety contracts with the creditor, and they do
+not constitute in law one person, and are not jointly liable to
+the creditor (<i>per</i> Baron Parke in <i>Bain</i> v. <i>Cooper</i>, 1 Dowl. R.
+(N.S.) 11, 14).</p>
+
+<p>No special phraseology is necessary to the formation of a
+guarantee; and what really distinguishes such a contract from
+one of insurance is not any essential difference between the two
+forms of words <i>insurance</i> and <i>guarantee</i>, but the substance of
+the contract entered into by the parties in each particular case
+(<i>per</i> Romer, L.J., in <i>Seaton</i> v. <i>Heath</i>&mdash;<i>Seaton</i> v. <i>Burnand</i>, 1899,
+1 Q.B. 782, 792, C.A.; <i>per</i> Vaughan Williams, L.J., in <i>In re
+Denton&rsquo;s Estate Licenses Insurance Corporation and Guarantee
+Fund Ltd.</i> v. <i>Denton</i>, 1904, 2 Ch., at p. 188; and see <i>Dane</i> v.
+<i>Mortgage Insurance Corporation</i>, 1894, 1 Q.B. 54 C.A.) In this
+connexion it may be mentioned that the different kinds of
+suretyships have been classified as follows: (1) Those in which
+there is an agreement to constitute, for a particular purpose,
+the relation of principal and surety, to which agreement the
+creditor thereby secured is a party; (2) those in which there
+is a similar agreement between the principal and surety only, to
+which the creditor is a stranger; and (3) those in which, without
+any such contract of suretyship, there is a primary and a
+secondary liability of two persons for one and the same debt,
+the debt being, as between the two, that of one of those persons
+only, and not equally of both, so that the other, if he should be
+compelled to pay it, would be entitled to reimbursement from
+the person by whom (as between the two) it ought to have been
+paid (<i>per</i> Earl of Selborne, L.C., <i>in Duncan Fox and Co.</i> v. <i>North and
+South Wales Bank</i>, 6 App. Cas., at p. 11). According to several
+codes civil sureties are made divisible into conventional, legal
+and judicial (Fr. and Bel., 2015, 2040 et seq.; Spain, 1823;
+Lower Canada, 1930), while the Spanish code further divides
+them into gratuitous and for valuable consideration (art. 1, 823).</p>
+
+<p>In England the common-law requisites of a guarantee in no
+way differ from those essential to the formation of any other
+contract. That is to say, they comprise the mutual assent
+of two or more parties, competency to contract, and, unless
+the guarantee be under seal, valuable consideration. An offer
+to guarantee is not binding until it has been accepted, being
+revocable till then by the party making it. Unless, however,
+as sometimes happens, the offer contemplates an express acceptance,
+one may be implied, and it may be a question for a jury
+whether an offer of guarantee has in fact been accepted. Where
+the surety&rsquo;s assent to a guarantee has been procured by fraud
+of the person to whom it is given, there is no binding contract.
+Such fraud may consist of suppression or concealment or misrepresentation.
+There is some conflict of authorities as to what
+facts must be spontaneously disclosed to the surety by the
+creditor, but it may be taken that the rule on the subject is
+less stringent than that governing insurances upon marine,
+life and other risks (<i>The North British Insurance Co.</i> v. <i>Lloyd</i>,
+10 Exch. 523), though formerly this was denied (<i>Owen</i> v. <i>Homan</i>,
+3 Mac. &amp; G. 378, 397). Moreover, even where the contract
+relied upon is in the form of a policy guaranteeing the solvency
+of a surety for another&rsquo;s debt, and is therefore governed by the
+doctrine of <i>uberrima</i> fides, only such facts as are really material
+to the risk undertaken need be spontaneously disclosed (<i>Seaton</i> v.
+<i>Burnand</i>&mdash;<i>Burnand</i> v. <i>Seaton</i>, 1900, A.C. 135). As regards
+the competency of the parties to enter into a contract of
+guarantee, this may be affected by insanity or intoxication of
+the surety, if known to the creditor, or by disability of any kind.
+The ordinary disabilities are those of infants and married women&mdash;now
+in England greatly mitigated as regards the latter by the
+Married Women&rsquo;s Property Acts, 1870 to 1893, which enable a
+married woman to contract, as a <i>feme sole</i>, to the extent of her
+separate property. Every guarantee not under seal must
+according to English law have a consideration to support it,
+though the least spark of one suffices (<i>per</i> Wilmot, J., in <i>Pillan</i> v.
+<i>van Mierop and Hopkins</i>, 3 Burr., at p. 1666; <i>Haigh</i> v. <i>Brooks</i>,
+10 A. &amp; E. 309; <i>Barrell</i> v. <i>Trussell</i>, 4 Taunt. 117), which, as
+in other cases, may consist either of some right, interest, profit
+or benefit accruing to the one party, or some forbearance, detriment,
+loss or responsibility given, suffered or undertaken by the
+other. In some guarantees the consideration is entire&mdash;as where,
+in consideration of a lease being granted, the surety becomes
+answerable for the performance of the covenants; in other
+cases it is fragmentary, <i>i.e.</i> supplied from time to time&mdash;as
+where a guarantee is given to secure the balance of a running
+account at a banker&rsquo;s, or a balance of a running account for
+goods supplied (<i>per</i> Lush, L.J., in <i>Lloyd&rsquo;s</i> v. <i>Harper</i>, 16 Ch. Div.,
+at p. 319). In the former case, the moment the lease is granted
+there is nothing more for the lessor to do, and such a guarantee
+as that of necessity runs on throughout the duration of the
+lease and is irrevocable. In the latter case, however, unless
+the guarantee stipulates to the contrary, the surety may at any
+time terminate his liability under the guarantee as to <i>future</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page653" id="page653"></a>653</span>
+advances, &amp;c. The consideration for a guarantee must not be
+<i>past</i> or <i>executed</i>, but on the other hand it need not comprise a
+direct benefit or advantage to either the surety or the creditor,
+but may solely consist of anything done, or any promise made,
+for the benefit of the principal debtor. It is more frequently
+<i>executory</i> than <i>concurrent</i>, taking the form either of forbearance
+to sue the principal debtor, or of a future advance of money or
+supply of goods to him.</p>
+
+<p>By the Indian Contract Act 1872, sect. 127, it is provided that
+the consideration for a guarantee may consist of anything done
+or any promise made for the benefit of the principal debtor by
+the creditor. Total failure of the consideration stipulated for
+by the party giving a guarantee will prevent its being enforced,
+as will also the existence of an illegal consideration. Though in
+all countries the mutual assent of two or more parties is essential
+to the formation of any contract (see <i>e.g.</i> Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel.
+1108; Port. 643, 647 et seq.; Spain, 1258, 1261; Italy, 1104;
+Holl. 1356; Lower Canada, 984), a consideration is not everywhere
+regarded as a necessary element (see Pothier&rsquo;s <i>Law of
+Obligations</i>, Evans&rsquo;s edition, vol. ii. p. 19). Thus in Scotland
+a contract may be binding without a consideration to support it
+(Stair i. 10. 7).</p>
+
+<p>The statutory requisites of a guarantee are, in England,
+prescribed by (1) the Statute of Frauds, which, with reference
+to guarantees, provides that &ldquo;no action shall be brought whereby
+to charge the defendant upon any special promise to answer
+for the debt, default or miscarriages of another person, unless the
+agreement upon which such action shall be brought, or some
+memorandum or note thereof, shall be in writing and signed by
+the party to be charged therewith, or some other person thereunto
+by him lawfully authorized,&rdquo; and (2) Lord Tenterden&rsquo;s Act
+(9 Geo. IV. c. 14), which by § 6 enacts that &ldquo;no action shall be
+brought whereby to charge any person upon or by reason of any
+representation or assurance made or given concerning or relating
+to the character, conduct, credit, ability, trade or dealings of
+any other person, to the intent or purpose that such other person
+may obtain credit, money or goods upon&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;upon credit,&rdquo;
+see <i>per</i> Parke, B., in <i>Lyde</i> v. <i>Barnard</i>, 1 M. &amp; W., at p. 104),
+&ldquo;unless such representation or assurance be made in writing
+signed by the party to be charged therewith.&rdquo; This latter
+enactment, which applies to incorporated companies as well as
+to individual persons (<i>Hirst</i> v. <i>West Riding Union Banking Co.</i>,
+1901, 2 K.B. 560 C.A.), was rendered necessary by an evasion
+of the 4th section of the Statute of Frauds, accomplished by
+treating the special promise to answer for another&rsquo;s debt, default
+or miscarriage, when not in writing, as required by that section,
+as a false and fraudulent representation concerning another&rsquo;s
+credit, solvency or honesty, in respect of which damages, as for
+a tort, were held to be recoverable (<i>Pasley</i> v. <i>Freeman</i>, 3 T.R. 51).
+In Scotland, where, it should be stated, a guarantee is called
+a &ldquo;cautionary obligation,&rdquo; similar enactments to those just
+specified are contained in § 6 of the Mercantile Law Amendment
+Act (Scotland) 1856, while in the Irish Statute of Frauds (7 Will.
+III. c. 12) there is a provision (§ 2) identical with that found in
+the English Statute of Frauds. In India a guarantee may be
+either oral or written (Indian Contract Act, § 126), while in the
+Australian colonies, Jamaica and Ceylon it must be in writing.
+The German code civil requires the surety&rsquo;s promise to be verified
+by writing where he has not executed the principal obligation
+(art. 766), and the Portuguese code renders a guarantee provable
+by all the modes established by law for the proof of the principal
+contract (art. 826). According to most codes civil now in force
+a guarantee like any other contract can usually be made verbally
+in the presence of witnesses and in certain cases (where for instance
+considerable sums of money are involved) <i>sous signature
+privée</i> or else by judicial or notarial instrument (see Codes Civil,
+Fr. and Bel. 1341; Spain, 1244; Port. 2506, 2513; Italy,
+1341 et seq.; Pothier&rsquo;s <i>Law of Obligations</i>, Evans&rsquo;s ed. i. 257;
+Burge on <i>Suretyship</i>, p. 19; van der Linden&rsquo;s <i>Institutes of
+Holland</i>, p. 120); the French and Belgian Codes, moreover,
+provide that suretyship is not to be presumed but must always
+be expressed (art. 2015).</p>
+
+<p>The Statute of Frauds does not invalidate a verbal guarantee,
+but renders it unenforceable by action. It may therefore be
+available in support of a defence to an action, and money paid
+under it cannot be recovered. An indemnity is not a guarantee
+within the statute, unless it contemplates the primary liability
+of a third person. It need not, therefore, be in writing when it is
+a mere promise to become liable for a debt, whenever the person
+to whom the promise is made should become liable (<i>Wildes</i> v.
+<i>Dudlow</i>, L.R. 19 Eq. 198; <i>per</i> Vaughan Williams, L.J. in <i>Harburg
+India-Rubber Co.</i> v. <i>Martin</i>, 1902, 1 K.B. p. 786; <i>Guild</i> v.
+<i>Conrad</i>, 1894, 2 Q.B. 885 C.A.). Neither does the statute apply
+to the promise of a <i>del credere</i> agent, which binds him, in consideration
+of the higher commission he receives, to make no
+sales on behalf of his principal except to persons who are
+absolutely solvent, and renders him liable for any loss that may
+result from the non-fulfilment of his promise. A promise to
+<i>give</i> a guarantee is, however, within the statute, though not one
+to <i>procure</i> a guarantee.</p>
+
+<p>The general principles which determine what are guarantees
+within the Statute of Frauds, as deduced from a multitude of
+decided cases, are briefly as follows: (1) the primary liability
+of a third person must exist or be contemplated as the foundation
+of the contract (<i>Birkmyr</i> v. <i>Darnell</i>, 1 Sm. L.C. 11th ed. p. 299;
+<i>Mountstephen</i> v. <i>Lakeman</i>, L.R. 7 Q.B. 196; L.R. 7 H.L. 17);
+(2) the promise must be made to the creditor; (3) there must be
+an absence of all liability on the part of the surety independently
+of his express promise of guarantee; (4) the main object of the
+transaction between the parties to the guarantee must be the
+fulfilment of a third party&rsquo;s obligation (see <i>Harburg India-rubber
+Comb Co.</i> v. <i>Martin</i>, 1902, 1 K.B. 778, 786); and (5)
+the contract entered into must not amount to a sale by the
+creditor to the promiser of a security for a debt or of the debt
+itself (see de Colyar&rsquo;s <i>Law of Guarantees and of Principal and
+Surety</i>, 3rd ed. pp. 65-161, where these principles are discussed
+in detail by the light of decided cases there cited).</p>
+
+<p>As regards the kind of note or memorandum of the guarantee
+that will satisfy the Statute of Frauds, it is now provided by § 3
+of the Mercantile Law Amendment Act 1856, that &ldquo;no special
+promise to be made, by any person after the passing of this act,
+to answer for the debt, default or miscarriage of another person,
+being in writing and signed by the party to be charged therewith,
+or some other person by him thereunto lawfully authorized,
+shall be deemed invalid to support an action, suit or other proceeding,
+to charge the person by whom such promise shall have
+been made, by reason only that the consideration for such
+promise does not appear in writing or by necessary inference from
+a written document.&rdquo; Prior to this enactment, which is not
+retrospective in its operation, it was held in many cases that as
+the Statute of Frauds requires &ldquo;the agreement&rdquo; to be in writing,
+all parts thereof were required so to be, including the consideration
+moving to, as well as the promise by, the party to be charged
+(<i>Wain</i> v. <i>Walters</i>, 5 East, 10; <i>Sounders</i> v. <i>Wakefield</i>, 4 B. &amp;
+Ald. 595). These decisions, however, proved to be burdensome
+to the mercantile community, especially in Scotland and the
+north of England, and ultimately led to the alteration of the law,
+so far as guarantees are concerned, by means of the enactment
+already specified. Any writing embodying the terms of the agreement
+between the parties, and signed by the party to be charged,
+is sufficient; and the idea of agreement need not be present to
+the mind of the person signing (<i>per</i> Lindley, L.J., in <i>In re</i>
+Hoyle&mdash;<i>Hoyle</i> v. <i>Hoyle</i>, 1893, 1 Ch., at p. 98). It is, however, necessary
+that the names of the contracting parties should appear somewhere
+in writing; that the party to be charged, or his agent,
+should sign the memorandum or note of agreement, or else
+should sign another paper referring thereto; and that, when the
+note or memorandum is made, a complete agreement shall exist.
+Moreover, the memorandum must have been made before action
+brought, though it need not be contemporaneous with the
+agreement itself. As regards the stamping of the memorandum
+or note of agreement, a guarantee cannot, in England, be given in
+evidence unless properly stamped (Stamp Act 1891). A guarantee
+for the payment of goods, however, requires no stamp, being
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page654" id="page654"></a>654</span>
+within the exception contained in the first schedule of the act.
+Nor is it necessary to stamp a written representation or assurance
+as to character within 9 Geo. IV. c. 14, <i>supra</i>. If under seal, a
+guarantee requires sometimes an <i>ad valorem</i> stamp and sometimes
+a ten-shilling stamp; in other cases a sixpenny stamp
+generally suffices; and, on certain prescribed terms, the stamps
+can be affixed any time after execution (Stamp Act 1891, § 15,
+amended by § 15 of the Finance Act 1895).</p>
+
+<p>The liability incurred by a surety under his guarantee depends
+upon its terms, and is not necessarily co-extensive with that of
+the principal debtor. It is, however, obvious that as
+<span class="sidenote">Extent of surety&rsquo;s liability.</span>
+the surety&rsquo;s obligation is merely accessory to that of
+the principal it cannot as such exceed it (de Colyar,
+<i>Law of Guarantees</i>, 3rd ed. p. 233; Burge, <i>Suretyship</i>,
+p. 5). By the Roman law, if there were any such excess the
+surety&rsquo;s obligation was rendered <i>wholly</i> void and not merely
+void <i>pro tanto</i>. By many existing codes civil, however, a
+guarantee which imposes on the surety a greater liability than
+that of the principal is not thereby invalidated, but the liability
+is merely reducible to that of the principal (Fr. and Bel. 2013;
+Port. 823; Spain, 1826; Italy, 1900; Holland, 1859; Lower
+Canada, 1933). By sec. 128 of the Indian Contract Act 1872
+the liability of the surety is, unless otherwise provided by
+contract, coextensive with that of the principal. Where the
+liability of the surety is <i>less</i> extensive in amount than that of the
+principal debtor, difficult questions have arisen in England and
+America as to whether the surety is liable only for <i>part</i> of the
+debt equal to the limit of his liability, or, up to such limit, for
+the <i>whole</i> debt (<i>Ellis</i> v. <i>Emmanuel</i>, 1 Ex. Div. 157; <i>Hobson</i> v.
+<i>Bass</i>, 6 Ch. App. 792; Brandt, <i>Suretyship</i>, sec. 219). The
+surety cannot be made liable except for a loss sustained by reason
+of the default guaranteed against. Moreover, in the case of a
+joint and several guarantee by several sureties, unless all sign
+it none are liable thereunder (<i>National Pro. Bk. of England</i> v.
+<i>Brackenbury</i>, 1906, 22 <i>Times</i> L.R. 797). It was formerly
+considered in England to be the duty of the party taking a
+guarantee to see that it was couched in language enabling the
+party giving it to understand clearly to what extent he was
+binding himself (<i>Nicholson</i> v. <i>Paget</i>, 1 C. &amp; M. 48, 52). This
+view, however, can no longer be sustained, it being now recognized
+that a guarantee, like any other contract, must, in cases
+of ambiguity, be construed against the party bound thereby
+and in favour of the party receiving it (<i>Mayer</i> v. <i>Isaac</i>, 6 M. &amp;
+W. 605, 612; <i>Wood</i> v. <i>Priestner</i>, L.R. 2 Exch. 66, 71). The
+surety is not to be changed beyond the limits prescribed by his
+contract, which must be construed so as to give effect to what
+may fairly be inferred to have been the intention of the parties,
+from what they themselves have expressed in writing. In cases
+of doubtful import, recourse to parol evidence is permissible,
+to explain, but not to contradict, the written evidence of the
+guarantee. As a general rule, the surety is not liable if the
+principal debt cannot be enforced, because, as already explained,
+the obligation of the surety is merely accessory to that of the
+principal debtor. It has never been actually decided in England
+whether this rule holds good in cases where the principal debtor
+is an infant, and on that account is not liable to the creditor.
+Probably in such a case the surety might be held liable by
+estoppel (see <i>Kimball</i> v. <i>Newell</i>, 7 Hill (N.Y.) 116). When
+directors guarantee the performance by their company of a
+contract which is ultra vires, and therefore not binding on the
+latter, the directors&rsquo; suretyship liability is, nevertheless, enforceable
+against them (<i>Yorkshire Railway Waggon Co.</i> v. <i>Maclure</i>,
+21 Ch. D. 309 C.A.).</p>
+
+<p>It is not always easy to determine for how long a time liability
+under a guarantee endures. Sometimes a guarantee is limited
+to a single transaction, and is obviously intended to be security
+against one specific default only. On the other hand, it as often
+happens that it is not exhausted by one transaction on the faith
+of it, but extends to a series of transactions, and remains a
+standing security until it is revoked, either by the act of the
+parties or else by the death of the surety. It is then termed a
+continuing guarantee. No fixed rules of interpretation determine
+whether a guarantee is a continuing one or not, but each case
+must be judged on its individual merits; and frequently, in order
+to achieve a correct construction, it becomes necessary to
+examine the surrounding circumstances, which often reveal what
+was the subject-matter which the parties contemplated when
+the guarantee was given, and likewise what was the scope and
+object of the transaction between them. Most continuing
+guarantees are either ordinary mercantile securities, in respect
+of advances made or goods supplied to the principal debtor or
+else bonds for the good behaviour of persons in public or private
+offices or employments. With regard to the latter class of
+continuing guarantees, the surety&rsquo;s liability is, generally speaking,
+revoked by any change in the constitution of the persons
+to or for whom the guarantee is given. On this subject it is
+now provided by section 18 of the Partnership Act 1890, which
+applies to Scotland as well as England, that &ldquo;a continuing
+guarantee or cautionary obligation given either to a firm or to
+a third person in respect of the transactions of a firm, is, in the
+absence of agreement to the contrary, revoked as to future
+transactions by any change in the constitution of the firm to
+which, or of the firm in respect of the transactions of which the
+guaranty or obligation was given.&rdquo; This section, like the
+enactment it replaces, namely, sec. 4 of the Mercantile Law
+Amendment Act 1856, is mainly declaratory of the English
+common law, as embodied in decided cases, which indicate that
+the changes in the persons to or for whom a guarantee is given
+may consist either of an increase in their number, of a diminution
+thereof caused by death or retirement from business, or of the
+incorporation or consolidation of the persons to whom the
+guarantee is given. In this connexion it may be stated that the
+Government Offices (Security) Act 1875, which has been amended
+by the Statute Law Revision Act 1883, contains certain provisions
+with regard to the acceptance by the heads of public departments
+of guarantees given by companies for the due performance of
+the duties of an office or employment in the public service, and
+enables the Commissioners of His Majesty&rsquo;s Treasury to vary the
+character of any security, for good behaviour by public servants,
+given after the passing of the act.</p>
+
+<p>Before the surety can be rendered liable on his guarantee,
+the principal debtor must have made default. When, however,
+this has occurred, the creditor, in the absence of express agreement
+to the contrary, may sue the surety, without even informing
+him of such default having taken place, or requiring him to pay,
+and before proceeding against the principal debtor or resorting
+to securities for the debt received from the latter. In those
+countries where the municipal law is based on the Roman civil
+law, sureties usually possess the right (which may, however,
+be renounced by them) originally conferred by the Roman
+law, of compelling the creditor to insist on the goods, &amp;c. (if any)
+of the principal debtor being first &ldquo;discussed,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> appraised
+and sold, and appropriated to the liquidation of the debt
+guaranteed (see Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 2021 et seq.; Spain,
+1830, 1831; Port. 830; Germany, 771, 772, 773; Holland,
+1868; Italy, 1907; Lower Canada, 1941-1942; Egypt [mixed
+suits] 612; <i>ibid.</i> [native tribunals] 502), before having recourse
+to the sureties. This right, according to a great American
+jurist (Chancellor Kent in <i>Hayes</i> v. <i>Ward</i>, 4 Johns. New York,
+Ch. Cas. p. 132), &ldquo;accords with a common sense of justice and
+the natural equity of mankind.&rdquo; In England this right has
+never been fully recognized. Neither does it prevail in America
+nor, since the passing of the Mercantile Law Amendment Act
+(Scotland) 1856, s. 8, is it any longer available in Scotland where,
+prior to the last-named enactment, the benefit of discussion, as
+it is termed, existed. In England, however, before any demand
+for payment has been made by the creditor on the surety, the
+latter can, as soon as the principal debtor has made default,
+compel the creditor, on giving him an indemnity against costs
+and expenses, to sue the principal debtor if the latter be solvent
+and able to pay (<i>per</i> A. L. Smith, L.J., in <i>Rouse</i> v. <i>Bradford
+Banking Company</i>, 1894, 2 Ch. 75; <i>per</i> Lord Eldon in <i>Wright</i> v.
+<i>Simpson</i>, 6 Ves., at p. 733), and a similar remedy is also open
+to the surety in America (see Brandt on <i>Suretyship</i>, par. 205,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page655" id="page655"></a>655</span>
+p. 290) though in neither of these countries nor in Scotland can
+one of several sureties, when sued for the whole guaranteed
+debt by the creditor, compel the latter to divide his claim
+amongst all the solvent sureties, and reduce it to the share and
+proportion of each surety. However, this <i>beneficium divisionis</i>,
+as it is called in Roman law, is recognized by many existing
+codes (Fr. and Bel. 2025-2027; Spain, 1837; Portugal, 835-836;
+Germany, 426; Holland, 1873-1874; Italy, 1911-1912;
+Lower Canada, 1946; Egypt [mixed suits], 615, 616).</p>
+
+<p>The usual mode in England of enforcing liability under a
+guarantee is by action in the High Court or in the county
+court. It is also permissible for the creditor to obtain redress
+by means of a set-off or counter-claim, in an action brought
+against him by the surety. On the other hand, the surety
+may now, in any court in which the action on the guarantee is
+pending, avail himself of any set-off which may exist between
+the principal debtor and the creditor. Moreover, if one of
+several sureties for the same debt is sued by the creditor or his
+guarantee, he can, by means of a proceeding termed a third-party
+notice, claim contribution from his co-surety towards the
+common liability. Independent proof of the surety&rsquo;s liability
+under his guarantee must always be given at the trial; as the
+creditor cannot rely either on admissions made by the principal
+debtor, or on a judgment or award obtained against him (<i>Ex
+parte Young In re Kitchin</i>, 17 Ch. Div. 668). Should the surety
+become bankrupt either before or after default has been made
+by the principal debtor, the creditor will have to prove against
+his estate. This right of proof is now in England regulated by
+the 37th section of the Bankruptcy Act, 1883, which is most
+comprehensive in its terms.</p>
+
+<p>A person liable as a surety for another under a guarantee
+possesses various rights against him, against the person to
+whom the guarantee is given, and also against those
+<span class="sidenote">Rights of sureties.</span>
+who may have become co-sureties in respect of the
+same debt, default or miscarriage. As regards the
+surety&rsquo;s rights against the principal debtor, the latter may,
+where the guarantee was made with his consent but not otherwise
+(see <i>Hodgson</i> v. <i>Shaw</i>, 3 Myl. &amp; K. at p. 190), after he has
+made default, be compelled by the surety to exonerate him from
+liability by payment of the guaranteed debt (<i>per</i> Sir W. Grant,
+M.R., in <i>Antrobus</i> v. <i>Davidson</i>, 3 Meriv. 569, 579; <i>per</i> Lindley,
+L.J., in <i>Johnston</i> v. <i>Salvage Association</i>, 19 Q.B.D. 460, 461; and
+see <i>Wolmershausen</i> v. <i>Gullick</i>, 1893, 2 Ch. 514). The moment,
+moreover, the surety has himself paid any portion of the
+guaranteed debt, he is entitled to rank as a creditor for the
+amount so paid, and to compel repayment thereof. In the
+event of the principal debtor&rsquo;s bankruptcy, the surety can
+in England, if the creditor has not already proved in respect
+of the guaranteed debt, prove against the bankrupt&rsquo;s estate,
+not only in respect of payments made before the bankruptcy
+of the principal debtor, but also, it seems, in respect of the
+contingent liability to pay under the guarantee (see <i>Ex parte
+Delmar re Herepath</i>, 1889, 38 W.R. 752), while if the creditor
+has already proved, the surety who has paid the guaranteed
+debt has a right to all dividends received by the creditor from
+the bankrupt in respect thereof, and to stand in the creditor&rsquo;s
+place as to future dividends. This right is, however, often
+waived by the guarantee stipulating that, until the creditor
+has received full payment of all sums over and above the
+guaranteed debt, due to him from the principal debtor, the
+surety shall not participate in any dividends distributed from
+the bankrupt&rsquo;s estate amongst his creditors. As regards the
+rights of the surety against the creditor, they are in England
+exercisable even by one who in the first instance was a principal
+debtor, but has since become a surety, by arrangement with
+his creditor, duly notified to the creditor, though not even
+sanctioned by him. This was decided by the House of Lords in
+the case of <i>Rouse</i> v. <i>The Bradford Banking Co.</i>, 1894, A.C. 586,
+removing a doubt created by the previous case of <i>Swire</i> v.
+<i>Redman</i>, 1 Q.B.D. 536, which must now be treated as overruled.
+The surety&rsquo;s principal right against the creditor entitles him,
+after payment of the guaranteed debt, to the benefit of all
+securities, whether known to him (the surety) or not, which
+the creditor held against the principal debtor; and where, by
+default or <i>laches</i> of the creditor, such securities have been lost,
+or rendered otherwise unavailable, the surety is discharged
+<i>pro tanto</i>. This right, which is <i>not</i> in abeyance till the surety
+is called on to pay (<i>Dixon</i> v. <i>Steel</i>, 1901, 2 Ch. 602), extends to
+all securities, whether satisfied or not, given before or after the
+contract of suretyship was entered into. On this subject the
+Mercantile Law Amendment Act, 1856, § 5, provides that &ldquo;every
+person who being surety for the debt or duty of another, or being
+liable with another for any debt or duty, shall pay such debt or
+perform such duty, shall be entitled to have assigned to him,
+or to a trustee for him, every judgment, specialty, or other
+security, which shall be held by the creditor in respect of such
+debt or duty, whether such judgment, specialty, or other security
+shall or shall not be deemed at law to have been satisfied by the
+payment of the debt or performance of the duty, and such person
+shall be entitled to stand in the place of the creditor, and to use
+all the remedies, and, if need be, and upon a proper indemnity,
+to use the name of the creditor, in any action or other proceeding
+at law or in equity, in order to obtain from the principal debtor,
+or any co-surety, co-contractor, or co-debtor, as the case may be,
+indemnification for the advances made and loss sustained by
+the person who shall have so paid such debt or performed such
+duty; and such payment or performance so made by such
+surety shall not be pleadable in bar of any such action or other
+proceeding by him, provided always that no co-surety, co-contractor,
+or co-debtor shall be entitled to recover from any
+other co-surety, co-contractor, or co-debtor, by the means
+aforesaid, more than the just proportion to which, as between
+those parties themselves, such last-mentioned person shall be
+justly liable.&rdquo; This enactment is so far retrospective that it
+applies to a contract made before the act, where the breach
+thereof, and the payment by the surety, have taken place
+subsequently. The right of the surety to be subrogated, on
+payment by him of the guaranteed debt, to all the rights of the
+creditor against the principal debtor is recognized in America
+(<i>Tobin</i> v. <i>Kirk</i>, 80 New York S.C.R. 229), and many other
+countries (Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 2029; Spain, 1839; Port.
+839; Germany, 774; Holland, 1877; Italy, 1916; Lower
+Canada, 2959; Egypt [mixed suits], 617; <i>ibid.</i> [native tribunals],
+505).</p>
+
+<p>As regards the rights of the surety against a co-surety, he is
+entitled to contribution from him in respect of their common
+liability. This particular right is not the result of any contract,
+but is derived from a general equity, on the ground of equality
+of burden and benefit, and exists whether the sureties be bound
+jointly, or jointly and severally, and by the same, or different,
+instruments. There is, however, no right of contribution where
+each surety is severally bound for a given portion only of the
+guaranteed debt; nor in the case of a surety for a surety;
+(see <i>In re Denton&rsquo;s Estate</i>, 1904, 2 Ch. 178 C.A.); nor where a
+person becomes a surety jointly with another and at the latter&rsquo;s
+request. Contribution may be enforced, either before payment,
+or as soon as the surety has paid more than his share of the
+common debt (<i>Wolmershausen</i> v. <i>Gullick</i>, 1803, 2 Ch. 514);
+and the amount recoverable is now always regulated by the
+number of solvent sureties, though formerly this rule only
+prevailed in equity. In the event of the bankruptcy of a surety,
+proof can be made against his estate by a co-surety for any
+excess over the latter&rsquo;s contributive share. The right of contribution
+is not the only right possessed by co-sureties against
+each other, but they are also entitled to the benefit of all securities
+which have been taken by any one of them as an indemnity
+against the liability incurred for the principal debtor. The
+Roman law did not recognize the right of contribution amongst
+sureties. It is, however, sanctioned by many existing codes
+(Fr. and Bel. 2033; Germany, 426, 474; Italy, 1920; Holland,
+1881; Spain, 1844; Port. 845; Lower Canada, 1955; Egypt
+[mixed suits], 618, <i>ibid.</i> [native tribunals], 506), and also by the
+Indian Contract Act 1872, ss. 146-147.</p>
+
+<p>The discharge of a surety from liability under his guarantee
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page656" id="page656"></a>656</span>
+may be accomplished In various ways, he being regarded,
+especially in England and America, as a &ldquo;favoured debtor&rdquo;
+(<i>per</i> Turner, L.J., in <i>Wheatley</i> v. <i>Bastow</i>, 7 De G. M. &amp; G. 279,
+280; <i>per</i> Earl of Selborne, L.C., in <i>In re Sherry&mdash;London and
+County Banking Co.</i> v. <i>Terry</i>, 25 Ch. D., at p. 703; and see
+Brandt on <i>Suretyship</i>, secs. 79, 80). Thus, fraud subsequent
+to the execution of the guarantee (as where, for example, the
+creditor connives at the principal debtor&rsquo;s default) will certainly
+discharge the surety. Again, a material alteration made by the
+creditor in the instrument of guarantee after its execution may
+also have this effect. The most prolific ground of discharge,
+however, is usually traceable to causes originating in the creditor&rsquo;s
+laches or conduct, the governing principle being that if the
+creditor violates any rights which the surety possessed when he
+entered into the suretyship, even though the damage be nominal
+only, the guarantee cannot be enforced. On this subject it
+suffices to state that the surety&rsquo;s discharge may be accomplished
+(1) by a variation of the terms of the contract between the
+creditor and the principal debtor, or of that subsisting between
+the creditor and the surety (see <i>Rickaby</i> v. <i>Lewis</i>, 22 T.L.R. 130);
+(2) by the creditor taking a new security from the principal
+debtor in lieu of the original one; (3) by the creditor discharging
+the principal debtor from liability; (4) by the creditor binding
+himself to give time to the principal debtor for payment of
+the guaranteed debt; or (5) by loss of securities received by
+the creditor in respect of the guaranteed debt.</p>
+
+<p>In this connexion It may be stated in general terms that
+whatever extinguishes the principal obligation necessarily determines
+that of the surety (which is accessory thereto), not
+only in England but elsewhere also (Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel.
+2034, 2038; Spain, 1847; Port. 848; Lower Canada, 1956;
+1960; Egypt [mixed suits], 622, <i>ibid.</i> [native tribunals], 509;
+Indian Contract Act 1872, sec. 134), and that, by most of the
+codes civil now in force, the surety is discharged by <i>laches</i> or
+conduct of the creditor inconsistent with the surety&rsquo;s rights
+(see Fr. and Bel. 2037; Spain, 1852; Port. 853; Germany,
+776; Italy, 1928; Egypt [mixed suits], 623), though it may be
+mentioned that the rule prevailing in England, Scotland,
+America and India which releases the surety from liability
+where the creditor, by binding contract with the principal,
+extends without the surety&rsquo;s consent the time for fulfilling the
+principal obligation, while recognized by two existing codes
+civil (Spain, 1851; Port. 852), is rejected by the majority of
+them (Fr. and Bel. 2039; Holland, 1887; Italy, 1930; Lower
+Canada, 1961; Egypt [mixed suits], 613; <i>ib.</i> [native tribunals],
+503); (and see Morice, <i>English and Dutch Law</i>, p. 96; van der
+Linden, <i>Institutes of Holland</i>, pp. 120-121). A revocation of
+the contract of suretyship by act of the parties, or in certain
+cases by the death of the surety, may also operate to discharge
+the surety. The death of a surety does not <i>per se</i> determine the
+guarantee, but, save where from its nature the guarantee is
+irrevocable by the surety himself, it can be revoked by express
+notice after his death, or, it would appear, by the creditor
+becoming affected with constructive notice thereof; except
+where, under the testator&rsquo;s will, the executor has the option of
+continuing the guarantee, in which case the executor should,
+it seems, specifically withdraw the guarantee in order to determine
+it. Where one of a number of joint and several sureties dies,
+the future liability of the survivors under the guarantee continues,
+at all events until it has been determined by express notice.
+Moreover, when three persons joined in a guarantee to a bank,
+and their liability thereunder was not expressed to be several,
+it was held that the death of one surety did not determine the
+liability of the survivors. In such a case, however, the estate of
+the deceased surety would be relieved from liability.</p>
+
+<p>The Statutes of Limitation bar the right of action on guarantees
+under seal after twenty years, and on other guarantees after
+six years, from the date when the creditor might have sued the
+surety.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;De Colyar, <i>Law of Guarantees and of Principal
+and Surety</i> (3rd ed., 1897); American edition, by J. A. Morgan
+(1875); Throop, <i>Validity of Verbal Agreements</i>; Fell, <i>Guarantees</i>
+(2nd ed.); Theobald, <i>Law of Principal and Surety</i>; Brandt, <i>Law of
+Suretyships and Guarantee</i>; article by de Colyar in <i>Journal of
+Comparative Legislation</i> (1905), on &ldquo;Suretyship from the Standpoint
+of Comparative Jurisprudence.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. A. de C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUARATINGUETÁ,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> a city of Brazil In the eastern part of
+the state of São Paulo, 124 m. N.E. of the city of São Paulo.
+Pop. (1890) of the municipality, which includes a large rural
+district and the villages of Apparecida and Roseira, 30,690.
+The city, which was founded in 1651, stands on a fertile plain
+3 m. from the Parahyba river, and is the commercial centre of
+one of the oldest agricultural districts of the state. The district
+produces large quantities of coffee, and some sugar, Indian corn
+and beans. Cattle and pigs are raised. The city dwellings are
+for the most part constructed of rough wooden frames covered
+with mud, called <i>taipa</i> by the natives, and roofed with curved
+tiles. The São Paulo branch of the Brazilian Central railway
+passes through the city, by which it is connected with Rio de
+Janeiro on one side and São Paulo and Santos on the other.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUARDA,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> an episcopal city and the capital of an administrative
+district bearing the same name, and formerly in the province
+of Beira, Portugal; on the Guarda-Abrantes and Lisbon-Villar
+Formoso railways. Pop. (1900) 6124. Guarda is situated
+3370 ft. above sea-level, at the north-eastern extremity of the
+Serra da Estrella, overlooking the fertile valley of the river Côa.
+It is surrounded by ancient walls, and contains a ruined
+castle, a fine 16th-century cathedral and a sanatorium for
+consumptives. Its industries comprise the manufacture of
+coarse cloth and the sale of grain, wine and live stock. In 1199
+Guarda was founded, on the site of the Roman Lencia Oppidana,
+by Sancho I. of Portugal, who intended it, as its name implies,
+to be a &ldquo;guard&rdquo; against Moorish invasion. The administrative
+district of Guarda coincides with north-eastern Beira; pop.
+(1900), 261,630; area, 1065 sq. m.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUARDI, FRANCESCO<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (1712-1793), Venetian painter, was
+a pupil of Canaletto, and followed his style so closely that his
+pictures are very frequently attributed to his more celebrated
+master. Nevertheless, the diversity, when once perceived, is
+sufficiently marked&mdash;Canaletto being more firm, solid, distinct,
+well-grounded, and on the whole the higher master, while
+Guardi is noticeable for spirited touch, sparkling colour and
+picturesquely sketched figures&mdash;in these respects being fully
+equal to Canaletto. Guardi sometimes coloured Canaletto&rsquo;s
+designs. He had extraordinary facility, three or four days being
+enough for producing an entire work. The number of his
+performances is large in proportion to this facility and to the
+love of gain which characterized him. Many of his works are to
+be found in England and seven in the Louvre.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUARDIAN,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> one who guards or defends another, a protector.
+The O. Fr. <i>guarden</i>, <i>garden</i>, mod. <i>gardien</i>, from <i>guarder</i>, <i>garder</i>,
+is of Teutonic origin, from the base <i>war-</i>, to protect, cf. O.H. Ger.
+<i>warten</i>, and Eng. &ldquo;ward&rdquo;; thus &ldquo;guardian&rdquo; and &ldquo;warden&rdquo;
+are etymologically identical, as are &ldquo;guard&rdquo; and &ldquo;ward&rdquo;;
+cf. the use of the correlatives &ldquo;guardian&rdquo; and &ldquo;ward,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> a
+minor, or person incapable of managing his affairs, under the
+protection or in the custody of a guardian. For the position
+of guardians of the poor see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Poor Law</a></span>, and for the legal relations
+between a guardian and his ward see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Infant</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Marriage</a></span> and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Law</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUARDS,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> <span class="sc">and</span> <b>HOUSEHOLD TROOPS.</b> The word <i>guard</i> is
+an adaptation of the Fr. <i>guarde</i>, mod. <i>garde</i>, O. Ger. <i>ward</i>; see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guardian</a></span>. The practice of maintaining bodyguards is of
+great antiquity, and may indeed be considered the beginning of
+organized armies. Thus there is often no clear distinction
+between the inner ring of personal defenders and the select corps
+of trained combatants who are at the chief&rsquo;s entire disposal.
+Famous examples of corps that fell under one or both these
+headings are the &ldquo;Immortals&rdquo; of Xerxes, the Mamelukes,
+Janissaries, the <i>Huscarles</i> of the Anglo-Saxon kings, and the
+Russian Strelitz (<i>Stryeltsi</i>). In modern times the distinction
+of function is better marked, and the fighting men who are
+more intimately connected with the sovereign than the bulk of
+the army can be classified as to duties into &ldquo;Household Troops,&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page657" id="page657"></a>657</span>
+who are in a sense personal retainers, and &ldquo;Guards,&rdquo; who are
+a <i>corps d&rsquo;élite</i> of combatants. But the dividing line is not so
+clear as to any given body of troops. Thus the British Household
+Cavalry is part of the combatant army as well as the sovereign&rsquo;s
+escort.</p>
+
+<p>The oldest of the household or bodyguard corps in the United
+Kingdom is the King&rsquo;s Bodyguard of the <i>Yeomen of the Guard</i>
+(<i>q.v.</i>), formed at his accession by Henry VII. The &ldquo;nearest
+guard,&rdquo; the personal escort of the sovereign, is the &ldquo;King&rsquo;s
+Bodyguard of the Honourable Corps of <i>Gentlemen-at-Arms</i>,&rdquo;
+created by Henry VIII. at his accession in 1509. Formed
+possibly on the pattern of the &ldquo;Pensionnaires&rdquo; of the French
+kings&mdash;retainers of noble birth who were the predecessors of
+the <i>Maison du Roi</i> (see below)&mdash;the new corps was originally
+called &ldquo;the Pensioners.&rdquo; The importance of such guards
+regiments in the general development of organized armies is
+illustrated by a declaration of the House of Commons, made in
+1674, that the militia, the pensioners and the Yeomen of the
+Guard were the only lawful armed forces in the realm. But
+with the rise of the professional soldier and the corresponding
+disuse of arms by the nobles and gentry, the Gentlemen-at-Arms
+(a title which came into use in James II.&rsquo;s time, though it did not
+become that of the corps until William IV.&rsquo;s) retaining their
+noble character, became less and less military. Burke attempted
+without success in 1782 to restrict membership to officers of the
+army and navy, but the necessity of giving the corps an effective
+military character became obvious when, on the occasion of
+a threatened Chartist riot, it was called upon to do duty as an
+armed body at St James&rsquo;s Palace. The corps was reconstituted
+on a purely military basis in 1862, and from that date only
+military officers of the regular services who have received a war
+decoration are eligible for appointment. The office of captain,
+however, is political, the holder (who is always a peer) vacating
+it on the resignation of the government of which he is a member.
+The corps consists at present of captain, lieutenant, standard
+bearer, clerk of the cheque (adjutant), sub-officer and 39
+gentlemen-at-arms. The uniform consists of a scarlet swallow-tailed
+coat and blue overalls, with gold epaulettes, brass dragoon
+helmet with drooping white plume and brass box-spurs, these
+last contrasting rather forcibly with the partizan, an essentially
+infantry weapon, that they carry.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Royal Company of Archers.</i>&mdash;The king&rsquo;s bodyguard for Scotland
+was constituted in its present form in the year 1670, by an act of
+the privy council of Scotland. An earlier origin has been claimed
+for the company, some connecting it with a supposed archer guard
+of the kings of Scotland. In the above-mentioned year, 1676, the
+minutes of the Royal Company begin by stating, that owing to
+&ldquo;the noble and usefull recreation of archery being for many years
+much neglected, several noblemen and gentlemen did associate
+themselves in a company for encouragement thereof ... and did
+apply to the privy council for their approbation ... which was
+granted.&rdquo; For about twenty years at the end of the 17th century,
+perhaps owing to the adhesion of the majority to the Stuart cause,
+its existence seems to have been suspended. But in 1703 a new
+captain-general, Sir George Mackenzie, Viscount Tarbat, afterwards
+earl of Cromarty (1630-1714), was elected, and he procured for the
+company a new charter from Queen Anne. The rights and privileges
+renewed or conferred by this charter were to be held of the crown
+for the <i>reddendo</i> of a pair of barbed arrows. This <i>reddendo</i> was paid
+to George IV. at Holyrood in 1822, to Queen Victoria in 1842 and
+to King Edward VII. in 1903. The history of the Royal Company
+since 1703 has been one of great prosperity. Large parades were
+frequently held, and many distinguished men marched in the ranks.
+Several of the leading insurgents in 1745 were members, but the
+company was not at that time suspended in any way.</p>
+
+<p>In 1822 when King George IV. visited Scotland, it was thought
+appropriate that the Royal Company should act as his majesty&rsquo;s
+bodyguard during his stay, especially as there was a tradition of
+a former archer bodyguard. They therefore performed the duties
+usually assigned to the gentlemen-at-arms. When Queen Victoria
+visited the Scottish capital in 1842, the Royal Company again did
+duty; the last time they were called out in her reign in their capacity
+of royal bodyguard was in 1860 on the occasion of the great volunteer
+review in the Queen&rsquo;s Park, Edinburgh. They acted in the same
+capacity when King Edward VII. reviewed the Scottish Volunteers
+there on the 18th of September 1905.</p>
+
+<p>King George IV. authorized the company to take, in addition
+to their former name, that of &ldquo;The King&rsquo;s Body Guard for Scotland,&rdquo;
+and presented to the captain-general a gold stick, thus
+constituting the company part of the royal household. In virtue
+of this stick the captain-general of the Royal Company takes his
+place at a coronation or similar pageant immediately behind the
+gold stick of England. The lieutenants-general of the company
+have silver sticks; and the council, which is the executive body of
+the company, possess seven ebony ones. George IV. further appointed
+a full dress uniform to be worn by members of the company
+at court, when not on duty as guards, in which latter case the
+ordinary field dress is used. The court dress is green with green
+velvet facings, gold epaulettes and lace, crimson silk sash, and
+cocked hat with green plume. The officers wear a gold sash in
+place of a crimson one, and an <i>aiguillette</i> on the left shoulder. All
+ranks wear swords. The field dress at present consists of a dark-green
+tunic, shoulder-wings and gauntleted cuffs and trousers
+trimmed with black and crimson; a bow-case worn as a sash, of the
+same colour as the coat, black waistbelt with sword, and Balmoral
+bonnet with thistle ornament and eagle&rsquo;s feather. The officers of
+the company are the captain-general, 4 captains, 4 lieutenants,
+4 ensigns, 12 brigadiers and adjutant.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Corps of the gentlemen-at-arms or yeoman type do not of
+course count as combatant troops&mdash;if for no other reason at
+least because they are armed with the weapons of bygone times.
+Colonel Clifford Walton states in his <i>History of the British
+Standing Army</i> that neither the Yeomen of the Guard nor the
+Pensioners were ever subject to martial law. The British guards
+and household troops that are armed, trained and organized
+as part of the army are the <i>Household Cavalry</i> and the <i>Foot
+Guards</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Household Cavalry consists at the present day of three
+regiments, and has its origin, as have certain of the Foot guard
+regiments, in the ashes of the &ldquo;New Model&rdquo; army disbanded
+at the restoration of Charles II. in 1660. In that year the
+&ldquo;1st or His Majesty&rsquo;s Own Troop of Guards&rdquo; formed during
+the king&rsquo;s exile of his cavalier followers, was taken on the strength
+of the army. The 2nd troop was formerly in the Spanish service
+as the &ldquo;Duke of York&rsquo;s Guards,&rdquo; and was also a cavalier unit.
+In 1670, on Monk&rsquo;s death, the original 3rd troop (Monk&rsquo;s Life
+Guards, renamed in 1660 the &ldquo;Lord General&rsquo;s Troop of Guards&rdquo;)
+became the 2nd (the queen&rsquo;s) troop, and the duke of York&rsquo;s
+troop the 3rd. In 1685 the 1st and 2nd troops were styled Life
+Guards of Horse, and two years later the blue-uniformed &ldquo;Royal
+Regiment of Horse,&rdquo; a New Model regiment that had been
+disbanded and at once re-raised in 1660, was made a household
+cavalry corps. Later under the colonelcy of the earl of Oxford
+it was popularly called &ldquo;The Oxford Blues.&rdquo; There were also
+from time to time other troops (<i>e.g.</i> Scots troops 1700-1746)
+that have now disappeared. In 1746 the 2nd troop was disbanded,
+but it was revived in 1788, when the two senior corps
+were given their present title of 1st and 2nd Life Guards. From
+1750 to 1819 the Blues bore the name of &ldquo;Royal Horse Guards
+Blue,&rdquo; which in 1819 was changed to &ldquo;Royal Horse Guards
+(The Blues).&rdquo; The general distinction between the uniforms
+of the red Life Guard and the blue Horse Guard still exists.
+The 1st and the 2nd regiments of Life Guards wear scarlet tunics
+with blue collars and cuffs, and the Royal Horse Guards blue
+tunics with scarlet collars and cuffs. All three wear steel
+cuirasses on state occasions and on guard duty. The head-dress
+is a steel helmet with drooping horse-hair plume (white for Life
+Guards, red for Horse Guards). In full dress white buckskin
+pantaloons and long knee boots are worn. Amongst the
+peculiarities of these <i>corps d&rsquo;élite</i> is the survival of the old custom
+of calling non-commissioned officers &ldquo;corporal of horse&rdquo;
+instead of sergeant, and corporal-major instead of sergeant-major,
+the wearing by trumpeters and bandsmen in full dress of a black
+velvet cap, a richly laced coat with a full skirt extending to the
+wearer&rsquo;s knees and long white gaiters. There is little distinction
+between the two Life Guards regiments&rsquo; uniforms, the most
+obvious point being that the cord running through the white
+leather pouch belt is red for the 1st and blue for the 2nd.</p>
+
+<p>The Foot Guards comprise the Grenadier Guards, the Coldstream
+Guards, the Scots Guards and the Irish Guards, each
+(except the last) of three battalions. The Grenadiers, originally
+the First Foot Guards, represent a royalist infantry regiment
+which served with the exiled princes in the Spanish army and
+returned at the Restoration in 1660. The Coldstream Guards
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page658" id="page658"></a>658</span>
+are a New Model regiment, and were originally called the Lord
+General&rsquo;s (Monk&rsquo;s) regiment of Foot Guards. Their popular
+title, which became their official designation in 1670, is derived
+from the fact that the army with which Monk restored the
+monarchy crossed the Tweed into England at the village of
+Coldstream, and that his troops (which were afterwards, except
+the two units of horse and foot of which Monk himself was
+colonel, disbanded) were called the Coldstreamers. The two
+battalions of Scots Foot Guards, which regiment was separately
+raised and maintained in Scotland after the Restoration, marched
+to London in 1686 and 1688 and were brought on to the English
+Establishment in 1707. In George III.&rsquo;s reign they were known
+as the Third Guards, and from 1831 to 1877 (when the present
+title was adopted) as the Scots Fusilier Guards.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish Guards (one battalion) were formed in 1902, after
+the South African War, as a mark of Queen Victoria&rsquo;s appreciation
+of the services rendered by the various Irish regiments of
+the line.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The dress of the Foot Guards is generally similar
+in all four regiments, scarlet tunic with blue collars, cuffs and
+shoulder-straps, blue trousers and high, rounded bearskin cap.
+The regimental distinctions most easily noticed are these. The
+Grenadiers wear a small white plume in the bearskin, the Coldstreams
+a similar red one, the Scots none, the Irish a blue-green
+one. The buttons on the tunic are spaced evenly for the
+Grenadiers, by twos for the Coldstreams, by threes for the Scots
+and by fours for the Irish. The band of the modern cap is red
+for the Grenadiers, white for the Coldstreams, &ldquo;diced&rdquo; red and
+white (chequers) for the Scots and green for the Irish. Former
+privileges of foot guard regiments, such as higher brevet rank
+in the army for their regimental officers, are now abolished, but
+Guards are still subject exclusively to the command of their
+own officers, and the officers of the Foot Guards, like those of the
+Household Cavalry, have special duties at court. Neither the
+cavalry nor the infantry guards serve abroad in peace time as
+a rule, but in 1907 a battalion of the Guards, which it was at
+that time proposed to disband, was sent to Egypt. &ldquo;Guards&rsquo;
+Brigades&rdquo; served in the Napoleonic Wars, in the Crimea, in
+Egypt at various times from 1887 to 1898 and in South Africa
+1899-1902. The last employment of the Household Cavalry
+as a brigade in war was at Waterloo, but composite regiments
+made up from officers and men of the Life Guards and Blues were
+employed in Egypt and in S. Africa.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The sovereigns of France had guards in their service in Merovingian
+times, and their household forces appear from time to time
+in the history of medieval wars. Louis XI. was, however, the first
+to regularize their somewhat loose organization, and he did so to
+such good purpose that Francis I. had no less than 8000 guardsmen
+organized, subdivided and permanently under arms. The senior
+unit of the <i>Gardes du Corps</i> was the famous company of Scottish
+archers (<i>Compagnie écossaise de la Garde du Corps du Roi</i>), which
+was originally formed (1418) from the Scottish contingents that
+assisted the French in the Hundred Years&rsquo; War. Scott&rsquo;s <i>Quentin
+Durward</i> gives a picture of life in the corps as it was under Louis XI.
+In the following century, however, its regimental history becomes
+somewhat confused. Two French companies were added by Louis
+XI. and Francis I. and the <i>Gardes du Corps</i> came to consist exclusively
+of cavalry. About 1634 nearly all the Scots then serving
+went into the &ldquo;regiment d&rsquo;Hébron&rdquo; and thence later into the
+British regular army (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hepburn, Sir John</a></span>). Thereafter, though
+the titles, distinctions and privileges of the original Archer Guard
+were continued, it was recruited from native Frenchmen, preference
+being (at any rate at first) given to those of Scottish descent. At
+its disbandment in 1791 along with the rest of the <i>Gardes du Corps</i>,
+it contained few, if any, native Scots. There was also, for a short
+time (1643-1660), an infantry regiment of <i>Gardes écossaises</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In 1671 the title of <i>Maison Militaire du Roi</i> was applied to that
+portion of the household that was distinctively military. It came
+to consist of 4 companies of the <i>Gardes du Corps</i>, 2 companies
+of <i>Mousquetaires</i> (cavalry) (formed 1622 and 1660), 1 company of
+<i>Chevaux légers</i> (1570), 1 of <i>Gendarmes de la Maison Rouge</i>, and 1 of
+<i>Grenadiers à Cheval</i> (1676), with 1 company of <i>Gardes de la Porte</i> and
+one called the <i>Cent-Suisses</i>, the last two being semi-military. This
+large establishment, which did not include all the guard regiments,
+was considerably reduced by the Count of St Germain&rsquo;s reforms in
+1775, all except the <i>Gardes du Corps</i> and the <i>Cent-Suisses</i> being
+disbanded. The whole of the <i>Maison du Roi</i>, with the exception
+of the semi-military bodies referred to, was cavalry.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Gardes françaises</i>, formed in 1563, did not form part of the
+<i>Maison</i>. They were an infantry regiment, as were the famous
+<i>Gardes suisses</i>, originally a Swiss mercenary regiment in the Wars
+of Religion, which was, for good conduct at the combat of Arques,
+incorporated in the permanent establishment by Henry IV. in
+1589 and in the guards in 1615. At the Revolution, contrary to
+expectation, the French Guards sided openly with the Constitutional
+movement and were disbanded. The Swiss Guards, however,
+being foreigners, and therefore unaffected by civil troubles, retained
+their exact discipline and devotion to the court to the day on which
+they were sacrificed by their master to the bullets of the Marseillais
+and the pikes of the mob (August 10, 1792). Their tragic fate is
+commemorated by the well-known monument called the &ldquo;Lion of
+Lucerne,&rdquo; the work of Thorvaldsen, erected near Lucerne in 1821.
+The &ldquo;Constitutional,&rdquo; &ldquo;Revolutionary&rdquo; and other guards that
+were created after the abolition of the <i>Maison</i> and the slaughter of
+the Swiss are unimportant, but through the &ldquo;Directory Guards&rdquo;
+they form a nominal link between the household troops of the
+monarchy and the corps which is perhaps the most famous &ldquo;Guard&rdquo;
+in history. The Imperial Guard of Napoleon had its beginnings in
+an escort squadron called the Corps of Guides, which accompanied
+him in the Italian campaign of 1796-1797 and in Egypt. On
+becoming First Consul in 1799 he built up out of this and of the
+guard of the Directory a small corps of horse and foot, called the
+Consular Guard, and this, which was more of a fighting unit than
+a personal bodyguard, took part in the battle of Marengo. The
+Imperial Guard, into which it was converted on the establishment
+of the Empire, was at first of about the strength of a division.
+As such it took part in the Austerlitz and Jena campaigns, but after
+the conquest of Prussia Napoleon augmented it, and divided it into
+the &ldquo;Old Guard&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Young Guard.&rdquo; Subsequently the
+&ldquo;Middle Guard&rdquo; was created, and by successive augmentations
+the corps of the guard had grown to be 57,000 strong in 1811-1812
+and 81,000 in 1813. It preserved its general character as a <i>corps
+d&rsquo;élite</i> of veterans to the last, but from about 1813 the &ldquo;Young
+Guard&rdquo; was recruited directly from the best of the annual conscript
+contingent. The officers held a higher rank in the army than their
+regimental rank in the Guards. At the first Restoration an attempt
+was made to revive the <i>Maison du Roi</i>, but in the constitutional
+régime of the second Restoration this semi-medieval form of bodyguard
+was given up and replaced by the <i>Garde Royale</i>, a selected
+fighting corps. This took part in the short war with Spain and a
+portion of it fought in Algeria, but it was disbanded at the July
+Revolution. Louis Philippe had no real guard troops, but the
+memories of the Imperial Guard were revived by Napoleon III.,
+who formed a large guard corps in 1853-1854. This, however,
+was open to an even greater degree than Napoleon I.&rsquo;s guard to the
+objection that it took away the best soldiers from the line. Since
+the fall of the Empire in 1870 there have been no guard troops in
+France. The duty of watching over the safety of the president is
+taken in the ordinary roster of duty by the troops stationed in the
+capital. The &ldquo;Republican Guard&rdquo; is the Paris gendarmerie,
+recruited from old soldiers and armed and trained as a military body.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>Austria-Hungary</i> there are only small bodies of household
+troops (Archer Body Guard, Trabant Guard, Hungarian Crown
+Guards, &amp;c.) analogous to the British Gentlemen at Arms or Yeomen
+of the Guard. Similar forces, the &ldquo;Noble Guard&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Swiss
+Guard,&rdquo; are maintained in the Vatican. The court troops of Spain
+are called &ldquo;halberdiers&rdquo; and armed with the halbert.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>Russia</i> the Guard is organized as an army corps. It possesses
+special privileges, particularly as regards officers&rsquo; advancement.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>Germany</i> the distinction between armed retainers and &ldquo;Guards&rdquo;
+is well marked. The army is for practical purposes a unit under
+imperial control, while household troops (&ldquo;castle-guards&rdquo; as they
+are usually called) belong individually to the various sovereigns
+within the empire. The &ldquo;Guards,&rdquo; as a combatant force in the
+army are those of the king of <i>Prussia</i> and constitute a strong army
+corps. This has grown gradually from a bodyguard of archers,
+and, as in Great Britain, the functions of the heavy cavalry regiments
+of the Guard preserve to some extent the name and character of a
+body guard (<i>Gardes du Corps</i>). The senior foot guard regiment is
+also personally connected with the royal family. The conversion
+of a palace-guard to a combatant force is due chiefly to Frederick
+William I., to whom drill was a ruling passion, and who substituted
+effective regiments for the ornamental &ldquo;Trabant Guards&rdquo; of his
+father. A further move was made by Frederick the Great in substituting
+for Frederick William&rsquo;s expensive &ldquo;giant&rdquo; regiment of
+guards a larger number of ordinary soldiers, whom he subjected
+to the same rigorous training and made a <i>corps d&rsquo;élite</i>. Frederick
+the Great also formed the Body Guard alluded to above. Nevertheless
+in 1806 the Guard still consisted only of two cavalry regiments
+and four infantry regiments, and it was the example of Napoleon&rsquo;s
+imperial guard which converted this force into a corps of all arms.
+In 1813 its strength was that of a weak division, but in 1860 by
+slight but frequent augmentations it had come to consist of an
+army corps, complete with all auxiliary services. A few guard
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page659" id="page659"></a>659</span>
+regiments belonging to the minor sovereigns are counted in the
+line of the German army. In war the Guard is employed as a unit,
+like other army corps. It is recruited by the assignment of selected
+young men of each annual contingent, and is thus free from the
+reproach of the French Imperial Guard, which took the best-trained
+soldiers from the regiments of the line.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The &ldquo;Irish Guards&rdquo; of the Stuarts took the side of James II.,
+fought against William III. in Ireland and lost their regimental
+identity in the French service to which the officers and soldiers
+transferred themselves on the abandonment of the struggle.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUARD-SHIP,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> a warship stationed at some port or harbour
+to act as a guard, and in former times in the British navy to
+receive the men impressed for service. She usually was the
+flagship of the admiral commanding on the coast. A guard-boat
+is a boat which goes the round of a fleet at anchor to see that
+due watch is kept at night.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUÁRICO,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> a large inland state of Venezuela created by the
+territorial redivision of 1904, bounded by Aragua and Miranda
+on the N., Bermúdez on the E., Bolívar on the S., and Zamora on
+the W. Pop. (1905 estimate), 78,117. It extends across the
+northern <i>llanos</i> to the Orinoco and Apure rivers and is devoted
+almost wholly to pastoral pursuits, exporting cattle, horses and
+mules, hides and skins, cheese and some other products. The
+capital is Calabozo, and the other principal towns are Camaguán
+(pop. 3648) on the Portugueza river, Guayabal (pop. 3146),
+on a small tributary of the Guárico river, and Zaraza (pop.
+14,546) on the Unare river, nearly 150 m. S.E. of Carácas.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUARIENTO,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> sometimes incorrectly named <span class="sc">Guerriero</span>, the
+first Paduan painter who distinguished himself. The only date
+distinctly known in his career is 1365, when, having already
+acquired high renown in his native city, he was invited by the
+Venetian authorities to paint a Paradise, and some incidents
+of the war of Spoleto, in the great council-hall of Venice. These
+works were greatly admired at the time, but have long ago
+disappeared under repaintings. His works in Padua have
+suffered much. In the church of the Eremitani are allegories
+of the Planets, and, in its choir, some small sacred histories in
+dead colour, such as an Ecce Homo; also, on the upper walls,
+the life of St Augustine, with some other subjects. A few
+fragments of other paintings by Guariento are still extant in
+Padua. In the gallery of Bassano is a Crucifixion, carefully
+executed, and somewhat superior to a merely traditional method
+of handling, although on the whole Guariento must rather be
+classed in that school of art which preceded Cimabue than as
+having advanced in his vestiges; likewise two other works in
+Bassano, ascribed to the same hand. The painter is buried in
+the church of S. Bernardino, Padua.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUARINI, CAMILLO-GUARINO<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1624-1683), Italian monk,
+writer and architect, was born at Modena in 1624. He was at
+once a learned mathematician, professor of literature and
+philosophy at Messina, and, from the age of seventeen, was
+architect to Duke Philibert of Savoy. He designed a very large
+number of public and private buildings at Turin, including the
+palaces of the duke of Savoy and the prince of Cacignan, and
+many public buildings at Modena, Verona, Vienna, Prague,
+Lisbon and Paris. He died at Milan in 1683.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUARINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (1537-1612), Italian poet,
+author of the <i>Pastor fido</i>, was born at Ferrara on the 10th of
+December 1537, just seven years before the birth of Tasso. He
+was descended from Guarino da Verona. The young Battista
+studied both at Pisa and Padua, whence he was called, when not
+yet twenty, to profess moral philosophy in the schools of his
+native city. He inherited considerable wealth, and was able early
+in life to marry Taddea de&rsquo; Bendedei, a lady of good birth. In
+1567 he entered the service of Alphonso II., duke of Ferrara,
+thus beginning the court career which was destined to prove a
+constant source of disappointment and annoyance to him.
+Though he cultivated poetry for pastime, Guarini aimed at
+state employment as the serious business of his life, and managed
+to be sent on various embassies and missions by his ducal master.
+There was, however, at the end of the 16th century no opportunity
+for a man of energy and intellectual ability to distinguish
+himself in the petty sphere of Italian diplomacy. The time too
+had passed when the profession of a courtier, painted in such
+glowing terms by Castiglione, could confer either profit or
+honour. It is true that the court of Alphonso presented a
+brilliant spectacle to Europe, with Tasso for titular poet, and
+an attractive circle of accomplished ladies. But the last duke
+of Ferrara was an illiberal patron, feeding his servants with
+promises, and ever ready to treat them with the brutality that
+condemned the author of the <i>Gerusalemme liberata</i> to a madhouse.
+Guarini spent his time and money to little purpose,
+suffered from the spite and ill-will of two successive secretaries,&mdash;Pigna
+and Montecatini,&mdash;quarrelled with his old friend Tasso,
+and at the end of fourteen years of service found himself half-ruined,
+with a large family and no prospects. When Tasso was
+condemned to S. Anna, the duke promoted Guarini to the vacant
+post of court poet. There is an interesting letter extant from
+the latter to his friend Cornelio Bentivoglio, describing the efforts
+he made to fill this place appropriately. &ldquo;I strove to transform
+myself into another person, and, like a player, reassumed the
+character, costume and feelings of my youth. Advanced in
+manhood, I forced myself to look young; I turned my natural
+melancholy into artificial gaiety, affected loves I did not feel,
+exchanged wisdom for folly, and, in a word, passed from a
+philosopher into a poet.&rdquo; How ill-adapted he felt himself to
+this masquerade life may be gathered from the following sentence:
+&ldquo;I am already in my forty-fourth year, the father of eight
+children, two of whom are old enough to be my censors, while
+my daughters are of an age to marry.&rdquo; Abandoning so uncongenial
+a strain upon his faculties, Guarini retired in 1582 to
+his ancestral farm, the Villa Guarina, in the lovely country that lies
+between the Adige and Po, where he gave himself up to the cares
+of his family, the nursing of his dilapidated fortunes and the
+composition of the <i>Pastor fido</i>. He was not happy in his
+domestic lot; for he had lost his wife young, and quarrelled
+with his elder sons about the division of his estate. Litigation
+seems to have been an inveterate vice with Guarini; nor was
+he ever free from legal troubles. After studying his biography,
+the conclusion is forced upon our minds that he was originally
+a man of robust and virile intellect, ambitious of greatness,
+confident in his own powers, and well qualified for serious affairs,
+whose energies found no proper scope for their exercise. Literary
+work offered but a poor sphere for such a character, while the
+enforced inactivity of court life soured a naturally capricious
+and choleric temper. Of poetry he spoke with a certain tone of
+condescension, professing to practise it only in his leisure
+moments; nor are his miscellaneous verses of a quality to secure
+for their author a very lasting reputation. It is therefore not a
+little remarkable that the fruit of his retirement&mdash;a disappointed
+courtier past the prime of early manhood&mdash;should have been a
+dramatic masterpiece worthy to be ranked with the classics of
+Italian literature. Deferring a further account of the <i>Pastor
+fido</i> for the present, the remaining incidents of Guarini&rsquo;s restless
+life may be briefly told. In 1585 he was at Turin superintending
+the first public performance of his drama, whence Alphonso
+recalled him to Ferrara, and gave him the office of secretary of
+state. This reconciliation between the poet and his patron did
+not last long. Guarini moved to Florence, then to Rome, and
+back again to Florence, where he established himself as the
+courtier of Ferdinand de&rsquo; Medici. A dishonourable marriage,
+pressed upon his son Guarino by the grand-duke, roused the
+natural resentment of Guarini, always scrupulous upon the point
+of honour. He abandoned the Medicean court, and took refuge
+with Francesco Maria of Urbino, the last scion of the Montefeltro-della-Rovere
+house. Yet he found no satisfaction at Urbino.
+&ldquo;The old court is a dead institution,&rdquo; he writes to a friend;
+&ldquo;one may see a shadow of it, but not the substance in Italy of
+to-day. Ours is an age of appearances, and one goes
+a-masquerading all the year.&rdquo; This was true enough. Those
+dwindling deadly-lively little residence towns of Italian ducal
+families, whose day of glory was over, and who were waiting
+to be slowly absorbed by the capacious appetite of Austria,
+were no fit places for a man of energy and independence. Guarini
+finally took refuge in his native Ferrara, which, since the death
+of Alphonso, had now devolved to the papal see. Here, and at
+the Villa Guarina, his last years were passed in study, law-suits,
+and polemical disputes with his contemporary critics, until
+1612, when he died at Venice in his seventy-fifth year.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page660" id="page660"></a>660</span></p>
+
+<p>The <i>Pastor fido</i> (first published in 1590) is a pastoral drama
+composed not without reminiscences of Tasso&rsquo;s <i>Aminta</i>. The
+scene is laid in Arcadia, where Guarini supposes it to have been
+the custom to sacrifice a maiden yearly to Diana. But an
+oracle has declared that when two scions of divine lineage are
+united in marriage, and a faithful shepherd has atoned for the
+ancient error of a faithless woman, this inhuman rite shall cease.
+The plot turns upon the unexpected fulfilment of this prophecy,
+contrary to all the schemes which had been devised for bringing
+it to accomplishment, and in despite of apparent improbabilities
+of divers kinds. It is extremely elaborate, and, regarded as a
+piece of cunning mechanism, leaves nothing to be desired. Each
+motive has been carefully prepared, each situation amply
+developed. Yet, considered as a play, the <i>Pastor fido</i> disappoints
+a reader trained in the school of Sophocles or Shakespeare.
+The action itself seems to take place off the stage, and only the
+results of action, stationary tableaux representing the movement
+of the drama, are put before us in the scenes. The art is lyrical,
+not merely in form but in spirit, and in adaptation to the requirements
+of music which demands stationary expressions of
+emotion for development. The characters have been well
+considered, and are exhibited with great truth and vividness;
+the cold and eager hunter Silvio contrasting with the tender
+and romantic Mirtillo, and Corisca&rsquo;s meretricious arts enhancing
+the pure affection of Amarilli. Dorinda presents another type
+of love so impulsive that it prevails over a maiden&rsquo;s sense of
+shame, while the courtier Carino brings the corruption of towns
+into comparison with the innocence of the country. In Carino
+the poet painted his own experience, and here his satire upon the
+court of Ferrara is none the less biting because it is gravely
+measured. In Corisca he delineated a woman vitiated by the
+same town life, and a very hideous portrait has he drawn.
+Though a satirical element was thus introduced into the <i>Pastor
+fido</i> in order to relieve its ideal picture of Arcadia, the whole
+play is but a study of contemporary feeling in Italian society.
+There is no true rusticity whatever in the drama. This correspondence
+with the spirit of the age secured its success during
+Guarini&rsquo;s lifetime; this made it so dangerously seductive that
+Cardinal Bellarmine told the poet he had done more harm to
+Christendom by his blandishments than Luther by his heresy.
+Without anywhere transgressing the limits of decorum, the
+<i>Pastor fido</i> is steeped in sensuousness; and the immodesty
+of its pictures is enhanced by rhetorical concealments more
+provocative than nudity. Moreover, the love described is
+effeminate and wanton, felt less as passion than as lust enveloped
+in a veil of sentiment. We divine the coming age of
+<i>cicisbei</i> and <i>castrati</i>. Of Guarini&rsquo;s style it would be difficult to
+speak in terms of too high praise. The thought and experience
+of a lifetime have been condensed in these five acts, and have
+found expression in language brilliant, classical, chiselled to
+perfection. Here and there the taste of the 17th century makes
+itself felt in frigid conceits and forced antitheses; nor does
+Guarini abstain from sententious maxims which reveal the
+moralist rather than the poet. Yet these are but minor blemishes
+in a masterpiece of diction, glittering and faultless like a polished
+bas-relief of hard Corinthian bronze. That a single pastoral
+should occupy so prominent a place in the history of literature
+seems astonishing, until we reflect that Italy, upon the close of
+the 16th century, expressed itself in the <i>Pastor fido</i>, and that
+the influence of this drama was felt through all the art of Europe
+till the epoch of the Revolution. It is not a mere play. The
+sensual refinement proper to an age of social decadence found
+in it the most exact embodiment, and made it the code of
+gallantry for the next two centuries.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best edition of the <i>Pastor fido</i> is the 20th, published at Venice
+(Ciotti) in 1602. The most convenient is that of Barbéra (Florence,
+1866). For Guarini&rsquo;s miscellaneous <i>Rime</i>, the Ferrara edition, in
+4 vols., 1737, may be consulted. His polemical writings, <i>Verato
+primo</i> and <i>secondo</i>, and his prose comedy called <i>Idropica</i>, were
+published at Venice, Florence and Rome, between 1588 and 1614.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. A. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUARINO,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> also known as <span class="sc">Varinus</span>, and surnamed from
+his birthplace <span class="sc">Favorinus</span>, <span class="sc">Phavorinus</span> or <span class="sc">Camers</span> (<i>c.</i> 1450-1537),
+Italian lexicographer and scholar, was born at Favera
+near Camerino, studied Greek and Latin at Florence under
+Politian, and afterwards became for a time the pupil of Lascaris.
+Having entered the Benedictine order, he now gave himself
+with great zeal to Greek lexicography; and in 1496 published
+his <i>Thesaurus cornucopiae et horti Adonidis</i>, a collection of
+thirty-four grammatical tracts in Greek. He for some time
+acted as tutor to Giovanni dei Medici (afterwards Leo X.), and
+also held the appointment of keeper of the Medicean library at
+Florence. In 1514 Leo appointed him bishop of Nocera. In
+1517 he published a translation of the <i>Apophthegmata</i> of Joannes
+Stobaeus, and in 1523 appeared his <i>Etymologicum magnum, sive
+thesaurus universae linguae Graecae ex multis variisque autoribus
+collectus</i>, a compilation which has been frequently reprinted,
+and which has laid subsequent scholars under great though not
+always acknowledged obligations.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUARINO [GUARINUS] DA VERONA<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (1370-1460), one
+of the Italian restorers of classical learning, was born in 1370
+at Verona, and studied Greek at Constantinople, where for five
+years he was the pupil of Manuel Chrysoloras. When he set
+out on his return to Italy he was the happy possessor of two
+cases of precious Greek MSS. which he had been at great pains
+to collect; it is said that the loss of one of these by shipwreck
+caused him such distress that his hair turned grey in a single
+night. He supported himself as a teacher of Greek, first at
+Verona and afterwards in Venice and Florence; in 1436 he
+became, through the patronage of Lionel, marquis of Este,
+professor of Greek at Ferrara; and in 1438 and following years
+he acted as interpreter for the Greeks at the councils of Ferrara
+and Florence. He died at Ferrara on the 14th of December 1460.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His principal works are translations of Strabo and of some of the
+<i>Lives</i> of Plutarch, a compendium of the Greek grammar of Chrysoloras,
+and a series of commentaries on Persius, Juvenal, Martial
+and on some of the writings of Aristotle and Cicero. See Rosmini,
+<i>Vita e disciplina di Guarino</i> (1805-1806); Sabbadini, <i>Guarino
+Veronese</i> (1885); Sandys, <i>Hist. Class. Schol.</i> ii. (1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUARNIERI,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Guarnerius</span>, a celebrated family of violin-makers
+of Cremona. The first was Andreas (<i>c.</i> 1626-1698),
+who worked with Antonio Stradivari in the workshop of Nicolo
+Amati (son of Geronimo). Violins of a model original to him
+are dated from the sign of &ldquo;St Theresa&rdquo; in Cremona. His son
+Joseph (1666-<i>c.</i> 1739) made instruments at first like his father&rsquo;s,
+but later in a style of his own with a narrow waist; his son,
+Peter of Venice (b. 1695), was also a fine maker. Another son
+of Andreas, Peter (Pietro Giovanni), commonly known as
+&ldquo;Peter of Cremona&rdquo; (b. 1655), moved from Cremona and
+settled at Mantua, where he too worked &ldquo;sub signo Sanctae
+Teresae.&rdquo; Peter&rsquo;s violins again showed considerable variations
+from those of the other Guarnieri. Hart, in his work on the
+violin, says, &ldquo;There is increased breadth between the sound-holes;
+the sound-hole is rounder and more perpendicular;
+the middle bouts are more contracted, and the model is more
+raised.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The greatest of all the Guarnieri, however, was a nephew of
+Andreas, Joseph del Gesù (1687-1745), whose title originates
+in the I.H.S. inscribed on his tickets. His master was Gaspar
+di Salo. His conception follows that of the early Brescian
+makers in the boldness of outline and the massive construction
+which aim at the production of tone rather than visual perfection
+of form. The great variety of his work in size, model, &amp;c.,
+represents his various experiments in the direction of discovering
+this tone. A stain or sap-mark, parallel with the finger-board
+on both sides, appears on the bellies of most of his instruments.
+Since the middle of the 18th century a great many spurious
+instruments ascribed to this master have poured over Europe.
+It was not until Paganini played on a &ldquo;Joseph&rdquo; that the taste
+of amateurs turned from the sweetness of the Amati and the
+Stradivarius violins in favour of the robuster tone of the Joseph
+Guarnerius. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Violin</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUASTALLA,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy,
+in the province of Reggio, from which it is 18 m. N. by road,
+on the S. bank of the Po, 79 ft. above sea-level. It is also
+connected by rail with Parma and Mantua (via Suzzara). Pop.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page661" id="page661"></a>661</span>
+(1901), 2658 (town); 11,091 (commune). It has 16th-century
+fortifications. The cathedral, dating from the 10th century,
+has been frequently restored. Guastalla was founded by the
+Lombards in the 7th century; in the church of the Pieve Pope
+Paschal II. held a council in 1106. In 1307 it was seized by
+Giberto da Correggio of Parma. In 1403 it passed to Guido
+Torello, cousin of Filippo Maria Visconti of Milan. In 1539 it
+was sold by the last female descendant of the Torelli to Ferrante
+Gonzaga. In 1621 it was made the seat of a duchy, but in 1748
+it was added to those of Parma and Piacenza, whose history it
+subsequently followed.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUATEMALA<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (sometimes incorrectly written <span class="sc">Guatimala</span>),
+a name now restricted to the republic of Guatemala and to its
+chief city, but formerly given to a captaincy-general of Spanish
+America, which included the fifteen provinces of Chiapas,
+Suchitepeques, Escuintla, Sonsonate, San Salvador, Vera Paz
+and Peten, Chiquimula, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica,
+Totonicapam, Quezaltenango, Sololá, Chimaltenango and
+Sacatepeques,&mdash;or, in other words, the whole of Central America
+(except Panama) and part of Mexico. The name is probably
+of Aztec origin, and is said by some authorities to mean in its
+native form Quauhtematlan, &ldquo;Land of the Eagle,&rdquo; or &ldquo;Land
+of Forest&rdquo;; others, writing it U-ha-tez-ma-la, connect it with
+the volcano of Agua (<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;water&rdquo;), and interpret it as &ldquo;mountain
+vomiting water.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The republic of Guatemala is situated between 13° 42&prime; and
+17° 49&prime; N., and 88° 10&prime; and 92° 30&prime; W. (For map, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Central
+America</a></span>.) Pop. (1903), 1,842,134; area about 48,250 sq. m.
+Guatemala is bounded on the W. and N. by Mexico, N.E. by
+British Honduras, E. by the Gulf of Honduras, and the republic
+of Honduras, S.E. by Salvador and S. by the Pacific Ocean.
+The frontier towards Mexico was determined by conventions
+of the 27th of September 1882, the 17th of October 1883, the
+1st of April 1895, and the 8th of May 1899. Starting from the
+Pacific, it ascends the river Suchiate, then follows an irregular line
+towards the north-east, till it reaches the parallel of 17° 49&prime; N.,
+along which it runs to the frontier of British Honduras. This
+frontier, by the convention of the 9th of July 1893, coincides with
+the meridian of 89° 20&prime; W., till it meets the river Sarstoon or
+Sarstun, which it follows eastwards to the Gulf of Honduras.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Physical Description.</i>&mdash;Guatemala is naturally divided into five
+regions&mdash;the lowlands of the Pacific coast, the volcanic mountains
+of the Sierra Madre, the so-called plateaus immediately north of
+these, the mountains of the Atlantic versant and the plain of Peten.
+(1) The coastal plains extend along the entire southern seaboard,
+with a mean breadth of 50 m., and link together the belts of similar
+territory in Salvador and the district of Soconusco in Chiapas.
+Owing to their tropical heat, low elevation above sea-level, and
+marshy soil, they are thinly peopled, and contain few important
+towns except the seaports. (2) The precipitous barrier of the
+Sierra Madre, which closes in the coastal plains on the north, is
+similarly prolonged into Salvador and Mexico. It is known near
+Guatemala city as the Sierra de las Nubes, and enters Mexico as the
+Sierra de Istatan. It forms the main watershed between the
+Pacific and Atlantic river systems. Its summit is not a well-defined
+crest, but is often rounded or flattened into a table-land. The
+direction of the great volcanic cones, which rise in an irregular line
+above it, is not identical with the main axis of the Sierra itself,
+except near the Mexican frontier, but has a more southerly trend,
+especially towards Salvador; here the base of many of the igneous
+peaks rests among the southern foothills of the range. It is, however,
+impossible to subdivide the Sierra Madre into a northern and a
+volcanic chain; for the volcanoes are isolated by stretches of comparatively
+low country; at least thirteen considerable streams
+flow down between them, from the main watershed to the sea.
+Viewed from the coast, the volcanic cones seem to rise directly
+from the central heights of the Sierra Madre, above which they
+tower; but in reality their bases are, as a rule, farther south.
+East of Tacana, which marks the Mexican frontier, and is variously
+estimated at 13,976 ft. and 13,090 ft., and if the higher estimate
+be correct is the loftiest peak in Central America, the principal
+volcanoes are&mdash;Tajamulco or Tajumulco (13,517 ft.); Santa Maria
+(12,467 ft.), which was in eruption during 1902, after centuries of
+quiescence, in which its slopes had been overgrown by dense forests;
+Atitlán (11,719), overlooking the lake of that name; Acatenango
+(13,615). which shares the claim of Tacana to be the highest mountain
+of Central America; Fuego (<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;fire,&rdquo; variously estimated at
+12,795 ft. and 12,582 ft.), which received its name from its activity
+at the time of the Spanish conquest; Agua (<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;water,&rdquo; 12,139 ft.),
+so named in 1541 because it destroyed the former capital of Guatemala
+with a deluge of water from its flooded crater; and Pacaya
+(8390), a group of igneous peaks which were in eruption in 1870.
+(3) The so-called plateaus which extend north of the Sierra Madre
+are in fact high valleys, rather than table-lands, enclosed by mountains.
+A better idea of this region is conveyed by the native name
+Altos, or highlands, although that term includes the northern
+declivity of the Sierra Madre. The mean elevation is greatest in
+the west (Altos of Quezaltenango) and least in the east (Altos of
+Guatemala). A few of the streams of the Pacific slope actually
+rise in the Altos, and force a way through the Sierra Madre at the
+bottom of deep ravines. One large river, the Chixoy, escapes northwards
+towards the Atlantic. (4) The relief of the mountainous
+country which lies north of the Altos and drains into the Atlantic
+is varied by innumerable terraces, ridges and underfalls; but its
+general configuration is admirably compared by E. Reclus with the
+appearance of &ldquo;a stormy sea breaking into parallel billows&rdquo; (<i>Universal
+Geography</i>, ed. E. G. Ravenstein, div. xxxiii., p. 212). The
+parallel ranges extend east and west with a slight southerly curve
+towards their centres. A range called the Sierra de Chama, which,
+however, changes its name frequently from place to place, strikes
+eastward towards British Honduras, and is connected by low hills
+with the Cockscomb Mountains; another similar range, the Sierra
+de Santa Cruz, continues east to Cape Cocoli between the Polochic
+and the Sarstoon; and a third, the Sierra de las Minas or, in its
+eastern portion, Sierra del Mico, stretches between the Polochic
+and the Motagua. Between Honduras and Guatemala the frontier
+is formed by the Sierra de Merendon. (5) The great plain of Peten,
+which comprises about one-third of the whole area of Guatemala,
+belongs geographically to the Yucatan Peninsula, and consists of
+level or undulating country, covered with grass or forest. Its
+population numbers less than two per sq. m., although many districts
+have a wonderfully fertile soil and abundance of water. The greater
+part of this region is uncultivated, and only utilized as pasture by
+the Indians, who form the majority of its inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>Guatemala is richly watered. On the western side of the sierras
+the versant is short, and the streams, while very numerous, are
+consequently small and rapid; but on the eastern side a number
+of the rivers attain a very considerable development. The Motagua,
+whose principal head stream is called the Rio Grande, has a course
+of about 250 m., and is navigable to within 90 m. of the capital,
+which is situated on one of its confluents, the Rio de las Vacas. It
+forms a delta on the south of the Gulf of Honduras. Of similar
+importance is the Polochic, which is about 180 m. in length, and
+navigable about 20 m. above the river-port of Telemán. Before
+reaching the Golfo Amatique it passes through the Golfo Dulce,
+or Izabal Lake, and the Golfete Dulce. A vast number of streams,
+among which are the Chixoy, the Guadalupe, and the Rio de la
+Pasion, unite to form the Usumacinta, whose noble current passes
+along the Mexican frontier, and flowing on through Chiapas and
+Tabasco, falls into the Bay of Campeche. The Chiapas follows a
+similar course.</p>
+
+<p>There are several extensive lakes in Guatemala. The Lake of
+Peten or Laguna de Flores, in the centre of the department of
+Peten, is an irregular basin about 27 m. long, with an extreme
+breadth of 13 m. In an island in the western portion stands Flores,
+a town well known to American antiquaries for the number of ancient
+idols which have been recovered from its soil. On the shore of the
+lake is the stalactite cave of Jobitsinal, of great local celebrity;
+and in its depths, according to the popular legend, may still be discerned
+the stone image of a horse that belonged to Cortes. The
+Golfo Dulce is, as its name implies, a fresh-water lake, although so
+near the Atlantic. It is about 36 m. long, and would be of considerable
+value as a harbour if the bar at the mouth of the Rio
+Dulce did not prevent the upward passage of seafaring vessels.
+As a contrast the Lake of Atitlán (<i>q.v.</i>) is a land-locked basin encompassed
+with lofty mountains. About 9 m. S. of the capital lies
+the Lake of Amatitlán (<i>q.v.</i>) with the town of the same name. On
+the borders of Salvador and Guatemala there is the Lake of Guija,
+about 20 m. long and 12 broad, at a height of 2100 ft. above the
+sea. It is connected by the river Ostuma with the Lake of Ayarza
+which lies about 1000 ft. higher at the foot of the Sierra Madre.</p>
+
+<p>The geology, fauna and flora of Guatemala are discussed under
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Central America</a></span>. The bird-life of the country is remarkably
+rich; one bird of magnificent plumage, the quetzal, quijal or quesal
+(<i>Trogon resplendens</i>), has been chosen as the national emblem.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;The climate is healthy, except on the coasts, where
+malarial fever is prevalent. The rainy season in the interior lasts
+from May to October, but on the coast sometimes continues till
+December. The coldest month is January, and the warmest is
+May. The average temperatures for these months at places of different
+altitudes, as given by Dr Karl Sapper, are shown on the following page.</p>
+
+<p>The average rainfall is very heavy, especially on the Atlantic slope,
+where the prevailing winds are charged with moisture from the Gulf
+of Mexico or the Caribbean Sea; at Tual, a high station on the
+Atlantic slope, it reaches 195 in.; in central Guatemala it is only
+27 in. Towards the Atlantic rain often occurs in the dry season,
+and there is a local saying near the Golfo Dulce that &ldquo;it rains
+thirteen months in the year.&rdquo; Fogs are not rare. In Guatemala,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page662" id="page662"></a>662</span>
+as in other parts of Central America (<i>q.v.</i>), each of the three climatic
+zones, cold, temperate and hot (<i>tierra fria</i>, <i>tierra templada</i>, <i>tierra
+caliente</i>) has its special characteristics, and it is not easy to generalize
+about the climate of the country as a whole.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Locality.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Altitude<br />(Feet).</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Fahrenheit Degrees.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">January.</td> <td class="tcc allb">May.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Puerto Barrios</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">74</td> <td class="tcc rb">81</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Salamá</td> <td class="tcr rb">3020</td> <td class="tcc rb">68</td> <td class="tcc rb">77</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Campur</td> <td class="tcr rb">3050</td> <td class="tcc rb">64</td> <td class="tcc rb">73</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chimax</td> <td class="tcr rb">4280</td> <td class="tcc rb">61</td> <td class="tcc rb">68</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Guatemala</td> <td class="tcr rb">4870</td> <td class="tcc rb">60</td> <td class="tcc rb">67</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Quezaltenango</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7710</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">50</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">62</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Natural Products.</i>&mdash;The minerals discovered in Guatemala include
+gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, mercury, antimony, coal, salt and
+sulphur; but it is uncertain if many of these exist in quantities
+sufficient to repay exploitation. Gold is obtained at Las Quebradas
+near Izabal, silver in the departments of Santa Rosa and Chiquimula,
+salt in those of Santa Rosa and Alta Vera Paz. During the 17th
+century gold-washing was carried on by English miners in the
+Motagua valley, and is said to have yielded rich profits; hence the
+name of &ldquo;Gold Coast&rdquo; was not infrequently given to the Atlantic
+littoral near the mouth of the Motagua.</p>
+
+<p>The area of forest has only been seriously diminished in the
+west, and amounted to 2030 sq. m. in 1904. Besides rubber, it
+yields many valuable dye-woods and cabinet-woods, such as cedar,
+mahogany and logwood. Fruits, grain and medicinal plants are
+obtained in great abundance, especially where the soil is largely of
+volcanic origin, as in the Altos and Sierra Madre. Parts of the
+Peten district are equally fertile, maize in this region yielding two
+hundredfold from unmanured soil. The vegetable products of
+Guatemala include coffee, cocoa, sugar-cane, bananas, oranges,
+vanilla, aloes, agave, ipecacuanha, castor-oil, sarsaparilla, cinchona,
+tobacco, indigo and the wax-plant (<i>Myrica cerifera</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Inhabitants.</i>&mdash;The inhabitants of Guatemala, who tend to
+increase rapidly owing to the high birth-rate, low mortality,
+and low rate of emigration, numbered in 1903 1,842,134, or
+more than one-third of the entire population of Central America.
+Fully 60% are pure Indians, and the remainder, classed as
+<i>Ladinos</i> or &ldquo;Latins&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> Spaniards in speech and mode of life),
+comprise a large majority of half-castes (<i>mestizos</i>) and civilized
+Indians and a smaller proportion of whites. It includes a
+foreign population of about 12,000 Europeans and North
+Americans, among them being many Jews from the west of the
+United States. There are important German agricultural
+settlements, and many colonists from north Italy who are locally
+called <i>Tiroleses</i>, and despised by the Indians for their industry
+and thrift. About half the births among the Indians and one-third
+among the whites are illegitimate.</p>
+
+<p>No part of Central America contains a greater diversity of
+tribes, and in 1883 Otto Stoll estimated the number of spoken
+languages as eighteen, although east of the meridian of Lake
+Amatitlán the native speech has almost entirely disappeared
+and been replaced by Spanish. The Indians belong chiefly
+to the Maya stock, which predominates throughout Peten, or
+to the allied Quiché race which is well represented in the Altos
+and central districts. The Itzas, Mopans, Lacandons, Chols,
+Pokonchi and the Pokomans who inhabit the large settlement
+of Mixco near the capital, all belong to the Maya family; but
+parts of central and eastern Guatemala are peopled by tribes
+distinct from the Mayas and not found in Mexico. In the 16th
+century the Mayas and Quichés had attained a high level of
+civilization (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Central America</a></span>, <i>Archaeology</i>), and at least
+two of the Guatemalan languages, Quiché and Cakchiquel,
+possess the rudiments or the relics of a literature. The Quiché
+<i>Popol Vuh</i>, or &ldquo;Book of History,&rdquo; which was translated into
+Spanish by the Dominican friar Ximenes, and edited with a
+French version by Brasseur de Bourbourg, is an important
+document for students of the local myths. In appearance the
+various Guatemalan tribes differ very little; in almost all the
+characteristic type of Indian is short but muscular, with low
+forehead, prominent cheek-bones and straight black hair. In
+character the Indians are, as a rule, peaceable, though conscious
+of their numerical superiority and at times driven to join in the
+revolutions which so often disturb the course of local politics;
+they are often intensely religious, but with a few exceptions
+are thriftless, indolent and inveterate gamblers. Their <i>confradias</i>,
+or brotherhoods, each with its patron saint and male
+and female chiefs, exist largely to organize public festivals, and
+to purchase wooden masks, costumes and decorations for the
+dances and dramas in which the Indians delight. These dramas,
+which deal with religious and historical subjects, are of Indian
+origin, and somewhat resemble the mystery-plays of medieval
+Europe, a resemblance heightened by the introduction, due to
+Spanish missionaries, of Christian saints and heroes such as
+Charlemagne. The Indians are devoted to bull-fighting and
+cock-fighting. Choral singing is a popular amusement, and is
+accompanied by the Spanish guitar and native wind-instruments.
+The Indians have a habit of consuming a yellowish edible earth
+containing sulphur; on pilgrimages they obtain images moulded
+of this earth at the shrines they visit, and eat the images as a
+prophylactic against disease. Maize, beans and bananas, varied
+occasionally with dried meat and fresh pork, form their staple
+diet; drunkenness is common on pay-days and festivals, when
+large quantities of a fiery brandy called <i>chicha</i> are consumed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Chief Towns.</i>&mdash;The capital of the republic, Guatemala or Guatemala
+la Nueva (pop. 1905 about 97,000) and the cities of Quezaltenango
+(31,000), Totonicapam (28,000), Coban (25,000), Sololá
+(17,000), Escuintla (12,000), Huehuetanango (12,000), Amatitlán
+(10,000) and Atitlán (9000) are described under separate headings.
+All the chief towns except the seaports are situated within the
+mountainous region where the climate is temperate. Retalhuleu,
+among the southern foothills of the Sierra Madre, is one of the
+centres of coffee production, and is connected by rail with the
+Pacific port of Champerico, a very unhealthy place in the wet
+season. Both Retalhuleu and Champerico were, like Quezaltenango,
+Sololá, and other towns, temporarily ruined by the earthquake of
+the 18th of April 1902. Santa Cruz Quiché, 25 m. N.E. of Totonicapam,
+was formerly the capital of the Quiché kings, but has now
+a Ladino population. Livingston, a seaport at the mouth of the
+Polochic (here called the Rio Dulce), was founded in 1806, and
+subsequently named after the author of a code of Guatemalan laws;
+few vestiges remain of the Spanish settlement of Sevilla la Nueva,
+founded in 1844, and of the English colony of Abbotsville, founded
+in 1825,&mdash;both near Livingston. La Libertad, also called by its
+Indian name of Sacluc, is the principal town of Peten.</p>
+
+<p><i>Shipping and Communications.</i>&mdash;The republic is in regular steam
+communication on the Atlantic side with New Orleans, New York
+and Hamburg, by vessels which visit the ports of Barrios (Santo
+Tomas) and Livingston. On the southern side the ports of San
+José, Champerico and Ocós are visited by the Pacific mail steamers,
+by the vessels of a Hamburg company and by those of the South
+American (Chilean) and the Pacific Steam Navigation Companies.
+Iztapa, formerly the principal harbour on the south coast, has been
+almost entirely abandoned since 1853. Gualan, on the Motagua,
+and Panzos, on the Polochic, are small river-ports. The principal
+towns are connected by wagon roads, towards the construction and
+maintenance of which each male inhabitant is required to pay two
+pesos or give four days&rsquo; work a year. There are coach routes between
+the capital and Quezaltenango, but over a great portion of
+the country transport is still on mule-back. All the railway lines
+have been built since 1875. The main lines are the Southern,
+belonging to an American company and running from San José
+to the capital; the Northern, a government line from the capital
+to Puerto Barrios, which completes the interoceanic railroad; and
+the Western, from Champerico to Quezaltenango, belonging to a
+Guatemalan company, but largely under German management.
+For local traffic there are several lines; one from Iztapa, near San
+José, to Naranjo, and another from Ocós to the western coffee
+plantations. On the Atlantic slope transport is effected mainly by
+river tow-boats from Livingston along the Golfo Dulce and other
+lakes, and the Polochic river as far as Panzos. The narrow-gauge
+railway that serves the German plantations in the Vera Paz region
+is largely owned by Germans.</p>
+
+<p>Guatemala joined the Postal Union in 1881; but its postal and
+telegraphic services have suffered greatly from financial difficulties.
+The telephonic systems of Guatemala la Nueva, Quezaltenango and
+other cities are owned by private companies.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commerce and Industry.</i>&mdash;The natural resources of Guatemala
+are rich but undeveloped; and the capital necessary for their
+development is not easily obtained in a country where war, revolution
+and economic crises recur at frequent intervals, where the
+premium on gold has varied by no less than 500% in a single
+year, and where many of the wealthiest cities and agricultural
+districts have been destroyed by earthquake in one day (18th of
+April 1902). At the beginning of the 19th century, Guatemala had
+practically no export trade; but between 1825 and 1850 cochineal
+was largely exported, the centre of production being the Amatitlán
+district. This industry was ruined by the competition of chemical
+dyes, and a substitute was found in the cultivation of coffee.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page663" id="page663"></a>663</span>
+Guatemala is surpassed only by Brazil and the East Indies in the
+quantity of coffee it exports. The chief plantations are owned and
+managed by Germans; more than half of the crop is sent to Germany,
+while three-fifths of the remainder go to the United States and
+one-fifth to Great Britain. The average yearly product is about
+70,000,000 &#8468;, worth approximately £1,300,000, and subject to an
+export duty of one gold dollar (4s.) per quintal (101 &#8468;). Sugar,
+bananas, tobacco and cocoa are also cultivated; but much of the
+sugar and bananas, most of the cocoa, and all the tobacco are consumed
+in the country. During the colonial period, the cocoa of
+western Guatemala and Soconusco was reserved on account of its
+fine flavour for the Spanish court. The indigo and cotton plantations
+yield little profit, owing to foreign competition, and have in
+most cases been converted to other uses. The cultivation of bananas
+tends to increase, though more slowly than in other Central American
+countries. Grain, sweet potatoes and beans are grown for home
+consumption. Cattle-farming is carried on in the high pasture-lands
+and the plains of Peten; but the whole number of sheep
+(77,000 in 1900) and pigs (30,000) in the republic is inferior to the
+number kept in many single English counties. Much of the wool
+is sold, like the native cotton, to Indian and Ladino women, who
+manufacture coarse cloth and linen in their homes.</p>
+
+<p>By the Land Act of 1894 the state domains, except on the coasts
+and frontiers, were divided into lots for sale. The largest holding
+tenable by one person under this act was fixed at 50 caballerias, or
+5625 acres; the price varies from £40 to £80 per caballeria of 112½
+acres. Free grants of uncultivated land are sometimes made to
+immigrants (including foreign companies), to persons who undertake
+to build roads or railways through their allotments, to towns,
+villages and schools. The condition of the Indians on the plantations
+is often akin to slavery, owing to the system adopted by some
+planters of making payments in advance; for the Indians soon spend
+their earnings, and thus contract debts which can only be repaid
+by long service.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the breweries, rum and brandy distilleries, sugar
+mills and tobacco factories, which are sometimes worked as adjuncts
+to the plantations, there are many purely urban industries, such as
+the manufacture of woollen and cotton goods on a large scale, and
+manufactures of building material and furniture; but these industries
+are far less important than agriculture.</p>
+
+<p>During the five years 1900 to 1904 inclusive, the average value of
+Guatemalan imports, which consisted chiefly of textiles, iron and
+machinery, sacks, provisions, flour, beer, wine and spirits, amounted
+to £776,000; about one-half came from the United States, and
+nearly one-fourth from the United Kingdom. The exports during
+the same period had an average value of £1,528,000, and ranked as
+follows in order of value: coffee (£1,300,000), timber, hides, rubber,
+sugar, bananas, cocoa.</p>
+
+<p><i>Finance.</i>&mdash;Within the republic there are six banks of issue, to
+which the government is deeply indebted. There is practically
+neither gold nor silver in circulation, and the value of the bank-notes
+is so fluctuating that trade is seriously hampered. On the
+25th of June 1903, the issue of bank-notes without a guarantee
+was restricted; and thenceforward all banks were compelled to
+retain gold or silver to the value of 10% of the notes issued in
+1904, 20% in 1905 and 30% in 1906. This reform has not, to
+any appreciable extent, rendered more stable the value of the
+notes issued. The silver peso, or dollar, of 100 centavas is the
+monetary unit, weighs 25 grammes .900 fine, and has a nominal
+value of 4s. Being no longer current it has been replaced by the
+paper peso. The nickel coins include the real (nominal value 6d.),
+half-real and quarter-real. The metric system of weights and
+measures has been adopted, but the old Spanish standards remain
+in general use.</p>
+
+<p>Of the revenue, about 64% is derived from customs and excise;
+9% from property, road, military, slaughter and salt taxes; 1.7%
+from the gunpowder monopoly; and the remainder from various
+taxes, stamps, government lands, and postal and telegraph services.
+The estimated revenue for 1905-1906 was 23,000,000 pesos
+(about £328,500); the estimated expenditure was 27,317,659 pesos
+(£390,200), of which £242,800 were allotted to the public debt,
+£42,000 to internal development and justice, £29,000 to the army
+and the remainder largely to education. The gold value of the
+currency peso (75 = £1 in 1903, 70 = £1 in 1904, 58 = £1 in 1905)
+fluctuates between limits so wide that conversion into sterling
+(especially for a series of years), with any pretension to accuracy,
+is impracticable. In 1899 the rate of exchange moved between
+710% and 206% premium on gold. According to the official
+statement, the gold debt, which runs chiefly at 4% and is held in
+Germany and England, amounted to £1,987,905 on the 1st of
+January 1905; the currency debt (note issues, internal loans, &amp;c.)
+amounted to £704,730; total £2,692,635, a decrease since 1900 of
+about £300,000.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Government.</i>&mdash;According to the constitution of December
+1879 (modified in 1885, 1887, 1889 and 1903) the legislative
+power is vested in a national assembly of 69 deputies (1 for every
+20,000 inhabitants) chosen for 4 years by direct popular vote,
+under universal manhood suffrage. The president of the republic
+is elected in a similar manner, but for 6 years, and he is theoretically
+not eligible for the following term. He is assisted by 6
+ministers, heads of government departments, and by a council
+of state of 13 members, partly appointed by himself and partly
+by the national assembly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Local Government.</i>&mdash;Each of the twenty-two departments is
+administered by an official called a <i>jefe politico</i>, or political
+chief, appointed by the president, and each is subdivided into
+municipal districts. These districts are administered by one
+or more <i>alcaldes</i> or mayors, assisted by municipal councils, both
+alcaldes and councils being chosen by the people.</p>
+
+<p><i>Justice.</i>&mdash;The judicial power is vested in a supreme court,
+consisting of a chief justice and four associate justices elected
+by the people; six appeal courts, each with three judges, also
+elected by the people; and twenty-six courts of first instance,
+each consisting of one judge appointed by the president and two
+by the chief justice of the supreme court.</p>
+
+<p><i>Religion and Instruction.</i>&mdash;The prevailing form of religion
+is the Roman Catholic, but the state recognizes no distinction
+of creed. The establishment of conventual or monastic institutions
+is prohibited. Of the population in 1893, 90% could
+neither read nor write, 2% could only read, and 8% could read
+and write. Primary instruction is nominally compulsory, and,
+in government schools, is provided at the cost of the state.
+In 1903 there were 1064 government primary schools. There
+are besides about 128 private (occasionally aided) schools of
+similar character, owners of plantations on which there are more
+than ten children being obliged to provide school accommodation.
+Higher instruction is given in two national institutes at the
+capital, one for men with 500 pupils and one for women with
+300. At Quezaltenango there are two similar institutes, and
+at Chiquimula there are other two. To each of the six there
+is a school for teachers attached, and within the republic there
+are four other schools for teachers. For professional instruction
+(law, medicine, engineering) there are schools supported by
+private funds, but aided occasionally by the government.
+Other educational establishments are a school of art, a national
+conservatory of music, a commercial college, four trades&rsquo; schools
+with more than 600 pupils and a national library. There is a
+German school, endowed by the German government.</p>
+
+<p><i>Defence.</i>&mdash;For the white and mixed population military
+service is compulsory; from the eighteenth to the thirtieth
+year of age in the active army, and from the thirtieth to the
+fiftieth in the reserve. The effective force of the active army
+is 56,900, of the reserve 29,400. About 7000 officers and men
+are kept in regular service. Military training is given in all
+public and most private schools.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Guatemala was conquered by the Spaniards under
+Pedro de Alvarado between 1522 and 1524. Up to the years
+1837-1839 its history differs only in minor details from that of
+the neighbouring states of Central America (<i>q.v.</i>). The colonial
+period was marked by the destruction of the ancient Indian
+civilization, the extermination of many entire tribes, and the
+enslavement of the survivors, who were exploited to the utmost
+for the benefit of Spanish officials and adventurers. But although
+the administration was weak, corrupt and cruel, it succeeded
+in establishing the Roman Catholic religion, and in introducing
+the Spanish language among the Indians and Ladinos, who thus
+obtained a tincture of civilization and ultimately a desire for
+more liberal institutions. The Central American provinces
+revolted in 1821, were annexed to the Mexican empire of Iturbide
+from 1822 to 1823, and united to form a federal republic from
+1823 to 1839. In Guatemala the Clerical, Conservative or anti-Federal
+party was supreme; after a protracted struggle it overthrew
+the Liberals or Federalists, and declared the country an
+independent republic, with Rafael Carrera (1814-1865) as president.
+In 1845 an attempt to restore the federal union failed;
+in 1851 Carrera defeated the Federalist forces of Honduras and
+Salvador at La Arada near Chiquimula, and was recognized as
+the pacificator of the republic. In 1851 a new constitution was
+promulgated, and Carrera was appointed president till 1856, a
+dignity which was in 1854 bestowed upon him for life. His
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page664" id="page664"></a>664</span>
+rivalry with Gerardo Barrios (d. 1865), president of Salvador,
+resulted in open war in 1863. At Coatepeque the Guatemalans
+suffered a severe defeat, which was followed by a truce.
+Honduras now joined with Salvador, and Nicaragua and Costa
+Rica with Guatemala. The contest was finally settled in favour
+of Carrera, who besieged and occupied San Salvador and made
+himself dominant also in Honduras and Nicaragua. During
+the rest of his rule, which lasted till his death in April 1865, he
+continued to act in concert with the Clerical party, and endeavoured
+to maintain friendly relations with the European
+governments. Carrera&rsquo;s successor was General Cerna, who had
+been recommended by him for election. The Liberal party
+began to rise in influence about 1870, and in May 1871 Cerna
+was deposed. The archbishop of Guatemala and the Jesuits were
+driven into exile as intriguers in the interests of the Clericals.
+Pres. Rufino Barrios (1835-1885), elected in 1873, governed the
+country after the manner of a dictator; he expelled the Jesuits,
+confiscated their property and disestablished and disendowed
+the church. But though he encouraged education, promoted
+railway and other enterprises, and succeeded in settling difficulties
+as to the Mexican boundary, the general result of his policy was
+baneful. Conspiracies against him were rife, and in 1884 he
+narrowly escaped assassination. His ambition was to be the
+restorer of the federal union of the Central American states, and
+when his efforts towards this end by peaceful means failed
+he had recourse to the sword. Counting on the support of
+Honduras and Salvador, he proclaimed himself, in February
+1885, the supreme military chief of Central America, and claimed
+the command of all the forces within the five states. President
+Zaldívar, of Salvador, had been his friend, but after the issue of
+the decree of union he entered into a defensive alliance with
+Costa Rica and Nicaragua. In March Barrios invaded Salvador,
+and on the 2nd of April a battle was fought, in which the Guatemalan
+president was killed. He was succeeded by General
+Manuel Barillas.  No further effort was made to force on the
+union, and on the 16th of April the war was formally ended.
+Peace, however, only provided opportunity for domestic conspiracy,
+with assassination and revolution in view. In 1892
+General José Maria Reina Barrios was elected president, and in
+1897 he was re-elected; but on the 8th of February 1898 he was
+assassinated. Señor Morales, vice-president, succeeded him;
+but in the same year Don Manuel Estrada Cabrera (b. 1857) was
+elected president for the term ending 1905. Cabrera promoted
+education, commerce and the improvement of communications,
+but his re-election for the term 1905-1911 caused widespread
+discontent. He was charged with aiming at a dictatorship, with
+permitting or even encouraging the imprisonment, torture and
+execution without trial of political opponents, with maladministration
+of the finances and with aggression against the neighbouring
+states. A well-armed force, which included a body of
+adventurers from San Francisco (U.S.A.) was organized by
+General Barillas, the ex-president, and invaded Guatemala in
+March 1906 from Mexico, British Honduras and Salvador.
+Barillas (1845-1907) proclaimed his intention of establishing
+a silver currency, and gained, to a great extent, the sympathy of
+the German and British residents; he had been the sole Guatemalan
+president who had not sought to prolong his own tenure
+of office. Ocós was captured by his lieutenant, General Castillo,
+and the revolution speedily became a war, in which Honduras,
+Costa Rica and Salvador were openly involved against Guatemala,
+while Nicaragua was hostile. But Cabrera held his ground,
+and even gained several indecisive victories. The intervention
+of President Roosevelt and of President Diaz of Mexico brought
+about an armistice on the 19th of July, and the so-called &ldquo;Marblehead
+Pact&rdquo; was signed on the following day on board the
+United States cruiser &ldquo;Marblehead.&rdquo; Its terms were embodied
+in a treaty signed (28th of September) by representatives of the
+four belligerent states, Nicaragua taking no part in the negotiations.
+The treaty included regulations for the improvement of
+commerce and navigation in the area affected by the war, and
+provided for the settlement of subsequent disputes by the
+arbitration of the United States and Mexico.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Besides the works cited under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Central
+America</a></span> see the interesting narrative of Thomas Gage, the English
+missionary, in Juarros, <i>Compendio de la historia de Guatemala</i>
+(1808-1818, 2 vols.; new ed., 1857), which in Bailly&rsquo;s English
+translation (London, 1823) long formed the chief authority. See
+also C. Juan Anino, <i>La Republica de Guatemala</i> (Guatemala, 1894);
+T. Brigham, <i>Guatemala, The Land of the Quetzal</i> (London, 1887);
+J. M. Caceres, <i>Geografia de Centro-America</i> (Paris, 1882); G. Lemale,
+<i>Guia geografica de los centros de poblacion de la republica de Guatemala</i>
+(Guatemala, 1882); F. A. de Fuentes y Guzman, <i>Historia de
+Guatemala o Recordacion Florida</i> (Madrid, 1882); A. C. and A. P.
+Maudslay, <i>A Glimpse at Guatemala, and some Notes on the Ancient
+Monuments of Central America</i> (London, 1899); Gustavo Niederlein,
+<i>The Republic of Guatemala</i> (Philadelphia, 1898); Ramon A. Salazar,
+<i>Historia del disenvolvimiento intelectual de Guatemala</i>, vol. i. (Guatemala,
+1897); Otto Stoll, <i>Reisen und Schilderungen aus den Jahren
+1878-1883</i> (Leipzig, 1886); J. Mendez, <i>Guia del immigrante en la
+republica de Guatemala</i> (Guatemala, 1895); Karl Sapper, &ldquo;Grundzüge
+der physikalischen Geographie von Guatemala,&rdquo; Ergänzungsheft
+No. 115, <i>Petermann&rsquo;s Mitteilungen</i> (Gotha, 1894); <i>Anuario
+de estadistica de la republica de Guatemala</i> (Guatemala); <i>Memoria
+de la Secretaria de Instruccion Publica</i> (Guatemala, 1899); <i>Handbook
+of Guatemala</i>, revised (Bureau of the American Republics, Washington,
+1897); <i>United States Consular Reports</i> (Washington); <i>British
+Foreign Office Diplomatic and Consular Reports</i> (London).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUATEMALA,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Guatemala la Nueva</span> (<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;New Guatemala,&rdquo;
+sometimes written Nueva Guatemala, and formerly
+Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala), the capital of the
+republic of Guatemala, and until 1821 of the Spanish captaincy-general
+of Guatemala, which comprised Chiapas in Mexico and
+all Central America except Panama. Pop. (1905) about 97,000.
+Guatemala is built more than 5000 ft. above sea-level, in a wide
+table-land traversed by the Rio de las Vacas, or Cow River, so
+called from the cattle introduced here by Spanish colonists in
+the 16th century. Deep ravines mark the edge of the table-land,
+and beyond it lofty mountains rise on every side, the highest
+peaks being on the south, where the volcanic summits of the
+Sierra Madre exceed 12,000 ft. Guatemala has a station on the
+transcontinental railway from Puerto Barrios on the Atlantic
+(190 m. N.E.) to San José on the Pacific (75 m. S. by W.). It
+is thrice the size of any other city in the republic, and has a
+corresponding commercial superiority. Its archbishop is the
+primate of Central America (excluding Panama). Like most
+Spanish-American towns Guatemala is laid out in wide and
+regular streets, often planted with avenues of trees, and it has
+extensive suburbs. The houses, though usually of only one
+storey, are solidly and comfortably constructed; many of them
+are surrounded by large gardens and courts. Among the open
+spaces the chief are the Plaza Mayor, which contains the
+cathedral, erected in 1730, the archiepiscopal palace, the government
+buildings, the mint and other public offices; and the more
+modern Reforma Park and Plaza de la Concordia, now the
+favourite resorts of the inhabitants. There are many large
+schools for both sexes, besides hospitals and an orphanage.
+Many of the principal buildings, such as the military academy,
+were originally convents. The theatre, founded in 1858, is one
+of the best in Central America. A museum, founded in 1831,
+is maintained by the Sociedad Economica, which in various
+ways has done great service to the city and the country. There
+are two fortresses, the Castello Matamoros, built by Rafael
+Carrera (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guatemala</a></span> [republic] under <i>History</i>), and the
+Castello de San José. Water is brought from a distance of about
+8 m. by two old aqueducts from the towns of Mixco and Pinula;
+fuel and provisions are largely supplied by the Pokoman Indians
+of Mixco. The general prosperity, and to some extent the
+appearance, of Guatemala have procured it the name of the Paris
+of Central America. It is lighted by electricity and has a good
+telephone service. Its trade is chiefly in coffee, but it also
+possesses cigar factories, wool and cotton factories, breweries,
+tanneries and other industrial establishments. The foreign
+trade is chiefly controlled by Germans.</p>
+
+<p>The first city named Guatemala, now called Ciudad Vieja
+or &ldquo;Old City,&rdquo; was founded in 1527 by Pedro de Alvarado, the
+conqueror of the country, on the banks of the Rio Pensativo,
+and at the foot of the volcano of Agua (<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;Water&rdquo;). In
+1541 it was overwhelmed by a deluge of water from the flooded
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page665" id="page665"></a>665</span>
+crater of Agua; and in 1542 Alvarado founded Santiago de los
+Caballeros la Nueva, now Antigua. This city flourished greatly,
+and by the middle of the 18th century had become the most
+populous place in Central America, with 60,000 inhabitants and
+more than 100 churches and convents. But in 1773 it was
+ruined by an earthquake. It was rebuilt, and ultimately became
+capital of the department of Sacatepeques, and a health-resort
+locally celebrated for its thermal springs. But the Guatemalans
+determined to found a new capital on the site occupied by the
+hamlet of Ermita, 27 m. N.E. Here the third and last city of
+Guatemala was built, and became the seat of government in
+1779. The remarkable regularity of the streets is due to the
+construction of the city on a uniform plan. The wide area
+covered, and the lowness of the houses, were similarly due to
+an ordinance which, in order to minimize the danger from earthquakes,
+forbade the erection of any building more than 20 ft.
+high. Many of the belfries of convents or churches, added after
+the ordinance had fallen into abeyance, were overthrown by the
+earthquake of 1874, which also destroyed a large part of Antigua.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUATOS,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a tribe of South American Indians of the upper
+Paraguay. They are of a European fairness and wear beards.
+They live almost entirely in canoes, building rough shelters
+in the swamps. They aided the Brazilians in the war with
+Paraguay 1865-70. Very few survive.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUATUSOS,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> a tribe of American Indians of Costa Rica. They
+are an active, hardy people, who have always maintained
+hostility towards the Spaniards and retain their independence.
+From their language they appear to be a distinct stock. They
+were described by old writers as being very fair, with flaxen
+hair, and these reports led to a belief, since exploded, that they
+were European hybrids. There are very few surviving.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUAVA<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (from the Mexican <i>guayaba</i>), the name applied to
+the fruits of species of <i>Psidium</i>, a genus belonging to the natural
+order <i>Myrtaceae</i>. The species which produces the bulk of the
+guava fruits of commerce is <i>Psidium Guajava</i>, a small tree from
+15 to 20 ft. high, a native of the tropical parts of America and
+the West Indies. It bears short-stalked ovate or oblong leaves,
+with strongly marked veins, and covered with a soft tomentum
+or down. The flowers are borne on axillary stalks, and the fruits
+vary much in size, shape and colour, numerous forms and
+varieties being known and cultivated. The variety of which the
+fruits are most valued is that which is sometimes called the
+white guava (<i>P. Guajava</i>, var. <i>pyriferum</i>). The fruits are pear-shaped,
+about the size of a hen&rsquo;s egg, covered with a thin bright
+yellow or whitish skin filled with soft pulp, also of a light yellowish
+tinge, and having a pleasant sweet-acid and somewhat aromatic
+flavour. <i>P. Guajava</i>, var. <i>pomiferum</i>, produces a more globular
+or apple-shaped fruit, sometimes called the red guava. The
+pulp of this variety is mostly of a darker colour than the former
+and not of so fine a flavour, therefore the first named is most
+esteemed for eating in a raw state; both, however, are used
+in the preparation of two kinds of preserve known as guava
+jelly and guava cheese, which are made in the West Indies
+and imported thence to England; the fruits are of much too
+perishable a nature to allow of their importation in their natural
+state. Both varieties have been introduced into various parts
+of India, as well as in other countries of the East, where they
+have become perfectly naturalized. Though of course much too
+tender for outdoor planting in England, the guava thrives there
+in hothouses or stoves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Psidium variabile</i> (also known as <i>P. Cattleyanum</i>), a tree of
+from 10 to 20 ft. high, a native of Brazil (the Araçá or Araçá de
+Praya), is known as the purple guava. The fruit, which is very
+abundantly produced in the axils of the leaves, is large, spherical,
+of a fine deep claret colour; the rind is pitted, and the pulp
+is soft, fleshy, purplish, reddish next the skin, but becoming
+paler towards the middle and in the centre almost or quite white.
+It has a very agreeable acid-sweet flavour, which has been
+likened to that of a strawberry.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUAYAMA,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> a small city and the capital of a municipal
+district and department of the same name, on the southern
+coast of Porto Rico, 53 m. S. of San Juan. Pop. (1899) of the
+city, 5334; (1910) 8321; (1899) of the district, 12,749. The
+district (156 sq. m.) includes Arroyo and Salinas. The city stands
+about 230 ft. above the sea and has a mild, healthy climate. It is
+connected with Ponce by railway (1910), and with the port of
+Arroyo by an excellent road, part of the military road extending to
+Cayey, and it exports sugar, rum, tobacco, coffee, cattle, fruit
+and other products of the department, which is very fertile.
+The city was founded in 1736, but was completely destroyed
+by fire in 1832. It was rebuilt on a rectangular plan and possesses
+several buildings of note. Drinking-water is brought in through
+an aqueduct.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUAYAQUIL,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Santiago de Guayaquil</span>, a city and port
+of Ecuador, capital of the province of Guayas, on the right
+bank of the Guayas river, 33 m. above its entrance into the Gulf
+of Guayaquil, in 2° 12&prime; S., 79° 51&prime; W. Pop. (1890) 44,772;
+(1897, estimate) 51,000, mostly half-breeds. The city is built
+on a comparatively level <i>pajonal</i> or savanna, extending southward
+from the base of three low hills, called Los Cerros de la
+Cruz, between the river and the partially filled waters of the
+Estero Salado. It is about 30 ft. above sea-level, and the lower
+parts of the town are partially flooded in the rainy season.
+The old town is the upper or northern part, and is inhabited
+by the poorer classes, its streets being badly paved, crooked,
+undrained, dirty and pestilential. The great fire of 1896
+destroyed a large part of the old town, and some of its insanitary
+conditions were improved in rebuilding. The new town, or
+southern part, is the business and residential quarter of the
+better classes, but the buildings are chiefly of wood and the
+streets are provided with surface drainage only. Among the
+public buildings are the governor&rsquo;s and bishop&rsquo;s palaces, town-hall,
+cathedral and 9 churches, national college, episcopal
+seminary and schools of law and medicine, theatre, two hospitals,
+custom-house, and several asylums and charitable institutions.
+Guayaquil is also the seat of a university corporation with
+faculties of law and medicine. A peculiarity of Guayaquil is
+that the upper floors in the business streets project over the
+walks, forming covered arcades. The year is divided into a wet
+and dry season, the former from January to June, when the hot
+days are followed by nights of drenching rain. The mean annual
+temperature is about 82° to 83° F.; malarial and bilious fevers
+are common, the latter being known as &ldquo;Guayaquil fever,&rdquo;
+and epidemics of yellow fever are frequent. The dry or summer
+season is considered pleasant and healthy. The water-supply
+is now brought in through iron mains from the Cordilleras
+53 m. distant. The mains pass under the Guayas river and
+discharge into a large distributing reservoir on one of the hills
+N. of the city. The city is provided with tramway and telephone
+services, the streets are lighted with gas and electricity, and
+telegraph communication with the outside world is maintained
+by means of the West Coast cable, which lands at the small port
+of Santa Elena, on the Pacific coast, about 65 m. W. of Guayaquil.
+Railway connexion with Quito (290 m.) was established in June
+1908. There is also steamboat connexion with the producing
+districts of the province on the Guayas river and its tributaries,
+on which boats run regularly as far up as Bodegas (80 m.) in
+the dry season, and for a distance of 40 m. on the Daule. For
+smaller boats there are about 200 m. of navigation on this
+system of rivers. The exports of the province are almost wholly
+transported on these rivers, and are shipped either at Guayaquil,
+or at Puna, its deep-water port, 6½ m. outside the Guayas bar,
+on the E. end of Puna Island. The Guayas river is navigable
+up to Guayaquil for steamers drawing 22 ft. of water; larger
+vessels anchor at Puna, 40 m. from Guayaquil, where cargoes and
+passengers are transferred to lighters and tenders. There is a
+quay on the river front, but the depth alongside does not exceed
+18 ft. The principal exports are cacao, rubber, coffee, tobacco,
+hides, cotton, Panama hats, cinchona bark and ivory nuts, the
+value of all exports for the year 1905 being 14,148,877 <i>sucres</i>, in
+a total of 18,565,668 <i>sucres</i> for the whole republic. In 1908 the
+exports were: cacao, about 64,000,000 &#8468;, valued at $6,400,000;
+hides, valued at $135,000; rubber, valued at $235,000; coffee,
+valued at $273,000; and vegetable ivory, valued at $102,000.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page666" id="page666"></a>666</span>
+There are some small industries in the city, including a shipyard,
+saw-mills, foundry, sugar refineries, cotton and woollen mills,
+brewery, and manufactures of soap, cigars, chocolate, ice, soda-water
+and liqueurs.</p>
+
+<p>Santiago de Guayaquil was founded on St James&rsquo;s day, the
+25th of July 1535, by Sebastian de Benalcazar, but was twice
+abandoned before its permanent settlement in 1537 by Francesco
+de Orellana. It was captured and sacked several times in the
+17th and 18th centuries by pirates and freebooters&mdash;by Jacob
+Clark in 1624, by French pirates in 1686, by English freebooters
+under Edward David in 1687, by William Dampier in 1707
+and by Clapperton in 1709. Defensive works were erected in
+1730, and in 1763, when the town was made a governor&rsquo;s residence,
+a castle and other fortifications were constructed. Owing to
+the flimsy construction of its buildings Guayaquil has been
+repeatedly burned, the greater fires occurring in 1707, 1764,
+1865, 1896 and 1899. The city was made the see of a bishopric
+in 1837.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUAYAS,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> or <span class="sc">El Guayas</span>, a coast province of Ecuador,
+bounded N. by Manabí and Pichincha, E. by Los Rios, Cañar
+and Azuay, S. by El Oro and the Gulf of Guayaquil, and W.
+by the same gulf, the Pacific Ocean and the province of Manabí.
+Pop. (1893, estimate) 98,100; area, 11,504 sq. m. It is very
+irregular in form and comprises the low alluvial districts surrounding
+the Gulf of Guayaquil between the Western Cordilleras
+and the coast. It includes (since 1885) the Galápagos Islands,
+lying 600 m. off the coast. The province of Guayas is heavily
+forested and traversed by numerous rivers, for the most part
+tributaries of the Guayas river, which enters the gulf from the
+N. This river system has a drainage area of about 14,000 sq. m.
+and an aggregate of 200 m. of navigable channels in the rainy
+season. Its principal tributaries are the Daule and Babahoyo
+or Chimbo (also called Bodegas), and of the latter the Vinces
+and Yaguachi. The climate is hot, humid and unhealthy,
+bilious and malarial fevers being prevalent. The rainfall is
+abundant and the soil is deep and fertile. Agriculture and the
+collection of forest products are the chief industries. The staple
+products are cacao, coffee, sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco and rice.
+The cultivation of cacao is the principal industry, the exports
+forming about one-third the world&rsquo;s supply. Stock-raising is
+also carried on to a limited extent. Among forest products are
+rubber, cinchona bark, toquilla fibre and ivory nuts. The
+manufacture of so-called Panama hats from the fibre of the
+toquilla palm (commonly called <i>jipijapa</i>, after a town in Manabí
+famous for this industry) is a long-established domestic industry
+among the natives of this and other coast provinces, the humidity
+of the climate greatly facilitating the work of plaiting the delicate
+straws, which would be broken in a dry atmosphere. Guayas
+is the chief industrial and commercial province of the republic,
+about nineteen-twentieths of the commerce of Ecuador passing
+through the port of its capital, Guayaquil. There are no land
+transport routes in the province except the Quito &amp; Guayaquil
+railway, which traverses its eastern half. The sluggish river
+channels which intersect the greater part of its territory afford
+excellent facilities for transporting produce, and a large number
+of small boats are regularly engaged in that traffic. There are
+no large towns in Guayas other than Guayaquil. Durán, on the
+Guayas river opposite Guayaquil, is the starting point of the
+Quito railway and contains the shops and offices of that line.
+The port of Santa Elena on a bay of the same name, about 65 m.
+W. of Guayaquil, is a landing-point of the West Coast cable,
+and a port of call for some of the regular steamship lines. Its
+exports are chiefly Panama hats and salt.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUAYCURUS,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> a tribe of South American Indians on the
+Paraguay. The name has been used generally of all the mounted
+Indians of Gran Chaco. The Guaycurus are a wild, fierce people,
+who paint their bodies and go naked. They are fearless horsemen
+and are occupied chiefly in cattle rearing.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUAYMAS,<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> or <span class="sc">San José de Guaymas</span>, a seaport of Mexico,
+in the state of Sonora, on a small bay opening into the Gulf of
+California a few miles W. of the mouth of the Yaqui river, in
+lat. 27° 58&prime; N., long. 110° 58&prime; W. Pop. (1900) 8648. The harbour
+is one of the best on the W. coast of Mexico, and the port is a
+principal outlet for the products of the large state of Sonora.
+The town stands on a small, arid plain, nearly shut in by mountains,
+and has a very hot, dry climate. It is connected with the
+railways of the United States by a branch of the Southern
+Pacific from Benson, Arizona, and is 230 m. S. by W. of the
+frontier town of Nogales, where that line enters Mexico. The
+exports include gold, silver, hides and pearls.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUBBIO<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (anc. <i>Iguvium</i>, <i>q.v.</i>; med. <i>Eugubium</i>), a town and
+episcopal see of Umbria, Italy, in the province of Perugia, from
+which it is 23 m. N.N.E. by road; by rail it is 13 m. N.W. of
+Fossato di Vico (on the line between Foligno and Ancona)
+and 70 m. E.S.E. of Arezzo. Pop. (1901) 5783 (town); 26,718
+(commune). Gubbio is situated at the foot and on the steep
+slopes of Monte Calvo, from 1568 to 1735 ft. above sea-level,
+at the entrance to the gorge which ascends to Scheggia, probably
+on the site of the ancient Umbrian town. It presents a markedly
+medieval appearance. The most prominent building is the
+Palazzo dei Consoli, on the N. side of the Piazza della Signoria;
+it is a huge Gothic edifice with a tower, erected in 1332-1346,
+according to tradition, by Matteo di Giovanello of Gubbio,
+the name of Angelo da Orvieto occurs on the arch of the main
+door, but his work may be limited to the sculptures of this
+arch. It has two stories above the ground floor, and, being on
+the slope of the hill, is, like the whole piazza, raised on arched
+substructures. On the S. side of the piazza is the Palazzo
+Pretorio, or della Podestà, begun in 1349 and now the municipal
+palace. It contains the famous <i>Tabulae Iguvinae</i>, and a collection
+of paintings of the Umbrian school, of furniture and of
+majolica. On the E. side is the modern Palazzo Ranghiasci-Brancaleone,
+which until 1882 contained fine collections, now
+dispersed. Above the Piazza della Signoria, at the highest
+point of the town, is the Palazzo Ducale, erected by the dukes
+of Urbino in 1474-1480; the architect was, in all probability,
+Lucio da Laurana, to whom is due the palace at Urbino, which
+this palace resembles, especially in its fine colonnaded court.
+The Palazzo Beni, lower down, belongs to a somewhat earlier
+period of the 15th century. Pope Martin V. lodged here for a
+few days in 1420. The Palazzo Accoramboni, on the other
+hand, is a Renaissance structure, with a fine entrance arch.
+Here Vittoria Accoramboni was born in 1557. Opposite the
+Palazzo Ducale is the cathedral, dedicated to SS. Mariano e
+Jacopo, a structure of the 12th century, with a façade, adorned
+with contemporary sculptures, partly restored in 1514-1550.
+The interior contains some good pictures by Umbrian artists,
+a fine episcopal throne in carved wood, and a fine Flemish cope
+given by Pope Marcellus II. (1555) in the sacristy. The exterior
+of the Gothic church of S. Francesco, in the lower part
+of the town, built in 1259, preserves its original style, but the interior
+has been modernized; and the same fate has overtaken the
+Gothic churches of S. Maria Nuova and S. Pietro. S. Agostino,
+on the other hand, has its Gothic interior better preserved. The
+whole town is full of specimens of medieval architecture, the
+pointed arch of the 13th century being especially prevalent.
+A remarkable procession takes place in Gubbio on the 15th of
+May in each year, in honour of S. Ubaldo, when three colossal
+wooden pedestals, each over 30 ft. high, and crowned by statues
+of SS. Ubaldo, Antonio and Giorgio, are carried through the
+town, and then, in a wild race, up to the church of S. Ubaldo
+on the mountain-side (2690 ft.). See H. M. Bower, <i>The Elevation
+and Procession of the Ceri at Gubbio</i> (Folk-lore Society, London,
+1897).</p>
+
+<p>After its reconstruction with the help of Narses (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Iguvium</a></span>)
+the town remained subject to the exarchs of Ravenna, and,
+after the destruction of the Lombard kingdom in 774, formed
+part of the donation of Charlemagne to the pope. In the 11th
+century the beginnings of its independence may be traced. In
+the struggles of that time it was generally on the Ghibelline side.
+In 1151 it repelled an attack of several neighbouring cities, and
+formed from this time a republic governed by consuls. In 1155
+it was besieged by the emperor Frederick I., but saved by the
+intervention of its bishop, S. Ubaldo, and was granted privileges
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page667" id="page667"></a>667</span>
+by the emperor. In 1203 it had its first podestà, and from this
+period dates the rise of its importance. In 1387, after various
+political changes, it surrendered to Antonio da Montefeltro of
+Urbino, and remained under the dominion of the dukes of
+Urbino until, in 1624, the whole duchy was ceded to the pope.</p>
+
+<p>Gubbio was the birthplace of Oderisio, a famous miniature
+painter (1240-1299), mentioned by Dante as the honour of his
+native town (<i>Purg.</i> xi. 80 &ldquo;<i>l&rsquo;onor d&rsquo;Agobbio</i>&rdquo;), but no authentic
+works by him exist. In the 14th and 15th centuries a branch
+of the Umbrian school of painting flourished here, the most
+famous masters of which were Guido Palmerucci (1280-1345?)
+and several members of the Nelli family, particularly Ottaviano
+(d. 1444), whose best work is the &ldquo;Madonna del Belvedere&rdquo;
+in S. Maria Nuova at Gubbio (1404), extremely well preserved,
+with bright colouring and fine details. Another work by him
+is the group of frescoes including a large &ldquo;Last Judgment,&rdquo;
+and scenes from the life of St Augustine, in the church of
+S. Agostino, discovered in 1902 under a coating of whitewash.
+These painters seem to have been influenced by the contemporary
+masters of the Sienese school.</p>
+
+<p>Gubbio occupies a far more important place in the history
+of majolica. In a decree of 1438 a <i>vasarius vasorum pictorum</i> is
+mentioned, who probably was not the first of his trade. The art
+was brought to perfection by Giorgio Andreoli, whose father had
+emigrated hither from Pavia, and who in 1498 became a citizen
+of Gubbio. The works by his hand are remarkable for their
+ruby tint, with a beautiful metallic lustre; but only one small
+tazza remains in Gubbio itself. His art was carried on by his sons,
+Cencio and Ubaldo, but was afterwards lost, and only recovered
+in 1853 by Angelico Fabbri and Luigi Carocci.</p>
+
+<p>Two miles outside Porta Metauro to the N.E. is the Bottaccione,
+a large water reservoir, constructed in the 12th or 14th
+century; the water is collected in the bed of a stream by a
+massive dam.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Colasanti, <i>Gubbio</i> (Bergamo, 1905); L. McCracken, <i>Gubbio</i>
+(London, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUBEN,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, at
+the confluence of the Lubis with the Neisse, 28 m. S.S.E. of
+Frankfort-on-Oder, at the junction of railways to Breslau,
+Halle and Forst. Pop. (1875) 23,704; (1905) 36,666. It possesses
+three Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church,
+a synagogue, a gymnasium, a modern school, a museum and a
+theatre. The principal industries are the spinning and weaving
+of wool, dyeing, tanning, and the manufacture of pottery ware,
+hats, cloth, paper and machinery. The vine is cultivated in the
+neighbourhood to some extent, and there is also some trade in
+fruit and vegetables. Guben is of Wendish origin. It is mentioned
+in 1207 and received civic rights in 1235. It was surrounded
+by walls in 1311, about which time it came into the
+possession of the margrave of Brandenburg, from whom it
+passed to Bohemia in 1368. It was twice devastated by the
+Hussites, and in 1631 and 1642 it was occupied by the Swedes.
+By the peace of Prague in 1635 it came into the possession of
+the elector of Saxony, and in 1815 it was, with the rest of Lower
+Lusatia, united to Prussia.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUBERNATIS, ANGELO DE,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1840-&emsp;&emsp;), Italian man
+of letters, was born at Turin and educated there and at Berlin,
+where he studied philology. In 1862 he was appointed professor
+of Sanskrit at Florence, but having married a cousin of the
+Socialist Bakunin and become interested in his views he resigned
+his appointment and spent some years in travel. He was
+reappointed, however, in 1867; and in 1891 he was transferred
+to the university of Rome. He became prominent both as an
+orientalist, a publicist and a poet. He founded the <i>Italia
+letteraria</i> (1862), the <i>Rivista orientale</i> (1867), the <i>Civitta italiana</i>
+and <i>Rivista europea</i> (1869), the <i>Bollettino italiano degli studii
+orientali</i> (1876) and the <i>Revue internationale</i> (1883), and in
+1887 became director of the <i>Giornale della società asiatica</i>. In
+1878 he started the <i>Dizionario biografico degli scrittori contemporanei</i>.
+His Oriental and mythological works include the
+<i>Piccola enciclopedia indiana</i> (1867), the <i>Fonti vediche</i> (1868),
+a famous work on zoological mythology (1872), and another on
+plant mythology (1878). He also edited the encyclopaedic
+<i>Storia universale della letteratura</i> (1882-1885). His work in
+verse includes the dramas <i>Cato</i>, <i>Romolo</i>, <i>Il re Nala</i>, <i>Don Rodrigo</i>,
+<i>Savitri</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUDBRANDSDAL,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a district in the midlands of southern
+Norway, comprising the upper course of the river Lougen or
+Laagen from Lillehammer at the head of Lake Mjösen to its
+source in Lake Lesjekogen and tributary valleys. Lillehammer,
+the centre of a rich timber district, is 114 m. N. of Christiania
+by rail. The railway continues through the well-wooded and
+cultivated valley to Otta (70 m.). Several tracks run westward
+into the wild district of the Jotunheim. From Otto good driving
+routes run across the watershed and descend the western slope,
+where the scenery is incomparably finer than in Gudbrandsdal
+itself&mdash;(<i>a</i>) past Sörum, with the 13th-century churches of
+Vaagen and Lom (a fine specimen of the Stavekirke or timber-built
+church), Aanstad and Polfos, with beautiful falls of the
+Otta river, to Grotlid, whence roads diverge to Stryn on the
+Nordfjord, and to Marok on the Geirangerfjord; (<i>b</i>) past
+Domaas (with branch road north to Stören near Trondhjem,
+skirting the Dovrefjeld), over the watershed formed by Lesjekogen
+Lake, which drains in both directions, and down through
+the magnificent Romsdal.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUDE<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Gudius</span>), <b>MARQUARD</b> (1635-1689), German archaeologist
+and classical scholar, was born at Rendsburg in Holstein
+on the 1st of February 1635. He was originally intended for
+the law, but from an early age showed a decided preference for
+classical studies. In 1658 he went to Holland in the hope of
+finding work as a teacher of classics, and in the following year,
+through the influence of J. F. Gronovius, he obtained the post of
+tutor and travelling companion to a wealthy young Dutchman,
+Samuel Schars. During his travels Gude seized the opportunity
+of copying inscriptions and MSS. At the earnest request of his
+pupil, who had become greatly attached to him, Gude refused
+more than one professional appointment, and it was not until
+1671 that he accepted the post of librarian to Duke Christian
+Albert of Holstein-Gottorp. Schars, who had accompanied
+Gude, died in 1675, and left him the greater part of his property.
+In 1678 Gude, having quarrelled with the duke, retired into
+private life; but in 1682 he entered the service of Christian V.
+of Denmark as counsellor of the Schleswig-Holstein chancellery,
+and remained in it almost to the time of his death on the 26th
+of November 1689. Gude&rsquo;s great life-work, the collection of
+Greek and Latin inscriptions, was not published till 1731.
+Mention may also be made of his <i>editio princeps</i> (1661) of the
+treatise of Hippolytus the Martyr on Antichrist, and of his notes
+on Phaedrus (with four new fables discovered by him) published
+in P. Burmann&rsquo;s edition (1698).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His correspondence (ed. P. Burmann, 1697) is the most important
+authority for the events of Gude&rsquo;s life, besides containing valuable
+information on the learning of the times. See also J. Moller, <i>Cimbria
+literata</i>, iii., and C. Bursian in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, x.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUDEMAN, ALFRED<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1862-&emsp;&emsp;), American classical scholar,
+was born in Atlanta, Georgia, on the 26th of August 1862.
+He graduated at Columbia University in 1883 and studied under
+Hermann Diels at the University of Berlin. From 1890 to 1893
+he was reader in classical philology at Johns Hopkins University,
+from 1893 to 1902 professor in the University of Pennsylvania,
+and from 1902 to 1904 professor in Cornell University. In 1904
+he became a member of the corps of scholars preparing the
+Wölfflin <i>Thesaurus linguae Latinae</i>&mdash;a unique distinction for an
+American Latinist, as was the publication of his critical edition,
+with German commentary, of Tacitus&rsquo; <i>Agricola</i> in 1902 by the
+Weidmannsche Buchhandlung of Berlin. He wrote <i>Latin
+Literature of the Empire</i> (2 vols., <i>Prose and Poetry</i>, 1898-1899),
+a <i>History of Classical Philology</i> (1902) and <i>Sources of Plutarch&rsquo;s
+Life of Cicero</i> (1902); and edited Tacitus&rsquo; <i>Dialogus de oratoribus</i>
+(text with commentary, 1894 and 1898) and <i>Agricola</i> (1899;
+with <i>Germania</i>, 1900), and Sallust&rsquo;s <i>Catiline</i> (1903).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUDGEON<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (<i>Gobio fluviatilis</i>), a small fish of the Cyprinid
+family. It is nearly related to the barbel, and has a small barbel
+or fleshy appendage at each corner of the mouth. It is the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page668" id="page668"></a>668</span>
+<i>gobione</i> of Italy, <i>goujon</i> of France (whence adapted in M. English
+as <i>gojon</i>), and <i>Grässling</i> or <i>Gründling</i> of Germany. Gudgeons
+thrive in streams and lakes, keeping to the bottom, and seldom
+exceeding 8 in. in length. In China and Japan there are varieties
+differing only slightly from the common European type.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUDRUN<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Kudrun</span>), a Middle High German epic, written
+probably in the early years of the 13th century, not long after
+the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>, the influence of which may be traced upon
+it. It is preserved in a single MS. which was prepared at the
+command of Maximilian I., and was discovered as late as 1820
+in the Castle of Ambras in Tirol. The author was an unnamed
+Austrian poet, but the story itself belongs to the cycle of sagas,
+which originated on the shores of the North Sea. The epic falls
+into three easily distinguishable parts&mdash;the adventures of King
+Hagen of Ireland, the romance of Hettel, king of the Hegelingen,
+who woos and wins Hagen&rsquo;s daughter Hilde, and lastly, the
+more or less parallel story of how Herwig, king of Seeland, wins,
+in opposition to her father&rsquo;s wishes, Gudrun, the daughter of
+Hettel and Hilde. Gudrun is carried off by a king of Normandy,
+and her kinsfolk, who are in pursuit, are defeated in a great
+battle on the island of Wülpensand off the Dutch coast. The
+finest parts of the epic are those in which Gudrun, a prisoner in
+the Norman castle, refuses to become the wife of her captor,
+and is condemned to do the most menial work of the household.
+Here, thirteen years later, Herwig and her brother Ortwin find
+her washing clothes by the sea; on the following day they
+attack the Norman castle with their army and carry out the
+long-delayed retribution.</p>
+
+<p>The epic of <i>Gudrun</i> is not unworthy to stand beside the
+greater <i>Nibelungenlied</i>, and it has been aptly compared with
+it as the <i>Odyssey</i> to the <i>Iliad</i>. Like the <i>Odyssey</i>, Gudrun is an
+epic of the sea, a story of adventure; it does not turn solely
+round the conflict of human passions; nor is it built up round
+one all-absorbing, all-dominating idea like the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>.
+Scenery and incident are more varied, and the poet has an
+opportunity for a more lyric interpretation of motive and
+character. <i>Gudrun</i> is composed in stanzas similar to those
+of the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>, but with the essential difference that the
+last line of each stanza is identical with the others, and does
+not contain the extra accented syllable characteristic of the
+<i>Nibelungen</i> metre.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Gudrun</i> was first edited by von der Hagen in vol. i. of his
+<i>Heldenbuch</i> (1820). Subsequent editions by A. Ziemann and A. J.
+Vollmer followed in 1837 and 1845. The best editions are those
+by K. Bartsch (4th ed., 1880), who has also edited the poem
+for Kürschner&rsquo;s <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i> (vol. 6, 1885), by B.
+Symons (1883) and by E. Martin (2nd ed., 1901). L. Ettmüller
+first applied Lachmann&rsquo;s ballad-theory to the poem (1841), and K.
+Müllenhoff (<i>Kudrun, die echten Teile des Gedichts</i>, 1845) rejected
+more than three-quarters of the whole as &ldquo;not genuine.&rdquo; There are
+many translations of the epic into modern German, the best known
+being that of K. Simrock (15th ed., 1884). A translation into
+English by M. P. Nichols appeared at Boston, U.S.A., in 1889.</p>
+
+<p>See K. Bartsch, <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte und Kritik der Kudrun</i>
+(1865); H. Keck, <i>Die Gudrunsage</i> (1867); W. Wilmanns, <i>Die
+Entwickelung der Kudrundichtung</i> (1873); A. Fécamp, <i>Le Poème
+de Gudrun, ses origines, sa formation et son histoire</i> (1892); F. Panzer,
+<i>Hilde-Gudrun</i> (1901). For later versions and adaptations of the
+saga see O. Benedict, <i>Die Gudrunsage in der neueren Literatur</i> (1902.)</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUÉBRIANT, JEAN BAPTISTE BUDES<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1602-1643),
+marshal of France, was born at Plessis-Budes, near St
+Brieuc, of an old Breton family. He served first in Holland, and
+in the Thirty Years&rsquo; War he commanded from 1638 to 1639 the
+French contingent in the army of his friend Bernard of Saxe-Weimar,
+distinguishing himself particularly at the siege of
+Breisach in 1638. Upon the death of Bernard he received
+the command of his army, and tried, in conjunction with J.
+Baner (1596-1641), the Swedish general, a bold attack upon
+Regensburg (1640). His victories of Wolfenbüttel on the
+29th of June 1641 and of Kempen in 1642 won for him the
+marshal&rsquo;s bâton. Having failed in an attempt to invade Bavaria
+in concert with Torstensson he seized Rottweil, but was mortally
+wounded there on the 17th of November 1643.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A biography was published by Le Laboureur, <i>Histoire du mareschal
+de Guébriant</i>, in 1656. See A. Brinzinger in <i>Württembergische
+Vierteljahrschrift für Landesgeschichte</i> (1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUELDER ROSE,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> so called from Guelderland, its supposed
+source, termed also marsh elder, rose elder, water elder (Ger.
+<i>Wasserholder</i>, <i>Schneeball</i>; Fr. <i>viorne-obier</i>, <i>l&rsquo;obier d&rsquo;Europe</i>),
+known botanically as <i>Viburnum Opulus</i>, a shrub or small tree
+of the natural order Caprifoliaceae, a native of Britain, and
+widely distributed in the temperate and colder parts of Europe,
+Asia and North America. It is common in Ireland, but rare
+in Scotland. In height it is from 6 to 12 ft., and it thrives best
+in moist situations. The leaves are smooth, 2 to 3 in. broad, with
+3 to 5 unequal serrate lobes, and glandular stipules adnate to
+the stalk. In autumn the leaves change their normal bright
+green for a pink or crimson hue. The flowers, which appear in
+June and July, are small, white, and arranged in cymes 2 to 4 in.
+in diameter. The outer blossoms in the wild plant have an
+enlarged corolla, ¾ in. in diameter, and are devoid of stamens
+or pistils; in the common cultivated variety all the flowers are
+sterile and the inflorescence is globular, hence the term &ldquo;snowball
+tree&rdquo; applied to the plant, the appearance of which at the
+time of flowering has been prettily described by Cowper in his
+<i>Winter Walk at Noon</i>. The guelder rose bears juicy, red, elliptical
+berries, <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> in. long, which ripen in September, and contain each a
+single compressed seed. In northern Europe these are eaten,
+and in Siberia, after fermentation with flour, they are distilled
+for spirit. The plant has, however, emetic, purgative and narcotic
+properties; and Taylor (<i>Med. Jurisp.</i> i. 448, 2nd ed., 1873)
+has recorded an instance of the fatal poisoning of a child by
+the berries. Both they and the bark contain valerianic acid.
+The woody shoots of the guelder rose are manufactured into
+various small articles in Sweden and Russia. Another member
+of the genus, <i>Viburnum</i>, <i>Lantana</i>, wayfaring tree, is found in dry
+copses and hedges in England, except in the north.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUELPH,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> a city of Ontario, Canada, 45 m. W. of Toronto,
+on the river Speed and the Grand Trunk and Canadian Pacific
+railways. Pop. (1901) 11,496. It is the centre of a fine agricultural
+district, and exports grain, fruit and live-stock in large
+quantities. It contains, in addition to the county and municipal
+buildings, the Ontario Agricultural College, which draws students
+from all parts of North and South America. The river affords
+abundant water-power for flour-mills, saw-mills, woollen-mills
+and numerous factories, of which agricultural implements,
+sewing machines and musical instruments are the chief.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES.<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> These names are doubtless
+Italianized forms of the German words Welf and Waiblingen,
+although one tradition says that they are derived from Guelph
+and Gibel, two rival brothers of Pistoia. Another theory derives
+Ghibelline from Gibello, a word used by the Sicilian Arabs to
+translate Hohenstaufen. However, a more popular story tells
+how, during a fight around Weinsberg in December 1140 between
+the German king Conrad III. and Welf, count of Bavaria, a
+member of the powerful family to which Henry the Lion, duke
+of Saxony and Bavaria, belonged, the soldiers of the latter
+raised the cry &ldquo;Hie Welf!&rdquo; to which the king&rsquo;s troops replied
+with &ldquo;Hie Waiblingen!&rdquo; this being the name of one of Conrad&rsquo;s
+castles. But the rivalry between Welf and Hohenstaufen, of
+which family Conrad was a member, was anterior to this event,
+and had been for some years a prominent fact in the history of
+Swabia and Bavaria, although its introduction into Italy&mdash;in a
+slightly modified form, however&mdash;only dates from the time of
+the Italian expeditions of the emperor Frederick I. It is about
+this time that the German chronicler, Otto of Freising, says,
+&ldquo;Duae in Romano orbe apud Galliae Germaniaeve fines famosae
+familiae actenus fuere, una Heinricorum de Gueibelinga, alia
+Guelforum de Aldorfo, altera imperatores, altera magnos duces
+producere solita.&rdquo; Chosen German king in 1152, Frederick
+was not only the nephew and the heir of Conrad, he was related
+also to the Welfs; yet, although his election abated to some
+extent the rivalry between Welf and Hohenstaufen in Germany,
+it opened it upon a larger and fiercer scale in Italy.</p>
+
+<p>During the long and interesting period covered by Frederick&rsquo;s
+Italian campaigns, his enemies, prominent among whom were
+the cities of the Lombard League, became known as Welfs,
+or Guelphs, while his partisans seized upon the rival term of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page669" id="page669"></a>669</span>
+Waiblingen, or Ghibelline, and the contest between these two
+parties was carried on with a ferocity unknown even to the
+inhabitants of southern Germany. The distracted state of
+northern Italy, the jealousies between various pairs of towns,
+the savage hatred between family and family, were some of the
+causes which fed this feud, and it reached its height during the
+momentous struggle between Frederick II. and the Papacy in
+the 13th century. The story of the contest between Guelph
+and Ghibelline, however, is little less than the history of Italy
+in the middle ages. At the opening of the 13th century it was
+intensified by the fight for the German and imperial thrones
+between Philip, duke of Swabia, a son of Frederick I., and the
+Welf, Otto of Brunswick, afterwards the emperor Otto IV.,
+a fight waged in Italy as well as in Germany. Then, as the heir
+of Philip of Swabia and the rival of Otto of Brunswick, Frederick
+II. was forced to throw himself into the arms of the Ghibellines,
+while his enemies, the popes, ranged themselves definitely among
+the Guelphs, and soon Guelph and Ghibelline became synonymous
+with supporter of pope and emperor.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of Frederick II. in 1250 the Ghibellines
+looked for leadership to his son and successor, the German king,
+Conrad IV., and then to his natural son, Manfred, while the
+Guelphs called the French prince, Charles of Anjou, to their aid.
+But the combatants were nearing exhaustion, and after the
+execution of Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen, in 1268,
+this great struggle began to lose force and interest. Guelph
+and Ghibelline were soon found representing local and family
+rather than papal and imperial interests; the names were
+taken with little or no regard for their original significance,
+and in the 15th century they began to die out of current politics.
+However, when Louis XII. of France conquered Milan at the
+beginning of the 16th century the old names were revived;
+the French king&rsquo;s supporters were called Guelphs and the
+friends of the emperor Maximilian I. were referred to as
+Ghibellines.</p>
+
+<p>The feud of Guelph and Ghibelline penetrated within the
+walls of almost every city of northern Italy, and the contest
+between the parties, which practically makes the history of
+Florence during the 13th century, is specially noteworthy.
+First one side and then the other was driven into exile; the
+Guelph defeat at the battle of Monte Aperto in 1260 was followed
+by the expulsion of the Ghibellines by Charles of Anjou in 1266,
+and on a smaller scale a similar story may be told of many other
+cities (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Florence</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The Guelph cause was buttressed by an idea, yet very
+nebulous, of Italian patriotism. Dislike of the German and the
+foreigner rather than any strong affection for the Papacy was
+the feeling which bound the Guelph to the pope, and so enabled
+the latter to defy the arms of Frederick II. The Ghibelline
+cause, on the other hand, was aided by the dislike of the temporal
+power of the pope and the desire for a strong central authority.
+This made Dante a Ghibelline, but the hopes of this party,
+kindled anew by the journey of Henry VII. to Italy in 1310,
+were extinguished by his departure. J. A. Symonds thus describes
+the constituents of the two parties: &ldquo;The Guelph party
+meant the burghers of the consular Communes, the men of
+industry and commerce, the upholders of civil liberty, the
+friends of democratic expansion. The Ghibelline party included
+the naturalized nobles, the men of arms and idleness, the
+advocates of feudalism, the politicians who regarded constitutional
+progress with disfavour. That the banner of the church
+floated over the one camp, while the standard of the empire
+rallied to itself the hostile party, was a matter of comparatively
+superficial moment.&rdquo; In another passage the same writer thus
+describes the sharp and universal division between Guelph and
+Ghibelline: &ldquo;Ghibellines wore the feathers in their caps upon
+one side, Guelphs upon the other. Ghibellines cut fruit at table
+crosswise, Guelphs straight down ... Ghibellines drank out
+of smooth and Guelphs out of chased goblets. Ghibellines wore
+white and Guelphs red roses.&rdquo; It is interesting to note that
+while Dante was a Ghibelline, Petrarch was a Guelph.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. A. Symonds, <i>The Renaissance in Italy</i>, vol. i. (1875).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUENEVERE<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (Lat. <i>Guanhumara</i>; Welsh, <i>Gwenhwyfar</i>;
+O. Eng. <i>Gaynore</i>), in Arthurian romance the wife of King
+Arthur. Geoffrey of Monmouth, who calls her Guanhumara,
+makes her a Roman lady, but the general tradition is that she
+was of Cornish birth and daughter to King Leodegrance.
+Wace, who, while translating Geoffrey, evidently knew, and
+used, popular tradition, combines these two, asserting that she
+was of Roman parentage on the mother&rsquo;s side, but cousin to
+Cador of Cornwall by whom she was brought up. The tradition
+relating to Guenevere is decidedly confused and demands
+further study. The Welsh triads know no fewer than three
+Gwenhwyfars; Giraldus Cambrensis, relating the discovery of
+the royal tombs at Glastonbury, speaks of the body found as
+that of Arthur&rsquo;s second wife; the prose <i>Merlin</i> gives Guenevere
+a bastard half-sister of the same name, who strongly resembles
+her; and the <i>Lancelot</i> relates how this lady, trading on the
+likeness, persuaded Arthur that she was the true daughter of
+Leodegrance, and the queen the bastard interloper. This episode
+of the false Guenevere is very perplexing.</p>
+
+<p>To the majority of English readers Guenevere is best known
+in connexion with her liaison with Lancelot, a story which, in
+the hands of Malory and Tennyson, has assumed a form widely
+different from the original conception, and at once more picturesque
+and more convincing. In the French romances Lancelot
+is a late addition to the Arthurian cycle, his birth is not recorded
+till long after the marriage of Arthur and Guenevere, and he is
+at least twenty years the junior of the queen. The relations
+between them are of the most conventional and courtly character,
+and are entirely lacking in the genuine dramatic passion
+which marks the love story of Tristan and Iseult. The <i>Lancelot-Guenevere</i>
+romance took form and shape in the artificial atmosphere
+encouraged by such patronesses of literature as Eleanor
+of Aquitaine and her daughter Marie, Comtesse de Champagne
+(for whom Chrétien de Troyes wrote his <i>Chevalier de la Charrette</i>),
+and reflects the low social morality of a time when love between
+husband and wife was declared impossible. But though Guenevere
+has changed her lover, the tradition of her infidelity is of
+much earlier date and formed a part of the primitive Arthurian
+legend. Who the original lover was is doubtful; the <i>Vita
+Gildae</i> relates how she was carried off by Melwas, king of Aestiva
+Regis, to Glastonbury, whither Arthur, at the head of an army,
+pursued the ravisher. A fragment of a Welsh poem seems to
+confirm this tradition, which certainly lies at the root of her
+later abduction by Meleagaunt. In the <i>Lanzelet</i> of Ulrich von
+Zatzikhoven the abductor is Falerîn. The story in these forms
+represents an other-world abduction. A curious fragment of
+Welsh dialogues, printed by Professor Rhys in his <i>Studies on
+the Arthurian Legend</i>, appears to represent Kay as the abductor.
+In the pseudo-Chronicles and the romances based upon them
+the abductor is Mordred, and in the chronicles there is no doubt
+that the lady was no unwilling victim. On the final defeat of
+Mordred she retires to a nunnery, takes the veil, and is no more
+heard of. Wace says emphatically&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p><i>Ne fu oie ne véue,</i></p>
+<p><i>Ne fu trovée, ne séue</i></p>
+<p><i>Por la vergogne del mesfait</i></p>
+<p><i>Et del pecié qu ele avoit fait</i> (11. 13627-30).</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Layamon, who in his translation of Wace treats his original
+much as Wace treated Geoffrey, says that there was a tradition
+that she had drowned herself, and that her memory and that
+of Mordred were hateful in every land, so that none would offer
+prayer for their souls. On the other hand certain romances,
+<i>e.g.</i> the <i>Perceval</i>, give her an excellent character. The truth is
+probably that the tradition of his wife&rsquo;s adultery and treachery
+was a genuine part of the Arthurian story, which, neglected for
+a time, was brought again into prominence by the social conditions
+of the courts for which the later romances were composed;
+and it is in this later and conventionalized form that
+the tale has become familiar to us (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lancelot</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Studies on the Arthurian Legend</i> by Professor Rhys; <i>The
+Legend of Sir Lancelot</i>, Grimm Library, xii., Jessie L. Weston;
+<i>Der Karrenritter</i>, ed. Professor Foerster.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. L. W.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page670" id="page670"></a>670</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUENON<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (from the French, = one who grimaces, hence an
+ape), the name applied by naturalists to the monkeys of the
+African genus <i>Cercopithecus</i>, the Ethiopian representative of
+the Asiatic macaques, from which they differ by the absence of
+a posterior heel to the last molar in the lower jaw.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUÉRET,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a town of central France, capital of the department
+of Creuse, situated on a mountain declivity 48 m. N.E. of Limoges
+on the Orleans railway. Pop. (1906), town, 6042; commune
+(including troops, &amp;c.), 8058. Apart from the Hôtel des Monneyroux
+(used as prefecture), a picturesque mansion of the 15th
+and 16th centuries, with mansard roofs and mullioned windows,
+Guéret has little architectural interest. It is the seat of a
+prefect and a court of assizes, and has a tribunal of first instance,
+a chamber of commerce and lycées and training colleges, for
+both sexes. The industries include brewing, saw-milling,
+leather-making and the manufacture of basket-work and
+wooden shoes, and there is trade in agricultural produce and
+cattle. Guéret grew up round an abbey founded in the 7th
+century, and in later times became the capital of the district of
+Marche.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUEREZA,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> the native name of a long-tailed, black and white
+Abyssinian monkey, <i>Colobus guereza</i> (or <i>C. abyssinicus</i>), characterized
+by the white hairs forming a long pendent mantle.
+Other east African monkeys with a similar type of colouring,
+which, together with the wholly black west African <i>C. satanas</i>,
+collectively constitute the subgenus <i>Guereza</i>, may be included
+under the same title; and the name may be further extended
+to embrace all the African thumbless monkeys of the genus
+<i>Colobus</i>. These monkeys are the African representatives of
+the Indo-Malay langurs (<i>Semnopithecus</i>), with which they agree
+in their slender build, long limbs and tail, and complex stomachs,
+although differing by the rudimentary thumb. The members
+of the subgenus <i>Guereza</i> present a transition from a wholly
+black animal (<i>C. satanas</i>) to one (<i>C. caudatus</i>) in which the sides
+of the face are white, and the whole flanks, as well as the tail,
+clothed with a long fringe of pure white hairs.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUERICKE, HEINRICH ERNST FERDINAND<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (1803-1878),
+German theologian, was born at Wettin in Saxony on the 25th
+of February 1803 and studied theology at Halle, where he was
+appointed professor in 1829. He greatly disliked the union
+between the Lutheran and the Reformed churches, which had
+been accomplished by the Prussian government in 1817, and in
+1833 he definitely threw in his lot with the Old Lutherans. In
+1835 he lost his professorship, but he regained it in 1840. Among
+his works were a Life of <i>August Hermann Francke</i> (1827, Eng.
+trans. 1837), <i>Church History</i> (1833, Eng. trans. by W. T. Shedd,
+New York, 1857-1863), <i>Allgemeine christliche Symbolik</i> (1839).
+In 1840 he helped to found the <i>Zeitschrift für die gesammte
+lutherische Theologie und Kirche</i>, and he died at Halle on the
+4th of February 1878.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUERICKE, OTTO VON<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1602-1686), German experimental
+philosopher, was born at Magdeburg, in Prussian Saxony, on
+the 20th of November 1602. Having studied law at Leipzig,
+Helmstadt and Jena, and mathematics, especially geometry
+and mechanics, at Leiden, he visited France and England, and
+in 1636 became engineer-in-chief at Erfurt. In 1627 he was
+elected alderman of Magdeburg, and in 1646 mayor of that city
+and a magistrate of Brandenburg. His leisure was devoted to
+scientific pursuits, especially in pneumatics. Incited by the
+discoveries of Galileo, Pascal and Torricelli, he attempted the
+creation of a vacuum. He began by experimenting with a pump
+on water placed in a barrel, but found that when the water
+was drawn off the air permeated the wood. He then took a
+globe of copper fitted with pump and stopcock, and discovered
+that he could pump out air as well as water. Thus he became
+the inventor of the air-pump (1650). He illustrated his discovery
+before the emperor Ferdinand III. at the imperial diet which
+assembled at Regensburg in 1654, by the experiment of the
+&ldquo;Magdeburg hemispheres.&rdquo; Taking two hollow hemispheres
+of copper, the edges of which fitted nicely together, he exhausted
+the air from between them by means of his pump, and it is
+recorded that thirty horses, fifteen back to back, were unable
+to pull them asunder until the air was readmitted. Besides
+investigating other phenomena connected with a vacuum, he
+constructed an electrical machine which depended on the excitation
+of a rotating ball of sulphur; and he made successful
+researches in astronomy, predicting the periodicity of the return
+of comets. In 1681 he gave up office, and retired to Hamburg,
+where he died on the 11th of May 1686.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His principal observations are given in his work, <i>Experimenta
+nova, ut vocant, Magdeburgica de vacuo spatio</i> (Amsterdam, 1672).
+He is also the author of a <i>Geschichte der Belagerung und Eroberung
+von Magdeburg</i>. See F. W. Hoffmann, <i>Otto von Guericke</i> (Magdeburg,
+1874).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUÉRIDON,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> a small table to hold a lamp or vase, supported
+by a tall column or a human or mythological figure. This piece
+of furniture, often very graceful and elegant, originated in France
+towards the middle of the 17th century. In the beginning the
+table was supported by a negro or other exotic figure, and there
+is some reason to believe that it took its name from the generic
+appellation of the young African groom or &ldquo;tiger,&rdquo; who was
+generally called &ldquo;Guéridon,&rdquo; or as we should say in English
+&ldquo;Sambo.&rdquo; The swarthy figure and brilliant costume of the
+&ldquo;Moor&rdquo; when reproduced in wood and picked out in colours
+produced a very striking effect, and when a small table was
+supported on the head by the upraised hands the idea of passive
+service was suggested with completeness. The guéridon is still
+occasionally seen in something approaching its original form;
+but it had no sooner been introduced than the artistic instinct
+of the French designer and artificer converted it into a far
+worthier object. By the death of Louis XIV. there were several
+hundreds of them at Versailles, and within a generation or two
+they had taken an infinity of forms&mdash;columns, tripods, termini
+and mythological figures. Some of the simpler and more artistic
+forms were of wood carved with familiar decorative motives and
+gilded. Silver, enamel, and indeed almost any material from
+which furniture can be made, have been used for their construction.
+A variety of small &ldquo;occasional&rdquo; tables are now
+called in French <i>guéridons</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUÉRIN, JEAN BAPTISTE PAULIN<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1783-1855), French
+painter, was born at Toulon, on the 25th of March 1783, of poor
+parents. He learnt, as a lad, his father&rsquo;s trade of a locksmith,
+whilst at the same time he followed the classes of the free school
+of art. Having sold some copies to a local amateur, Guérin
+started for Paris, where he came under the notice of Vincent,
+whose counsels were of material service. In 1810 Guérin made
+his first appearance at the Salon with some portraits, which had
+a certain success. In 1812 he exhibited &ldquo;Cain after the murder
+of Abel&rdquo; (formerly in Luxembourg), and, on the return of the
+Bourbons, was much employed in works of restoration and decoration
+at Versailles. His &ldquo;Dead Christ&rdquo; (Cathedral, Baltimore)
+obtained a medal in 1817, and this success was followed up by
+a long series of works, of which the following are the more noteworthy:
+&ldquo;Christ on the knees of the Virgin&rdquo; (1819); &ldquo;Anchises
+and Venus&rdquo; (1822) (formerly in Luxembourg); &ldquo;Ulysses and
+Minerva&rdquo; (1824) (Musée de Rennes); &ldquo;the Holy Family&rdquo; (1829)
+(Cathedral, Toulon); and &ldquo;Saint Catherine&rdquo; (1838) (St Roch).
+In his treatment of subject, Guérin attempted to realize rococo
+graces of conception, the liveliness of which was lost in the
+strenuous effort to be correct. His chief successes were attained
+by portraits, and those of Charles Nodier and the Abbé Lamennais
+became widely popular. He died on the 19th of January
+1855.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUÉRIN, PIERRE NARCISSE,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1774-1833), French
+painter, was born at Paris on the 13th of May 1774. Becoming
+a pupil of Jean Baptiste Regnault, he carried off one of the three
+&ldquo;grands prix&rdquo; offered in 1796, in consequence of the competition
+not having taken place since 1793. The <i>pension</i> was not indeed
+re-established, but Guérin fulfilled at Paris the conditions imposed
+upon a <i>pensionnaire</i>, and produced various works, one of which
+brought him prominently before the public. This work, &ldquo;Marcus
+Sextus&rdquo; (Louvre), exhibited at the Salon of 1799, excited wild
+enthusiasm, partly due to the subject,&mdash;a victim of Sulla&rsquo;s
+proscription returning to Rome to find his wife dead and his
+house in mourning&mdash;in which an allusion was found to the actual
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page671" id="page671"></a>671</span>
+situation of the <i>émigrés</i>. Guérin on this occasion was publicly
+crowned by the president of the Institute, and before his
+departure for Rome (on the re-establishment of the École under
+Suvée) a banquet was given to him by the most distinguished
+artists of Paris. In 1800, unable to remain in Rome on account
+of his health, he went to Naples, where he painted the &ldquo;Grave of
+Amyntas.&rdquo; In 1802 Guérin produced &ldquo;Phaedra and Hippolytus&rdquo;
+(Louvre); in 1810, after his return to Paris, he again achieved
+a great success with &ldquo;Andromache and Pyrrhus&rdquo; (Louvre); and
+in the same year also exhibited &ldquo;Cephalus and Aurora&rdquo; (Collection
+Sommariva) and &ldquo;Bonaparte and the Rebels of Cairo&rdquo; (Versailles).
+The Restoration brought to Guérin fresh honours; he had received
+from the first consul in 1803 the cross of the Legion of Honour,
+and in 1815 Louis XVIII. named him Academician. The success
+of Guérin&rsquo;s &ldquo;Hippolytus&rdquo; of &ldquo;Andromache,&rdquo; of &ldquo;Phaedra&rdquo;
+and of &ldquo;Clytaemnestra&rdquo; (Louvre) had been ensured by the skilful
+selection of highly melodramatic situations, treated with the
+strained and pompous dignity proper to the art of the first empire;
+in &ldquo;Aeneas relating to Dido the disasters of Troy&rdquo; (Louvre),
+which appeared side by side with &ldquo;Clytaemnestra&rdquo; at the Salon
+of 1817, the influence of the Restoration is plainly to be traced.
+In this work Guérin sought to captivate the public by an appeal
+to those sensuous charms which he had previously rejected,
+and by the introduction of picturesque elements of interest.
+But with this work Guérin&rsquo;s public successes came to a close.
+He was, indeed, commissioned to paint for the Madeleine a
+scene from the history of St Louis, but his health prevented him
+from accomplishing what he had begun, and in 1822 he accepted
+the post of director of the École de Rome, which in 1816 he had
+refused. On returning to Paris in 1828, Guérin, who had previously
+been made chevalier of the order of St Michel, was
+ennobled. He now attempted to complete &ldquo;Pyrrhus and Priam,&rdquo;
+a work which he had begun at Rome, but in vain; his health had
+finally broken down, and in the hope of improvement he returned
+to Italy with Horace Vernet. Shortly after his arrival at Rome
+Baron Guérin died, on the 6th of July 1833, and was buried
+in the church of La Trinità de&rsquo; Monti by the side of Claude
+Lorraine.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A careful analysis and criticism of his principal works will be
+found in Meyer&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte der französischen Malerei</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUÉRIN DU CAYLA, GEORGES MAURICE DE<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (1810-1839),
+French poet, descended from a noble but poor family, was born
+at the chateau of Le Cayla in Languedoc, on the 4th of August
+1810. He was educated for the church at a religious seminary
+at Toulouse, and then at the Collège Stanislas, Paris, after
+which he entered the society at La Chesnaye in Brittany, founded
+by Lamennais. It was only after great hesitation, and without
+being satisfied as to his religious vocation, that under the influence
+of Lamennais he joined the new religious order in the
+autumn of 1832; and when, in September of the next year,
+Lamennais, who had come under the displeasure of Rome,
+severed connexion with the society, Maurice de Guérin soon
+followed his example. Early in the following year he went to
+Paris, where he was for a short time a teacher at the College
+Stanislas. In November 1838 he married a Creole lady of some
+fortune; but a few months afterwards he was attacked by
+consumption and died on the 19th of July 1839. In the <i>Revue
+des deux mondes</i> for May 15th, 1840, there appeared a notice
+of Maurice de Guérin by George Sand, to which she added two
+fragments of his writings&mdash;one a composition in prose entitled
+the <i>Centaur</i>, and the other a short poem. His <i>Reliquiae</i> (2 vols.,
+1861), including the <i>Centaur</i>, his journal, a number of his letters
+and several poems, was edited by G. S. Trébutien, and accompanied
+with a biographical and critical notice by Sainte-Beuve;
+a new edition, with the title <i>Journal, lettres et poèmes</i>, followed
+in 1862; and an English translation of it was published at New
+York in 1867. Though he was essentially a poet, his prose is
+more striking and original than his poetry. Its peculiar and
+unique charm arises from his strong and absorbing passion for
+nature, a passion whose intensity reached almost to adoration
+and worship, but in which the pagan was more prominent than
+the moral element. According to Sainte-Beuve, &ldquo;no French
+poet or painter has rendered so well the feeling for nature&mdash;the
+feeling not so much for details as for the ensemble and the divine
+universality, the feeling for the origin of things and the sovereign
+principle of life.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The name of <span class="sc">Eugénie de Guérin</span> (1805-1848), the sister
+of Maurice, cannot be omitted from any notice of him.
+Her <i>Journals</i> (1861, Eng. trans., 1865) and her <i>Lettres</i>
+(1864, Eng. trans., 1865) indicated the possession of gifts
+of as rare an order as those of her brother, though of a
+somewhat different kind. In her case mysticism assumed a
+form more strictly religious, and she continued to mourn her
+brother&rsquo;s loss of his early Catholic faith. Five years older than
+he, she cherished a love for him which was blended with a
+somewhat motherly anxiety. After his death she began the
+collection and publication of the scattered fragments of his
+writings. She died, however, on the 31st of May 1848, before
+her task was completed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the notices by George Sand and Sainte-Beuve referred to
+above; Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i> (vol. xii.) and <i>Nouveaux
+Lundis</i> (vol. iii.); G. Merlet, <i>Causeries sur les femmes et les livres</i>
+(Paris, 1865); Selden, <i>L&rsquo;Esprit des femmes de notre temps</i> (Paris,
+1864); Marelle, <i>Eugénie et Maurice de Guérin</i> (Berlin, 1869);
+Harriet Parr, <i>M. and E. de Guérin, a monograph</i> (London, 1870);
+and Matthew Arnold&rsquo;s essays on Maurice and Eugénie de Guérin,
+in his <i>Essays in Criticism</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUERNIERI,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Werner</span>, a celebrated mercenary captain who
+lived about the middle of the 14th century. He was a member
+of the family of the dukes of Urslingen, and probably a descendant
+of the dukes of Spoleto. From 1340 to 1343 he was
+in the service of the citizens of Pisa, but afterwards he collected
+a troop of adventurers which he called the Great Company,
+and with which he plundered Tuscany and Lombardy. He then
+entered the service of Louis I. the Great, king of Hungary and
+Poland, whom he assisted to obtain possession of Naples; but
+when dismissed from this service his ravages became more
+terrible than ever, culminating in the dreadful sack of Anagni
+in 1358, shortly after which Guernieri disappeared from history.
+He is said to have worn a breastplate with the inscription,
+&ldquo;The enemy of God, of pity and of mercy.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUERNSEY<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Guernesey</i>), one of the Channel Islands,
+belonging to Britain, the second in size and westernmost of the
+important members of the group. Its chief town, St Peter Port,
+on the east coast, is in 2° 33&prime; W., 49° 27&prime; N., 74 m. S. of Portland
+Bill on the English coast, and 30 m. from the nearest French
+coast to the east. The island, roughly triangular in form, is
+9¼ m. long from N.E. to S.W. and has an extreme breadth of
+5¼ m. and an area of 15,691 acres or 24.5 sq. m. Pop. (1901),
+40,446, the density being thus 162 per sq. m.</p>
+
+<p>The surface of the island rises gradually from north to south,
+and reaches its greatest elevation at Haut Nez (349 ft.) above
+Point Icart on the south coast. The coast scenery, which forms
+one of the principal attractions to the numerous summer visitors
+to the island, is finest on the south. This coast, between Jerbourg
+and Pleinmont Points, respectively at the south-eastern and
+south-western corners of the island, is bold, rocky and indented
+with many exquisite little bays. Of these the most notable are
+Moulin Huet, Saint&rsquo;s, and Petit Bot, all in the eastern half of
+the south coast. The cliffs, however, culminate in the neighbourhood
+of Pleinmont. Picturesque caves occur at several
+points, such as the Creux Mahie. On the west coast there is a
+succession of larger bays&mdash;Rocquaine Perelle, Vazon, and Cobo.
+Off the first lies Lihou Island, the Hanois and other islets, and
+all three bays are sown with rocks. The coast, however,
+diminishes in height, until at the north-eastern extremity of the
+island the land is so low across the Vale or Braye du Val, from
+shore to shore, that the projection of L&rsquo;Ancresse is within a
+few feet of being isolated. The east coast, on which, besides the
+town and harbour of St Peter Port, is that of St Sampson, presents
+no physical feature of note. The interior of the island
+is generally undulating, and gains in beauty from its rich vegetation.
+Picturesque glens descend upon some of the southern
+bays (the two converging upon Petit Bot are notable), and the
+high-banked paths, arched with foliage, which follow the small
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page672" id="page672"></a>672</span>
+rills down to Moulin Huet Bay, are much admired under the
+name of water-lanes.</p>
+
+<p>The soil is generally light sandy loam, overlying an angular
+gravel which rests upon the weathered granite. This soil
+requires much manure, and a large proportion of the total area
+(about three-fifths) is under careful cultivation, producing a
+considerable amount of grain, but more famous for market-gardening.
+Vegetables and potatoes are exported, with much
+fruit, including grapes and flowers. Granite is quarried and
+exported from St Sampson, and the fisheries form an important
+industry.</p>
+
+<p>For administrative purposes Guernsey is united with Alderney,
+Sark, Herm and the adjacent islets to form the bailiwick of
+Guernsey, separate from Jersey. The peculiar constitution,
+machinery of administration and justice, finance, &amp;c., are considered
+under the heading <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Channel Islands</a></span>. Guernsey is
+divided into the ten parishes of St Peter Port, St Sampson, Vale,
+Câtel, St Saviour, St Andrew, St Martin, Forest, St Peter du
+Bois and Torteval. The population of St Peter Port in 1901
+was 18,264; of the other parishes that of St Sampson was 5614
+and that of Vale 5082. The population of the bailiwick of
+Guernsey nearly doubled between 1821 and 1901, and that of
+the island increased from 35,243 in 1891 to 40,446 in 1901.
+The island roads are excellent, Guernsey owing much in this
+respect to Sir John Doyle (d. 1834), the governor whose monument
+stands on the promontory of Jerbourg. Like Jersey and
+the neighbouring part of France, Guernsey retains considerable
+traces of early habitation in cromlechs and menhirs, of which
+the most notable is the cromlech in the north at L&rsquo;Ancresse.
+As regards ecclesiastical architecture, all the parish churches
+retain some archaeological interest. There is good Norman
+work in the church of St Michael, Vale, and the church of St
+Peter Port is a notable building of various periods from the early
+14th century. Small remains of monastic buildings are seen at
+Vale and on Lihou Island.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUERRAZZI, FRANCESCO DOMENICO<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1804-1873), Italian
+publicist, born at Leghorn, was educated for the law at Pisa,
+and began to practise in his native place. But he soon took to
+politics and literature, under the influence of Byron, and his
+novel, the <i>Battagli di Benevento</i> (1827), brought him into notice.
+Mazzini made his acquaintance, and with Carlo Bini they started
+a paper, the <i>Indicatore</i>, at Leghorn in 1829, which was quickly
+suppressed. Guerrazzi himself had to endure several terms of
+imprisonment for his activity in the cause of Young Italy, and
+it was in Portoferrato in 1834 that he wrote his most famous
+novel <i>Assidio di Firenze</i>. He was the most powerful Liberal
+leader at Leghorn, and in 1848 became a minister, with some
+idea of exercising a moderating influence in the difficulties
+with the grand-duke of Tuscany. In 1849, when the latter
+fled, he was first one of the triumvirate with Mazzini and
+Montanelli, and then dictator, but on the restoration he was
+arrested and imprisoned for three years. His <i>Apologia</i> was
+published in 1852. Released from prison, he was exiled to
+Corsica, but subsequently was restored and was for some time a
+deputy at Turin (1862-1870), dying of apoplexy at Leghorn
+on the 25th of September 1873. He wrote a number of other
+works besides the novels already mentioned, notably <i>Isabella
+Orsini</i> (1845) and <i>Beatrice Cenci</i> (1854), and his <i>Opere</i> were
+collected at Milan (1868).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Life and Works</i> by Bosio (1877), and Carducci&rsquo;s edition of
+his letters (1880).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUERRERO,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> a Pacific coast state of Mexico, bounded N.W.
+by Michoacan, N. by Mexico (state) and Morelos, N.E. and E.
+by Puebla and Oaxaca, and S. and W. by the Pacific. Area,
+24,996 sq. m. Pop., largely composed of Indians and mestizos
+(1895), 417,886; (1900) 479,205. The state is roughly broken
+by the Sierra Madre and its spurs, which cover its entire surface
+with the exception of the low coastal plain (averaging about
+20 m. in width) on the Pacific. The valleys are usually narrow,
+fertile and heavily forested, but difficult of access. The state
+is divided into two distinct zones&mdash;the <i>tierras calientes</i> of the
+coast and lower river courses where tropical conditions prevail,
+and the <i>tierras templadas</i> of the mountain region where the
+conditions are subtropical. The latter is celebrated for its
+agreeable and healthy climate, and for the variety and character
+of its products. The principal river of the state is the Rio de las
+Balsas or Mescala, which, having its source in Tlaxcala, flows
+entirely across the state from W. to E., and then southward to
+the Pacific on the frontier of Michoacan. This river is 429 m.
+long and receives many affluents from the mountainous region
+through which it passes, but its course is very precipitous and
+its mouth obstructed by sand bars. The agricultural products
+include cotton, coffee, tobacco and cereals, and the forests produce
+rubber, vanilla and various textile fibres. Mining is undeveloped,
+although the mineral resources of the state include silver, gold,
+mercury, lead, iron, coal, sulphur and precious stones. The
+capital, Chilpancingo, or Chilpancingo de los Bravos (pop. 7497
+in 1900), is a small town in the Sierra Madre about 110 m. from
+the coast and 200 m. S. of the Federal capital. It is a healthy
+well-built town on the old Acapulco road, is lighted by electricity
+and is temporarily the western terminus of the Interoceanic
+railway from Vera Cruz. It is celebrated in the history of
+Mexico as the meeting-place of the revolutionary congress of
+1813, which issued a declaration of independence. Chilpancingo
+was badly damaged by an earthquake in January 1902, and
+again on the 16th of April 1907. Other important towns of the
+state are Tixtla, or Tixtla de Guerrero, formerly the capital
+(pop. 6316 in 1900), 3 m. N.E. of Chilpancingo; Chilapa (8256 in
+1895), the most populous town of the state, partially destroyed
+by a hurricane in 1889, and again by the earthquake of 1907;
+Iguala (6631 in 1895); and Acapulco. Guerrero was organized
+as a state in 1849, its territory being taken from the states of
+Mexico, Michoacan and Puebla.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUERRILLA<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (erroneously written &ldquo;guerilla,&rdquo; being the
+diminutive of the Span. <i>guerra</i>, war), a term currently used to
+denote war carried on by bands in any irregular and unorganized
+manner. At the Hague Conference of 1899 the position of
+irregular combatants was one of the subjects dealt with, and the
+rules there adopted were reaffirmed at the Conference of 1907.
+They provide that irregular bands in order to enjoy recognition
+as belligerent forces shall (<i>a</i>) have at their head a person
+responsible for his subordinates, (<i>b</i>) wear some fixed distinctive
+badge recognizable at a distance, (<i>c</i>) carry arms openly, and (<i>d</i>)
+conform in their operations to the laws and customs of war.
+The rules, however, also provide that in case of invasion the
+inhabitants of a territory who on the approach of the invading
+enemy spontaneously take up arms to resist it, shall be regarded
+as belligerent troops if they carry arms openly and respect the laws
+and customs of war, although they may not have had time to
+become organized in accordance with the above provisions.
+These rules were borrowed almost word for word from the project
+drawn up at the Brussels international conference of 1874,
+which, though never ratified, was practically incorporated in the
+army regulations issued by the Russian government in connexion
+with the war of 1877-78.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. Ba.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUERRINI, OLINDO<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (1845-&emsp;&emsp;), Italian poet, was born
+at Sant&rsquo; Alberto, Ravenna, and after studying law took to a
+life of letters, becoming eventually librarian at Bologna University.
+In 1877 he published <i>Postuma</i>, a volume of <i>canzoniere</i>,
+under the name of Lorenzo Stechetti, following this with <i>Polemica</i>
+(1878), <i>Canti popolari romagnoli</i> (1880) and other poetical
+works, and becoming known as the leader of the &ldquo;verist&rdquo;
+school among Italian lyrical writers.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUESDE, JULES BASILE<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (1845-&emsp;&emsp;), French socialist,
+was born in Paris on the 11th of November 1845. He had
+begun his career as a clerk in the French Home Office, but at
+the outbreak of the Franco-German War he was editing <i>Les
+Droits de l&rsquo;homme</i> at Montpellier, and had to take refuge at
+Geneva in 1871 from a prosecution instituted on account of
+articles which had appeared in his paper in defence of the
+Commune. In 1876 he returned to France to become one of
+the chief French apostles of Marxian collectivism, and was
+imprisoned for six months in 1878 for taking part in the first
+Parisian International Congress. He edited at different times
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page673" id="page673"></a>673</span>
+<i>Les Droits de l&rsquo;homme</i>, <i>Le Cri du peuple</i>, <i>Le Socialiste</i>, but his
+best-known organ was the weekly <i>Égalité</i>. He had been in close
+association with Paul Lafargue, and through him with Karl Marx,
+whose daughter he married. It was in conjunction with Marx
+and Lafargue that he drew up the programme accepted by the
+national congress of the Labour party at Havre in 1880, which
+laid stress on the formation of an international labour party
+working by revolutionary methods. Next year at the Reims
+congress the orthodox Marxian programme of Guesde was
+opposed by the &ldquo;possibilists,&rdquo; who rejected the intransigeant
+attitude of Guesde for the opportunist policy of Benoît Malon.
+At the congress of St-Étienne the difference developed into
+separation, those who refused all compromise with a capitalist
+government following Guesde, while the opportunists formed
+several groups. Guesde took his full share in the consequent
+discussion between the Guesdists, the Blanquists, the possibilists,
+&amp;c. In 1893 he was returned to the Chamber of Deputies for
+Lille (7th circonscription) with a large majority over the Christian
+Socialist and Radical candidates. He brought forward various
+proposals in social legislation forming the programme of the
+Labour party, without reference to the divisions among the
+Socialists, and on the 20th of November 1894 succeeded in
+raising a two days&rsquo; discussion of the collectivist principle in the
+Chamber. In 1902 he was not re-elected, but resumed his seat
+in 1906. In 1903 there was a formal reconciliation at the Reims
+congress of the sections of the party, which then took the name
+of the Socialist party of France. Guesde, nevertheless, continued
+to oppose the opportunist policy of Jaurès, whom he denounced
+for supporting one bourgeois party against another. His defence
+of the principle of freedom of association led him, incongruously
+enough, to support the religious Congregations against Émile
+Combes. Besides his numerous political and socialist pamphlets
+he published in 1901 two volumes of his speeches in the Chamber
+of Deputies entitled <i>Quatre ans de lutte de classe 1893-1898</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUEST, EDWIN<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1800-1880), English antiquary, was born in
+1800. He was educated at King Edward&rsquo;s school, Birmingham,
+and at Caius College, Cambridge, where he graduated as eleventh
+wrangler, subsequently becoming a fellow of his college. Called
+to the bar in 1828, he devoted himself, after some years of legal
+practice, to antiquarian and literary research. In 1838 he
+published his exhaustive <i>History of English Rhythms</i>. He also
+wrote a very large number of papers on Roman-British history,
+which, together with a mass of fresh material for a history of
+early Britain, were published posthumously under the editorship
+of Dr Stubbs under the title <i>Origines Celticae</i> (1883). In 1852
+Guest was elected master of Caius College, becoming LL.D. in
+the following year, and in 1854-1855 he was vice-chancellor of
+Cambridge University. Guest was a fellow of the Royal Society,
+and an honorary member of the Society of Antiquaries. He
+died on the 23rd of November 1880.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUEST<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger.
+<i>Gast</i>, and Swed. <i>gäst</i>; cognate with Lat. <i>hostis</i>, originally a
+stranger, hence enemy; cf. &ldquo;host&rdquo;), one who receives hospitality
+in the house of another, his &ldquo;host&rdquo;; hence applied to
+a parasite.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUETTARD, JEAN ÉTIENNE<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (1715-1786), French naturalist
+and mineralogist, was born at Étampes, on the 22nd of September
+1715. In boyhood he gained a knowledge of plants from his
+grandfather, who was an apothecary, and later he qualified as a
+doctor in medicine. Pursuing the study of botany in various
+parts of France and other countries, he began to take notice of
+the relation between the distribution of plants and the soils and
+subsoils. In this way his attention came to be directed to
+minerals and rocks. In 1746 he communicated to the Academy
+of Sciences in Paris a memoir on the distribution of minerals and
+rocks, and this was accompanied by a map on which he had
+recorded his observations. He thus, as remarked by W. D.
+Conybeare, &ldquo;first carried into execution the idea, proposed by
+[Martin] Lister years before, of geological maps.&rdquo; In the course
+of his journeys he made a large collection of fossils and figured
+many of them, but he had no clear ideas about the sequence
+of strata. He made observations also on the degradation of
+mountains by rain, rivers and sea; and he was the first to
+ascertain the existence of former volcanoes in the district of
+Auvergne. He died in Paris on the 7th of January 1786.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His publications include: <i>Observations sur les plantes</i> (2 vols.,
+1747); <i>Histoire de la découverte faite en France de matières semblables
+à celles dont la porcelaine de la Chine est composée</i> (1765);
+<i>Mémoires sur différentes parties des sciences et arts</i> (5 vols., 1768-1783);
+<i>Mémoire sur la minéralogie du Dauphiné</i> (2 vols., 1779).
+See <i>The Founders of Geology</i>, by Sir A. Geikie (1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUEUX, LES,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> or &ldquo;<span class="sc">The Beggars</span>,&rdquo; a name assumed by the
+confederacy of nobles and other malcontents, who in 1566
+opposed Spanish tyranny in the Netherlands. The leaders of
+the nobles, who signed a solemn league known as &ldquo;the Compromise,&rdquo;
+by which they bound themselves to assist in defending
+the rights and liberties of the Netherlands against the civil and
+religious despotism of Philip II., were Louis, count of Nassau,
+and Henry, count of Brederode. On the 5th of April 1566
+permission was obtained for the confederates to present a petition
+of grievances, called &ldquo;the Request,&rdquo; to the regent, Margaret,
+duchess of Parma. About 250 nobles marched to the palace
+accompanied by Louis of Nassau and Brederode. The regent
+was at first alarmed at the appearance of so large a body, but
+one of her councillors, Berlaymont by name, was heard to
+exclaim, &ldquo;What, madam, is your highness afraid of these
+beggars (<i>ces gueux</i>)?&rdquo; The appellation was not forgotten. At
+a great feast held by some 300 confederates at the Hôtel Culemburg
+three days later, Brederode in a speech declared that if need
+be they were all ready to become &ldquo;beggars&rdquo; in their country&rsquo;s
+cause. The words caught on, and the hall resounded with loud
+cries of &ldquo;<i>Vivent les gueux!</i>&rdquo; The name became henceforward a
+party appellation. The patriot party adopted the emblems of
+beggarhood, the wallet and the bowl, as trinkets to be worn on
+their hats or their girdles, and a medal was struck having on one
+side the head of Philip II., on the other two clasped hands with
+the motto &ldquo;<i>Fidèle au roy, jusques à porter la besace</i>.&rdquo; The
+original league of &ldquo;Beggars&rdquo; was short-lived, crushed by the
+iron hand of Alva, but its principles survived and were to be
+ultimately triumphant.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1569 the prince of Orange, who had now openly
+placed himself at the head of the party of revolt, granted letters
+of marque to a number of vessels manned by crews of desperadoes
+drawn from all nationalities. These fierce corsairs under the
+command of a succession of daring and reckless leaders&mdash;the
+best-known of whom is William de la Marek, lord of Lumey&mdash;were
+called &ldquo;<i>Gueux de mer</i>,&rdquo; or &ldquo;Sea Beggars.&rdquo; At first they
+were content with plundering both by sea and land and carrying
+their booty to the English ports where they were able to refit
+and replenish their stores. This went on till 1572, when Queen
+Elizabeth suddenly refused to admit them to her harbours.
+Having no longer any refuge, the Sea Beggars in desperation
+made an attack upon Brill, which they seized by surprise in the
+absence of the Spanish garrison on the 1st of April 1572. Encouraged
+by their unhoped-for success, they now sailed to
+Flushing, which was also taken by a <i>coup de main.</i> The capture
+of these two towns gave the signal for a general revolt of the
+northern Netherlands, and is regarded as the real beginning oí
+the War of Dutch Independence.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUEVARA, ANTONIO DE<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (<i>c</i>. 1490-1544), Spanish chronicler
+and moralist, was a native of the province of Alava, and passed
+some of his earlier years at the court of Isabella, queen of Castile.
+In 1528 he entered the Franciscan order, and afterwards accompanied
+the emperor Charles V. during his journeys to Italy and
+other parts of Europe. After having held successively the offices
+of court preacher, court historiographer, bishop of Guadix and
+bishop of Mondoñedo, he died in 1544. His earliest work,
+entitled <i>Reloj de principes</i>, published at Valladolid in 1529, and,
+according to its author, the fruit of eleven years&rsquo; labour, is a
+didactic novel, designed, after the manner of Xenophon&rsquo;s <i>Cyropaedia</i>,
+to delineate, in a somewhat ideal way for the benefit
+of modern sovereigns, the life and character of an ancient prince,
+Marcus Aurelius, distinguished for wisdom and virtue. It was
+often reprinted in Spanish; and before the close of the century
+had also been translated into Latin, Italian, French and English,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page674" id="page674"></a>674</span>
+an English translation being by J. Bourchier (London, 1546)
+and another being by T. North. It is difficult now to account for
+its extraordinary popularity, its thought being neither just nor
+profound, while its style is stiff and affected. It gave rise to a
+literary controversy, however, of great bitterness and violence,
+the author having ventured without warrant to claim for it an
+historical character, appealing to an imaginary &ldquo;manuscript
+in Florence.&rdquo; Other works of Guevara are the <i>Decada de
+los Césares</i> (Valladolid, 1539), or &ldquo;Lives of the Ten Roman
+Emperors,&rdquo; in imitation of the manner of Plutarch and Suetonius;
+and the <i>Epistolas familiares</i> (Valladolid, 1539-1545), sometimes
+called &ldquo;The Golden Letters,&rdquo; often printed in Spain, and
+translated into all the principal languages of Europe. They are
+in reality a collection of stiff and formal essays which have long
+ago fallen into merited oblivion. Guevara, whose influence upon
+the Spanish prose of the 16th century was considerable, also
+wrote <i>Libro de los inventores del arte de marear</i> (Valladolid, 1539,
+and Madrid, 1895).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUEVARA, LUIS VELEZ DE<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1579-1644), Spanish dramatist
+and novelist, was born at Écija on the 1st of August 1579.
+After graduating as a sizar at the university of Osuna in 1596,
+he joined the household of Rodrigo de Castro, cardinal-archbishop
+of Seville, and celebrated the marriage of Philip II. in
+a poem signed &ldquo;Velez de Santander,&rdquo; a name which he continued
+to use till some years later. He appears to have served
+as a soldier in Italy and Algiers, returning to Spain in 1602 when
+he entered the service of the count de Saldaña, and dedicated
+himself to writing for the stage. He died at Madrid on the
+10th of November 1644. He was the author of over four hundred
+plays, of which the best are <i>Reinar despues de morir</i>, <i>Más pesa el
+rey que la sangre</i>, <i>La Luna de la Sierra</i> and <i>El Diablo está en
+Cantillana</i>; but he is most widely known as the author of <i>El
+Diablo cojuelo</i> (1641), a fantastic novel which suggested to Le
+Sage the idea of his <i>Diable boiteux</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUGLIELMI, PIETRO<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1727-1804), Italian composer, was
+born at Massa Carrara in May 1727, and died in Rome on the
+19th of November 1804. He received his first musical education
+from his father, and afterwards studied under Durante at the
+Conservatorio di Santa Maria di Loreto at Naples. His first
+operatic work, produced at Turin in 1755, established his
+reputation, and soon his fame spread beyond the limits of his
+own country, so that in 1762 he was called to Dresden to conduct
+the opera there. He remained for some years in Germany,
+where his works met with much success, but the greatest triumphs
+were reserved for him in England. He went to London, according
+to Burney, in 1768, but according to Florimo in 1772,
+returning to Naples in 1777. He still continued to produce
+operas at an astounding rate, but was unable to compete successfully
+with the younger masters of the day. In 1793 he
+became <i>maestro di cappella</i> at St Peter&rsquo;s, Rome. He was a very
+prolific composer of Italian comic opera, and there is in most
+of his scores a vein of humour and natural gaiety not surpassed
+by Cimarosa himself. In serious opera he was less successful.
+But here also he shows at least the qualities of a competent
+musician. Considering the enormous number of his works, his
+unequal workmanship and the frequent instances of mechanical
+and slip-shod writing in his music need not surprise us. The
+following are among the most celebrated of his operas: <i>I Due
+Gemelli</i>, <i>La Serva inamorata</i>, <i>La Pastorella nobile</i>, <i>La Bella Peccatrice</i>,
+<i>Rinaldo</i>, <i>Artaserse</i>, <i>Didone</i> and <i>Enea e Lavinia</i>. He also
+wrote oratorios and miscellaneous pieces of orchestral and
+chamber music. Of his eight sons two at least acquired fame as
+musicians&mdash;Pietro Carlo (1763-1827), a successful imitator of
+his father&rsquo;s operatic style, and Giacomo, an excellent singer.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUIANA<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (<i>Guyana</i>, <i>Guayana</i><a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a>), the general name given in its
+widest acceptation to the part of South America lying to the
+north-east from 8° 40&prime; N. to 3° 30&prime; S. and from 50° W. to 68° 30&prime;
+W. Its greatest length, from Cabo do Norte to the confluence
+of the Rio Xie and Rio Negro, is about 1250 m., its greatest
+breadth, from Barima Point in the mouth of the Orinoco to
+the confluence of the Rio Negro and Amazon, 800 m. Its area
+is roughly 690,000 sq. m. Comprised in this vast territory are
+Venezuelan (formerly Spanish) Guiana, lying on both sides of
+the Orinoco and extending S. and S.W. to the Rio Negro and
+Brazilian settlements; British Guiana, extending from Venezuela
+to the left bank of the Corentyn river; Dutch Guiana
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page675" id="page675"></a>675</span>
+(or Surinam), from the Corentyn to the Maroni river; French
+Guiana (or Cayenne), from the Maroni to the Oyapock river;<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+Brazilian (formerly Portuguese) Guiana, extending from the
+southern boundaries of French, Dutch, British and part of
+Venezuelan Guiana, to the Amazon and the Negro. Of these
+divisions the first and last are now included in Venezuela and
+Brazil respectively; British, Dutch and French Guiana are
+described in order below, and are alone considered here.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:900px; height:656px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img675.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">In their physical geography the three Guianas present certain
+common characteristics. In each the principal features are the
+rivers and their branch streams. In each colony the northern
+portion consists of a fluviomarine deposit extending inland and
+gradually rising to a height of 10 to 15 ft. above the sea. This
+alluvial plain varies in width from 50 m. to 18 m. and is traversed
+by ridges of sand and shells, roughly parallel to what is now
+the coast, indicating the trend of former shore lines. By the
+draining and diking of these lands the plantations have been
+formed along the coast and up the rivers. These low lands are
+attached to a somewhat higher plateau, which towards the
+coast is traversed by numerous huge sand-dunes and inland by
+ranges of hills rising in places to as much as 2000 ft. The
+greater part of this belt of country, in which the auriferous
+districts principally occur, is covered with a dense growth of
+jungle and high forest, but savannahs, growing only a long
+wiry grass and poor shrubs, intrude here and there, being in the
+S.E. much nearer to the coast than in the N.W. The hinterlands
+consist of undulating open savannahs rising into hills and
+mountains, some grass-covered, some in dense forest.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Geology</i><a name="fa3f" id="fa3f" href="#ft3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a>.&mdash;Guiana is formed almost entirely of gneiss and crystalline
+schists penetrated by numerous dikes of diorite, diabase, &amp;c.
+The gold of the placer deposits appears to be derived, not from
+quartz reefs, but from the schists and intrusive rocks, the selvages
+of the diabase dikes sometimes containing as much as 5 oz. of
+gold to the ton. In British Guiana a series of conglomerates, red
+and white sandstone and red shale, rests upon the gneiss and
+forms the remarkable table-topped mountains Roraima, Kukenaam,
+&amp;c. The beds are horizontal, and according to Brown and Sawkins,
+three layers of greenstone, partly intrusive and partly contemporaneous,
+are interstratified with the sedimentary deposits. The
+age of these beds is uncertain, but they evidently correspond with
+the similar series which occurs in Brazil, partly Palaeozoic and
+partly Cretaceous. In Dutch Guiana there are a few small patches
+supposed to belong to the Cretaceous period. Along the coast,
+and in the lower parts of the river valleys, are deposits which are
+mainly Quaternary but may also include beds of Tertiary age.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>History</i>.&mdash;The coast of Guiana was sighted by Columbus in
+1498 when he discovered the island of Trinidad and the peninsula
+of Paria, and in the following year by Alonzo de Ojeda and
+Amerigo Vespucci; and in 1500 Vincente Yañez Pinzon ventured
+south of the equator, and sailing north-west along the coast
+discovered the Amazon; he is believed to have also entered
+some of the other rivers of Guiana, one of which, now called
+Oyapock, is marked on early maps as Rio Pinzon. Little,
+however, was known of Guiana until the fame of the fabled
+golden city Manoa or El Dorado tempted adventurers to explore
+its rivers and forests. From letters of these explorers found in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page676" id="page676"></a>676</span>
+captured ships, Sir Walter Raleigh was induced to ascend the
+Orinoco in search of El Dorado in 1595, to send Lawrence
+Keymis on the same quest in the following year, and in 1617
+to try once again, with the same intrepid lieutenant, an expedition
+fraught with disaster for both of them. As early as
+1580 the Dutch had established a systematic trade with the
+Spanish main, but so far as is known their first voyage to Guiana
+was in 1598. By 1613 they had three or four settlements on
+the coast of Demerara and Essequibo, and in about 1616 some
+Zeelanders settled on a small island, called by them <i>Kyk ober al</i>
+(&ldquo;see over all&rdquo;), in the confluence of the Cuyuni and Mazaruni
+rivers. While the Dutch traders were struggling for a footing
+in Essequibo and Demerara, English and French traders were
+endeavouring to form settlements on the Oyapock river, in
+Cayenne and in Surinam, and by 1652 the English had large
+interests in the latter and the French in Cayenne. In 1663
+Charles II. issued letters patent to Lord Willoughby of Parham
+and Lawrence Hyde, second son of the earl of Clarendon, granting
+them the district between the Copenam and Maroni rivers,
+a province described as extending from E. to W. some 120 m.
+This colony was, however, formally ceded to the Netherlands
+in 1667 by the peace of Breda, Great Britain taking possession
+of New York. Meanwhile the Dutch West India Company,
+formed in 1621, had taken possession of Essequibo, over which
+colony it exercised sovereign rights until 1791. In 1624 a Dutch
+settlement was effected in the Berbice river, and from this grew
+Berbice, for a long time a separate and independent colony.
+In 1657 the Zeelanders firmly established themselves in the
+Pomeroon, Moruca and Demerara rivers, and by 1674 the Dutch
+were colonizing all the territory now known as British and
+Dutch Guiana. The New Dutch West Indian Company, founded
+in that year to replace the older company which had failed,
+received Guiana by charter from the states-general in 1682.
+In the following year the company sold one-third of their territory
+to the city of Amsterdam, and another third to Cornelis van
+Aerssens, lord of Sommelsdijk. The new owners and the
+company incorporated themselves as the Chartered Society of
+Surinam, and Sommelsdijk agreed to fill the post of governor of
+the colony at his own expense. The lucrative trade in slaves
+was retained by the West Indian Company, but the society
+could import them on its own account by paying a fine to the
+company. Sommelsdijk&rsquo;s rule was wise and energetic. He
+repressed and pacified the Indian tribes, erected forts and
+disciplined the soldiery, constructed the canal which bears his
+name, established a high court of justice and introduced the
+valuable cultivation of the cocoa-nut. But on the 17th of June
+1688 he was massacred in a mutiny of the soldiers. The &ldquo;third&rdquo;
+which Sommelsdijk possessed was offered by his widow to William
+III. of England, but it was ultimately purchased by the city of
+Amsterdam for 700,000 fl. The settlements in Essequibo progressed
+somewhat slowly, and it was not until immigration was
+attracted in 1740 by offers to newcomers of free land and immunity
+for a decade from taxation that anything like a colony
+could be said to exist there. In 1732 Berbice placed itself under
+the protection of the states-general of Holland and was granted
+a constitution, and in 1773 Demerara, till then a dependency of
+Essequibo, was constituted as a separate colony. In 1781 the
+three colonies, Demerara, Essequibo and Berbice, were captured
+by British privateers, and were placed by Rodney under the
+governor of Barbados, but in 1782 they were taken by France,
+then an ally of the Netherlands, and retained until the peace
+of 1783, when they were restored to Holland. In 1784 Essequibo
+and Demerara were placed under one governor, and Georgetown&mdash;then
+called Stabroek&mdash;was fixed on as the seat of government.
+The next decade saw a series of struggles between the colonies
+and the Dutch West India company, which ended in the company
+being wound up and in the three colonies being governed directly
+by the states-general. In 1796 the British again took possession,
+and retained the three colonies until the peace of Amiens in
+1802, when they were once again restored to Holland, only to
+be recaptured by Great Britain in 1803, in which year the
+history proper of British Guiana began.</p>
+
+<p>I. <span class="sc">British Guiana</span>, the only British possession in S. America,
+was formally ceded in 1814-1815. The three colonies were in
+1831 consolidated into one colony divided into three
+<span class="sidenote">British Guiana.</span>
+counties, Berbice extending from the Corentyn river
+to the Abary creek, Demerara from the Abary to the
+Boerasirie creek, Essequibo from the Boerasirie to the Venezuelan
+frontier. This boundary-line between British Guiana
+and Venezuela was for many years the subject of dispute. The
+Dutch, while British Guiana was in their possession, claimed the
+whole watershed of the Essequibo river, while the Venezuelans
+asserted that the Spanish province of Guayana had extended
+up to the left bank of the Essequibo. In 1840 Sir Robert
+Schomburgk had suggested a demarcation, afterwards known
+as the &ldquo;Schomburgk line&rdquo;; and subsequently, though no
+agreement was arrived at, certain modifications were made in
+this British claim. In 1886 the government of Great Britain
+declared that it would thenceforward exercise jurisdiction up to
+and within a boundary known as &ldquo;the modified Schomburgk
+line.&rdquo; Outposts were located at points on this line, and for some
+years Guianese police and Venezuelan soldiers faced one another
+across the Amacura creek in the Orinoco mouth and at Yuruan
+up the Cuyuni river. In 1897 the dispute formed the subject
+of a message to congress from the president of the United States,
+and in consequence of this intervention the matter was submitted
+to an international commission, whose award was issued
+at Paris in 1899 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Venezuela</a></span>). By this decision neither
+party gained its extreme claim, the line laid down differing
+but little from the original Schomburgk line. The demarcation
+was at once undertaken by a joint commission appointed by
+Venezuela and British Guiana and was completed in 1904.
+It was not found practicable, owing to the impassable nature
+of the country, to lay down on earth that part of the boundary
+fixed by the Paris award between the head of the Wenamu creek
+and the summit of Mt. Roraima, and the boundary commissioners
+suggested a deviation to follow the watersheds of the Caroni,
+Cuyuni and Mazaruni rivers, a suggestion accepted by the two
+governments. In 1902 the delimitation of the boundary between
+British Guiana and Brazil was referred to the arbitration of the
+king of Italy, and by his reward, issued in June 1904, the substantial
+area in dispute was conceded to British Guiana. The
+work of demarcation has since been carried out.</p>
+
+<p><i>Towns, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;The capital of British Guiana is Georgetown, at
+the mouth of the Demerara river, on its right bank, with a
+population of about 50,000. New Amsterdam, on the right
+bank of the Berbice river, has a population of about 7500.
+Each possesses a mayor and town council, with statutory powers
+to impose rates. There are nineteen incorporated villages, and
+ten other locally governed areas known as country districts, the
+affairs of which are controlled by local authorities, known as
+village councils and country authorities respectively.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population.</i>&mdash;The census of 1891 gave the population of
+British Guiana as 278,328. There was no census taken in 1901.
+By official estimates the population at the end of 1904 was
+301,923. Of these some 120,000 were negroes and 124,000
+East Indians; 4300 were Europeans, other than Portuguese,
+estimated at about 11,600, and some 30,000 of mixed race.
+The aborigines&mdash;Arawaks, Caribs, Wapisianas, Warraws, &amp;c.&mdash;who
+numbered about 10,000 in 1891, are now estimated at
+about 6500. In 1904 the birth-rate for the whole colony was
+30.3 per 1000 and the death-rate 28.8.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Physical Geography.</i>&mdash;The surface features of British Guiana
+may be divided roughly into four regions: first, the alluvial seaboard,
+flat and below the level of high-water; secondly, the forest
+belt, swampy along the rivers but rising into undulating lands and
+hills between them; thirdly, the savannahs in and inland of the
+forest belt, elevated table-lands, grass-covered and practically
+treeless; and fourthly, the mountain ranges. The eastern portion
+of the colony, from the source of its two largest rivers, the Corentyn
+and Essequibo, is a rough inclined plain, starting at some 900 ft.
+above sea-level at the source of the Takutu in the west, but only
+some 400 at that of the Corentyn in the west, and sloping down
+gradually to the low alluvial flats about 3 ft. below high-water
+line. The eastern part is generally forested; the western is an
+almost level savannah, with woodlands along the rivers. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page677" id="page677"></a>677</span>
+northern portion of British Guiana, the alluvial flats alluded to
+already, consists of a fluviomarine deposit extending inland from
+25 m. to 30 m., gradually rising to about 12 ft. above high-water
+mark and ending against beds of sandy clay, the residua of igneous
+rocks decomposed <i>in situ</i>, which form an extensive undulating
+region rising to 150 ft. above the sea and stretching back to the
+forest-covered hills. Roughly parallel to the existing coast-line are
+narrow reefs of sand and sea-shells, which are dunes indicating the
+trend of former limits of the sea, and still farther back are the
+higher &ldquo;sand hills,&rdquo; hills of granite or diabase with a thick stratum
+of coarse white sand superimposed. From the coast-line seawards
+the ocean deepens very gradually, and at low tide extensive flats
+of sand and of mixed clay and sand (called locally &ldquo;caddy&rdquo;) are
+left bare, these flats being at times covered with a deposit of thin
+drift mud.</p>
+
+<p>Two great parallel mountain systems cross the colony from W.
+to E., the greater being that of the Pacaraima and Merumé Mts.,
+and the lesser including the Kanuku Mts. (2000 ft.), while the
+Acarai Mts., a densely-wooded range rising to 2500 ft., form the
+southern boundary of British Guiana and the watershed between
+the Essequibo and the Amazon. These mountains rise generally
+in a succession of terraces and broad plateaus, with steep or even
+sheer sandstone escarpments. They are mostly flat-topped, and
+their average height is about 3500 ft. The Pacaraima Mts., however,
+reach 8635 ft. at Roraima, and the latter remarkable mountain
+rises as a perpendicular wall of red rock 1500 ft. in height springing
+out of the forest-clad slopes below the summit, and was considered
+inaccessible until in December 1884 Messrs im Thurn and Perkins
+found a ledge by which the top could be reached. The summit is
+a table-land some 12 sq. m. in area. Mt. Kukenaam is of similar
+structure and also rises above 8500 ft. Other conspicuous summits
+(about 7000 ft.) are Iwalkarima, Eluwarima, Ilutipu and Waiakapiapu.
+The southern portion of the Pacaraima range comprises
+rugged hills and rock-strewn valleys, but to the N., where the sandstone
+assumes the table-shaped form, there are dense forests, and
+the scenery is of extraordinary grandeur. Waterfalls frequently
+descend the cliffs from a great height (nearly 2000 ft. sheer at
+Roraima and Kukenaam). The sandstone formation can be traced
+from the northern Pacaraima range on the N.W. to the Corentyn
+in the S.E. It is traversed in places by dikes and sills of diabase or
+dolerite, while bosses of more or less altered gabbro rise through it.
+The surface of a large part of the colony is composed of gneiss, and
+of gneissose granite, which is seen in large water-worn bosses in the
+river beds. Intrusive granite is of somewhat rare occurrence;
+where found, it gives rise to long low rolls of hilly country and to
+cataracts in the rivers. Extensive areas of the country consist of
+quartz-porphyry, porphyrites and felstone, and of more or less
+schistose rocks derived from them. These rocks are closely connected
+with the gneissose granites and gneiss, and there are reasons
+for believing that the latter are the deep-seated portions of them
+and are only visible where they have been exposed by denudation.
+Long ranges of hills, varying in elevation from a few hundreds to
+from 2000 ft. to 3000 ft., traverse the plains of the gneissose districts.
+These are caused either by old intrusions of diabase and gabbro
+which have undergone modifications, or by later ones of dolerite.
+These ranges are of high importance, as the rocks comprising them
+are the main source of gold in British Guiana.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rivers.</i>&mdash;The principal physical features of British Guiana are
+its rivers and their branches, which form one vast network of
+waterways all over it, and are the principal, indeed practically the
+only, highways inland from the coast. Chief among them are the
+Waini, the Essequibo, and its tributaries the Mazaruni and Cuyuni,
+the Demerara, the Berbice and the Corentyn. The Essequibo
+rises in the Acarai Mts., in 0° 41&prime; N. and about 850 ft. above the
+sea, and flows northwards for about 600 m. until it discharges itself
+into the ocean by an estuary nearly 15 m. in width. In this
+estuary are several large and fertile islands, on four of which sugar
+used to be grown. Now but one, Wakenaam, can boast of a factory.
+The Essequibo can be entered only by craft drawing less than
+20 ft. and is navigable for these vessels for not more than 50 m.,
+its subsequent course upwards being frequently broken by cataracts
+and rapids. Some 7 m. below the first series of rapids it is joined
+by the Mazaruni, itself joined by the Cuyuni some 4 m. farther up.
+It has a remarkable course from its source in the Merume Mountains,
+about 2400 ft. above the sea. It flows first south, then west, north-west,
+north, and finally south-east to within 20 m. of its own source,
+forming many fine falls, and its course thereafter is still very tortuous.
+In 4° N. and 58° W., the Essequibo is joined by the Rupununi,
+which, rising in a savannah at the foot of the Karawaimento Mts.,
+has a northerly and easterly course of fully 200 m. In 3° 37&prime; N.
+the Awaricura joins the Rupununi, and by this tributary the Pirara,
+a tributary of the Amazon, may be reached,&mdash;an example of the
+interesting series of <i>itabos</i> connecting nearly all S. American rivers
+with one another. Another large tributary of the Essequibo is the
+Potaro, on which, at 1130 ft. above sea-level and in 5° 8&prime; N. and
+59° 19&prime; W., is the celebrated Kaieteur fall, discovered in 1870 by Mr
+C. Barrington Brown while engaged on a geological survey. This
+fall is produced by the river flowing from a tableland of sandstone
+and conglomerate into a deep valley 822 ft. below. For the first
+741 ft. the water falls as a perpendicular column, thence as a sloping
+cataract to the still reach below. The river 200 yds. above the fall
+is about 400 ft. wide, while the actual waterway of the fall itself
+varies from 120 ft. in dry weather to nearly 400 ft. in rainy seasons.
+The Kaieteur, which it took Mr Brown a fortnight to reach from
+the coast, can now be reached on the fifth day from Georgetown.
+Among other considerable tributaries of the Essequibo are the
+Siparuni, Burro-Burro, Rewa, Kuyuwini and Kassi-Kudji. The
+Demerara river, the head-waters of which are known only to Indians,
+rises probably near 5° N., and after a winding northerly course of
+some 200 m. enters the ocean in 6° 50&prime; N. and 58° 20&prime; W. A bar
+of mud and sand prevents the entrance of vessels drawing more
+than 19 ft. The river is from its mouth, which is nearly 2 m. wide,
+navigable for 70 m. to all vessels which can enter. The Berbice
+river rises in about 3° 40&prime; N., and in 3° 53&prime; N. is within 9 m. of the
+Essequibo. At its mouth it is about 2½ m. wide, and is navigable
+for vessels drawing not more than 12 ft. for about 105 m. and for
+vessels drawing not more than 7 ft. for fully 175 m. Thence upwards
+it is broken by great cataracts. The Canje creek joins the Berbice
+river close to the sea. The Corentyn river rises in 1° 48&prime; 30&Prime; N.,
+about 140 m. E. of the Essequibo, and flowing northwards enters
+the Atlantic by an estuary some 14 m. wide. The divide between its
+head-waters and those of streams belonging to the Amazon system
+is only some 400 ft. in elevation. It is navigable for about 150 m.,
+some of the reaches being of great width and beauty. The upper
+reaches are broken by a series of great cataracts, some of which,
+until the discovery of Kaieteur, were believed to be the grandest in
+British Guiana. Among other rivers are the Pomeroon, Moruca
+and Barima, while several large streams or creeks fall directly into
+the Atlantic, the largest being the Abary, Mahaicony and Mahaica,
+between Berbice and Demerara, and the Boerasirie between Demerara
+and Essequibo. The colour of the water of the rivers and creeks
+is in general a dark brown, caused by the infusion of vegetable
+matter, but where the streams run for a long distance through
+savannahs they are of a milky colour.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate</i>.&mdash;The climate is, as tropical countries go, not unhealthy.
+Malarial fevers are common but preventible; and phthisis is prevalent,
+not because the climate is unsuitable to sufferers from
+pulmonary complaints, but because of the ignorance of the common
+people of the elementary principles of hygiene, an ignorance which
+the state is endeavouring to lessen by including the teaching of
+hygiene in the syllabus of the primary schools. The temperature is
+uniform on the coast for the ten months from October to July, the
+regular N.E. trade winds keeping it down to an average of 80° F.
+In August and September the trades die away and the heat becomes
+oppressive. In the interior the nights are cold and damp. Hurricanes,
+indeed even strong gales, are unknown; a tidal wave is an
+impossibility; and the nature of the soil of the coast lands renders
+earthquakes practically harmless. Occasionally there are severe
+droughts, and the rains are sometimes unduly prolonged, but
+usually the year is clearly divided into two wet and two dry seasons.
+The long wet season begins in mid-April and lasts until mid-August.
+The long dry season is from September to the last week in November.
+December and January constitute the short rainy season, and
+February and March the short dry season. The rainfall varies
+greatly in different parts of the colony; on the coast it averages
+about 80 in. annually.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora</i>.&mdash;The vegetation is most luxuriant and its growth perpetual.
+Indigenous trees and plants abound in the utmost variety,
+while many exotics have readily adapted themselves to local conditions.
+Along the coast is a belt of courida and mangrove&mdash;the
+bark of the latter being used for tanning&mdash;forming a natural barrier
+to the inroads of the sea, but one which&mdash;very unwisely&mdash;has been
+in parts almost ruined to allow of direct drainage. The vast forests
+afford an almost inexhaustible supply of valuable timbers; greenheart
+and mora, largely used in shipbuilding and for wharves and
+dock and lock gates; silverbally, yielding magnificent planks for all
+kinds of boats; and cabinet woods, such as cedar and crabwood.
+There may be seen great trees, struggling for life one with the
+other, covered with orchids&mdash;some of great beauty and value&mdash;and
+draped with falling <i>lianas</i> and vines. Giant palms fringe the river-banks
+and break the monotony of the mass of smaller foliage.
+Many of the trees yield gums, oils and febrifuges, the bullet tree
+being bled extensively for <i>balata</i>, a gum used largely in the manufacture
+of belting. Valuable varieties of rubber have also been
+found in several districts, and since early in 1905 have attracted the
+attention of experts from abroad. On the coast plantains, bananas
+and mangoes grow readily and are largely used for food, while
+several districts are admirably adapted to the growth of limes.
+Oranges, pineapples, star-apples, granadillas, guavas are among the
+fruits; Indian corn, cassava, yams, eddoes, tannias, sweet potatoes
+and ochroes are among the vegetables, while innumerable varieties
+of peppers are grown and used in large quantities by all classes.
+The dainty avocado pear, purple and green, grows readily. In the
+lagoons and trenches many varieties of water-lilies grow wild, the
+largest being the famous <i>Victoria regia</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fauna</i>.&mdash;Guiana is full of wild animals, birds, insects and
+reptiles. Among the wild animals, one and all nocturnal, are
+the mipourrie or tapir, manatee, acouri and labba (both excellent
+eating), sloth, ant-eater, armadillo, several kinds of deer,
+baboons, monkeys and the puma and jaguar. The last is seen
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page678" id="page678"></a>678</span>
+frequently down on the coast, attracted from the forest by the
+cattle grazing on the front and back pasture lands of the estates.
+Among the birds may be mentioned the carrion crow (an invaluable
+scavenger), vicissi and muscovy ducks, snipe, teal, plover, pigeon,
+the ubiquitous kiskadee or <i>qu&rsquo;est que dit</i>, a species of shrike&mdash;his
+name derived from his shrill call&mdash;the canary and the twa-twa,
+both charming whistlers. These are all found on the coast. In the
+forest are maam (partridge), maroudi (wild turkey), the beautiful
+bell-bird with note like a silver gong, the quadrille bird with its
+tuneful oft-repeated bar, great flocks of macaws and parrots, and
+other birds of plumage of almost indescribable richness and variety.
+On the coast the trenches and canals are full of alligators, but the
+great cayman is found only in the rivers of the interior. Among the
+many varieties of snakes are huge constricting camoudies, deadly
+bushmasters, labarrias and rattlesnakes. Among other reptiles
+are the two large lizards, the salumpenta (an active enemy of the
+barn-door fowl), and the iguana, whose flesh when cooked resembles
+tender chicken. The rivers, streams and trenches abound with
+fishes, crabs and shrimps, the amount of the latter consumed being
+enormous, running into tons weekly as the coolies use them in their
+curries and the blacks in their foo-foo.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Government and Administration.</i>&mdash;Executive power is vested
+in a governor, who is advised in all administrative matters by
+an executive council, consisting of five official and three unofficial
+members nominated by the crown. Legislative authority
+is vested in the Court of Policy, consisting of the governor, who
+presides and without whose permission no legislation can be
+initiated, seven other official members and eight elected members.
+This body has, however, no financial authority, all taxation and
+expenditure being dealt with by the Combined Court, consisting
+of the Court of Policy combined with six financial representatives.
+The elected members of the Court of Policy and the financial
+representatives are elected by their several constituencies for
+five years. Qualification for the Court of Policy is the ownership,
+or possession under lease for a term of twenty-one years,
+of eighty acres of land, of which at least forty acres are under
+cultivation, or of house property to the value of $7500. A
+financial representative must be similarly qualified or be in
+receipt of a clear income of not less than £300 per annum.
+Every male is entitled to be registered as a voter who (in addition
+to the usual formal qualifications) owns (during six months prior
+to registration) three acres of land in cultivation or a house of
+the annual rental or value of £20; or is a secured tenant for
+not less than three years of six acres of land in cultivation or
+for one year of a house of £40 rental; or has an income of not
+less than £100 per annum; or has during the previous twelve
+months paid £4, 3s. 4d. in direct taxation. Residence in the
+electoral district for six months prior to registration is coupled
+with the last two alternative qualifications. Plural voting is
+legal but no plumping is allowed. The combined court is by
+this constitution, which was granted in 1891, allowed the use
+of all revenues due to the crown in return for a civil list voted
+for a term now fixed at three years. English is the official and
+common language. The Roman-Dutch law, modified by orders-in-council
+and local statutes, governs actions in the civil courts,
+but the criminal law is founded on that of England. Magistrates
+have in civil cases jurisdiction up to £20, while an appeal
+lies from their decisions in any criminal or civil case. The
+supreme court consists of a chief justice and two puisne judges,
+and has various jurisdictions. The full court, consisting of the
+three judges or any two of them, has jurisdiction over all civil
+matters, but an appeal lies to His Majesty in privy council in
+cases involving £500 and upwards. A single judge sits in insolvency,
+in actions involving not over £520, and in appeals from
+magistrates&rsquo; decisions. The appeal full court, consisting of
+three judges, sits to hear appeals from decisions of a single judge
+in the limited civil, appellate and insolvency courts. Criminal
+courts are held four times a year in each county, a single judge
+presiding in each court. A court of crown cases reserved is
+formed by the three judges, of whom two form a quorum provided
+the chief-justice is one of the two. There are no imperial
+troops now stationed in British Guiana, but there is a semi-military
+police force, a small militia and two companies of
+volunteers. The Church of England and the Church of Scotland
+are both established, and grants-in-aid are also given to the
+Roman Catholic and Wesleyan churches and to several other
+denominations.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The revenue and expenditure now each amount annually to an
+average of a little over £500,000. About one-half of the revenue is
+produced by import duties, and about £90,000 by excise. The
+public debt on the 31st of March 1905 stood at £989,620.</p>
+
+<p>The system of primary education is denominational and is mainly
+supported from the general revenue. During 1904-1905, 213 schools
+received grants-in-aid amounting to £23,500, the average cost per
+scholar being a little over £1. These grants are calculated on the
+results of examinations held annually, an allowance varying from
+4s. 4½d. to 1s. 0½d. being made for each pass in reading, writing,
+arithmetic, school-garden work, nature study, singing and drill,
+English, geography, elementary hygiene and sewing. Secondary
+education is provided in Georgetown at some private establishments,
+and for boys at Queen&rsquo;s College, an undenominational government
+institution where the course of instruction is the same as at a public
+school in England, and the boys are prepared for the Cambridge
+local examinations, on the result of which annually depend the
+Guiana scholarship&mdash;open to boys and girls, and carrying a university
+or professional training in England&mdash;and two scholarships at
+Queen&rsquo;s College.</p>
+
+<p><i>Industries and Trade.</i>&mdash;At the end of the third decade of the
+19th century the principal exports were sugar, rum, molasses, cotton
+and coffee. In 1830, 9,500,000 &#8468; of coffee were sent abroad, but
+after the emancipation of the slaves it almost ceased as an export,
+and the little that is now grown is practically entirely consumed
+in the colony. The cultivation of cotton ceased in 1844, and, but
+for a short revival during the American civil war, has never prospered
+since. Efforts have been made to resuscitate its growth, but the
+experiments of the Board of Agriculture have only shown that Sea
+Island cotton is not adaptable to local conditions, and that no
+other known variety can as yet be recommended. To-day the
+principal exports are sugar, rum, molasses, molascuit&mdash;a cattle food
+made from molasses&mdash;gold, timber, balata, shingles and cattle.
+The annual value of the total exports is just under £2,000,000, of
+which about two-thirds go to Great Britain and British possessions.
+The cultivation of rice has made great strides in recent years, and,
+where difficulties of drainage and irrigation can be economically
+overcome, promises to increase rapidly. In 1873, 32,000,000 &#8468; of
+rice were imported, whereas in 1904-1905, the quantity imported
+having fallen to 20,500,000 &#8468;, there were over 18,000 acres under
+rice cultivation, and exportation, principally to the British West
+Indies, had commenced. The cultivation of the sugar-cane, and its
+manufacture into sugar and its by-products, still remains, in spite
+of numerous fluctuations, the staple industry. The provision of a
+trustworthy labour supply for the estates is of great importance,
+and local scarcity has made it necessary since 1840 to import it
+under a system of indenture. In that year and until 1867, liberated
+Africans were brought from Rio de Janeiro, Havana, Sierra Leone
+and St Helena, and in 1845 systematic immigration from India
+commenced and has since been carried on annually&mdash;save in 1849-1850.
+In 1853 immigration from China was tried, and was carried
+on by the government from 1859 to 1866, when it ceased owing to
+a convention arranged at Peking, stipulating that all immigrants
+should on the expiry of their term of indenture be entitled to be sent
+back at the expense of the colony, a liability it could not afford to
+incur. To reduce the cost of supervision and kindred expenses,
+and consequently of the cane and its manufacture into sugar, the
+policy of centralization has been universally adopted, and forty-six
+estates now produce as much sugar as three times that number did
+in 1875. During recent years Canada has come forward as a large
+buyer of Guiana&rsquo;s sugar, and in 1904-1905 the same amount went
+there as to the United States, in each case over 44,000 tons, whereas
+in 1901-1902 the United States took 85,000 tons and Canada under
+8000 tons. Practically all the rum and molascuit go to England,
+and the molasses to Holland and Portuguese possessions. The lands
+on the coast and on the river banks up to the sand hills are of marked
+fertility, and can produce almost any tropical vegetable or fruit.
+Cultivation, however, save on the sugar, coffee and cocoa estates,
+and by a few exceptional small farmers, is carried on in a haphazard
+and half-hearted manner, and the problem of agricultural development
+is one of great difficulty for the government. Much of the
+privately-owned land is not beneficially occupied, and in many cases
+it is not possible even to learn to whom it belongs, and though there
+are vast tracts of uncultivated crown land where a large farm or a
+small homestead can be easily and cheaply acquired, the difficulties
+involved in clearing, draining, and in some cases of protecting it by
+dams, are prohibitive to all but the exceptionally determined.</p>
+
+<p>Prospecting for gold began in 1880, and from 1884 to 1893-1894
+the output, chiefly from alluvial workings, increased from 250 oz.
+to nearly 140,000 oz. annually. The industry then received a serious
+check by the failure of several mines, and for nearly a decade was
+almost entirely in the hands of the small tributor, known locally as
+a pork-knocker. There has been some revival, chiefly due to foreign
+enterprise. At Omai on the Essequibo river a German syndicate
+worked a large concession on the hydraulic process of placer mining
+with considerable success, and more recently took to dredging on its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page679" id="page679"></a>679</span>
+flats. In the Puruni (a tributary of the Mazaruni) American capitalists,
+working the Peters&rsquo; mine, have established their workings to a
+considerable depth, besides constructing a road, 60 m. in length,
+from Kartabo point, at the confluence of the Guyuni and Mazaruni,
+to the Puruni river opposite the mine. An English syndicate started
+dredging in the Conawarook, a tributary of the Essequibo. The
+principal gold districts are on the Essequibo and its tributaries&mdash;the
+chief being the Cuyuni, Mazaruni, Potaro and Conawarook&mdash;and
+on the Barima, Barama and Waini rivers in the north-west
+district. There have been smaller workings, mostly unsuccessful,
+in the Demerara and Berbice rivers.</p>
+
+<p>Diamonds and other precious stones have been found in small
+quantities, and since 1900 efforts have been made to extend the
+output, nearly 11,000 carats weight of diamonds being exported in
+1904. But though the small stones found were of good water, the
+cost of transport to the diamond fields, on the Mazaruni river, was
+heavy, and after 1904 the industry declined. Laws dealing with
+gold and precious stones passed in 1880, 1886 and 1887, and regulations
+in 1899, were codified in 1902 and amended in 1905.</p>
+
+<p>Timber is cut, and balata and rubber collected, from crown lands
+by licences issued from the department of Lands and Mines. Wood-cutting,
+save on concessions held by a local company owning an
+up-country line of railway connecting the Demerara and Essequibo
+rivers, is limited to those parts of the forest which are close to the
+lower stretches of the rivers and creeks, the overland haulage of
+the heavy logs being both difficult and costly, while transport
+through the upper reaches of the rivers is impossible on account of
+the many cataracts and rapids. The average annual value of imports
+is £1,500,000, of which about two-thirds are from Great Britain
+and British possessions. Of the vessels trading with the colony,
+most are under the British flag, the remainder being principally
+American and Norwegian.</p>
+
+<p>The money of account is dollars and cents, but, with the exception
+of the notes of the two local banks, the currency is British sterling.
+The unit of land measure is the Rhynland rood, roughly equal to
+12 ft. 4 in. A Rhynland acre contains 300 square roods.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inland Communication, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;The public roads extend along the
+coast from the Corentyn river to some 20 m. N. of the Essequibo
+mouth on the Aroabisci coast, and for a short distance up each of
+the principal rivers and creeks entering the sea between these
+points. A line of railway 60½ m. in length runs from Georgetown
+to Rosignol on the left bank of the Berbice river opposite New
+Amsterdam; and another line 15 m. long starts from Vreed-en-hoop,
+on the left bank of the Demerara river opposite Georgetown, and
+runs to Greenwich Park on the right bank of the Essequibo river
+some 3 m. from its mouth. A light railway, metre gauge, 18½ m.
+in length, connects Wismar (on the left bank of the Demerara
+river some 70 m. from its mouth) with Rockstone (on the right bank
+of the Essequibo, and above the first series of cataracts in that river).
+Steamers run daily to and from Georgetown and Wismar, and
+launches to and from Rockstone and Tumatumari Fall on the
+Potaro, and all expeditions for the goldfields of the Essequibo and
+its tributaries above Rockstone travel by this route. Another
+steamer goes twice a week to Bartica at the confluence of the
+Essequibo and Mazaruni, and another weekly to Mt. Everard on
+the Barima, from which termini expeditions start to the other
+gold and diamond fields. Steamers also run from Georgetown to
+New Amsterdam and up the Berbice river for about 100 m. Above
+the termini of these steamer routes all travelling is done in keelless
+<i>bateaux</i>, propelled by paddlers and steered when coming through
+the rapids at both bow and stern by certificated bowmen and
+steersmen. Owing to the extreme dangers of this inland travelling,
+stringent regulations have been framed as to the loading of boats,
+supply of ropes and qualifications of men in charge, and the shooting
+of certain falls is prohibited. Voyages up-country are of necessity
+slow, but the return journey is made with comparatively great
+rapidity, distances laboriously covered on the up-trip in three days
+being done easily in seven hours when coming back.</p>
+
+<p>From England British Guiana is reached in sixteen days by the
+steamers of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, and in nineteen
+days by those of the direct line from London and Glasgow. There
+are also regular services from Canada, the United States, France
+and Holland.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;When taken over in 1803 the prospects of three
+British colonies were by no means promising, and during the
+next decade the situation became very critical. Owing to the
+increased output of sugar by conquered Dutch and French
+colonies the English market was glutted and the markets of
+the continent of Europe were not available, Bonaparte having
+closed the ports. The years 1811 and 1812 were peculiarly
+disastrous, especially to those engaged in the manufacture of
+sugar, and at a public meeting held in Georgetown early in the
+latter year it was stated that the produce of the colony ordinarily
+worth £1,860,000 had on account of deteriorated value decreased
+by fully one-third. At this meeting it was resolved to petition
+the imperial parliament to allow the interchange of produce
+with the United States; a resolution which was unfortunately
+rendered abortive by the outbreak of war between England and
+the States in 1812, the trade of British Guiana being instead
+actually harried by American privateers. In his address to
+the Combined Court on the 20th of October 1812 the governor
+(General Carmichael) stated that a vessel with government
+stores had been captured by an American privateer, and in
+February 1813 the imperial government sent H.M.S. &ldquo;Peacock&rdquo;
+to protect the coast. On the 23rd of that month in cruising
+along the east coast of Demerara the &ldquo;Peacock&rdquo; met the
+American privateer &ldquo;Hornet,&rdquo; and though, after a gallant
+struggle, in which Captain Peake, R.N., was killed, the English
+ship was sunk with nearly all her crew, the colony did not suffer
+from any further depredations. In the following years news
+of the agitation in England in favour of emancipation gradually
+became known to the slaves and caused considerable unrest
+among them, culminating in 1823 in a serious outbreak on the
+estates on the east coast of Demerara. Negroes, demanding
+their freedom, attacked the houses of several managers, and
+although at most points these attacks were repulsed with but
+little loss on either side, the situation was so serious as to necessitate
+the calling out of the military. The ringleaders were
+arrested and promptly and vigorously dealt with, while a special
+court-martial was appointed to try the Rev. John Smith, of
+the London Missionary Society, who it was alleged had fostered
+the rising by his teachings to the slave congregation at his
+chapel in Le Ressouvenir. This trial was stigmatized as unfair
+by the missionary party in England, but on the whole appears
+to have been conducted decently by an undoubtedly unbiassed
+court. It is difficult now to form any very definite conclusion.
+Mr Smith certainly had great influence over the slaves, and
+while his teaching prior to the outbreak was at least ill-advised,
+he made no efforts while the disturbances were going on to use
+his influence on the side of law and order; indeed all he could
+say in his own defence was that he was ignorant of what was
+going on, a statement it is impossible to believe to have been
+strictly veracious. He was found guilty and sentenced to be
+hanged. It is obvious that it was never intended to carry out
+this sentence, and on the 29th of November the governor announced
+that he felt it imperative on him to transmit the findings
+of the court for His Majesty&rsquo;s consideration. The question of
+Smith&rsquo;s guilt or innocence created a great deal of feeling in
+England, the anti-slavery and missionary societies making it
+a basis for increased agitation in favour of the slaves; but
+the imperial government evidently agreed with the colonial
+executive in holding that he could not be exonerated of grave
+responsibility, as the order of the king was that while the sentence
+of death was remitted Mr Smith was to be dismissed from the
+colony and to enter into a recognizance in £2000 not to return
+to British Guiana or to reside in any other West Indian colony.
+This order reached Georgetown in April 1824, but Mr Smith
+had died in the city jail on the 6th of February of a pulmonary
+complaint from which he had been suffering for some
+time.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Benjamin d&rsquo;Urban was governor from April 1824 to May
+1833, the principal event of his administration being the consolidation
+in 1831 of the three colonies into one colony divided
+into three counties, Berbice, Demerara and Essequibo.</p>
+
+<p>Governor d&rsquo;Urban was succeeded in June 1833 by Sir James
+Carmichael Smyth, who began his administration by a proclamation
+to the slaves stating that while the king intended to
+improve their condition, the details of his plans were not as yet
+completed, and warning them against impatience or insubordination.
+When the resolutions foreshadowing emancipation,
+passed by the House of Commons on the 12th of June 1833,
+reached the colony, the planters, to whom the governor&rsquo;s proclamation
+had been most distasteful, were thunderstruck and
+even the government was surprised. Naturally the slaves were
+wildly jubilant. Emancipation brought troublous times through
+which the governor steered the colony with great tact and firmness,
+serious troubles being nipped in the bud solely by his great
+personality, and the subsequent conflicts with the apprentices
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page680" id="page680"></a>680</span>
+might have been obviated had he lived longer. He died at
+Camp House on the 4th of March 1838.</p>
+
+<p>In the years following emancipation the colony was in a
+serious condition. The report of a commission in 1850 proved
+that it was virtually ruined, and only by the introduction of
+immigrants to provide a reliable labour supply were the sugar
+estates saved from total extinction. By 1853 the colony had
+begun to make headway, and Sir Henry Barkly, the then governor,
+was able to state in his speech to the Combined Court in
+January that its progress was in every way satisfactory. During
+Governor Barkly&rsquo;s administration the long series of struggles
+between the legislature and the executive terminated, and when
+he left in May 1853 he did so with the respect and good-will of
+all classes. The strengthening of the labour supply was not
+effected without troubles. In 1847 the negroes in Berbice
+attacked the persons and property of the Portuguese immigrants,
+the riots spreading to Demerara and Essequibo, and not until
+the military were called out were the disturbances quelled.
+Similar riots in 1862 were only stopped by the prompt and
+firm action of the new governor, Mr (afterwards Sir) Francis
+Hincks, while rows between negroes and Chinese and negroes
+and East Indians were frequent. Gradually, however, things
+quieted down, and until 1883 the estates as a whole did well.
+In 1884 the price of sugar fell so seriously as to make the prospects
+of the colony very gloomy, and for nearly two decades
+proprietors had to be content with a price kept artificially low
+by bounty-fed beet-sugar, many estates being ruined, while
+those that survived only did so by the application of every
+economy, and by their owners availing themselves of every new
+discovery in the sciences of cultivation and manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1889 was marked by an outbreak on the part of a
+section of the negro population in Georgetown directed against
+the Portuguese residents there. A Portuguese had murdered
+his black paramour and had been convicted and sentenced to
+death. The governor commuted the sentence to penal servitude
+for life. Shortly after this a Portuguese stall-holder in the
+market assaulted a small black boy whom he suspected of
+pilfering, the latter having to be taken to a hospital, while the
+former, after being taken to a police station was, through some
+misunderstanding or informality, at once released. Almost
+immediately excitable and unreasoning negroes were rushing
+about loudly proclaiming that the boy was dead, that the
+Portuguese were allowed to kill black people and to go free, and
+calling on one another to take their own revenge. Mobs gathered
+quickly, attacked individual Portuguese and wrecked their
+shops and houses, and not until the city had been given up for
+two days to scenes of disgraceful disorder were the efforts of the
+police and special constables successful in quelling the disturbances.
+The damage done amounted to several thousands of
+dollars, the Portuguese owners being eventually compensated
+from general revenue.</p>
+
+<p>In 1884 the dispute as to the boundary with Venezuela
+became acute. It was reported to the colonial government that
+the government of Venezuela had granted to an American
+syndicate a concession which covered much of the territory
+claimed by Great Britain, and although prompt investigation
+by an agent despatched by the governor did not then disclose
+any trace of interference with British claims, a further visit in
+January 1885, made in consequence of reports that servants of
+the Manoa Company had torn down notices posted by Mr
+McTurk on his former visit, discovered that the British notices
+had been covered over by Venezuelan ones and resulted in the
+government of Great Britain declaring that it would thenceforward
+exercise jurisdiction up to and within a boundary
+known as &ldquo;the modified Schomburgk line.&rdquo; Outposts were
+located at points on this line, and for some years Guianese police
+and Venezuelan soldiers faced one another across the Amacura
+creek in the Orinoco mouth and at Yuruan up the Cuyuni river.
+Guianese officers were, however, presumably instructed not
+actively to oppose acts of aggression by the Venezuelan government,
+for in January 1895 Venezuelan soldiers arrested Messrs
+D. D. Barnes and A. H. Baker, inspectors of police in charge at
+Yuruan station, conveyed them through Venezuela to Caracas,
+eventually allowing them to take steamer to Trinidad. For
+this act compensation was demanded and was eventually paid
+by Venezuela. The diplomatic question as to the boundary&mdash;the
+results of which are stated above&mdash;was passed out of the
+hands of the colony; see the account of the arbitration under
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Venezuela</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>The last two months of 1905 were marked by serious disturbances
+in Georgetown, and in a lesser degree on the east
+and west banks of the Demerara river. On the 29th of November
+the dock labourers employed on the wharves in Georgetown
+struck for higher wages, and large crowds invaded the principal
+stores in the city, compelling men willing to work to desist and
+in some cases assaulting those who opposed them. By the
+evening of the 30th of November they had got so far out of
+hand as to necessitate the reading of the Riot Act and a proclamation
+by the governor (Sir F. M. Hodgson) forbidding all
+assemblies. On the morning of the 1st of December serious
+disturbances broke out at Ruimvelt, a sugar estate directly
+south of Georgetown, where the cane-cutters had suddenly
+struck for higher pay, and the police were compelled to fire on
+the mob, killing some and wounding others. All through that
+day mobs in all parts of the city assaulted any white man they
+met, houses were invaded and windows smashed, and on two
+further occasions the police had to fire. At night torrential rains
+forced the rioters to shelter, and enabled the police to get rest,
+their places being taken by pickets of militiamen and special
+constables. On Saturday, the 2nd of December, the police had
+got the upper hand, and the arrival that night of H.M.S.
+&ldquo;Sappho&rdquo; and on Sunday of H.M.S. &ldquo;Diamond&rdquo; gave the
+government complete control of the situation. Threatened
+troubles on the sugar estates on the west bank were suppressed
+by the prompt action of the governor, and the arrest of large
+numbers of the rioters and their immediate trial by special
+courts restored thorough order.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;See Raleigh&rsquo;s <i>Voyages for the Discovery of Guiana
+1595-1596</i>, (&ldquo;Hakluyt&rdquo; series); Laurence Keymis&rsquo; <i>Relation of
+the second Voyage to Guiana</i> (<i>1596</i>), (&ldquo;Hakluyt&rdquo; series); Sir R. H.
+Schomburgk, <i>Description of British Guiana</i> (London, 1840); C.
+Waterton, <i>Wanderings in South America, 1812-1825</i> (London, 1828);
+J. Rodway, <i>History of British Guiana</i> (Georgetown, 1891-1894);
+H. G. Dalton, History of British Guiana (London, 1855); J. W.
+Boddam Whetham, <i>Roraima and British Guiana</i> (London, 1879);
+C. P. Lucas, <i>Historical Geography of British Colonies</i>; E. F. im Thurn,
+<i>Among the Indians of Guiana</i> (London, 1883); <i>British Guiana
+Directory</i> (Georgetown, 1906); G. D. Bayley, <i>Handbook of British
+Guiana</i> (Georgetown, 1909).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. G. B.*)</div>
+
+<p>II. <span class="sc">Dutch Guiana</span>, or <i>Surinam</i>, has an area of about 57,900
+sq. m. British Guiana bounds it on the west and French on
+the east (the long unsettled question of the French
+boundary is dealt with in section III., <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French
+Guiana</a></span>). The various peoples inhabiting Surinam are
+<span class="sidenote">Dutch Guiana.</span>
+distributed according to the soil and the products. The Indians
+(Caribs, Arawaks, Warrous) live on the savannahs, or on the
+upper Nickerie, Coppename and Maroni, far from the plantations,
+cultivating their fields of manioc or cassava, and for the
+rest living by fishing and hunting. They number about 2000.
+The bush negroes (Marrons) dwell between 3° and 4° N., near
+the isles and cataracts. They are estimated at 10,000, and are
+employed in the transport of men and goods to the goldfields,
+the navigation of the rivers in trade with the Indians, and in the
+transport of wood to Paramaribo and the plantations. They
+are the descendants of runaway slaves, and before missionaries
+had worked among them their paganism retained curious traces
+of their former connexion with Christianity. Their chief god
+was Gran Gado (grand-god), his wife Maria, and his son Jesi
+Kist. Various minor deities were also worshipped, Ampuka the
+bush-god, Toni the water-god, &amp;c. Their language was based
+on a bastard English, mingled with many Dutch, Portuguese
+and native elements. Their chiefs are called <i>gramman</i> or grand
+man; but the authority of these men, and the peculiarities of
+language and religion, have in great measure died out owing
+to modern intercourse with the Dutch and others. The inhabitants
+of Paramaribo and the plantations comprise a variety
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page681" id="page681"></a>681</span>
+of races, represented by Chinese, Javanese, coolies from India
+and the West Indies, negroes and about 2000 whites. Of non-Christian
+immigrants there are about 6000 Mahommedans and
+12,000 Hindus; and Jews number about 1200. The total
+population was given in 1907 as 84,103, exclusive of Indians,
+&amp;c., in the forests. Nearly one-half of this total are in Paramaribo
+and one-half in the districts. The population has shown
+a tendency to move from the districts to the town; thus in
+1852 there were 6000 persons in the town and 32,000 in the
+districts.</p>
+
+<p>The principal settlements have been made in the lower valley
+of the Surinam, or between that river and the Saramacca on
+the W. and the Commewyne on the E. The Surinam is the chief
+of a number of large rivers which rise in the Tumuc Humac
+range or the low hills between it and the sea, which they enter
+on the Dutch seaboard, between the Corentyn and the Maroni
+(Dutch <i>Corantijn</i> and <i>Marowijne</i>), which form the boundaries
+with British and French territories respectively. Between the
+rivers of Dutch Guiana there are remarkable cross channels
+available during the floods at least. As the Maroni communicates
+with the Cottica, which is in turn a tributary of the Commewyne,
+a boat can pass from the Maroni to Paramaribo;
+thence by the Sommelsdijk canal it can reach the Saramacca;
+and from the Saramacca it can proceed up the Coppename, and
+by means of the Nickerie find its way to the Corentyn. The
+rivers are not navigable inland to any considerable extent, as
+their courses are interrupted by rapids. The interior of the
+country consists for the most part of low hills, though an extreme
+height of 3800 ft. is known in the Wilhelmina Kette, in the
+west of the colony, about 3° 50&prime; to 4° N. The hinterland south
+of this latitude, and that part of the Tumuc Humac range along
+which the Dutch frontier runs, are, however, practically unexplored.
+Like the other territories of Guiana the Dutch colony
+is divided physically into a low coast-land, savannahs and
+almost impenetrable forest.</p>
+
+<p>Meteorological observations have been carried on at five
+stations (Paramaribo, Coronie, Sommelsdijk, Nieuw-Nickerie
+and Groningen). The mean range of temperature for the day,
+month and year shows little variation, being respectively
+77.54°-88.38° F., 76.1°-78.62° F. and 70.52°-90.14° F.
+The north-east trade winds prevail throughout the year, but
+the rainfall varies considerably; for December and January
+the mean is respectively 8.58 and 9.57 in., for May and June
+11.26 and 10.31 in., but for February and March 7.2 and 6.81 in.,
+and for September 2.48 and 2.0 in. The seasons comprise a
+long and a short dry season, and a period of heavy and of slight
+rainfall.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Products and Trade.</i>&mdash;It has been found exceedingly difficult to
+exploit the produce of the forests. The most important crops and
+those supplying the chief exports are cocoa, coffee and sugar, all
+cultivated on the larger plantations, with rice, maize and bananas
+on the smaller or coast lands. Most of the larger plantations are
+situated on the lower courses of the Surinam, Commewyne, Nickerie
+and Cottica, and on the coast lands, rarely in the upper parts.
+Goldfields lie in the older rocks (especially the slate) of the upper
+Surinam, Saramacca and Maroni. The first section of a railway
+designed to connect the goldfields with Paramaribo was opened in
+1906. The annual production of gold amounts in value to about
+£100,000, but has shown considerable fluctuation. Agriculture is
+the chief means of subsistence. About 42,000 acres are under
+cultivation. Of 30,000, persons whose occupation is given in official
+statistics, close upon 21,000 are engaged in agriculture or on the
+plantations, 2400 in gold-mining and only 1000 in trade. The
+exports increased in value from £200,800 in 1875 to £459,800 in
+1899, and imports from £260,450 in 1875 to £510,180 in 1899; but
+the average value of exports over five years subsequently was only
+£414,000, while that of imports was £531,000.</p>
+
+<p><i>Administration.</i>&mdash;The colony is under a governor, who is president
+of an executive council, which also includes a vice-president and
+three members nominated by the crown. The legislative body is
+the states, the members of which are elected for six years by electors,
+of whom there is one for every 200 holders of the franchise. The
+colony is divided into sixteen districts. For the administration of
+justice there are three cantonal courts, two district courts, and the
+supreme court at Paramaribo, whose president and permanent
+members are nominated by the crown. The average local revenue
+(1901-1906) was about £276,000 and the expenditure about £317,000;
+both fluctuated considerably, and a varying subvention is necessary
+from the home government (£16,000 in 1902, £60,400 in 1906; the
+annual average is about £37,000). There are a civic guard of about
+1800 men and a militia of 500, with a small garrison.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>History</i>.&mdash;The history of the Dutch in Guiana, and the
+compression of their influence within its present limits, belongs
+to the general history of Guiana (above). Surinam and the
+Dutch islands of the West Indies were placed under a common
+government in 1828, the governor residing at Paramaribo, but
+in 1845 they were separated. Slavery was abolished in 1863.
+Labour then became difficult to obtain, and in 1870 a convention
+was signed between Holland and England for the regulation of
+the coolie traffic, and a Dutch government agent for Surinam
+was appointed at Calcutta. The problem was never satisfactorily
+solved, but the interest of the mother-country in the colony
+greatly increased during the last twenty years of the 19th
+century, as shown by the establishment of the Surinam Association,
+of the Steam Navigation Company&rsquo;s service to Paramaribo,
+and by the formation of a botanical garden for experimental
+culture at that town, as also by geological and other scientific
+expeditions, and the exhibition at Haarlem in 1898.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Among the older works on Surinam the first
+rank is held by Jan Jacob Hartsinck&rsquo;s masterly <i>Beschryving van
+Guiana, of de Wilde Kust, in Zuid Amerika</i> (2 vols., Amsterdam,
+1770). Extracts from this work, selected for their bearing upon
+British boundary questions, were translated and annotated by
+J. A. J. de Villiers (London, 1897). A valuable <i>Geschiedenis der
+Kolonie van Suriname</i>, by a number of &ldquo;learned Jews,&rdquo; was
+published at Amsterdam in 1791 and it was supplemented and so
+far superseded by Wolbers, <i>Geschiedenis van Suriname</i> (Amsterdam,
+1861). See further W. G. Palgrave, <i>Dutch Guiana</i> (London,
+1876); A. Kappler, <i>Surinam, sein Land, &amp;c.</i> (Stuttgart, 1887);
+Prince Roland Bonaparte, <i>Les Habitants de Surinam</i> (Paris, 1884);
+K. Martin, &ldquo;Bericht über eine Reise ins Gebiet des Oberen-Surinam,&rdquo;
+<i>Bijdragen v. h. Inst. voor Taal Land en Volkenkunde</i>,
+i. 1. (The Hague); Westerouen van Meeteren, <i>La Guyane néerlandaise</i>
+(Leiden, 1884); H. Ten Kate, &ldquo;Een en ander over
+Suriname,&rdquo; <i>Gids</i> (1888); G. Verschuur, &ldquo;Voyages aux trois
+Guyanes,&rdquo; <i>Tour du monde</i> (1893). pp. 1, 49, 65; W. L. Loth,
+<i>Beknopte Aardrijkskundige beschrijving van Suriname</i> (Amsterdam,
+1898), and <i>Tijdschrift van het Aardrijkskundig Genootschap</i> (1878),
+79, 93; Asch van Wyck, &ldquo;La Colonie de Surinam,&rdquo; <i>Les Pays-Bas</i>
+(1898); L. Thompson, <i>Overzicht der Geschiedenis van Suriname</i>
+(The Hague, 1901); <i>Catalogus der Nederl. W. I. ten Toonstelling te
+Haarlem</i> (1899); <i>Guide à travers la section des Indes néerlandaises</i>,
+p. 323 (Amsterdam, 1899); <i>Surinaamsche Almanak</i> (Paramaribo,
+annually). For the language of the bush-negroes see Wullschlaegel,
+<i>Kurzgefasste neger-englische Grammatik</i> (Bautzen, 1854), and <i>Deutsch
+neger-englisches Wörterbuch</i> (Lobau, 1865).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>III. <span class="sc">French Guiana</span> (<i>Guyane</i>).&mdash;This colony is situated
+between Dutch Guiana and Brazil. A delimitation of the
+territory belonging to France and the Netherlands
+was arrived at in 1891, by decision of the emperor of
+Russia. This question originated in the arrangement
+<span class="sidenote">French Guiana.</span>
+of 1836, that the river Maroni should form the frontier. It
+turned on the claim of the Awa or the Tapanahoni to be recognized
+as the main head-stream of the Maroni, and the final
+decision, in indicating the Awa, favoured the Dutch. In 1905
+certain territory lying between the upper Maroni and the Itany,
+the possession of which had not then been settled, was acquired
+by France by agreement between the French and Dutch governments.
+The question of the exploitation of gold in the Maroni
+was settled by attributing alternate reaches of the river to France
+and Holland; while France obtained the principal islands in
+the lower Maroni. The additional territory thus attached to
+the French colony amounted to 965 sq. m. In December 1900
+the Swiss government as arbitrators fixed the boundary between
+French Guiana and Brazil as the river Oyapock and the watershed
+on the Tumuc Humac mountains, thus awarding to France
+about 3000 of the 100,000 sq. m. which she claimed. This
+dispute was of earlier origin than that with the Dutch; dissensions
+between the French and the Portuguese relative to
+territory north of the Amazon occurred in the 17th century.
+In 1700 the Treaty of Lisbon made the contested area (known
+as the Terres du Cap du Nord) neutral ground. The treaty of
+Utrecht in 1713 indicated as the French boundary a river
+which the French afterwards claimed to be the Araguary, but
+the Portuguese asserted that the Oyapock was intended. After
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page682" id="page682"></a>682</span>
+Brazil had become independent the question dragged on until
+in 1890-1895 there were collisions in the contested territory
+between French and Brazilian adventurers. This compelled
+serious action, and a treaty of arbitration, preliminary to the
+settlement, was signed at Rio de Janeiro in 1897. French Guiana,
+according to official estimate, has an area of about 51,000 sq. m.
+The population is estimated at about 30,000; its movement is
+not rapid. Of this total 12,350 live at Cayenne, 10,100 were
+in the communes, 5700 formed the penal population, 1500 were
+native Indians (Galibi, Emerillon, Oyampi) and 500 near
+Maroni were negroes. Apart from Cayenne, which was rebuilt
+after the great fire of 1888, the centres of population are unimportant:
+Sinnamarie with 1500 inhabitants, Mana with 1750,
+Roura with 1200 and Approuague with 1150. In 1892 French
+Guiana was divided into fourteen communes, exclusive of the
+Maroni district. Belonging to the colony are also the three
+Safety Islands (Royale, Joseph and Du Diable&mdash;the last notable
+as the island where Captain Dreyfus was imprisoned), the Enfant
+Perdu Island and the five Remire Islands.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A considerable portion of the low coast land is occupied by
+marshes, with a dense growth of mangroves or, in the drier parts,
+with the pinot or wassay palm (<i>Euterpe oleracea</i>). Settlements are
+confined almost entirely to the littoral and alluvial districts. The
+forest-clad hills of the hinterland do not generally exceed 1500 ft.
+in elevation; that part of the Tumuc Humac range which forms
+the southern frontier may reach an extreme elevation of 2600 ft.
+But the dense tropical forests attract so much moisture from the
+ocean winds that the highlands are the birthplace of a large number
+of rivers which in the rainy season especially pour down vast volumes
+of water. Not less than 15 are counted between the Maroni and the
+Oyapock. South-eastward from the Maroni the first of importance
+is the Mana, which is navigable for large vessels 10 m. from its mouth,
+and for smaller vessels 27 m. farther. Passing the Sinnamary and
+the Kourou, the Oyock is next reached, near the mouth of which
+is Cayenne, the capital of the colony, and thereafter the Approuage.
+All these rivers take their rise in a somewhat elevated area about
+the middle of the colony; those streams which rise farther south,
+in the Tumuc Humac hills, are tributaries of the two frontier rivers,
+the Maroni on the one hand or the Oyapock on the other.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate and Products.</i>&mdash;The rainy season begins in November or
+December, and lasts till the latter part of June; but there are
+usually three or four weeks of good weather in March. During the
+rest of the year there is often hardly a drop of rain for months, but
+the air is always very moist. At Cayenne the average annual rainfall
+amounts to fully 130 in., and it is naturally heavier in the interior.
+During the hotter part of the year&mdash;August, September, October&mdash;the
+temperature usually rises to about 86° F., but it hardly ever
+exceeds 88°; in the colder season the mean is 79° and it seldom
+sinks so low as 70°. Between day and night there is very little
+thermometric difference. The prevailing winds are the N.N.E. and
+the S.E.; and the most violent are those of the N.E. During the
+rainy season the winds keep between N. and E., and during the
+dry season between S. and E. Hurricanes are unknown. In flora
+and fauna French Guiana resembles the rest of the Guianese region.
+Vegetation is excessively rich. Among leguminous trees, which are
+abundantly represented, the wacapou is the finest of many hardwood
+trees. Caoutchouc and various palms are also common.
+The manioc is a principal source of food; rice is an important object
+of cultivation; and maize, yams, arrowroot, bananas and the
+bread-fruit are also to be mentioned. Vanilla is one of the common
+wild plants of the country. The clove tree has been acclimatized,
+and in the latter years of the empire it formed a good source of
+wealth; the cinnamon tree was also successfully introduced in
+1772, but like that of the pepper-tree and the nutmeg its cultivation
+is neglected. A very small portion of the territory indeed is devoted
+to agriculture, although France has paid some attention to
+the development of this branch of activity. In 1880 a colonial
+garden was created near Cayenne; since 1894 an experimental
+garden has been laid out at Baduel. About 8200 acres are cultivated,
+of which 5400 acres are under cereals and rice, the remaining being
+under coffee (introduced in 1716), cacao, cane and other cultures.
+The low lands between Cayenne and Oyapock are capable of bearing
+colonial produce, and the savannahs might support large herds;
+cereals, root-crops and vegetables might easily be grown on the
+high grounds, and timber working in the interior should be profitable.</p>
+
+<p>Gold-mining is the most important industry in the colony.
+Placers of great wealth have been discovered on the Awa, on the
+Dutch frontier and at Carsevenne in the territory which formed the
+subject of the Franco-Brazilian dispute. But wages are high and
+transport is costly, and the amount of gold declared at Cayenne did
+not average more than 130,550 oz. annually in 1900-1905. Silver
+and iron have been found in various districts; kaolin is extracted
+in the plains of Montsinéry; and phosphates have been discovered
+at several places. Besides gold-workings, the industrial establishments
+comprise saw-mills, distilleries, brick-works and sugar-works.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trade and Communications.</i>&mdash;The commerce in 1885 amounted
+to £336,000 for imports and to £144,000 for exports; in 1897 the
+values were respectively £373,350 and £286,400, but in 1903, while
+imports had increased in value only to £418,720, exports had risen
+to £493,213. The imports consist of wines, flour, clothes, &amp;c.;
+the chief are gold, phosphates, timber, cocoa and rosewood essence.
+Cayenne is the only considerable port. One of the drawbacks to the
+development of the colony is the lack of labour. Native labour is
+most difficult to obtain, and attempts to utilize convict labour have
+not proved very successful. Efforts to supply the need by immigration
+have not done so completely. The land routes are not numerous.
+The most important are that from Cayenne to Mana by way of
+Kourou, Sinnamarie and Iracoubo, and that from Cayenne along
+the coast to Kaw and the mouth of the Approuague. Towards the
+interior there are only foot-paths, badly made. By water, Cayenne
+is in regular communication with the Safety Islands (35 m.), and the
+mouth of the Maroni (80 m.), with Fort de France in the island of
+Martinique, where travellers meet the mail packet for France, and
+with Boston (U.S.A.). There is a French cable between Cayenne
+and Brest.</p>
+
+<p><i>Administration.</i>&mdash;The colony is administered by a commissioner-general
+assisted by a privy council, including the secretary general
+and chief of the judicial service, the military, penitentiary and
+administrative departments. In 1879 an elective general council
+of sixteen members was constituted. There are a tribunal of first
+instance and a higher tribunal at Cayenne, besides four justices of
+peace, one of whom has extensive jurisdiction in other places. Of
+the £256,000 demanded for the colony in the colonial budget for
+1906, £235,000 represented the estimated expenditure on the penal
+settlement, so that the cost of the colony was only about £21,000.
+The local budget for 1901 balanced at £99,000 and in 1905 at £116,450.
+Instruction is given in the college of Cayenne and in six primary
+schools. At the head of the clergy is an apostolic prefect. The
+armed force consists of two companies of marine infantry, half a
+battery of artillery, and a detachment of gendarmerie, and comprises
+about 380 men. The penal settlement was established by a
+decree of 1852. From that year until 1867, 18,000 exiles had been
+sent to Guiana, but for the next twenty years New Caledonia became
+the chief penal settlement in the French colonies. But in 1885-1887
+French Guiana was appointed as a place of banishment for
+confirmed criminals and for convicts sentenced to more than eight
+years&rsquo; hard labour. A large proportion of these men have been
+found unfit for employment upon public works.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The Sieur La Revardière, sent out in 1604 by
+Henry IV. to reconnoitre the country, brought back a favourable
+report; but the death of the king put a stop to the projects
+of formal colonization. In 1626 a small body of traders from
+Rouen settled on the Sinnamary, and in 1635 a similar band
+founded Cayenne. The Compagnie du Cap Nord, founded by
+the people of Rouen in 1643 and conducted by Poncet de Brétigny,
+the Compagnie de la France Équinoxiale, established in 1645,
+and the second Compagnie de la France Équinoxiale, or Compagnie
+des Douze Seigneurs, established in 1652, were failures,
+the result of incompetence, mismanagement and misfortune.
+From 1654 the Dutch held the colony for a few years. The
+French Compagnie des Indes Occidentales, chartered in 1664
+with a monopoly of Guiana commerce for forty years, proved
+hardly more successful than its predecessors; but in 1674 the
+colony passed under the direct control of the crown, and the
+able administration of Colbert began to tell favourably on its
+progress, although in 1686 an unsuccessful expedition against
+the Dutch in Surinam set back the advance of the French
+colony until the close of the century.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1763 was marked by a terrible disaster. Choiseul,
+the prime minister, having obtained for himself and his cousin
+Praslin a concession of the country between the Kourou and
+the Maroni, sent out about 12,000 volunteer colonists, mainly
+from Alsace and Lorraine. They were landed at the mouth of
+the Kourou, where no preparation had been made for their
+reception, and where even water was not to be obtained. Mismanagement
+was complete; there was (for example) a shop for
+skates, whereas the necessary tools for tillage were wanting.
+By 1765 no more than 918 colonists remained alive, and these
+were a famished fever-stricken band. A long investigation in
+Paris resulted in the imprisonment of the incompetent leaders of
+the expedition. Several minor attempts at colonization in
+Guiana were made in the latter part of the century; but they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page683" id="page683"></a>683</span>
+all seemed to suffer from the same fatal prestige of failure.
+During the revolution band after band of political prisoners
+were transported to Guiana. The fate of the royalists, nearly
+600 in number, who were exiled on the 18th Fructidor (1797),
+was especially sad. Landed on the Sinnamary without shelter
+or food, two-thirds of them perished miserably. In 1800 Victor
+Hugues was appointed governor, and he managed to put the
+colony in a better state; but in 1809 his work was brought to
+a close by the invasion of the Portuguese and British.</p>
+
+<p>Though French Guiana was nominally restored to the French
+in 1814, it was not really surrendered by the Portuguese till
+1817. Numerous efforts were now made to establish the colony
+firmly, although its past misfortunes had prejudiced the public
+mind in France against it. In 1822 the first steam sugar mills
+were introduced; in 1824 an agricultural colony (Nouvelle
+Angoulême) was attempted in the Mana district, which, after
+failure at first, became comparatively successful. The emancipation
+of slaves and the consequent dearth of labour almost
+ruined the development of agricultural resources about the
+middle of the century, but in 1853 a large body of African
+immigrants was introduced. The discovery of gold on the
+Approuague in 1855 caused feverish excitement, and seriously
+disturbed the economic condition of the country.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;A detailed bibliography of French Guiana will be
+found in Ternaux-Compans, <i>Notice historique de la Guyane française</i>
+(Paris, 1843). Among more recent works, see E. Bassières, <i>Notice
+sur la Guyane</i>, issued on the occasion of the Paris Exhibition (1900);
+<i>Publications de la société d&rsquo;études pour la colonisation de la Guyane
+française</i> (Paris, 1843-1844); H. A. Coudreau, <i>La France équinoxiale</i>
+(1887), <i>Dialectes indiens de Guyane</i> (1891), <i>Dix ans de Guyane</i> (1892),
+and <i>Chez nos Indiens</i> (1893), all at Paris; G. Brousseau, <i>Les
+Richesses de la Guyane française</i> (Paris, 1901); L. F. Viala, <i>Les
+Trois Guyanes</i> (Montpellier, 1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The origin of the name is somewhat obscure, and has been
+variously interpreted. But the late Col. G. E. Church supplies the
+following note, which has the weight of his great authority: &ldquo;I
+cannot confirm the suggestion of Schomburgk that Guayaná &lsquo;received
+its name from a small river, a tributary of the Orinoco&rsquo;,
+supposed to be the Waini or Guainia. In South America, east of
+the Andes, it was the common custom of any tribe occupying a
+length of river to call it simply &lsquo;the river&rsquo;; but the other tribes
+designated any section of it by the name of the people living on its
+banks. Many streams, therefore, had more than a dozen names.
+It is probable that no important river had one name alone throughout
+its course, prior to the time of the Conquest. The radical <i>wini</i>,
+<i>waini</i>, <i>wayni</i>, is found as a prefix, and very frequently as a termination,
+to the names of numerous rivers, not only throughout Guayaná
+but all over the Orinoco and Amazon valleys. For instance, Paymary
+Indians called the portion of the Purús river which they occupied the
+<i>Waini</i>. It simply means water, or a fountain of water, or a river.
+The alternative suggestion that Guayaná is an Indian word signifying
+&rsquo;wild coast,&rsquo; I also think untenable. This term, applied to the
+north-east frontage of South America between the Orinoco and the
+Amazon, is found on the old Dutch map of Hartsinck, who calls it
+&rsquo;Guiana Caribania of de Wilde Kust,&rsquo; a name which must have
+well described it when, in 1580, some Zealanders, of the Netherlands,
+sent a ship to cruise along it, from the mouth of the Amazon to
+that of the Orinoco, and formed the first settlement near the river
+Pomeroon. The map of Firnao Vaz Dourado, 1564, calls the
+northern part of South America, including the present British
+Guiana, &lsquo;East Peru.&rsquo; An anonymous Spanish map, about 1566,
+gives Guayaná as lying on the east side of the Orinoco just above
+its mouth. About 1660, Sebastien de Ruesta, cosmographer of the
+<i>Casa de Contractacion de Seville</i>, shows Guayaná covering the
+British, French and Dutch Guayanás. According to the map of
+Nicolas de Fer, 1719, a tribe of Guayazis (Guyanas) occupied the
+south side of the Amazon river, front of the island of Tupinambará,
+east of the mouth of the Madeira. Aristides Rojas, an eminent
+Venezuelan scholar, says that the Mariches Indians, near Caracas,
+inhabited a site called Guayaná long before the discovery of South
+America by the Spaniards. Coudreau in his <i>Chez nos Indiens</i>
+mentions that the <i>Roucouyennes</i> of Guayaná take their name from
+a large tree in their forests, &lsquo;which appears to be the origin of the
+name Guayane.&rsquo; According to Michelana y Rojas, in their report
+to the Venezuelan government on their voyages in the basin of the
+Orinoco, &lsquo;Guyana derives its name from the Indians who live
+between the Caroni river and the Sierra de Imataca, called Guayanos.&rsquo;
+My own studies of aboriginal South America lead me to support the
+statement of Michelana y Rojas, but with the following enlargement
+of it: The Portuguese, in the early part of the 16th century, found
+that the coast and mountain district of Rio de Janeiro, between
+Cape São Thome and Angra dos Reis, belonged to the formidable
+<i>Tamoyos</i>. South of these, for a distance of about 300 m. of the
+ocean slope of the coast range, were the <i>Guayaná</i> tribes, called by
+the early writers <i>Guianás</i>, <i>Goyaná</i>, <i>Guayaná</i>, <i>Goaná</i> and, plural,
+<i>Goaynázés</i>, <i>Goayanázes</i> and <i>Guayanázes</i>. They were constantly at
+feud with the <i>Tamoyos</i> and with their neighbours on the south, the
+<i>Carijos</i>, as well as with the vast Tapuya hordes of the Sertão of the
+interior. Long before the discovery, they had been forced to
+abandon their beautiful lands, but had recuperated their strength,
+returned and reconquered their ancient habitat. Meanwhile, however,
+many of them had migrated northward, some had settled in
+the <i>Sertão</i> back of Bahia and Pernambuco, others on the middle
+Amazon and in the valley of the Orinoco, but a large number had
+crossed the lower Amazon and occupied an extensive area of country
+to the north of it, about the size of Belgium, along the Tumuchumac
+range of highlands, and the upper Paron and Maroni rivers, as well
+as a large district on the northern slope of the above-named range.
+In their new home they became known as <i>Roucouyennes</i>, because,
+like the Mundurucus of the middle Amazon, they rubbed and
+painted themselves with <i>roucou</i> or <i>urucu</i> (Bixa Orellana); but
+other surrounding tribes called them Ouayanás, that is Guayanás&mdash;the
+Gua, so common to the Guarani-Tupi tongue, having become
+corrupted into <i>Oua</i>. Porto Seguro says of the so-called Tupis, &lsquo;at
+other times they gave themselves the name of <i>Guayá</i> or <i>Guayaná</i>,
+which probably means &ldquo;brothers,&rdquo; from which comes <i>Guayazes</i> and
+<i>Guayanazes</i>.... The latter occupied the country just south of
+Rio de Janeiro.... The masters of the Capitania of St Vincente
+called themselves <i>Guianas</i>.&rsquo; Guinila, referring to north-eastern
+South America (1745), speaks of five missions being formed to
+civilize the &lsquo;<i>Nacion Guayana</i>.&rsquo; In view of the above, it may be
+thought reasonable to assume that the vast territory now known
+as <i>Guayaná</i> (British, Dutch, French, Brazilian and Venezuelan)
+derives its name from its aborigines who were found there at the
+time of the discovery, and whose original home was the region I
+have indicated.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> This is the boundary generally accepted; but it is in dispute.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3f" id="ft3f" href="#fa3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See C. B. Brown and J. G. Sawkins, <i>Reports on the Physical,
+Descriptive and Economic Geology of British Guiana</i> (London, 1875);
+C. Velain, &ldquo;Esquisse géologique de la Guyane française et des
+bassins du Parou et du Yari (affluents de l&rsquo;Amazone) d&rsquo;après les
+explorations du Dr Crevaux,&rdquo; <i>Bull. Soc. Géogr.</i> ser. 7, vol. vi.
+(Paris, 1885), pp. 453-492 (with geological map); E. Martin, <i>Geologische
+Studien über Niederländisch-West-Indien, auf Grund eigener
+Untersuchungsreisen</i> (Leiden, 1888); W. Bergt, &ldquo;Zur Geologie
+des Coppename- und Nickerietales in Surinam (Hollandisch-Guyana),&rdquo;
+<i>Samml. d. Geol. Reichsmus.</i> (Leiden), ser. 2, Bd. ii.
+Heft 2, pp. 93-163 (with 3 maps); and for British Guiana, the
+official reports on the geology of various districts, by J. B. Harrison,
+C. W. Anderson, H. I. Perkins, published at Georgetown.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUIART<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Guiard</span>), <b>GUILLAUME</b> (d. <i>c.</i> 1316), French
+chronicler and poet, was probably born at Orleans, and served
+in the French army in Flanders in 1304. Having been disabled
+by a wound he began to write, lived at Arras and then in Paris,
+thus being able to consult the large store of manuscripts in the
+abbey of St Denis, including the <i>Grandes chroniques de France</i>.
+Afterwards he appears as a <i>ménestrel de bouche</i>. Guiart&rsquo;s poem
+<i>Branche des royaulx lignages</i>, was written and then rewritten
+between 1304 and 1307, in honour of the French king Philip IV.,
+and in answer to the aspersions of a Flemish poet. Comprising
+over 21,000 verses it deals with the history of the French kings
+from the time of Louis VIII.; but it is only really important
+for the period after 1296 and for the war in Flanders from 1301
+to 1304, of which it gives a graphic account, and for which it is
+a high authority. It was first published by J. A. Buchon
+(Paris, 1828), and again in tome xxii. of the <i>Recueil des historiens
+des Gaules et de la France</i> (Paris, 1865).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Molinier, <i>Les Sources de l&rsquo;histoire de France</i>, tome iii. (Paris,
+1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUIBERT,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Wibert</span> (<i>c.</i> 1030-1100), of Ravenna, antipope
+under the title of Clement III. from the 25th of June 1080 until
+September 1100, was born at Parma between 1020 and 1030 of
+the noble imperialist family, Corregio. He entered the priesthood
+and was appointed by the empress Agnes, chancellor and,
+after the death of Pope Victor II. (1057), imperial vicar in Italy.
+He strove to uphold the imperial authority during Henry IV.&rsquo;s
+minority, and presided over the synod at Basel (1061) which
+annulled the election of Alexander II. and created in the person
+of Cadalous, bishop of Parma, the antipope Honorius II.
+Guibert lost the chancellorship in 1062. In 1073, through the
+influence of Empress Agnes and the support of Cardinal Hildebrand,
+he obtained the archbishopric of Ravenna and swore
+fealty to Alexander II. and his successors. He seems to have
+been at first on friendly terms with Gregory VII., but soon
+quarrelled with him over the possession of the city of Imola,
+and henceforth was recognized as the soul of the imperial faction
+in the investiture contest. He allied himself with Cencius,
+Cardinal Candidus and other opponents of Gregory at Rome,
+and, on his refusal to furnish troops or to attend the Lenten
+synod of 1075, he was ecclesiastically suspended by the pope.
+He was probably excommunicated at the synod of Worms
+(1076) with other Lombard bishops who sided with Henry IV.,
+and at the Lenten synod of 1078 he was banned by name. The
+emperor, having been excommunicated for the second time in
+March 1080, convened nineteen bishops of his party at Mainz
+on the 31st of May, who pronounced the deposition of Gregory;
+and on the 25th of June he caused Guibert to be elected pope
+by thirty bishops assembled at Brixen. Guibert, whilst retaining
+possession of his archbishopric, accompanied his imperial
+master on most of the latter&rsquo;s military expeditions. Having
+gained Rome, he was installed in the Lateran and consecrated
+as Clement III. on the 24th of March 1084. One week later,
+on Easter Sunday, he crowned Henry IV. and Bertha in St
+Peter&rsquo;s. Clement survived not only Gregory VII. but also
+Victor III. and Urban II., maintaining his title to the end and
+in great measure his power over Rome and the adjoining regions.
+Excommunication was pronounced against him by all his rivals.
+He was driven out of Rome finally by crusaders in 1097, and
+sought refuge in various fortresses on his own estates. St
+Angelo, the last Guibertist stronghold in Rome, fell to Urban II.
+on the 24th of August 1098. Clement, on the accession of
+Paschal II. in 1099, prepared to renew his struggle but was
+driven from Albano by Norman troops and died at Civita
+Castellana in September 1100. His ashes, which were said by
+his followers to have worked miracles, were thrown into the
+water by Paschal II.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Langen, <i>Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Gregor VII.
+bis Innocenz III.</i> (Bonn, 1893); Jaffé-Wattenbach, <i>Regesta pontif.
+Roman</i>. (2nd ed., 1885-1888); K. J. von Hefele, <i>Conciliengeschichte</i>,
+vol. v. (2nd ed.); F. Gregorovius, <i>Rome in the Middle Ages</i>, vol. iv.,
+trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); and O.
+Köhncke, <i>Wibert von Ravenna</i> (Leipzig, 1888).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. H. Ha.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUIBERT<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1053-1124), of Nogent, historian and theologian,
+was born of noble parents at Clermont-en-Beauvoisis, and
+dedicated from infancy to the church. He received his early
+education at the Benedictine abbey of Flavigny (Flaviacum)
+or St Germer, where he studied with great zeal, devoting himself
+at first to the secular poets, an experience which left its imprint
+on his works; later changing to theology, through the influence
+of Anselm of Bec, afterwards of Canterbury. In 1104, he was
+chosen to be head of the abbey of Notre Dame de Nogent and
+henceforth took a prominent part in ecclesiastical affairs. His
+autobiography (<i>De vita sua, sive monodiarum</i>), written towards
+the close of his life, gives many picturesque glimpses of his time
+and the customs of his country. The description of the commune
+of Laon is an historical document of the first order. The
+same local colour lends charm to his history of the first crusade
+(<i>Gesta Dei per Francos</i>) written about 1110. But the history
+is largely a paraphrase, in ornate style, of the <i>Gesta Francorum</i>
+of an anonymous Norman author (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crusades</a></span>); and when
+he comes to the end of his authority, he allows his book to
+degenerate into an undigested heap of notes and anecdotes.
+At the same time his high birth and his position in the church
+give his work an occasional value.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Guibert&rsquo;s works, edited by d&rsquo;Achery, were first
+published in 1651, in 1 vol. folio, at Paris (<i>Venerabilis Guiberti
+abbatis B. Mariae de Novigento opera omnia</i>), and republished
+in Migne&rsquo;s <i>Patrologia Latina</i>, vols. clvi. and clxxxiv. They include,
+besides minor works, a treatise on homiletics (&ldquo;Liber quo ordine
+sermo fieri debeat&rdquo;); ten books of <i>Moralia</i> on Genesis, begun in
+1084, but not completed until 1116, composed on the model of Gregory
+the Great&rsquo;s <i>Moralia in Jobum</i>; five books of <i>Tropologiae</i> on Hosea,
+Amos and the Lamentations; a treatise on the <i>Incarnation</i>, against
+the Jews; four books <i>De pignoribus sanctorum</i>, a remarkably free
+criticism on the abuses of saint and relic worship; three books of
+autobiography, <i>De vita sua, sive monodiarum</i>; and eight books of
+the <i>Historia quae dicitur Gesta Dei per Francos, sive historia Hierosolymitana</i>
+(the ninth book is by another author). Separate editions
+exist of the last named, in J. Bongars, <i>Gesta Dei per Francos</i>, i.,
+and <i>Recueil des historiens des croisades, hist. Occid.</i>, iv. 115-263.
+It has been translated into French in Guizot&rsquo;s <i>Collection</i>, ix. 1-338.
+See H. von Sybel, <i>Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges</i> (Leipzig, 1881);
+B. Monod, <i>Le Moine Guibert et son temps</i> (Paris, 1905); and <i>Guibert
+de Nogent; histoire de sa vie</i>, edited by G. Bourgin (Paris, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUIBERT, JACQUES ANTOINE HIPPOLYTE,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de</span>
+(1743-1790), French general and military writer, was born at
+Montauban, and at the age of thirteen accompanied his father,
+Charles Bénoit, comte de Guibert (1715-1786), chief of staff to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page684" id="page684"></a>684</span>
+Marshal de Broglie, throughout the war in Germany, and won
+the cross of St Louis and the rank of colonel in the expedition
+to Corsica (1767). In 1770 he published his <i>Essai général de
+tactique</i> in London, and this celebrated work appeared in numerous
+subsequent editions and in English, German and even
+Persian translations (extracts also in Liskenne and Sauvan,
+<i>Bibl. historique et militaire</i>, Paris, 1845). Of this work (for a
+detailed critique of which see Max Jähns, <i>Gesch. d. Kriegswissenschaften</i>,
+vol. iii. pp. 2058-2070 and references therein) it may be
+said that it was the best essay on war produced by a soldier
+during a period in which tactics were discussed even in the salon
+and military literature was more abundant than at any time up
+to 1871. Apart from technical questions, in which Guibert&rsquo;s
+enlightened conservatism stands in marked contrast to the
+doctrinaire progressiveness of Menil Durand, Folard and others,
+the book is chiefly valued for its broad outlook on the state of
+Europe, especially of military Europe in the period 1763-1792.
+One quotation may be given as being a most remarkable prophecy
+of the impending revolution in the art of war, a revolution which
+the &ldquo;advanced&rdquo; tacticians themselves scarcely foresaw. &ldquo;The
+standing armies, while a burden on the people, are inadequate
+for the achievement of great and decisive results in war, and
+meanwhile the mass of the people, untrained in arms, degenerates....
+The hegemony over Europe will fall to that
+nation which ... becomes possessed of manly virtues and
+<i>creates a national army</i>&rdquo;&mdash;a prediction fulfilled almost to the
+letter within twenty years of Guibert&rsquo;s death. In 1773 he
+visited Germany and was present at the Prussian regimental
+drills and army man&oelig;uvres; Frederick the Great, recognizing
+Guibert&rsquo;s ability, showed great favour to the young colonel and
+freely discussed military questions with him. Guibert&rsquo;s <i>Journal
+d&rsquo;un voyage en Allemagne</i> was published, with a memoir, by
+Toulongeon (Paris, 1803). His <i>Défense du système de guerre
+moderne</i>, a reply to his many critics (Neuchâtel, 1779) is a
+reasoned and scientific defence of the Prussian method of
+tactics, which formed the basis of his work when in 1775 he began
+to co-operate with the count de St Germain in a series of much-needed
+and successful reforms in the French army. In 1777,
+however, St Germain fell into disgrace, and his fall involved that
+of Guibert who was promoted to the rank of <i>maréchal de camp</i>
+and relegated to a provincial staff appointment. In his semi-retirement
+he vigorously defended his old chief St Germain
+against his detractors. On the eve of the Revolution he was
+recalled to the War Office, but in his turn he became the object
+of attack and he died, practically of disappointment, on the
+6th of May 1790. Other works of Guibert, besides those mentioned,
+are: <i>Observations sur la constitution politique et militaire
+des armées de S. M. Prussienne</i> (Amsterdam, 1778), <i>Éloges</i> of
+Marshal Catinat (1775), of Michel de l&rsquo;Hôpital (1778), and of
+Frederick the Great (1787). Guibert was a member of the
+Academy from 1786, and he also wrote a tragedy, <i>Le Connétable
+de Bourbon</i> (1775) and a journal of travels in France and Switzerland.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Toulongeon, <i>Éloge véridique de Guibert</i> (Paris, 1790); Madame
+de Stäel, <i>Éloge de Guibert</i>; Bardin, <i>Notice historique du général
+Guibert</i> (Paris, 1836); Flavian d&rsquo;Aldeguier, <i>Discours sur la vie et
+les écrits du comte de Guibert</i> (Toulouse, 1855); Count Forestie,
+<i>Biographie du comte de Guibert</i> (Montauban, 1855); Count zur
+Lippe, &ldquo;Friedr. der Grosse und Oberst Guibert&rdquo; (<i>Militär-Wochenblatt</i>,
+1873, 9 and 10).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUICCIARDINI, FRANCESCO<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1483-1540), the celebrated
+Italian historian and statesman, was born at Florence in the
+year 1483, when Marsilio Ficino held him at the font of baptism.
+His family was illustrious and noble; and his ancestors for
+many generations had held the highest posts of honour in the
+state, as may be seen in his own genealogical <i>Ricordi autobiografici
+e di famiglia</i> (<i>Op. ined.</i> vol. x.). After the usual education
+of a boy in grammar and elementary classical studies, his
+father, Piero, sent him to the universities of Ferrara and Padua,
+where he stayed until the year 1505. The death of an uncle,
+who had occupied the see of Cortona with great pomp, induced
+the young Guicciardini to hanker after an ecclesiastical career.
+He already saw the scarlet of a cardinal awaiting him, and to
+this eminence he would assuredly have risen. His father, however,
+checked this ambition, declaring that, though he had five
+sons, he would not suffer one of them to enter the church in its
+then state of corruption and debasement. Guicciardini, whose
+motives were confessedly ambitious (see <i>Ricordi, Op. ined.</i>
+x. 68), turned his attention to law, and at the age of twenty-three
+was appointed by the Signoria of Florence to read the <i>Institutes</i>
+in public. Shortly afterwards he engaged himself in marriage
+to Maria, daughter of Alamanno Salviati, prompted, as he
+frankly tells us, by the political support which an alliance with
+that great family would bring him (<i>ib.</i> x. 71). He was then
+practising at the bar, where he won so much distinction that the
+Signoria, in 1512, entrusted him with an embassy to the court
+of Ferdinand the Catholic. Thus he entered on the real work
+of his life as a diplomatist and statesman. His conduct upon that
+legation was afterwards severely criticized; for his political
+antagonists accused him of betraying the true interests of the
+commonwealth, and using his influence for the restoration of
+the exiled house of Medici to power. His Spanish correspondence
+with the Signoria (<i>Op. ined.</i> vol. vi.) reveals the extraordinary
+power of observation and analysis which was a chief
+quality of his mind; and in Ferdinand, hypocritical and profoundly
+dissimulative, he found a proper object for his scientific
+study. To suppose that the young statesman learned his frigid
+statecraft in Spain would be perhaps too simple a solution of
+the problem offered by his character, and scarcely fair to the
+Italian proficients in perfidy. It is clear from Guicciardini&rsquo;s
+autobiographical memoirs that he was ambitious, calculating,
+avaricious and power-loving from his earliest years; and in
+Spain he had no more than an opportunity of studying on a
+large scale those political vices which already ruled the minor
+potentates of Italy. Still the school was pregnant with instructions
+for so apt a pupil. Guicciardini issued from this first
+trial of his skill with an assured reputation for diplomatic ability,
+as that was understood in Italy. To unravel plots and weave
+counterplots; to meet treachery with fraud; to parry force
+with sleights of hand; to credit human nature with the basest
+motives, while the blackest crimes were contemplated with cold
+enthusiasm for their cleverness, was reckoned then the height
+of political sagacity. Guicciardini could play the game to perfection.
+In 1515 Leo X. took him into service, and made him
+governor of Reggio and Modena. In 1521 Parma was added to
+his rule, and in 1523 he was appointed viceregent of Romagna
+by Clement VII. These high offices rendered Guicciardini the
+virtual master of the papal states beyond the Apennines, during
+a period of great bewilderment and difficulty. The copious
+correspondence relating to his administration has recently been
+published (<i>Op. ined.</i> vols. vii., viii.). In 1526 Clement gave him
+still higher rank as lieutenant-general of the papal army. While
+holding this commission, he had the humiliation of witnessing
+from a distance the sack of Rome and the imprisonment of
+Clement, without being able to rouse the perfidious duke of
+Urbino into activity. The blame of Clement&rsquo;s downfall did not
+rest with him; for it was merely his duty to attend the camp,
+and keep his master informed of the proceedings of the generals
+(see the Correspondence, <i>Op. ined.</i> vols. iv., v.). Yet Guicciardini&rsquo;s
+conscience accused him, for he had previously counselled
+the pope to declare war, as he notes in a curious letter to himself
+written in 1527 (<i>Op. ined.</i>, x. 104). Clement did not, however,
+withdraw his confidence, and in 1531 Guicciardini was advanced
+to the governorship of Bologna, the most important of all the
+papallord-lieutenancies (Correspondence, <i>Op. ined.</i> vol. ix.). This
+post he resigned in 1534 on the election of Paul III., preferring
+to follow the fortunes of the Medicean princes. It may here be
+noticed that though Guicciardini served three popes through a
+period of twenty years, or perhaps because of this, he hated the
+papacy with a deep and frozen bitterness, attributing the woes
+of Italy to the ambition of the church, and declaring he had
+seen enough of sacerdotal abominations to make him a Lutheran
+(see <i>Op. ined.</i> i. 27, 104, 96, and <i>Ist. d&rsquo; It.</i>, ed. Ros., ii. 218).
+The same discord between his private opinions and his public
+actions may be traced in his conduct subsequent to 1534. As a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page685" id="page685"></a>685</span>
+political theorist, Guicciardini believed that the best form of
+government was a commonwealth administered upon the type
+of the Venetian constitution (<i>Op. ined.</i> i. 6; ii. 130 sq.); and
+we have ample evidence to prove that he had judged the tyranny
+of the Medici at its true worth (<i>Op. ined.</i> i. 171, on the tyrant;
+the whole <i>Storia Fiorentina</i> and <i>Reggimento di Firenze</i>, <i>ib.</i> i.
+and iii., on the Medici). Yet he did not hesitate to place his
+powers at the disposal of the most vicious members of that
+house for the enslavement of Florence. In 1527 he had been
+declared a rebel by the Signoria on account of his well-known
+Medicean prejudices; and in 1530, deputed by Clement to
+punish the citizens after their revolt, he revenged himself with a
+cruelty and an avarice that were long and bitterly remembered.
+When, therefore, he returned to inhabit Florence in 1534, he
+did so as the creature of the dissolute Alessandro de&rsquo; Medici.
+Guicciardini pushed his servility so far as to defend this infamous
+despot at Naples in 1535, before the bar of Charles V.,
+from the accusations brought against him by the Florentine
+exiles (<i>Op. ined.</i> vol. ix.). He won his cause; but in the eyes
+of all posterity he justified the reproaches of his contemporaries,
+who describe him as a cruel, venal, grasping seeker after power,
+eager to support a despotism for the sake of honours, offices
+and emoluments secured for himself by a bargain with the
+oppressors of his country. Varchi, Nardi, Jacopo Pitti and
+Bernardo Segni are unanimous upon this point; but it is only
+the recent publication of Guicciardini&rsquo;s private MSS. that has
+made us understand the force of their invectives. To plead
+loyalty or honest political conviction in defence of his Medicean
+partianship is now impossible, face to face with the opinions
+expressed in the <i>Ricordi politici</i> and the <i>Storia Fiorentina</i>.
+Like Machiavelli, but on a lower level, Guicciardini was willing
+to &ldquo;roll stones,&rdquo; or to do any dirty work for masters whom,
+in the depth of his soul, he detested and despised. After the
+murder of Duke Alessandro in 1537, Guicciardini espoused the
+cause of Cosimo de&rsquo; Medici, a boy addicted to field sports, and
+unused to the game of statecraft. The wily old diplomatist
+hoped to rule Florence as grand vizier under this inexperienced
+princeling. He was mistaken, however, in his schemes, for
+Cosimo displayed the genius of his family for politics, and coldly
+dismissed his would-be lord-protector. Guicciardini retired in
+disgrace to his villa, where he spent his last years in the composition
+of the <i>Storia d&rsquo; Italia</i>. He died in 1540 without male
+heirs.</p>
+
+<p>Guicciardini was the product of a cynical and selfish age,
+and his life illustrated its sordid influences. Of a cold and
+worldly temperament, devoid of passion, blameless in his
+conduct as the father of a family, faithful as the servant of his
+papal patrons, severe in the administration of the provinces
+committed to his charge, and indisputably able in his conduct
+of affairs, he was at the same time, and in spite of these qualities,
+a man whose moral nature inspires a sentiment of liveliest repugnance.
+It is not merely that he was ambitious, cruel,
+revengeful and avaricious, for these vices have existed in men
+far less antipathetic than Guicciardini. Over and above those
+faults, which made him odious to his fellow-citizens, we trace in
+him a meanness that our century is less willing to condone.
+His phlegmatic and persistent egotism, his sacrifice of truth and
+honour to self-interest, his acquiescence in the worst conditions
+of the world, if only he could use them for his own advantage,
+combined with the glaring discord between his opinions and his
+practice, form a character which would be contemptible in our
+eyes were it not so sinister. The social and political decrepitude
+of Italy, where patriotism was unknown, and only selfishness
+survived of all the motives that rouse men to action, found its
+representative and exponent in Guicciardini. When we turn
+from the man to the author, the decadence of the age and race
+that could develop a political philosophy so arid in its cynical
+despair of any good in human nature forces itself vividly upon
+our notice. Guicciardini seems to glory in his disillusionment,
+and uses his vast intellectual ability for the analysis of the
+corruption he had helped to make incurable. If one single
+treatise of that century should be chosen to represent the spirit
+of the Italian people in the last phase of the Renaissance, the
+historian might hesitate between the <i>Principe</i> of Machiavelli
+and the <i>Ricordi politici</i> of Guicciardini. The latter is perhaps
+preferable to the former on the score of comprehensiveness.
+It is, moreover, more exactly adequate to the actual situation,
+for the <i>Principe</i> has a divine spark of patriotism yet lingering
+in the cinders of its frigid science, an idealistic enthusiasm surviving
+in its moral aberrations; whereas a great Italian critic
+of this decade has justly described the <i>Ricordi</i> as &ldquo;Italian
+corruption codified and elevated to a rule of life.&rdquo; Guicciardini
+is, however, better known as the author of the <i>Storia d&rsquo; Italia</i>,
+that vast and detailed picture of his country&rsquo;s sufferings between
+the years 1494 and 1532. Judging him by this masterpiece of
+scientific history, he deserves less commendation as a writer
+than as a thinker and an analyst. The style is wearisome and
+prolix, attaining to precision at the expense of circumlocution,
+and setting forth the smallest particulars with the same distinctness
+as the main features of the narrative. The whole
+tangled skein of Italian politics, in that involved and stormy
+period, is unravelled with a patience and an insight that are
+above praise. It is the crowning merit of the author that he
+never ceases to be an impartial spectator&mdash;a cold and curious
+critic. We might compare him to an anatomist, with knife and
+scalpel dissecting the dead body of Italy, and pointing out the
+symptoms of her manifold diseases with the indifferent analysis
+of one who has no moral sensibility. This want of feeling, while
+it renders Guicciardini a model for the scientific student, has
+impaired the interest of his history. Though he lived through
+that agony of the Italian people, he does not seem to be aware
+that he is writing a great historical tragedy. He takes as much
+pains in laying bare the trifling causes of a petty war with Pisa
+as in probing the deep-seated ulcer of the papacy. Nor is he
+capable of painting the events in which he took a part, in their
+totality as a drama. Whatever he touches, lies already dead
+on the dissecting table, and his skill is that of the analytical
+pathologist. Consequently, he fails to understand the essential
+magnitude of the task, or to appreciate the vital vigour of the
+forces contending in Europe for mastery. This is very noticeable
+in what he writes about the Reformation. Notwithstanding
+these defects, inevitable in a writer of Guicciardini&rsquo;s temperament,
+the <i>Storia d&rsquo; Italia</i> was undoubtedly the greatest historical
+work that had appeared since the beginning of the modern era.
+It remains the most solid monument of the Italian reason in
+the 16th century, the final triumph of that Florentine school
+of philosophical historians which included Machiavelli, Segni,
+Pitti, Nardi, Varchi, Francesco Vettori and Donato Giannotti.
+Up to the year 1857 the fame of Guicciardini as a writer, and the
+estimation of him as a man, depended almost entirely upon the
+<i>History of Italy</i>, and on a few ill-edited extracts from his aphorisms.
+At that date his representatives, the counts Piero and
+Luigi Guicciardini, opened their family archives, and committed
+to Signor Giuseppe Canestrini the publication of his
+hitherto inedited MSS. in ten important volumes. The vast
+mass of documents and finished literary work thus given to
+the world has thrown a flood of light upon Guicciardini, whether
+we consider him as author or as citizen. It has raised his reputation
+as a political philosopher into the first rank, where he
+now disputes the place of intellectual supremacy with his friend
+Machiavelli; but it has coloured our moral judgment of his
+character and conduct with darker dyes. From the stores of
+valuable materials contained in those ten volumes, it will be
+enough here to cite (1) the <i>Ricordi politici</i>, already noticed,
+consisting of about 400 aphorisms on political and social topics;
+(2) the observations on Machiavelli&rsquo;s <i>Discorsi</i>, which bring into
+remarkable relief the views of Italy&rsquo;s two great theorists on
+statecraft in the 16th century, and show that Guicciardini
+regarded Machiavelli somewhat as an amiable visionary or
+political enthusiast; (3) the <i>Storia Fiorentina</i>, an early work
+of the author, distinguished by its animation of style, brilliancy
+of portraiture, and liberality of judgment; and (4) the <i>Dialogo
+del reggimento di Firenze</i>, also in all probability an early work,
+in which the various forms of government suited to an Italian
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page686" id="page686"></a>686</span>
+commonwealth are discussed with infinite subtlety, contrasted,
+and illustrated from the vicissitudes of Florence up to the year
+1494. To these may be added a series of short essays, entitled
+<i>Discorsi politici</i>, composed during Guicciardini&rsquo;s Spanish legation.
+It is only after a careful perusal of these minor works
+that the student of history may claim to have comprehended
+Guicciardini, and may feel that he brings with him to the consideration
+of the <i>Storia d&rsquo; Italia</i> the requisite knowledge of the
+author&rsquo;s private thoughts and jealously guarded opinions.
+Indeed, it may be confidently affirmed that those who desire
+to gain an insight into the true principles and feelings of the
+men who made and wrote history in the 16th century will find
+it here far more than in the work designed for publication by the
+writer. Taken in combination with Machiavelli&rsquo;s treatises, the
+<i>Opere inedite</i> furnish a comprehensive body of Italian political
+philosophy anterior to the date of Fra Paolo Sarpi.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. A. S.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Rosini&rsquo;s edition oí the <i>Storia d&rsquo; Italia</i> (10 vols., Pisa, 1819),
+and the <i>Opere inedite</i>, in 10 vols., published at Florence, 1857.
+A complete and initial edition of Guicciardini&rsquo;s works is now in
+preparation in the hands of Alessandro Gherardi of the Florence
+archives. Among the many studies on Guicciardini we may mention
+Agostino Rossi&rsquo;s <i>Francesco Guicciardini e il governo Fiorentino</i>
+(2 vols., Bologna, 1896), based on many new documents; F. de
+Sanctis&rsquo;s essay &ldquo;L&rsquo;Uomo del Guicciardini,&rdquo; in his <i>Nuovi Saggi
+critici</i> (Naples, 1879), and many passages in Professor P. Villari&rsquo;s
+<i>Machiavelli</i> (Eng. trans., 1892); E. Benoist&rsquo;s <i>Guichardin, historien
+et homme d&rsquo;état italien an XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 1862), and C. Gioda&rsquo;s
+<i>Francesco Guicciardini e le sue opere inedite</i> (Bologna, 1880) are not
+without value, but the authors had not had access to many important
+documents since published. See also Geoffrey&rsquo;s article
+&ldquo;Une Autobiographie de Guichardin d&rsquo;après ses &oelig;uvres inédites,&rdquo;
+in the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i> (1st of February 1874).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUICHARD, KARL GOTTLIEB<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1724-1775), soldier and
+military writer, known as <span class="sc">Quintus Icilius</span>, was born at Magdeburg
+in 1724, of a family of French refugees. He was educated
+for the Church, and at Leiden actually preached a sermon as a
+candidate for the pastorate. But he abandoned theology for
+more secular studies, especially that of ancient history, in which
+his learning attracted the notice of the prince of Orange, who
+promised him a vacant professorship at Utrecht. On his arrival,
+however, he found that another scholar had been elected by the
+local authorities, and he thereupon sought and obtained a
+commission in the Dutch army. He made the campaigns of
+1747-48 in the Low Countries. In the peace which followed,
+his combined military and classical training turned his thoughts
+in the direction of ancient military history. His notes on this
+subject grew into a treatise, and in 1754 he went over to England
+in order to consult various libraries. In 1757 his <i>Mémoires
+militaires sur les Grecs et les Romains</i> appeared at the Hague, and
+when Carlyle wrote his <i>Frederick the Great</i> it had reached its
+fifth edition. Coming back, with English introductions, to the
+Continent, he sought service with Ferdinand of Brunswick, who
+sent him on to Frederick the Great, whom he joined in January
+1758 at Breslau. The king was very favourably impressed with
+Guichard and his works, and he remained for nearly 18 months
+in the royal suite. His Prussian official name of Quintus Icilius
+was the outcome of a friendly dispute with the king (see Nikolai,
+<i>Anekdoten</i>, vi. 129-145; Carlyle, <i>Frederick the Great</i>, viii.
+113-114). Frederick in discussing the battle of Pharsalia spoke
+of a centurion Quintus Caecilius as Q. Icilius. Guichard ventured
+to correct him, whereupon the king said, &ldquo;<i>You</i> shall be Quintus
+Icilius,&rdquo; and as Major Quintus Icilius he was forthwith gazetted
+to the command of a free battalion. This corps he commanded
+throughout the later stages of the Seven Years&rsquo; War, his battalion,
+as time went on, becoming a regiment of three battalions, and
+Quintus himself recruited seven more battalions of the same
+kind of troops. His command was almost always with the
+king&rsquo;s own army in these campaigns, but for a short time it
+fought in the western theatre under Prince Henry. When not
+on the march he was always at the royal headquarters, and it
+was he who brought about the famous interview between the
+king and Gellert (see Carlyle, <i>Frederick the Great</i>, ix. 109;
+Gellert, <i>Briefwechsel mit Demoiselle Lucius</i>, ed. Ebert, Leipzig,
+1823, pp. 629-631) on the subject of national German literature.
+On 22nd January 1761 Quintus was ordered to sack the castle
+of Hubertusburg (a task which Major-General Saldern had point-blank
+refused to undertake, from motives of conscience), and
+carried out his task, it is said, to his own very considerable
+profit. The place cannot have been seriously injured, as it was
+soon afterwards the meeting-place of the diplomatists whose
+work ended in the peace of Hubertusburg, but the king never
+ceased to banter Quintus on his supposed depredations. The
+very day of Frederick&rsquo;s triumphant return from the war saw the
+disbanding of most of the free battalions, including that of
+Quintus, but the major to the end of his life remained with the
+king. He was made lieutenant-colonel in 1765, and in 1773,
+in recognition of his work <i>Mémoires critiques et historiques sur
+plusieurs points d&rsquo;antiquités militaires</i>, dealing mainly with
+Caesar&rsquo;s campaigns in Spain (Berlin, 1773), was promoted colonel.
+He died at Potsdam, 1775.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUICHEN, LUC URBAIN DE BOUËXIC,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1712-1790),
+French admiral, entered the navy in 1730 as &ldquo;garde de la
+Marine,&rdquo; the first rank in the corps of royal officers. His promotion
+was not rapid. It was not till 1748 that he became
+&ldquo;lieutenant de vaisseau,&rdquo; which was, however, a somewhat
+higher rank than the lieutenant in the British navy, since it
+carried with it the right to command a frigate. He was &ldquo;capitaine
+de vaisseau,&rdquo; or post captain, in 1756. But his reputation
+must have been good, for he was made chevalier de Saint Louis
+in 1748. In 1775 he was appointed to the frigate &ldquo;Terpsichore,&rdquo;
+attached to the training squadron, in which the duc de Chartres,
+afterwards notorious as the duc d&rsquo;Orléans and as Philippe
+Égalité, was entered as volunteer. In the next year he was
+promoted chef d&rsquo;escadre, or rear-admiral. When France had
+become the ally of the Americans in the War of Independence, he
+hoisted his flag in the Channel fleet, and was present at the battle
+of Ushant on the 27th of July 1779. In March of the following
+year he was sent to the West Indies with a strong squadron
+and was there opposed to Sir George Rodney. In the first meeting
+between them on the 17th of April to leeward of Martinique,
+Guichen escaped disaster only through the clumsy manner in
+which Sir George&rsquo;s orders were executed by his captains. Seeing
+that he had to deal with a formidable opponent, Guichen acted
+with extreme caution, and by keeping the weather gauge afforded
+the British admiral no chance of bringing him to close action.
+When the hurricane months approached (July to September)
+he left the West Indies, and his squadron, being in a bad state
+from want of repairs, returned home, reaching Brest in September.
+Throughout all this campaign Guichen had shown himself very
+skilful in handling a fleet, and if he had not gained any marked
+success, he had prevented the British admiral from doing any
+harm to the French islands in the Antilles. In December 1781
+the comte de Guichen was chosen to command the force which
+was entrusted with the duty of carrying stores and reinforcements
+to the West Indies. On the 12th Admiral Kempenfelt,
+who had been sent out by the British Government with an
+unduly weak force to intercept him, sighted the French admiral
+in the Bay of Biscay through a temporary clearance in a fog,
+at a moment when Guichen&rsquo;s warships were to leeward of the
+convoy, and attacked the transports at once. The French
+admiral could not prevent his enemy from capturing twenty of
+the transports, and driving the others into a panic-stricken
+flight. They returned to port, and the mission entrusted to
+Guichen was entirely defeated. He therefore returned to port
+also. He had no opportunity to gain any counterbalancing
+success during the short remainder of the war, but he was present
+at the final relief of Gibraltar by Lord Howe. His death occurred
+on the 13th of January 1790. The comte de Guichen was, by
+the testimony of his contemporaries, a most accomplished
+and high-minded gentleman. It is probable that he had more
+scientific knowledge than any of his English contemporaries
+and opponents. But as a commander in war he was notable
+chiefly for his skill in directing the orderly movements of a
+fleet, and seems to have been satisfied with formal operations,
+which were possibly elegant but could lead to no substantial
+result. He had none of the combative instincts of his countryman
+Suffren, or of the average British admiral.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page687" id="page687"></a>687</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See vicomte de Noailles, <i>Marins et soldats français en Amérique</i>
+(1903); and E. Chevalier, <i>Histoire de la marine française pendant
+la guerre de l&rsquo;indépendence américaine</i> (1877).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUIDE<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (in Mid. Eng. <i>gyde</i>, from the Fr. <i>guide</i>; the earlier
+French form was <i>guie</i>, English &ldquo;guy,&rdquo; the <i>d</i> was due to the
+Italian form <i>guida</i>; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic,
+the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng.
+<i>witan</i>, to know), an agency for directing or showing the way,
+specifically a person who leads or directs a stranger over unknown
+or unmapped country, or conducts travellers and tourists
+through a town, or over buildings of interest. In European
+wars up to the time of the French Revolution, the absence of
+large scale detailed maps made local guides almost essential to
+the direction of military operations, and in the 18th century the
+general tendency to the stricter organization of military resources
+led in various countries to the special training of guide
+officers (called <i>Feldjäger</i>, and considered as general staff officers
+in the Prussian army), whose chief duty it was to find, and if
+necessary establish, routes across country for those parts of
+the army that had to move parallel to the main road and as
+nearly as possible at deploying interval from each other, for in
+those days armies were rarely spread out so far as to have the
+use of two or more made roads. But the necessity for such
+precautions died away when adequate surveys (in which guide
+officers were, at any rate in Prussia, freely employed) were
+carried out, and, as a definite term of military organization to-day,
+&ldquo;guide&rdquo; possesses no more essential peculiarity than fusilier,
+grenadier or rifleman. The genesis of the modern &ldquo;Guide&rdquo;
+regiments is perhaps to be found in a short-lived Corps of Guides
+formed by Napoleon in Italy in 1796, which appears to have
+been a personal escort or body guard composed of men who
+knew the country. In the Belgian army of to-day the Guide
+regiments correspond almost to the Guard cavalry of other
+nations; in the Swiss army the squadrons of &ldquo;Guides&rdquo; act as
+divisional cavalry, and in this role doubtless are called upon
+on occasion to lead columns. The &ldquo;Queen&rsquo;s own Corps of
+Guides&rdquo; of the Indian army consists of infantry companies
+and cavalry squadrons. In drill, a &ldquo;guide&rdquo; is an officer or
+non-commissioned officer told off to regulate the direction and
+pace of movements, the remainder of the unit maintaining
+their alignment and distances by him.</p>
+
+<p>A particular class of guides are those employed in mountaineering;
+these are not merely to show the way but stand in the
+position of professional climbers with an expert knowledge of
+rock and snowcraft, which they impart to the amateur, at the
+same time assuring the safety of the climbing party in dangerous
+expeditions. This professional class of guides arose in the
+middle of the 19th century when Alpine climbing became recognized
+as a sport (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mountaineering</a></span>). It is thus natural
+to find that the Alpine guides have been requisitioned for
+mountaineering expeditions all over the world. In climbing
+in Switzerland, the central committee of the Swiss Alpine Club
+issues a guides&rsquo; tariff which fixes the charges for guides and
+porters; there are three sections, for the Valais and Vaudois
+Alps, for the Bernese Oberland, and for central and eastern
+Switzerland. The names of many of the great guides have
+become historical. In Chamonix a statue has been raised to
+Jacques Balmat, who was the first to climb Mont Blanc in 1786.
+Of the more famous guides since the beginning of Alpine climbing
+may be mentioned Auguste Balmat, Michel Cros, Maquignay,
+J. A. Carrel, who went with E. Whymper to the Andes, the
+brothers Lauener, Christian Almer and Jakob and Melchior
+Anderegg.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Guide&rdquo; is also applied to a book, in the sense of an elementary
+primer on some subject, or of one giving full information
+for travellers of a country, district or town. In mechanical
+usage, the term &ldquo;guide&rdquo; is of wide application, being used of
+anything which steadies or directs the motion of an object, as
+of the &ldquo;leading&rdquo; screw of a screw-cutting lathe, of a loose
+pulley used to steady a driving-belt, or of the bars or rods in a
+steam-engine which keep the sliding blocks moving in a straight
+line. The doublet &ldquo;guy&rdquo; is thus used of a rope which steadies
+a sail when it is being raised or lowered, or of a rope, chain or
+stay supporting a funnel, mast, derrick, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUIDI, CARLO ALESSANDRO<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (1650-1712), Italian lyric
+poet, was born at Pavia in 1650. As chief founder of the well-known
+Roman academy called &ldquo;L&rsquo;Arcadia,&rdquo; he had a considerable
+share in the reform of Italian poetry, corrupted at
+that time by the extravagance and bad taste of the poets Marini
+and Achillini and their school. The poet Guidi and the critic
+and jurisconsult Gravina checked this evil by their influence
+and example. The genius of Guidi was lyric in the highest
+degree; his songs are written with singular force, and charm
+the reader, in spite of touches of bombast. His most celebrated
+song is that entitled <i>Alla Fortuna</i> (To Fortune), which certainly
+is one of the most beautiful pieces of poetry of the 17th century.
+Guidi was squint-eyed, humpbacked, and of a delicate constitution,
+but possessed undoubted literary ability. His poems were
+printed at Parma in 1671, and at Rome in 1704. In 1681 he
+published at Parma his lyric tragedy <i>Amalasunta in Italy</i>, and
+two pastoral dramas <i>Daphne</i> and <i>Endymion</i>. The last had the
+honour of being mentioned as a model by the critic Gravina, in
+his treatise on poetry. Less fortunate was Guidi&rsquo;s poetical
+version of the six homilies of Pope Clement XI., first as having
+been severely criticized by the satirist Settano, and next as
+having proved to be the indirect cause of the author&rsquo;s death.
+A splendid edition of this version had been printed in 1712,
+and, the pope being then in San Gandolfo, Guidi went there to
+present him with a copy. On the way he found out a serious
+typographical error, which he took so much to heart that he
+was seized with an apoplectic fit at Frascati and died on the
+spot. Guidi was honoured with the special protection of
+Ranuccio II., duke of Parma, and of Queen Christina of Sweden.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUIDICCIONI, GIOVANNI<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (1480-1541), Italian poet, was born
+at Lucca in 1480, and died at Macerata in 1541. He occupied a
+high position, being bishop of Fossombrone and president of
+Romagna. The latter office nearly cost him his life; a murderer
+attempted to kill him, and had already touched his breast with
+his dagger when, conquered by the resolute calmness of the
+prelate, he threw away the weapon and fell at his feet, asking
+forgiveness. The <i>Rime</i> and <i>Letters</i> of Guidiccioni are models of
+elegant and natural Italian style. The best editions are those
+of Genoa (1749), Bergamo (1753) and Florence (1878).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUIDO OF AREZZO<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (possibly to be identified with Guido
+de St Maur des Fosses), a musician who lived in the 11th century.
+He has by many been called the father of modern music, and a
+portrait of him in the refectory of the monastery of Avellana
+bears the inscription <i>Beatus Guido, inventor musicae</i>. Of his
+life little is known, and that little is chiefly derived from the
+dedicatory letters prefixed to two of his treatises and addressed
+respectively to Bishop Theodald (not Theobald, as Burney writes
+the name) of Arezzo, and Michael, a monk of Pomposa and
+Guido&rsquo;s pupil and friend. Occasional references to the celebrated
+musician in the works of his contemporaries are, however,
+by no means rare, and from these it may be conjectured with all
+but absolute certainty that Guido was born in the last decade
+of the 10th century. The place of his birth is uncertain in
+spite of some evidence pointing to Arezzo; on the title-page of
+all his works he is styled <i>Guido Aretinus</i>, or simply <i>Aretinus</i>.
+At his first appearance in history Guido was a monk in the
+Benedictine monastery of Pomposa, and it was there that he
+taught singing and invented his educational method, by means
+of which, according to his own statement, a pupil might learn
+within five months what formerly it would have taken him ten
+years to acquire. Envy and jealousy, however, were his only
+reward, and by these he was compelled to leave his monastery&mdash;&ldquo;inde
+est, quod me vides prolixis finibus exulatum,&rdquo; as he says
+himself in the second of the letters above referred to. According
+to one account, he travelled as far as Bremen, called there by
+Archbishop Hermann in order to reform the musical service.
+But this statement has been doubted. Certain it is that not
+long after his flight from Pomposa Guido was living at Arezzo,
+and it was here that, about 1030, he received an invitation to
+Rome from Pope John XIV. He obeyed the summons, and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page688" id="page688"></a>688</span>
+pope himself became his first and apparently one of his most
+proficient pupils. But in spite of his success Guido could not be
+induced to remain in Rome, the insalubrious air of which seems
+to have affected his health. In Rome he met again his former
+superior, the abbot of Pomposa, who seems to have repented
+of his conduct, and to have induced Guido to return to Pomposa;
+and here all authentic records of Guido&rsquo;s life cease. We only
+know that he died, on the 17th of May 1050, as prior of Avellana,
+a monastery of the Camaldulians; such at least is the statement
+of the chroniclers of that order. It ought, however, to be added
+that the Camaldulians claim the celebrated musician as wholly
+their own, and altogether deny his connexion with the Benedictines.</p>
+
+<p>The documents discovered by Dom Germain Morin, the
+Belgian Benedictine, about 1888, point to the conclusion that
+Guido was a Frenchman and lived from his youth upwards in
+the Benedictine monastery of St Maur des Fosses where he
+invented his novel system of notation and taught the brothers
+to sing by it. In codex 763 of the British Museum the composer
+of the &ldquo;Micrologus&rdquo; and other works by Guido of Arezzo
+is always described as Guido de Sancto Mauro.</p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt that Guido&rsquo;s method shows considerable
+progress in the evolution of modern notation. It was he who
+for the first time systematically used the lines of the staff, and
+the intervals or <i>spatia</i> between them. There is also little doubt
+that the names of the first six notes of the scale, <i>ut</i>, <i>re</i>, <i>mi</i>, <i>fa</i>,
+<i>sol</i>, <i>la</i>, still in use among Romance nations, were introduced by
+Guido, although he seems to have used them in a relative rather
+than in an absolute sense. It is well known that these words
+are the first syllables of six lines of a hymn addressed to St John
+the Baptist, which may be given here:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Ut</i> queant laxis</td> <td class="tcl"><i>re</i>sonare fibris</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Mi</i>ra gestorum</td> <td class="tcl"><i>fa</i>muli tuorum,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Sol</i>ve polluti</td> <td class="tcl"><i>la</i>bii reatum,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">Sancte Joannes.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In addition to this Guido is generally credited with the introduction
+of the F clef. But more important than all this, perhaps,
+is the thoroughly practical tone which Guido assumes in his
+theoretical writings, and which differs greatly from the clumsy
+scholasticism of his contemporaries and predecessors.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The most important of Guido&rsquo;s treatises, and those which are
+generally acknowledged to be authentic, are <i>Micrologus Guidonis de
+disciplina artis musicae</i>, dedicated to Bishop Theodald of Arezzo,
+and comprising a complete theory of music, in 20 chapters; <i>Musicae
+Guidonis regulae rhythmicae in antiphonarii sui prologum prolatae</i>,
+written in trochaic decasyllabics of anything but classical structure;
+<i>Aliae Guidonis regulae de ignoto cantu, identidem in antiphonarii sui
+prologum prolatae</i>; and the <i>Epistola Guidonis Michaeli monacho de
+ignoto cantu</i>, already referred to. These are published in the second
+volume of Gerbert&rsquo;s <i>Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra</i>. A very
+important manuscript unknown to Gerbert (the <i>Codex bibliothecae
+Uticensis</i>, in the Paris library) contains, besides minor treatises, an
+antiphonarium and gradual undoubtedly belonging to Guido.</p>
+
+<p>See also L. Angeloni, <i>G. d&rsquo;Arezzo</i> (1811); Kiesewetter, <i>Guido von
+Arezzo</i> (1840); Kornmüller, &ldquo;Leben und Werken Guidos von
+Arezzo,&rdquo; in Habert&rsquo;s <i>Jahrb.</i> (1876); Antonio Brandi, <i>G. Aretino</i>
+(1882); G. B. Ristori, <i>Biografia di Guido monaco d&rsquo;Arezzo</i> (1868).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUIDO OF SIENA.<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> The name of this Italian painter is of
+considerable interest in the history of art, on the ground that,
+if certain assumptions regarding him could be accepted as true,
+he would be entitled to share with Cimabue, or rather indeed
+to supersede him in, the honour of having given the first onward
+impulse to the art of painting. The case stands thus. In the
+church of S. Domenico in Siena is a large painting of the &ldquo;Virgin
+and Child Enthroned,&rdquo; with six angels above, and in the Benedictine
+convent of the same city is a triangular pinnacle, once
+a portion of the same composition, representing the Saviour in
+benediction, with two angels; the entire work was originally
+a triptych, but is not so now. The principal section of this
+picture has a rhymed Latin inscription, giving the painter&rsquo;s
+name as Gu ... o de Senis, with the date 1221: the genuineness
+of the inscription is not, however, free from doubt, and
+especially it is maintained that the date really reads as 1281.
+In the general treatment of the picture there is nothing to
+distinguish it particularly from other work of the same early
+period; but the heads of the Virgin and Child are indisputably
+very superior, in natural character and graceful dignity, to
+anything to be found anterior to Cimabue. The question therefore
+arises, Are these heads really the work of a man who painted
+in 1221? Crowe and Cavalcaselle pronounce in the negative,
+concluding that the heads are repainted, and are, as they now
+stand, due to some artist of the 14th century, perhaps Ugolino
+da Siena; thus the claims of Cimabue would remain undisturbed
+and in their pristine vigour. Beyond this, little is known of
+Guido da Siena. There is in the Academy of Siena a picture
+assigned to him, a half-figure of the &ldquo;Virgin and Child,&rdquo; with
+two angels, dating probably between 1250 and 1300; also in
+the church of S. Bernardino in the same city a Madonna dated
+1262. Milanesi thinks that the work in S. Domenico is due to
+Guido Graziani, of whom no other record remains earlier than
+1278, when he is mentioned as the painter of a banner. Guido
+da Siena appears always to have painted on panel, not in fresco
+on the wall. He has been termed, very dubiously, a pupil of
+Pietrolino, and the master of &ldquo;Diotisalvi,&rdquo; Mino da Turrita and
+Berlinghieri da Lucca.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUIDO RENI<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (1575-1642), a prime master in the Bolognese
+school of painting, and one of the most admired artists of the
+period of incipient decadence in Italy, was born at Calvenzano
+near Bologna on the 4th of November 1575. His father was a
+musician of repute, a player on the flageolet; he wished to bring
+the lad up to perform on the harpsichord. At a very childish
+age, however, Guido displayed a determined bent towards the
+art of form, scribbling some attempt at a drawing here, there
+and everywhere. He was only nine years of age when Denis
+Calvart took notice of him, received him into his academy of
+design by the father&rsquo;s permission, and rapidly brought him
+forward, so that by the age of thirteen Guido had already attained
+marked proficiency. Albani and Domenichino became
+soon afterwards pupils in the same academy. With Albani
+Guido was very intimate up to the earlier period of manhood,
+but they afterwards became rivals, both as painters and as
+heads of ateliers, with a good deal of asperity on Albani&rsquo;s part;
+Domenichino was also pitted against Reni by the policy of
+Annibale Caracci. Guido was still in the academy of Calvart
+when he began frequenting the opposition school kept by
+Lodovico Caracci, whose style, far in advance of that of the
+Flemish painter, he dallied with. This exasperated Calvart.
+Him Guido, not yet twenty years of age, cheerfully quitted,
+transferring himself openly to the Caracci academy, in which he
+soon became prominent, being equally skilful and ambitious.
+He had not been a year with the Caracci when a work of his
+excited the wonder of Agostino and the jealousy of Annibale.
+Lodovico cherished him, and frequently painted him as an angel,
+for the youthful Reni was extremely handsome. After a while,
+however, Lodovico also felt himself nettled, and he patronized
+the competing talents of Giovanni Barbiere. On one occasion
+Guido had made a copy of Annibale&rsquo;s &ldquo;Descent from the
+Cross&rdquo;; Annibale was asked to retouch it, and, finding nothing
+to do, exclaimed pettishly, &ldquo;He knows more than enough&rdquo;
+(&ldquo;Costui ne sa troppo&rdquo;). On another occasion Lodovico, consulted
+as umpire, lowered a price which Reni asked for an early
+picture. This slight determined the young man to be a pupil
+no more. He left the Caracci, and started on his own account
+as a competitor in the race for patronage and fame. A renowned
+work, the story of &ldquo;Callisto and Diana,&rdquo; had been completed
+before he left.</p>
+
+<p>Guido was faithful to the eclectic principle of the Bolognese
+school of painting. He had appropriated something from
+Calvart, much more from Lodovico Caracci; he studied with
+much zest after Albert Dürer; he adopted the massive, sombre
+and partly uncouth manner of Caravaggio. One day Annibale
+Caracci made the remark that a style might be formed reversing
+that of Caravaggio in such matters as the ponderous shadows
+and the gross common forms; this observation germinated in
+Guido&rsquo;s mind, and he endeavoured after some such style, aiming
+constantly at suavity. Towards 1602 he went to Rome with
+Albani, and Rome remained his headquarters for twenty years.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page689" id="page689"></a>689</span>
+Here, in the pontificate of Paul V. (Borghese), he was greatly
+noted and distinguished. In the garden-house of the Rospigliosi
+Palace he painted the vast fresco which is justly regarded as his
+masterpiece&mdash;&ldquo;Phoebus and the Hours preceded by Aurora.&rdquo;
+This exhibits his second manner, in which he had deviated far
+indeed from the promptings of Caravaggio. He founded now
+chiefly upon the antique, more especially the Niobe group and
+the &ldquo;Venus de&rsquo; Medici,&rdquo; modified by suggestions from Raphael,
+Correggio, Parmigiano and Paul Veronese. Of this last painter,
+although on the whole he did not get much from him, Guido
+was a particular admirer; he used to say that he would rather
+have been Paul Veronese than any other master&mdash;Paul was
+more nature than art. The &ldquo;Aurora&rdquo; is beyond doubt a work
+of pre-eminent beauty and attainment; it is stamped with
+pleasurable dignity, and, without being effeminate, has a more
+uniform aim after graceful selectness than can readily be traced
+in previous painters, greatly superior though some of them had
+been in impulse and personal fervour of genius. The pontifical
+chapel of Montecavallo was assigned to Reni to paint; but,
+being straitened in payments by the ministers, the artist made
+off to Bologna. He was fetched back by Paul V. with ceremonious
+éclat, and lodging, living and equipage were supplied
+to him. At another time he migrated from Rome to Naples,
+having received a commission to paint the chapel of S. Gennaro.
+The notorious cabal of three painters resident in Naples&mdash;Corenzio,
+Caracciolo and Ribera&mdash;offered, however, as stiff an
+opposition to Guido as to some other interlopers who preceded
+and succeeded him. They gave his servant a beating by the
+hands of two unknown bullies, and sent by him a message to
+his master to depart or prepare for death; Guido waited for no
+second warning, and departed. He now returned to Rome;
+but he finally left that city abruptly, in the pontificate of Urban
+VIII., in consequence of an offensive reprimand administered to
+him by Cardinal Spinola. He had received an advance of 400
+scudi on account of an altarpiece for St Peter&rsquo;s, but after some
+lapse of years had made no beginning with the work. A broad
+reminder from the cardinal put Reni on his mettle; he returned
+the 400 scudi, quitted Rome within a few days, and steadily
+resisted all attempts at recall. He now resettled in Bologna.
+He had taught as well as painted in Rome, and he left pupils
+behind him; but on the whole he did not stamp any great
+mark upon the Roman school of painting, apart from his own
+numerous works in the papal city.</p>
+
+<p>In Bologna Guido lived in great splendour, and established a
+celebrated school, numbering more than two hundred scholars.
+He himself drew in it, even down to his latest years. On first
+returning to this city, he charged about £21 for a full-length
+figure (mere portraits are not here in question), half this sum
+for a half-length, and £5 for a head. These prices must be
+regarded as handsome, when we consider that Domenichino
+about the same time received only £10, 10s. for his very large and
+celebrated picture, the &ldquo;Last Communion of St Jerome.&rdquo;
+But Guido&rsquo;s reputation was still on the increase, and in process
+of time he quintupled his prices. He now left Bologna hardly
+at all; in one instance, however, he went off to Ravenna, and,
+along with three pupils, he painted the chapel in the cathedral
+with his admired picture of the &ldquo;Israelites gathering Manna.&rdquo;
+His shining prosperity was not to last till the end. Guido was
+dissipated, generously but indiscriminately profuse, and an
+inveterate gambler. The gambling propensity had been his
+from youth, but until he became elderly it did not noticeably
+damage his fortunes. It grew upon him, and in a couple of
+evenings he lost the enormous sum of 14,400 scudi. The vice
+told still more ruinously on his art than on his character. In
+his decline he sold his time at so much per hour to certain picture
+dealers; one of them, the Shylock of his craft, would stand by,
+watch in hand, and see him work. Half-heartedness, half-performance,
+blighted his product: self-repetition and mere
+mannerism, with affectation for sentiment and vapidity for
+beauty, became the art of Guido. Some of these trade-works,
+heads or half-figures, were turned out in three hours or even
+less. It is said that, tardily wise, Reni left off gambling for
+nearly two years; at last he relapsed, and his relapse was
+followed not long afterwards by his death, caused by malignant
+fever. This event took place in Bologna on the 18th of August
+1642; he died in debt, but was buried with great pomp in the
+church of S. Domenico.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Guido was personally modest, although he valued himself on his
+position in the art, and would tolerate no slight in that relation;
+he was extremely upright, temperate in diet, nice in his person and
+his dress. He was fond of stately houses, but could feel also the
+charm of solitude. In his temper there was a large amount of
+suspiciousness; and the jealousy which his abilities and his successes
+excited, now from the Caracci, now from Albani, now from
+the monopolizing league of Neapolitan painters, may naturally
+have kept this feeling in active exercise. Of his numerous scholars,
+Simone Cantarini, named II Pesarese, counts as the most distinguished;
+he painted an admirable head of Reni, now in the Bolognese
+Gallery. The portrait in the Uffizi Gallery of Florence is from Reni&rsquo;s
+own hand. Two other good scholars were Giacomo Semenza and
+Francesco Gessi.</p>
+
+<p>The character of Guido&rsquo;s art is so well known as hardly to call
+for detailed analysis, beyond what we have already intimated. His
+most characteristic style exhibits a prepense ideal, of form rather
+than character, with a slight mode of handling, and silvery, somewhat
+cold, colour. In working from the nude he aimed at perfection
+of form, especially marked in the hands and feet. But he was
+far from always going to choice nature for his model; he transmuted
+<i>ad libitum</i>, and painted, it is averred, a Magdalene of demonstrative
+charms from a vulgar-looking colour-grinder. His
+best works have beauty, great amenity, artistic feeling and high
+accomplishment of manner, all alloyed by a certain core of commonplace;
+in the worst pictures the commonplace swamps everything,
+and Guido has flooded European galleries with trashy and empty
+pretentiousness, all the more noxious in that its apparent grace of
+sentiment and form misleads the unwary into approval, and the
+dilettante dabbler into cheap raptures. Both in Rome and wherever
+else he worked he introduced increased softness of style, which
+was then designated as the modern method. His pictures are
+mostly Scriptural or mythologic in subject, and between two and
+three hundred of them are to be found in various European collections&mdash;more
+than a hundred of these containing life-sized figures.
+The portraits which he executed are few&mdash;those of Sixtus V.,
+Cardinal Spada and the so-called Beatrice Cenci being among the
+most noticeable. The identity of the last-named portrait is very
+dubious; it certainly cannot have been painted direct from Beatrice,
+who had been executed in Rome before Guido ever resided there.
+Many etchings are attributed to him&mdash;some from his own works,
+and some after other masters; they are spirited, but rather negligent.</p>
+
+<p>Of other works not already noticed, the following should be
+named:&mdash;in Rome (the Vatican), the &ldquo;Crucifixion of St Peter,&rdquo; an
+example of the painter&rsquo;s earlier manner; in S. Lorenzo in Lucina,
+&ldquo;Christ Crucified&rdquo;; in Forlì, the &ldquo;Conception&rdquo;; in Bologna,
+the &ldquo;Alms of St Roch&rdquo; (early), the &ldquo;Massacre of the Innocents,&rdquo;
+and the &ldquo;Pietà, or Lament over the Body of Christ&rdquo; (in the church
+of the Mendicanti), which is by many regarded as Guido&rsquo;s prime
+executive work; in the Dresden Gallery, an &ldquo;Ecce Homo&rdquo;; in
+Milan (Brera Gallery), &ldquo;Saints Peter and Paul&rdquo;; in Genoa (church
+of S. Ambrogio), the &ldquo;Assumption of the Virgin&rdquo;; in Berlin,
+&ldquo;St Paul the Hermit and St Anthony in the Wilderness.&rdquo; The
+celebrated picture of &ldquo;Fortune&rdquo; (in the Capitol) is one of Reni&rsquo;s
+finest treatments of female form; as a specimen of male form, the
+&ldquo;Samson Drinking from the Jawbone of an Ass&rdquo; might be named
+beside it. One of his latest works of mark is the &ldquo;Ariadne,&rdquo; which
+used to be in the Gallery of the Capitol. The Louvre contains
+twenty of his pictures, the National Gallery of London seven, and
+others were once there, now removed to other public collections.
+The most interesting of the seven is the small &ldquo;Coronation of the
+Virgin,&rdquo; painted on copper, an elegantly finished work, more pretty
+than beautiful. It was probably painted before the master quitted
+Bologna for Rome.</p>
+
+<p>For the life and works of Guido Reni, see Bolognini, <i>Vita di
+Guido Reni</i> (1839); Passeri, <i>Vite de&rsquo; pittori</i>; and Malvasia, <i>Felsina
+Pittrice</i>; also Lanzi, <i>Storia pitiorica</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. M. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUIENNE,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> an old French province which corresponded
+roughly to the <i>Aquitania Secunda</i> of the Romans and the archbishopric
+of Bordeaux. In the 12th century it formed with
+Gascony the duchy of Aquitaine, which passed under the
+dominion of the kings of England by the marriage of Eleanor
+of Aquitaine to Henry II.; but in the 13th, through the conquests
+of Philip Augustus, Louis VIII. and Louis IX., it was
+confined within the narrower limits fixed by the treaty of Paris
+(1259). It is at this point that Guienne becomes distinct from
+Aquitaine. It then comprised the Bordelais (the old countship
+of Bordeaux), the Bazadais, part of Périgord, Limousin, Quercy
+and Rouergue, the Agenais ceded by Philip III. (the Bold) to
+Edward I. (1279), and (still united with Gascony) formed a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page690" id="page690"></a>690</span>
+duchy extending from the Charente to the Pyrenees. This
+duchy was held on the terms of homage to the French kings,
+an onerous obligation; and both in 1296 and 1324 it was confiscated
+by the kings of France on the ground that there had
+been a failure in the feudal duties. At the treaty of Brétigny
+(1360) Edward III. acquired the full sovereignty of the duchy
+of Guienne, together with Aunis, Saintonge, Angoumois and
+Poitou. The victories of du Guesclin and Gaston Ph&oelig;bus,
+count of Foix, restored the duchy soon after to its 13th-century
+limits. In 1451 it was conquered and finally united to the
+French crown by Charles VII. In 1469 Louis XI. gave it in
+exchange for Champagne and Brie to his brother Charles, duke
+of Berry, after whose death in 1472 it was again united to the
+royal dominion. Guienne then formed a government which
+from the 17th century onwards was united with Gascony. The
+government of Guienne and Gascony, with its capital at Bordeaux,
+lasted till the end of the <i>ancien régime</i>. Under the
+Revolution the departments formed from Guienne proper were
+those of Gironde, Lot-et-Garonne, Dordogne, Lot, Aveyron and
+the chief part of Tarn-et-Garonne.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUIGNES, JOSEPH DE<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (1721-1800), French orientalist, was
+born at Pontoise on the 19th of October 1721. He succeeded
+Fourmont at the Royal Library as secretary interpreter of the
+Eastern languages. A <i>Mémoire historique sur l&rsquo;origine des
+Huns et des Turcs</i>, published by de Guignes in 1748, obtained his
+admission to the Royal Society of London in 1752, and he
+became an associate of the French Academy of Inscriptions in
+1754. Two years later he began to publish his learned and
+laborious <i>Histoire générale des Huns, des Mongoles, des Turcs
+et des autres Tartares occidentaux</i> (1756-1758); and in 1757 he
+was appointed to the chair of Syriac at the Collège de France.
+He maintained that the Chinese nation had originated in
+Egyptian colonization, an opinion to which, in spite of every
+argument, he obstinately clung. He died in Paris in 1800.
+The <i>Histoire</i> had been translated into German by Dähnert
+(1768-1771). De Guignes left a son, Christian Louis Joseph
+(1759-1845), who, after learning Chinese from his father, went
+as consul to Canton, where he spent seventeen years. On his
+return to France he was charged by the government with the
+work of preparing a Chinese-French-Latin dictionary (1813).
+He was also the author of a work of travels (<i>Voyages à Pékin,
+Manille, et l&rsquo;île de France</i>, 1808).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Quérard, <i>La France littéraire</i>, where a list of the memoirs
+contributed by de Guignes to the <i>Journal des savants</i> is given.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUILBERT, YVETTE<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (1869-&emsp;&emsp;), French <i>diseuse</i>, was born in
+Paris. She served for two years until 1885 in the Magasin du
+Printemps, when, on the advice of the journalist, Edmond
+Stoullig, she trained for the stage under Landrol. She made
+her début at the Bouffes du Nord, then played at the Variétés,
+and in 1890 she received a regular engagement at the Eldorado
+to sing a couple of songs at the beginning of the performance.
+She also sang at the Ambassadeurs. She soon won an immense
+vogue by her rendering of songs drawn from Parisian lower-class
+life, or from the humours of the Latin Quarter, &ldquo;<i>Quatre z&rsquo;étudiants</i>&rdquo;
+and the &ldquo;<i>Hôtel du numéro trois</i>&rdquo; being among her early
+triumphs. Her adoption of an habitual yellow dress and long
+black gloves, her studied simplicity of diction, and her ingenuous
+delivery of songs charged with <i>risqué</i> meaning, made her famous.
+She owed something to M. Xanrof, who for a long time composed
+songs especially for her, and perhaps still more to Aristide Bruant,
+who wrote many of her <i>argot</i> songs. She made successful tours
+in England, Germany and America, and was in great request as
+an entertainer in private houses. In 1895 she married Dr M.
+Schiller. In later years she discarded something of her earlier
+manner, and sang songs of the &ldquo;pompadour&rdquo; and the &ldquo;crinoline&rdquo;
+period in costume. She published the novels <i>La Vedette</i>
+and <i>Les Demi-vieilles</i>, both in 1902.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUILDFORD,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough, and
+the county town of Surrey, England, in the Guildford parliamentary
+division, 29 m. S.W. of London by the London and
+South Western railway; served also by the London, Brighton,
+and South Coast and the South Eastern and Chatham railways.
+Pop. (1901) 15,938. It is beautifully situated on an acclivity
+of the northern chalk Downs and on the river Wey. Its older
+streets contain a number of picturesque gabled houses, with
+quaint lattices and curious doorways. The ruins of a Norman
+castle stand finely above the town and are well preserved;
+while the ground about them is laid out as a public garden.
+Beneath the Angel Inn and a house in the vicinity are extensive
+vaults, apparently of Early English date, and traditionally
+connected with the castle. The church of St Mary is Norman
+and Early English, with later additions and considerably restored;
+its aisles retain their eastward apses and it contains
+many interesting details. The church of St Nicholas is a modern
+building on an ancient site, and that of Holy Trinity is a brick
+structure of 1763, with later additions, also on the site of an
+earlier church, from which some of the monuments are preserved,
+including that of Archbishop Abbot (1640). The town hall
+dates from 1683 and contains a number of interesting pictures.
+Other public buildings are the county hall, corn-market and
+institute with museum and library. Abbot&rsquo;s Hospital, founded
+by Archbishop Abbot in 1619, is a beautiful Tudor brick building.
+The county hospital (1866) was erected as a memorial to Albert,
+Prince Consort. The Royal Free Grammar School, founded in
+1509, and incorporated by Edward VI., is an important school
+for boys. At Cranleigh, 6 m. S.E., is a large middle-class county
+school. The town has flour mills, iron foundries and breweries,
+and a large trade in grain; while fairs are held for live stock.
+There is a manufacture of gunpowder in the neighbouring village
+of Chilworth. Guildford is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese
+of Winchester. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen
+and 12 councillors. Area, 2601 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Guildford (Gyldeford, Geldeford), occurs among the possessions
+of King Alfred, and was a royal borough throughout the
+middle ages. It probably owed its rise to its position at the
+junction of trade routes. It is first mentioned as a borough in
+1131. Henry III. granted a charter to the men of Guildford in
+1256, by which they obtained freedom from toll throughout
+the kingdom, and the privilege of having the county court
+held always in their town. Edward III. granted charters to
+Guildford in 1340, 1346 and 1367; Henry VI. in 1423; Henry
+VII. in 1488. Elizabeth in 1580 confirmed earlier charters, and
+other charters were granted in 1603, 1626 and 1686. The
+borough was incorporated in 1486 under the title of the mayor
+and good men of Guildford. During the middle ages the government
+of the town rested with a powerful merchant gild. Two
+members for Guildford sat in the parliament of 1295, and the
+borough continued to return two representatives until 1867
+when the number was reduced to one. By the Redistribution
+Act of 1885 Guildford became merged in the county for electoral
+purposes. Edward II. granted to the town the right of having
+two fairs, at the feast of St Matthew (21st of September) and
+at Trinity respectively. Henry VII. granted fairs on the feast
+of St Martin (11th of November) and St George (23rd of April).
+Fairs in May for the sale of sheep and in November for the sale
+of cattle are still held. The market rights date at least from
+1276, and three weekly markets are still held for the sale
+of corn, cattle and vegetables respectively. The cloth trade
+which formed the staple industry at Guildford in the middle
+ages is now extinct.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUILDHALL,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> the hall of the corporation of the city of London,
+England. It faces a courtyard opening out of Gresham Street.
+The date of its original foundation is not known. An ancient
+crypt remains, but the hall has otherwise undergone much
+alteration. It was rebuilt in 1411, beautified by the munificence
+of successive officials, damaged in the Great Fire of 1666,
+and restored in 1789 by George Dance; while the hall was
+again restored, with a new roof, in 1870. This fine chamber,
+152 ft. in length, is the scene of the state banquets and entertainments
+of the corporation, and of the municipal meetings
+&ldquo;in common hall.&rdquo; The building also contains a council
+chamber and various court rooms, with a splendid library, open
+to the public, a museum and art gallery adjoining. The hall
+contains several monuments and two giant figures of wood,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page691" id="page691"></a>691</span>
+known as Gog and Magog. These were set up in 1708, but the
+appearance of giants in city pageants is of much earlier date.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUILFORD, BARONS AND EARLS OF.<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> <span class="sc">Francis North</span>,
+1st Baron Guilford (1637-1685), was the third son of the 4th
+Baron North (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">North, Barons</a></span>), and was created Baron
+Guilford in 1683, after becoming lord keeper in succession to
+Lord Nottingham. He had been an eminent lawyer, solicitor-general
+(1671), attorney-general (1673), and chief-justice of the
+common pleas (1675), and in 1679 was made a member of the
+council of thirty and on its dissolution of the cabinet. He was
+a man of wide culture and a stanch royalist. In 1672 he married
+Lady Frances Pope, daughter and co-heiress of the earl of
+Downe, who inherited the Wroxton estate; and he was succeeded
+as 2nd baron by his son Francis (1673-1729), whose eldest
+son Francis (1704-1790), after inheriting first his father&rsquo;s title
+as 3rd baron, and then (in 1734) the barony of North from his
+kinsman the 6th Baron North, was in 1752 created 1st earl of
+Guilford. His first wife was a daughter of the earl of Halifax,
+and his son and successor Frederick was the English prime
+minister, commonly known as Lord North, his courtesy title
+while the 1st earl was alive.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Frederick North</span>, 2nd earl of Guilford, but better known
+by his courtesy title of Lord North (1732-1792), prime minister
+of England during the important years of the American War,
+was born on the 13th of April 1732, and after being educated at
+Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, was sent to make the grand
+tour of the continent. On his return he was, though only
+twenty-two years of age, at once elected M.P. for Banbury, of
+which town his father was high steward; and he sat for the
+same town in parliament for nearly forty years. In 1759 he
+was chosen by the duke of Newcastle to be a lord of the treasury,
+and continued in the same office under Lord Bute and George
+Grenville till 1765. He had shown himself such a ready debater
+that on the fall of the first Rockingham ministry in 1766 he was
+sworn of the privy council, and made paymaster-general by the
+duke of Grafton. His reputation for ability grew so high that
+in December 1767, on the death of the brilliant Charles Townshend,
+he was made chancellor of the exchequer. His popularity
+with both the House of Commons and the people continued to
+increase, for his temper was never ruffled, and his quiet humour
+perpetually displayed; and, when the retirement of the duke
+of Grafton was necessitated by the hatred he inspired and the
+attacks of Junius, no better successor could be found for the
+premiership than the chancellor of the exchequer. Lord North
+succeeded the duke in March 1770, and continued in office for
+twelve of the most eventful years in English history. George
+III. had at last overthrown the ascendancy of the great Whig
+families, under which he had so long groaned, and determined to
+govern as well as rule. He knew that he could only govern by
+obtaining a majority in parliament to carry out his wishes, and
+this he had at last obtained by a great expenditure of money
+in buying seats and by a careful exercise of his patronage.
+But in addition to a majority he must have a minister who would
+consent to act as his lieutenant, and such a minister he found
+in Lord North. How a man of undoubted ability such as Lord
+North was could allow himself to be thus used as a mere instrument
+cannot be explained; but the confidential tone of the
+king&rsquo;s letters seems to show that there was an unusual intimacy
+between them, which may account for North&rsquo;s compliance.
+The path of the minister in parliament was a hard one; he had
+to defend measures which he had not designed, and of which
+he had not approved, and this too in a House of Commons in
+which all the oratorical ability of Burke and Fox was against
+him, and when he had only the purchased help of Thurlow and
+Wedderburne to aid him. The most important events of his
+ministry were those of the American War of Independence.
+He cannot be accused of causing it, but one of his first acts was
+the retention of the tea-duty, and he it was also who introduced
+the Boston Port Bill in 1774. When the war had broken out he
+earnestly counselled peace, and it was only the earnest solicitations
+of the king not to leave his sovereign again at the mercy
+of the Whigs that induced him to defend a war which from 1779
+he knew to be both hopeless and impolitic. At last, in March
+1782, he insisted on resigning after the news of Cornwallis&rsquo;s
+surrender at Yorktown, and no man left office more blithely.
+He had been well rewarded for his assistance to the king: his
+children had good sinecures; his half-brother, Brownlow North
+(1741-1820), was bishop of Winchester; he himself was chancellor
+of the university of Oxford, lord-lieutenant of the county
+of Somerset, and had finally been made a knight of the Garter,
+an honour which has only been conferred on three other members
+of the House of Commons, Sir R. Walpole, Lord Castlereagh
+and Lord Palmerston. Lord North did not remain long out of
+office, but in April 1783 formed his famous coalition with his old
+subordinate, C. J. Fox (<i>q.v.</i>), and became secretary of state
+with him under the nominal premiership of the duke of Portland.
+He was probably urged to this coalition with his old opponent
+by a desire to show that he could act independently of the king,
+and was not a mere royal mouthpiece. The coalition ministry
+went out of office on Fox&rsquo;s India Bill in December 1783, and
+Lord North, who was losing his sight, then finally gave up
+political ambition. He played, when quite blind, a somewhat
+important part in the debates on the Regency Bill in 1789, and
+in the next year succeeded his father as earl of Guilford. He
+did not long survive his elevation, and died peacefully on the
+5th of August 1792. It is impossible to consider Lord North a
+great statesman, but he was a most good-tempered and humorous
+member of the House of Commons. In a time of unexampled
+party feeling he won the esteem and almost the love of his most
+bitter opponents. Burke finely sums up his character in his
+<i>Letter to a Noble Lord</i>: &ldquo;He was a man of admirable parts, of
+general knowledge, of a versatile understanding, fitted for every
+sort of business; of infinite wit and pleasantry, of a delightful
+temper, and with a mind most disinterested. But it would be
+only to degrade myself,&rdquo; he continues, &ldquo;by a weak adulation,
+and not to honour the memory of a great man, to deny that he
+wanted something of the vigilance and spirit of command which
+the times required.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>By his wife Anne (d. 1797), daughter of George Speke of White
+Lackington, Somerset, Guilford had four sons, the eldest of
+whom, George Augustus (1757-1802), became 3rd earl on his
+father&rsquo;s death. This earl was a member of parliament from
+1778 to 1792 and was a member of his father&rsquo;s ministry and
+also of the royal household; he left no sons when he died on
+the 20th of April 1802 and was succeeded in the earldom by his
+brother Francis (1761-1817), who also left no sons. The youngest
+brother, Frederick (1766-1827), who now became 5th earl of
+Guilford, was remarkable for his great knowledge and love of
+Greece and of the Greek language. He had a good deal to do
+with the foundation of the Ionian university at Corfu, of which
+he was the first chancellor and to which he was very liberal.
+Guilford, who was governor of Ceylon from 1798 to 1805, died
+unmarried on the 14th of October 1827. His cousin, Francis
+(1772-1861), a son of Brownlow North, bishop of Winchester
+from 1781 to 1820, was the 6th earl, and the latter&rsquo;s descendant,
+Frederick George (b. 1876), became 8th earl in 1886.</p>
+
+<p>On the death of the 3rd earl of Guilford in 1802 the barony of
+North fell into abeyance between his three daughters, the
+survivor of whom, Susan (1797-1884). wife of John Sidney Doyle,
+who took the name of North, was declared by the House of
+Lords in 1841 to be Baroness North, and the title passed to her
+son, William Henry John North, the 11th baron (b. 1836)
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">North, Barons</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the Lord Keeper Guilford see the <i>Lives</i> by the Hon. R. North,
+edited by A. Jessopp (1890); and E. Foss, <i>The Judges of England</i>,
+vol. vii. (1848-1864). For the prime minister, Lord North, see
+<i>Correspondence of George III.</i> with Lord North, edited by W. B.
+Donne (1867); Horace Walpole, <i>Journal of the Reign of George III.</i>
+(1859), and <i>Memoirs of the Reign of George III.</i>, edited by G. F. R.
+Barker (1894); Lord Brougham, <i>Historical Sketches of Statesmen</i>,
+vol. i. (1839); Earl Stanhope, <i>History of England</i> (1858); Sir T. E.
+May, <i>Constitutional History of England</i> (1863-1865); and W. E. H.
+Lecky, <i>History of England in the 18th century</i> (1878-1890).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUILFORD,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> a township, including a borough of the same
+name, in New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A., on Long
+Island Sound and at the mouth of the Menunkatuck or West
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page692" id="page692"></a>692</span>
+river, about 16 m. E. by S. of New Haven. Pop. of the township,
+including the borough (1900), 2785, of whom 387 were foreign-born;
+(1910) 3001; pop. of the borough (1910), 1608. The
+borough is served by the New York, New Haven &amp; Hartford
+railroad. On a plain is the borough green of nearly 12 acres,
+which is shaded by some fine old elms and other trees, and in
+which there is a soldiers&rsquo; monument. About the green are
+several churches and some of the better residences. On an
+eminence commanding a fine view of the Sound is an old stone
+house, erected in 1639 for a parsonage, meeting-house and
+fortification; it was made a state museum in 1898, when
+extensive alterations were made to restore the interior to its
+original appearance. The Point of Rocks, in the harbour, is
+an attractive resort during the summer season. There are
+about 12 ft. of water on the harbour bar at high tide. The
+principal industries of Guilford are coastwise trade, the
+manufacture of iron castings, brass castings, wagon wheels
+and school furniture, and the canning of vegetables. Near the
+coast are quarries of fine granite; the stone for the pedestal of
+the Statue of Liberty on Bedloe&rsquo;s Island, in New York Harbour,
+was taken from them.</p>
+
+<p>Guilford was founded In 1639 as an independent colony by a
+company of twenty-five or more families from Kent, Surrey
+and Sussex, England, under the leadership of Rev. Henry Whitfield
+(1597-1657). While still on shipboard twenty-five members
+of the company signed a plantation covenant whereby they
+agreed not to desert the plantation which they were about to
+establish. Arriving at New Haven early in July 1639, they
+soon began negotiations with the Indians for the purchase of
+land, and on the 29th of September a deed was signed by which
+the Indians conveyed to them the territory between East
+River and Stony Creek for &ldquo;12 coates, 12 Fathoms of Wampam,
+12 glasses (mirrors), 12 payer of shooes, 12 Hatchetts, 12 paire of
+Stockings, 12 Hooes, 4 kettles, 12 knives, 12 Hatts, 12 Porringers,
+12 spoones, and 2 English coates.&rdquo; Other purchases of
+land from the Indians were made later. Before the close of the
+year the company removed from New Haven and established the
+new colony; it was known by the Indian name Menuncatuck
+for about four years and the name Guilford (from Guildford,
+England) was then substituted. As a provisional arrangement,
+civil power for the administration of justice and the preservation
+of the peace was vested in four persons until such time as a
+church should be organized. This was postponed until 1643
+when considerations of safety demanded that the colony should
+become a member of the New Haven Jurisdiction, and then
+only to meet the requirements for admission to this union were
+the church and church state modelled after those of New Haven.
+Even then, though suffrage was restricted to church members,
+Guilford planters who were not church members were required
+to attend town meetings and were allowed to offer objections
+to any proposed order or law. From 1661 until the absorption
+of the members of the New Haven Jurisdiction by Connecticut,
+in 1664, William Leete (1611-1683), one of the founders of
+Guilford, was governor of the Jurisdiction, and under his leadership
+Guilford took a prominent part in furthering the submission
+to Connecticut, which did away with the church state
+and the restriction of suffrage to freemen. Guilford was the
+birthplace of Fitz-Greene Halleck (1790-1867), the poet; of
+Samuel Johnson (1696-1771), the first president of King&rsquo;s
+College (now Columbia University); of Abraham Baldwin
+(1754-1807), prominent as a statesman and the founder of the
+University of Georgia; and of Thomas Chittenden, the first
+governor of Vermont. The borough was incorporated in 1815.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See B. C. Steiner, <i>A History of the Plantation of Menunca-Tuck
+and of the Original Town of Guilford, Connecticut</i> (Baltimore, 1897),
+and <i>Proceedings at the Celebration of the 250th Anniversary of the
+Settlement of Guilford, Connecticut</i> (New Haven, 1889).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUILLAUME, JEAN BAPTISTE CLAUDE EUGÈNE<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (1822-1905),
+French sculptor, was born at Montbard on the 4th of
+July 1822, and studied under Cavelier, Millet, and Barrias, at
+the École des Beaux-Arts, which he entered in 1841, and where
+he gained the <i>prix de Rome</i> in 1845 with &ldquo;Theseus finding on a
+rock his Father&rsquo;s Sword.&rdquo; He became director of the École des
+Beaux-Arts in 1864, and director-general of Fine Arts from
+1878 to 1879, when the office was suppressed. Many of his
+works have been bought for public galleries, and his monuments
+are to be found in the public squares of the chief cities of France.
+At Rheims there is his bronze statue of &ldquo;Colbert,&rdquo; at Dijon his
+&ldquo;Rameau&rdquo; monument. The Luxembourg Museum has his
+&ldquo;Anacreon&rdquo; (1852), &ldquo;Les Gracques&rdquo; (1853), &ldquo;Faucheur&rdquo;
+(1855), and the marble bust of &ldquo;Mgr Darboy&rdquo;; the Versailles
+Museum the portrait of &ldquo;Thiers&rdquo;; the Sorbonne Library the
+marble bust of &ldquo;Victor le Clerc, doyen de la faculté des lettres.&rdquo;
+Other works of his are at Trinity Church, St Germain l&rsquo;Auxerrois,
+and the church of St Clotilde, Paris. Guillaume was a prolific
+writer, principally on sculpture and architecture of the Classic
+period and of the Italian Renaissance. He was elected member
+of the Académie Française in 1862, and in 1891 was sent to
+Rome as director of the Académie de France in that city. He
+was also elected an honorary member of the Royal Academy,
+London, 1869, on the institution of that class.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUILLAUME DE LORRIS<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (fl. 1230), the author of the earlier
+section of the <i>Roman de la rose</i>, derives his surname from a small
+town about equidistant from Montargis and Gien, in the present
+department of Loiret. This and the fact of his authorship may
+be said to be the only things positively known about him. The
+rubric of the poem, where his own part finishes, attributes Jean de
+Meun&rsquo;s continuation to a period forty years later than William&rsquo;s
+death and the consequent interruption of the romance. Arguing
+backwards, this death used to be put at about 1260; but Jean
+de Meun&rsquo;s own work has recently been dated earlier, and so the
+composition of the first part has been thrown back to a period
+before 1240. The author represents himself as having dreamed
+the dream which furnished the substance of the poem in his
+twentieth year, and as having set to work to &ldquo;rhyme it&rdquo; five
+years later. The later and longer part of the <i>Roman</i> shows
+signs of greater intellectual vigour and wider knowledge than the
+earlier and shorter, but Guillaume de Lorris is to all appearance
+more original. The great features of his four or five thousand
+lines are, in the first place, the extraordinary vividness and
+beauty of his word-pictures, in which for colour, freshness
+and individuality he has not many rivals except in the greatest
+masters, and, secondly, the fashion of allegorical presentation,
+which, hackneyed and wearisome as it afterwards became,
+was evidently in his time new and striking. There are of course
+traces of it before, as in some romances, such as those of Raoul
+de Houdenc, in the troubadours, and in other writers; but it
+was unquestionably Guillaume de Lorris who fixed the style.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For an attempt to identify Guillaume de Lorris see L. Jarry,
+<i>Guillaume de Lorris et le testament d&rsquo;Alphonse de Poitiers</i> (1881).
+Also Paulin Paris in the <i>Hist. litt. de la France</i>, vol. xxiii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUILLAUME DE PALERME<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (<span class="sc">William of Palerne</span>), hero of
+romance. The French verse romance was written at the desire
+of a Countess Yolande, generally identified with Yolande,
+daughter of Baldwin IV., count of Flanders. The English poem
+in alliterative verse was written about 1350 by a poet called
+William, at the desire of Humphrey Bohun, earl of Hereford,
+(d. 1361). Guillaume, a foundling supposed to be of low degree,
+is brought up at the court of the emperor of Rome, and loves
+his daughter Melior who is destined for a Greek prince. The
+lovers flee into the woods disguised in bear-skins. Alfonso,
+who is Guillaume&rsquo;s cousin and a Spanish prince, has been
+changed into a wolf by his step-mother&rsquo;s enchantments. He
+provides food and protection for the fugitives, and Guillaume
+eventually triumphs over Alfonso&rsquo;s father, and wins back from
+him his kingdom. The benevolent werwolf is disenchanted,
+and marries Guillaume&rsquo;s sister.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Guillaume de Palerne</i>, ed. H. Michelant (Soc. d. anc. textes fr.,
+1876); <i>Hist. litt. de la France</i>, xxii. 829; <i>William of Palerme</i>, ed.
+Sir F. Madden (Roxburghe Club, 1832), and W. W. Skeat (E. E.
+Text Soc., extra series No. 1, 1867); M. Kaluza, in <i>Eng. Studien</i>
+(Heilbronn, iv. 196). The prose version of the French romance,
+printed by N. Bonfons, passed through several editions.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUILLAUME D&rsquo;ORANGE<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (d. 812), also known as Guillaume
+Fierabrace, St Guillaume de Gellone, and the Marquis au court
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page693" id="page693"></a>693</span>
+nez, was the central figure of the southern cycle of French
+romance, called by the <i>trouvères</i> the <i>geste</i> of Garin de Monglane.
+The cycle of Guillaume has more unity than the other great
+cycles of Charlemagne or of Doon de Mayence, the various
+poems which compose it forming branches of the main story
+rather than independent epic poems. There exist numerous
+cyclic MSS. in which there is an attempt at presenting a continuous
+<i>histoire poétique</i> of Guillaume and his family. MS. Royal
+20 D xi. in the British Museum contains eighteen <i>chansons</i>
+of the cycle. Guillaume, son of Thierry or Theodoric and of Alde,
+daughter of Charles Martel, was born in the north of France
+about the middle of the 8th century. He became one of the best
+soldiers and trusted counsellors of Charlemagne, and In 790 was
+made count of Toulouse, when Charles&rsquo;s son Louis the Pious
+was put under his charge. He subdued the Gascons, and
+defended Narbonne against the infidels. In 793 Hescham, the
+successor of Abd-al-Rahman II., proclaimed a holy war against
+the Christians, and collected an army of 100,000 men, half of
+which was directed against the kingdom of the Asturias, while
+the second invaded France, penetrating as far as Narbonne.
+Guillaume met the invaders near the river Orbieux, at Villedaigne,
+where he was defeated, but only after an obstinate resistance
+which so far exhausted the Saracens that they were compelled to
+retreat to Spain. He took Barcelona from the Saracens in 803,
+and in the next year founded the monastery of Gellone (now Saint
+Guilhem-le Désert), of which he became a member in 806. He
+died there in the odour of sanctity on the 28th of May 812.</p>
+
+<p>No less than thirteen historical personages bearing the name
+of William (Guillaume) have been thought by various critics
+to have their share in the formation of the legend. William,
+count of Provence, son of Boso II., again delivered southern
+France from a Saracen invasion by his victory at Fraxinet in
+973, and ended his life in a cloister. William Tow-head (<i>Tête
+d&rsquo;étoupe</i>), duke of Aquitaine (d. 983), showed a fidelity to Louis
+IV. paralleled by Guillaume d&rsquo;Orange&rsquo;s service to Louis the
+Pious. The cycle of twenty or more <i>chansons</i> which form the
+<i>geste</i> of Guillaume reposes on the traditions of the Arab invasions
+of the south of France, from the battle of Poitiers (732) under
+Charles Martel onwards, and on the French conquest of Catalonia
+from the Saracens. In the Norse version of the Carolingian epic
+Guillaume appears in his proper historical environment, as a
+chief under Charlemagne; but he plays a leading part in the
+<i>Couronnement Looys</i>, describing the formal associations of
+Louis the Pious in the empire at Aix (813, the year after Guillaume&rsquo;s
+death), and after the battle of Aliscans it is from the
+emperor Louis that he seeks reinforcements. This anachronism
+arises from the fusion of the epic Guillaume with the champion
+of Louis IV., and from the fact that he was the military and civil
+chief of Louis the Pious, who was titular king of Aquitaine
+under his father from the time when he was three years old.
+The inconsistencies between the real and the epic Guillaume
+are often left standing in the poems. The personages associated
+with Guillaume in his Spanish wars belong to Provence, and
+have names common in the south. The most famous of these
+are Beuves de Comarchis, Ernaud de Girone, Garin d&rsquo;Anséun,
+Aïmer le chétif, so called from his long captivity with the Saracens.
+The separate existence of Aïmer, who refused to sleep under a
+roof, and spent his whole life in warring against the infidel, is
+proved. He was Hadhemar, count of Narbonne, who in 809
+and 810 was one of the leaders sent by Louis against Tortosa.
+No doubt the others had historical prototypes. In the hands
+of the <i>trouvères</i> they became all brothers of Guillaume, and
+sons of Aymeri de Narbonne,<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the grandson of Garin de Monglane,
+and his wife Ermenjart. Nevertheless when Guillaume seeks
+help from Louis the emperor he finds all his relations in Laon,
+in accordance with his historic Frankish origin.</p>
+
+<p>The central fact of the <i>geste</i> of Guillaume is the battle of the
+Archamp or Aliscans, in which perished Guillaume&rsquo;s heroic
+nephew, Vezian or Vivien, a second Roland. At the eleventh
+hour he summoned Guillaume to his help against the overwhelming
+forces of the Saracens. Guillaume arrived too late to help
+Vivien, was himself defeated, and returned alone to his wife
+Guibourc, leaving his knights all dead or prisoners. This event
+is related in a Norman-French transcript of an old French
+<i>chanson de geste</i>, the <i>Chançun de Willame</i>&mdash;which only was
+brought to light in 1901 at the sale of the books of Sir Henry
+Hope Edwardes&mdash;in the <i>Covenant Vivien</i>, a recension of an older
+French chanson and in <i>Aliscans</i>. <i>Aliscans</i> continues the story,
+telling how Guillaume obtained reinforcements from Laon, and
+how, with the help of the comic hero, the scullion Rainouart
+or Rennewart, he avenged the defeat of Aliscans and his nephew&rsquo;s
+death. Rainouart turns out to be the brother of Guillaume&rsquo;s
+wife Guibourc, who was before her marriage the Saracen princess
+and enchantress Orable. Two other poems are consecrated to
+his later exploits, <i>La Bataille Loquifer</i>, the work of a French
+Sicilian poet, Jendeu de Brie (fl. 1170), and <i>Le Moniage Rainouart</i>.
+The staring-point of Herbert le duc of Dammartin (fl. 1170)
+in <i>Foucon de Candie</i> (Candie = Gandia in Spain?) is the return
+of Guillaume from the battle; and the Italian compilation
+<i>I Nerbonesi</i>, based on these and other <i>chansons</i>, seems in some
+cases to represent an earlier tradition than the later of the French
+<i>chansons</i>, although its author Andrea di Barberino wrote towards
+the end of the 14th century. The minnesinger Wolfram von
+Eschenbach based his <i>Willehalm</i> on a French original which
+must have differed from the versions we have. The variations
+in the story of the defeat of Aliscans or the Archant, and the
+numerous inconsistencies of the narratives even when considered
+separately have occupied many critics. Aliscans (Aleschans,
+Alyscamps, Elysii Campi) was, however, generally taken to
+represent the battle of Villedaigne, and to take its name from
+the famous cemetery outside Arles. Wolfram von Eschenbach
+even mentions the tombs which studded the field of battle.
+Indications that this tradition was not unassailable were not
+lacking before the discovery of the <i>Chançun de Willame</i>, which,
+although preserved in a very corrupt form, represents the earliest
+recension we have of the story, dating at least from the beginning
+of the 12th century. It seems probable that the Archant
+was situated in Spain near Vivien&rsquo;s headquarters at Tortosa, and
+that Guillaume started from Barcelona, not from Orange, to
+his nephew&rsquo;s help. The account of the disaster was modified by
+successive <i>trouvères</i>, and the uncertainty of their methods may
+be judged by the fact that in the <i>Chançun de Willame</i> two consecutive
+accounts (11. 450-1326 and 11. 1326-2420) of the fight
+appear to be set side by side as if they were separate episodes.
+<i>Le Couronnement Looys</i>, already mentioned, <i>Le Charroi de Nîmes</i>
+(12th century) in which Guillaume, who had been forgotten in
+the distribution of fiefs, enumerates his services to the terrified
+Louis, and <i>Aliscans</i> (12th century), with the earlier <i>Chançun</i>, are
+among the finest of the French epic poems. The figure of
+Vivien is among the most heroic elaborated by the <i>trouvères</i>,
+and the giant Rainouart has more than a touch of Rabelaisian
+humour.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>chansons de geste</i> of the cycle of Guillaume are: <i>Enfances
+Garin de Monglane</i> (15th century) and <i>Garin de Monglane</i> (13th
+century), on which is founded the prose romance of <i>Guérin de
+Monglane</i>, printed in the 15th century by Jehan Trepperel and
+often later; <i>Girars de Viane</i> (13th century, by Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube),
+ed. P. Tarbé (Reims, 1850); <i>Hernaut de Beaulande</i>
+(fragment 14th century); <i>Renier de Gennes</i>, which only survives
+in its prose form; <i>Aymeri de Narbonne</i> (<i>c.</i> 1210) by Bertrand de
+Bar-sur-Aube, ed. L. Demaison (Soc. des anc. textes fr., Paris, 2 vols.,
+1887); <i>Les Enfances Guillaume</i> (13th century); <i>Les Narbonnais</i>,
+ed. H. Suchier (Soc. des anc. textes fr., 2 vols., 1898), with a Latin
+fragment dating from the 11th century, preserved at the Hague;
+<i>Le Couronnement Looys</i> (ed. E. Langlois, 1888), <i>Le Charroi de Nîmes</i>,
+<i>La Prise d&rsquo;Orange</i>, <i>Le Covenant Vivien</i>, <i>Aliscans</i>, which were edited
+by W. J. A. Jonckbloet in vol. i. of his <i>Guillaume d&rsquo;Orange</i> (The
+Hague, 1854); a critical text of <i>Aliscans</i> (Halle, 1903, vol. i.) is
+edited by E. Wienbeck, W. Hartnacke and P. Rasch; <i>Loquifer</i> and
+<i>Le Moniage Rainouart</i> (12th century); <i>Bovon de Commarchis</i> (13th
+century), recension of the earlier Siège de Barbastre, by Adenès li
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page694" id="page694"></a>694</span>
+Rois, ed. A. Scheler (Brussels, 1874); <i>Guibert d&rsquo;Andrenas</i> (13th
+century); <i>La Prise de Cordres</i> (13th century); <i>La Mort Aimeri de
+Narbonne</i>, ed. J. Couraye de Parc (Soc. des Anciens Textes français,
+Paris, 1884); <i>Foulque de Candie</i> (ed. P. Tarbé, Reims, 1860); <i>Le
+Moniage Guillaume</i> (12th century); <i>Les Enfances Vivien</i> (ed. C.
+Wahlund and H. v. Feilitzen, Upsala and Paris, 1895); <i>Chançun
+de Willame</i> (Chiswick Press, 1903), described by P. Meyer in <i>Romania</i>
+(xxxiii. 597-618). The ninth branch of the <i>Karlamagnus Saga</i> (ed.
+C. R. Unger, Christiania, 1860) deals with the <i>geste</i> of Guillaume.
+<i>I Nerbonesi</i> is edited by J. G. Isola (Bologna, 1877, &amp;c.).</p>
+
+<p>See C. Révillout, <i>Étude hist. et litt. sur la vita sancti Willelmi</i>
+(Montpellier, 1876); W. J. A. Jonckbloet, <i>Guillaume d&rsquo;Orange</i>
+(2 vols., 1854, The Hague); L. Clarus (ps. for W. Volk), <i>Herzog
+Wilhelm von Aquitanien</i> (Münster, 1865); P. Paris, <i>in Hist. litt. de
+la France</i> (vol. xxii., 1852); L. Gautier, <i>Épopées françaises</i> (vol. iv.,
+2nd ed., 1882); R. Weeks, <i>The newly discovered Chançun de Willame</i>
+(Chicago, 1904); A. Thomas, <i>Études romanes</i> (Paris, 1891), on
+Vivien; L. Saltet, &ldquo;S. Vidian de Martres-Tolosanes&rdquo; in <i>Bull. de
+litt. ecclés.</i> (Toulouse, 1902); P. Becker, <i>Die altfrz. Wilhelmsage u.
+ihre Beziehung zu Wilhelm dem Heiligen</i> (Halle, 1896), and <i>Der
+südfranzösische Sagenkreis und seine Probleme</i> (Halle, 1898); A.
+Jeanroy, &ldquo;Études sur le cycle de Guillaume au court nez&rdquo; (in
+<i>Romania</i>, vols. 25 and 26, 1896-1897); H. Suchier, &ldquo;Recherches
+sur ... Guillaume d&rsquo;Orange&rdquo; (in <i>Romania</i>, vol. 32, 1903). The
+conclusions arrived at by earlier writers are combated by Joseph
+Bédier in the first volume, &ldquo;Le Cycle de Guillaume d&rsquo;Orange&rdquo;
+(1908), of his <i>Légendes épiques</i>, in which he constructs a theory that
+the cycle of Guillaume d&rsquo;Orange grew up round the various shrines
+on the pilgrim route to Saint Gilles of Provence and Saint James of
+Compostella&mdash;that the <i>chansons de geste</i> were, in fact, the product
+of 11th and 12th century trouvères, exploiting local ecclesiastical
+traditions, and were not developed from earlier poems dating back
+perhaps to the lifetime of Guillaume of Toulouse, the saint of
+Gellone.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The poem of <i>Aymeri de Narbonne</i> contains the account of the
+young Aymeri&rsquo;s brilliant capture of Narbonne, which he then
+receives as a fief from Charlemagne, of his marriage with Ermenjart,
+sister of Boniface, king of the Lombards, and of their children. The
+fifth daughter, Blanchefleur, is represented as the wife of Louis the
+Pious. The opening of this poem furnished, though indirectly, the
+matter of the <i>Aymerillot</i> of Victor Hugo&rsquo;s <i>Légende des siècles</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUILLEMOT<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (Fr. <i>guillemot</i><a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a>), the name accepted by nearly
+all modern authors for a sea-bird, the <i>Colymbus troile</i> of
+Linnaeus and the <i>Uria troile</i> of Latham, which nowadays it
+seems seldom if ever to bear among those who, from their vocation,
+are most conversant with it, though, according to Willughby
+and Ray his translator, it was in their time so called &ldquo;by those
+of Northumberland and Durham.&rdquo; Around the coasts of Britain
+it is variously known as the frowl, kiddaw or skiddaw, langy
+(cf. Ice. <i>Langvia</i>), lavy, marrock, murre, scout (cf. <span class="sc">Coot</span>),
+scuttock, strany, tinker or tinkershire and willock. In former
+days the guillemot yearly frequented the cliffs on many parts
+of the British coasts in countless multitudes, and this is still
+the case in the northern parts of the United Kingdom; but
+more to the southward nearly all its smaller settlements have
+been rendered utterly desolate by the wanton and cruel destruction
+of their tenants during the breeding season, and even the
+inhabitants of those which were more crowded had become so
+thinned that, but for the intervention of the Sea Birds Preservation
+Act (32 &amp; 33 Vict. cap. 17), which provided under penalty
+for the safety of this and certain other species at the time of
+year when they were most exposed to danger, they would unquestionably
+by this time have been exterminated so far as
+England is concerned.</p>
+
+<p>Part of the guillemot&rsquo;s history is still little understood. We
+know that it arrives at its wonted breeding stations on its
+accustomed day in spring, that it remains there till, towards the
+end of the summer, its young are hatched and able, as they soon
+are, to encounter the perils of a seafaring life, when away go all,
+parents and progeny. After that time it commonly happens
+that a few examples are occasionally met with in bays and shallow
+waters. Tempestuous weather will drive ashore a large number
+in a state of utter destitution&mdash;many of them indeed are not
+unfrequently washed up dead&mdash;but what becomes of the bulk
+of the birds, not merely the comparatively few thousands that
+are natives of Britain, but the tens and hundreds of thousands,
+not to say millions, that are in summer denizens of more northern
+latitudes, no one can say. This mystery is not peculiar to the
+guillemot, but is shared by all the <i>Alcidae</i> that inhabit the
+Atlantic Ocean. Examples stray every season across the Bay of
+Biscay, are found off the coasts of Spain and Portugal, enter
+the Mediterranean and reach Italian waters, or, keeping farther
+south, may even touch the Madeiras, Canaries or Azores; but
+these bear no proportion whatever to the mighty hosts of whom
+they are literally the &ldquo;scouts,&rdquo; and whose position and movements
+they no more reveal than do the vedettes of a well-appointed
+army. The common guillemot of both sides of the
+Atlantic is replaced farther northward by a species with a stouter
+bill, the <i>U. arra</i> or <i>U. bruennichi</i> of ornithologists, and on the
+west coast of North America by the <i>U. californica</i>. The habits
+of all these are essentially the same, and the structural resemblance
+between all of them and the Auks is so great that several
+systematists have relegated them to the genus <i>Alca</i>, confining
+the genus <i>Uria</i> to the guillemots of another group, of which
+the type is the <i>U. grylla</i>, the black guillemot of British authors,
+the dovekey or Greenland dove of sailors, the tysty of Shetlanders.
+This bird assumes in summer an entirely black plumage with
+the exception of a white patch on each wing, while in winter
+it is beautifully marbled with white and black. Allied to it
+as species or geographical races are the <i>U. mandti</i>, <i>U. columba</i>
+and <i>U. carbo</i>. All these differ from the larger guillemots by
+laying two or three eggs, which are generally placed in some
+secure niche, while the members of the other group lay but a
+single egg, which is invariably exposed on a bare ledge.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word, however, seems to be cognate with or derived from
+the Welsh and Manx <i>Guillem</i>, or <i>Gwilym</i> as Pennant spells it. The
+association may have no real meaning, but one cannot help comparing
+the resemblance between the French <i>guillemot</i> and <i>Guillaume</i>
+with that between the English willock (another name for the bird)
+and William.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUILLOCHE,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> a French word for an ornament, either painted
+or carved, which was one of the principal decorative bands
+employed by the Greeks in their temples or on their vases.
+Guilloches are single, double or triple; they consist of a series
+of circles equidistant one from the other and enclosed in a band
+which winds round them and interlaces. This guilloche is
+of Asiatic origin and was largely employed in the decoration of the
+Assyrian palaces, where it was probably copied from Chaldaean
+work, as there is an early example at Erech which dates from the
+time of Gudea (2294 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The ornament as painted by the
+Greeks has almost entirely disappeared, but traces are found in
+the temple of Nemesis at Rhamnus; and on the terra-cotta slabs
+by which the timber roofs of Greek temples were protected, it is
+painted in colours which are almost as brilliant as when first
+produced, those of the Treasury of Gela at Olympia being of great
+beauty. These examples are double guilloches, with two rows of
+circles, each with an independent interlacing band and united
+by a small arc with palmette inside; in both the single and double
+guilloches of Greek work there is a flower in the centre of the
+circles. In the triple guilloche, the centre row of circles comes
+half-way between the others, and the enclosing band crosses
+diagonally both ways, interlacing alternately. The best example
+of the triple guilloche is that which is carved on the torus moulding
+of the base and on the small convex moulding above the
+echinus of the capitals of the columns of the Erechtheum at
+Athens. It was largely employed in Roman work, and the single
+guilloche is found almost universally as a border in mosaic
+pavements, not only in Italy but throughout Europe. In the
+Renaissance in Italy it was also a favourite enrichment for
+borders and occasionally in France and England.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUILLON, MARIE NICOLAS SYLVESTRE<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1760-1847),
+French ecclesiastic, was born in Paris on the 1st of January 1760.
+He was librarian and almoner in the household of the princess de
+Lamballe, and when in 1792 she was executed, he fled to the
+provinces, where under the name of Pastel he practised medicine.
+A man of facile conscience, he afterwards served in turn under
+Napoleon, the Bourbons and the Orleanists, and became canon of
+St Denis, bishop of Morocco and dean of the Sorbonne.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among his many literary works are a <i>Collection des brefs du pape
+Pie VI</i> (1798), <i>Bibliothèque choisie des pères grecs et latins</i> (1822,
+26 vols.) and a French translation of Cyprian with notes (1837, 2
+vols.).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUILLOTINE,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> the instrument for inflicting capital punishment
+by decapitation, introduced into France at the period of the
+Revolution. It consists of two upright posts surmounted by a
+cross beam, and grooved so as to guide an oblique-edged knife,
+the back of which is heavily weighted to make it fall swiftly and
+with force when the cord by which it is held aloft is let go. Some
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page695" id="page695"></a>695</span>
+ascribe the invention of the machine to the Persians; and
+previous to the period when it obtained notoriety under its
+present name it had been in use in Scotland, England and various
+parts of the continent. There is still preserved In the antiquarian
+museum of Edinburgh the rude guillotine called the &ldquo;maiden&rdquo;
+by which the regent Morton was decapitated in 1581. The last
+persons decapitated by the Scottish &ldquo;maiden&rdquo; were the marquis
+of Argyll in 1661 and his son the earl of Argyll in 1685.
+It would appear that no similar machine was ever in general
+use in England; but until 1650 there existed in the forest
+of Hardwick, which was coextensive with the parish of
+Halifax, West Riding, Yorkshire, a mode of trial and execution
+called the gibbet law, by which a felon convicted of theft within
+the liberty was sentenced to be decapitated by a machine called
+the Halifax gibbet. A print of it is contained in a small book
+called <i>Halifax and its Gibbet Law</i> (1708), and in Gibson&rsquo;s edition
+of Camden&rsquo;s <i>Britannia</i> (1722). In Germany the machine was in
+general use during the middle ages, under the name of the <i>Diele</i>,
+the <i>Hobel</i> or the <i>Dolabra</i>. Two old German engravings, the one
+by George Penez, who died in 1550, and the other by Heinrich
+Aldegrever, with the date 1553, represent the death of a son of
+Titus Manlius by a similar instrument, and its employment for
+the execution of a Spartan is the subject of the engraving of the
+eighteenth symbol in the volume entitled <i>Symbolicae quaestiones
+de universo genere</i>, by Achilles Bocchi (1555). From the 13th
+century it was used in Italy under the name of <i>Mannaia</i> for the
+execution of criminals of noble birth. The <i>Chronique de Jean
+d&rsquo;Anton</i>, first published in 1835, gives minute details of an execution
+in which it was employed at Genoa in 1507; and it is
+elaborately described by Père Jean Baptiste Labat in his <i>Voyage
+en Espagne et en Italie en 1730</i>. It is mentioned by Jacques,
+viscomte de Puységur, in his <i>Mémoires</i> as in use in the south of
+France, and he describes the execution by it of Marshal Montmorency
+at Toulouse in 1632. For about a century it had, however,
+fallen into general disuse on the continent; and Dr
+Guillotine, who first suggested its use in modern times, is said
+to have obtained his information regarding it from the description
+of an execution that took place at Milan in 1702, contained in
+an anonymous work entitled <i>Voyage historique et politique de
+Suisse, d&rsquo;Italie, et d&rsquo;Allemagne</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Guillotine, who was born at Saintes, May 28, 1738, and elected
+to the Constituent Assembly in 1789, brought forward on the
+1st December of that year two propositions regarding capital
+punishment, the second of which was that, &ldquo;in all cases of
+capital punishment it shall be of the same kind&mdash;that is, decapitation&mdash;and
+it shall be executed by means of a machine.&rdquo; The
+reasons urged in support of this proposition were that in cases
+of capital punishment the privilege of execution by decapitation
+should no longer be confined to the nobles, and that it was
+desirable to render the process of execution as swift and painless
+as possible. The debate was brought to a sudden termination
+in peals of laughter caused by an indiscreet reference of Dr
+Guillotine to his machine, but his ideas seem gradually to have
+leavened the minds of the Assembly, and after various debates
+decapitation was adopted as the method of execution in the
+penal code which became law on the 6th October 1791. At first
+it was intended that decapitation should be by the sword, but
+on account of a memorandum by M. Sanson, the executioner,
+pointing out the expense and certain other inconveniences
+attending that method, the Assembly referred the question to a
+committee, at whose request Dr Antoine Louis, secretary to the
+Academy of Surgeons, prepared a memorandum on the subject.
+Without mentioning the name of Guillotine, it recommended the
+adoption of an instrument similar to that which was formerly
+suggested by him. The Assembly decided in favour of the report,
+and the contract was offered to the person who usually provided
+the instruments of justice; but, as his terms were considered
+exorbitant, an agreement was ultimately come to with a German
+of the name of Schmidt, who, under the direction of M. Louis,
+furnished a machine for each of the French departments. After
+satisfactory experiments had been made with the machine on
+several dead bodies in the hospital of Bicêtre, it was erected on
+the Place de Grève for the execution of the highwayman Pelletier
+on the 25th April 1792. While the experiments regarding the
+machine were being carried on, it received the name <i>Louisette</i>
+or <i>La Petite Louison</i>, but the mind of the nation seems soon to
+have reverted to Guillotine, who first suggested its use; and in
+the <i>Journal des révolutions de Paris</i> for 28th April 1792 it is
+mentioned as <i>la guillotine</i>, a name which it thenceforth bore
+both popularly and officially. In 1795 the question was much
+debated as to whether or not death by the guillotine was instantaneous,
+and in support of the negative side the case of
+Charlotte Corday was adduced whose countenance, it is said,
+blushed as if with indignation when the executioner, holding up
+the head to the public gaze, struck it with his fist. The connexion
+of the instrument with the horrors of the Revolution has hindered
+its introduction into other countries, but in 1853 it was adopted
+under the name of <i>Fallschwert</i> or <i>Fallbeil</i> by the kingdom of
+Saxony; and it is used for the execution of sentences of death
+in France, Belgium and some parts of Germany. It has often
+been stated that Dr Guillotine perished by the instrument which
+bears his name, but it is beyond question that he survived the
+Revolution and died a natural death in 1814.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Sédillot, <i>Réflexions historiques et physiologiques sur le supplice
+de la guillotine</i> (1795); Sue, <i>Opinion sur le supplice de la guillotine</i>,
+(1796); Réveillé-Parise, <i>Étude biographique sur Guillotine</i> (Paris,
+1851); <i>Notice historique et physiologique sur le supplice de la guillotine</i>
+(Paris, 1830); Louis Dubois, <i>Recherches historiques et physiologiques
+sur la guillotine et détails sur Sanson</i> (Paris, 1843); and a
+paper by J. W. Croker in the <i>Quarterly Review</i> for December 1843,
+reprinted separately in 1850 under the title <i>The Guillotine, a historical
+Essay</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUILT,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> a lapse from duty, a crime, now usually the fact of
+wilful wrong-doing, the condition of being guilty of a crime,
+hence conduct deserving of punishment. The O. Eng. form
+of the word is <i>gylt</i>. The <i>New English Dictionary</i> rejects for
+phonetic reasons the usually accepted connexion with the
+Teutonic root <i>gald</i>-, to pay, seen in Ger. <i>gelten</i>, to be of value,
+<i>Geld</i>, money, payment, English &ldquo;yield.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUIMARÃES<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (sometimes written <i>Guimaraens</i>), a town of
+northern Portugal, in the district of Braga, formerly included in
+the province of Entre-Minho-e-Douro; 36 m. N.E. of Oporto
+by the Trofa-Guimarães branch of the Oporto-Corunna railway.
+Pop. (1900) 9104. Guimarães is a very ancient town with
+Moorish fortifications; and even the quarters which are locally
+described as &ldquo;new&rdquo; date partly from the 15th century. It
+occupies a low hill, skirted on the north-west by a small tributary
+of the river Ave. The citadel, founded in the 11th century by
+Count Henry of Burgundy, was in 1094 the birthplace of his
+son Alphonso, the first king of Portugal. The font in which
+Alphonso was baptized is preserved, among other interesting
+relics, in the collegiate church of Santa Maria da Oliveira, &ldquo;St
+Mary of the Olive,&rdquo; a Romanesque building of the 14th century,
+which occupies the site of an older foundation. This church
+owes its name to the legend that the Visigothic king Wamba
+(672-680) here declined the crown of Spain, until his olive wood
+spear-shaft blossomed as a sign that he should consent. The
+convent of São Domingos, now a museum of antiquities, has a
+fine 12th-13th century cloister; the town hall is built in the blend
+of Moorish and Gothic architecture known as Manoelline.
+Guimarães has a flourishing trade in wine and farm produce;
+it also manufactures cutlery, linen, leather and preserved fruits.
+Near the town are Citania, the ruins of a prehistoric Iberian
+city, and the hot sulphurous springs of Taipas, frequented since
+the 4th century, when Guimarães itself was founded.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUIMARD, MARIE MADELEINE<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1743-1816), French dancer,
+was born in Paris on the 10th of October 1743. For twenty-five
+years she was the star of the Paris Opéra. She made herself
+even more famous by her love affairs, especially by her long
+liaison with the prince de Soubise. She bought a magnificent
+house at Pantin, and built a private theatre connected with it,
+where Collé&rsquo;s <i>Partie de chasse de Henri IV</i> which was prohibited
+in public, and most of the <i>Proverbes</i> of Carmontelle (Louis
+Carrogis, 1717-1806), and similar licentious performances were
+given to the delight of high society. In 1772, in defiance of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page696" id="page696"></a>696</span>
+archbishop of Paris, she opened a gorgeous house with a theatre
+seating five hundred spectators in the Chaussée d&rsquo;Antin. In this
+Temple of Terpsichore, as she named it, the wildest orgies took
+place. In 1786 she was compelled to get rid of the property,
+and it was disposed of by lottery for her benefit for the sum of
+300,000 francs. Soon after her retirement in 1789 she married
+Jean Etienne Despréaux (1748-1820), dancer, song-writer and
+playwright.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUIMET, JEAN BAPTISTE<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1795-1871), French industrial
+chemist, was born at Voiron on the 20th of July 1795. He studied
+at the École Polytechnique in Paris, and in 1817 entered the
+Administration des Poudres et Salpêtres. In 1828 he was
+awarded the prize offered by the Société d&rsquo;Encouragement pour
+l&rsquo;Industrie Nationale for a process of making artificial ultramarine
+with all the properties of the substance prepared from lapis
+lazuli; and six years later he resigned his official position in
+order to devote himself to the commercial production of that
+material, a factory for which he established at Fleurieux sur
+Saône. He died on the 8th of April 1871.</p>
+
+<p>His son <span class="sc">Émile Étienne Guimet</span>, born at Lyons on the 26th
+of June 1836, succeeded him in the direction of the factory,
+and founded the Musée Guimet, which was first located at Lyons
+in 1879 and was handed over to the state and transferred to
+Paris in 1885. Devoted to travel, he was in 1876 commissioned
+by the minister of public instruction to study the religions of
+the Far East, and the museum contains many of the fruits of
+this expedition, including a fine collection of Japanese and
+Chinese porcelain and many objects relating not merely to the
+religions of the East but also to those of Ancient Egypt, Greece
+and Rome. He wrote <i>Lettres sur l&rsquo;Algérie</i> (1877) and <i>Promenades
+japonaises</i> (1880), and also some musical compositions, including
+a grand opera, <i>Taï-Tsoung</i> (1894).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUINEA,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> the general name applied by Europeans to part of
+the western coast region of equatorial Africa, and also to the
+gulf formed by the great bend of the coast line eastward and then
+southward. Like many other geographical designations the
+use of which is controlled neither by natural nor political
+boundaries, the name has been very differently employed by
+different writers and at different periods. In the widest acceptation
+of the term, the Guinea coast may be said to extend from
+13° N. to 16° S., from the neighbourhood of the Gambia to Cape
+Negro. Southern or Lower Guinea comprises the coasts of
+Gabun and Loango (known also as French Congo) and the Portuguese
+possessions on the south-west coast, and Northern or
+Upper Guinea stretches from the river Casamance to and inclusive
+of the Niger delta, Cameroon occupying a middle position. In
+a narrower use of the name, Guinea is the coast only from Cape
+Palmas to the Gabun estuary. Originally, on the other hand,
+Guinea was supposed to begin as far north as Cape Nun, opposite
+the Canary Islands, and Gomes Azurara, a Portuguese historian
+of the 15th century, is said to be the first authority who brings
+the boundary south to the Senegal. The derivation of the name
+is uncertain, but is probably taken from Ghinea, Ginnie, Genni
+or Jenné, a town and kingdom in the basin of the Niger, famed
+for the enterprise of its merchants and dating from the 8th
+century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> The name Guinea is found on maps of the middle
+of the 14th century, but it did not come into general use in
+Europe till towards the close of the 15th century.<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Although the term Gulf of Guinea is applied generally to that
+part of the coast south of Cape Palmas and north of the mouth
+of the Congo, particular indentations have their peculiar designations.
+The bay formed by the configuration of the land between
+Cape St Paul and the Nun mouth of the Niger is known as the
+Bight of Benin, the name being that of the once powerful native
+state whose territory formerly extended over the whole district.
+The Bight of Biafra, or Mafra (named after the town of Mafra in
+southern Portugal), between Capes Formosa and Lopez, is the
+most eastern part of the Gulf of Guinea; it contains the islands
+Fernando Po, Prince&rsquo;s and St Thomas&rsquo;s. The name Biafra&mdash;as
+indicating the country&mdash;fell into disuse in the later part of
+the 19th century.</p>
+
+<p>The coast is generally so low as to be visible to navigators only
+within a very short distance, the mangrove trees being their
+only sailing marks. In the Bight of Biafra the coast forms an
+exception, being high and bold, with the Cameroon Mountains
+for background. At Sierra Leone also there is high land. The
+coast in many places maintains a dead level for 30 to 50 m.
+inland. Vegetation is exceedingly luxuriant and varied. The
+palm-oil tree is indigenous and abundant from the river Gambia
+to the Congo. The fauna comprises nearly all the more remarkable
+of African animals. The inhabitants are the true Negro
+stock.</p>
+
+<p>By the early traders the coast of Upper Guinea was given
+names founded on the productions characteristic of the different
+parts. The Grain coast, that part of the Guinea coast extending
+for 500 m. from Sierra Leone eastward to Cape Palmas received
+its name from the export of the seeds of several plants of a
+peppery character, called variously grains of paradise, Guinea
+pepper and melegueta. The name Grain coast was first applied
+to this region in 1455. It was occasionally styled the Windy or
+Windward coast, from the frequency of short but furious
+tornadoes throughout the year. Towards the end of the 18th
+century, Guinea pepper was supplanted in Europe by peppers
+from the East Indies. The name now is seldom used, the Grain
+coast being divided between the British colony of Sierra Leone
+and the republic of Liberia. The Ivory coast extends from Cape
+Palmas to 3° W., and obtained its name from the quantity of
+ivory exported therefrom. It is now a French possession. Eastwards
+of the Ivory coast are the Gold and Slave coasts. The
+Niger delta was for long known as the Oil rivers. To two
+regions only of the coast is the name Guinea officially applied,
+the French and Portuguese colonies north of Sierra Leone being
+so styled.</p>
+
+<p>Of the various names by which the divisions of Lower Guinea
+were known, Loango was applied to the country south of the
+Gabun and north of the Congo river. It is now chiefly included
+in French Congo. Congo was used to designate the country
+immediately south of the river of the same name, usually spoken
+of until the last half of the 19th century as the Zaire. Congo is
+now one of the subdivisions of Portuguese West Africa (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Angola</a></span>). It must not be confounded with the Belgian
+Congo.</p>
+
+<p>Few questions in historical geography have been more keenly
+discussed than that of the first discovery of Guinea by the
+navigators of modern Europe. Lancelot Malocello, a Genoese,
+in 1270 reached at least as far as the Canaries. The first direct
+attempt to find a sea route to India was, it is said, also made by
+Genoese, Ugolino and Guido de Vivaldo, Tedisio Doria and others
+who equipped two galleys and sailed south along the African
+coast in 1291. Beyond the fact that they passed Cape Nun
+there is no trustworthy record of their voyage. In 1346 a Catalan
+expedition started for &ldquo;the river of gold&rdquo; on the Guinea coast;
+its fate is unknown. The French claim that between 1364 and
+1410 the people of Dieppe sent out several expeditions to Guinea;
+and Jean de Béthencourt, who settled in the Canaries about
+1402, made explorations towards the south. At length the
+consecutive efforts of the navigators employed by Prince Henry
+of Portugal&mdash;Gil Eannes, Diniz Diaz, Nuno Tristam, Alvaro
+Fernandez, Cadamosto, Usodimare and Diego Gomez&mdash;made
+known the coast as far as the Gambia, and by the end
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page697" id="page697"></a>697</span>
+of the 15th century the whole region was familiar to
+Europeans.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For further information see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Senegal</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gold Coast</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ivory Coast</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Guinea</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Portuguese Guinea</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liberia</a></span>, &amp;c. For the
+history of European discoveries, consult G. E. de Azurara, <i>Chronica
+de descobrimento e conquista de Guiné</i>, published, with an introduction,
+by Barros de Santarem (Paris, 1841), English translation,
+<i>The Discovery and Conquest of Guinea</i>, by C. R. Beazley and E.
+Prestage (Hakluyt Society publications, 2 vols., London, 1896-1899,
+vol. ii. has an introduction on the early history of African exploration,
+&amp;c. with full bibliographical notes). L. Estancelin, <i>Recherches
+sur les voyages et découvertes des navigateurs normands en Afrique</i>
+(Paris, 1832); Villault de Bellefond, <i>Relation des costes d&rsquo;Afrique
+appellées Guinée</i> (Paris, 1669); Père Labat, <i>Nouvelle Relation de
+l&rsquo;Afrique occidentale</i> (Paris, 1728); Desmarquets, <i>Mém. chron. pour
+servir à l&rsquo;hist. de Dieppe</i> (1875); Santarem, <i>Priorité de la découverte
+des pays situés sur la côte occidentale d&rsquo;Afrique</i> (Paris, 1842); R. H.
+Major, <i>Life of Prince Henry the Navigator</i> (London, 1868); and the
+elaborate review of Major&rsquo;s work by M. Codine in the <i>Bulletin de la
+Soc. de Géog.</i> (1873); A. E. Nordenskiöld, <i>Periplus</i> (Stockholm,
+1897); <i>The Story of Africa</i>, vol. i. (London, 1892), edited by Dr
+Robert Brown.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Guinea may, however, be derived from Ghana (or Ghanata) the
+name of the oldest known state in the western Sudan. Ghana dates,
+according to some authorities, from the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> From
+the 7th to the 12th century it was a powerful empire, its dominions
+extending, apparently, from the Atlantic to the Niger bend. At
+one time Jenné was included within its borders. Ghana was finally
+conquered by the Mandingo kings of Melle in the 13th century. Its
+capital, also called Ghana, was west of the Niger, and is generally
+placed some 200 m. west of Jenné. In this district L. Desplagnes
+discovered in 1907 numerous remains of a once extensive city,
+which he identified as those of Ghana. The ruins lie 25 m. W. of
+the Niger, on both banks of a marigot, and are about 40 m. N. by E.
+of Kulikoro (see <i>La Géographie</i>, xvi. 329). By some writers
+Ghana city is, however, identified with Walata, which town is mentioned
+by Arab historians as the capital of Ghanata. The identification
+of Ghana city with Jenné is not justified, though Idrisi seems
+to be describing Jenné when writing of &ldquo;Ghana the Great.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUINEA,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> a gold coin at one time current in the United
+Kingdom. It was first coined in 1663, in the reign of Charles II.,
+from gold imported from the Guinea coast of West Africa by a
+company of merchants trading under charter from the British
+crown&mdash;hence the name. Many of the first guineas bore an
+elephant on one side, this being the stamp of the company;
+in 1675 a castle was added. Issued at the same time as the
+guinea were five-guinea, two-guinea and half-guinea pieces.
+The current value of the guinea on its first issue was twenty
+shillings. It was subsidiary to the silver coinage, but this latter
+was in such an unsatisfactory state that the guinea in course of
+time became over-valued in relation to silver, so much so that
+in 1694 it had risen in value to thirty shillings. The rehabilitation
+of the silver coinage in William III.&rsquo;s reign brought down
+the value of the guinea to 21s. 6d. in 1698, at which it stood until
+1717, when its value was fixed at twenty-one shillings. This
+value the guinea retained until its disappearance from the
+coinage. It was last coined in 1813, and was superseded in 1817
+by the present principal gold coin, the sovereign. In 1718 the
+quarter-guinea was first coined. The third-guinea was first
+struck in George III.&rsquo;s reign (1787). To George III.&rsquo;s reign also
+belongs the &ldquo;spade-guinea,&rdquo; a guinea having the shield on the
+reverse pointed at the base or spade-shaped. It is still customary
+to pay subscriptions, professional fees and honoraria of all kinds,
+in terms of &ldquo;guineas,&rdquo; a guinea being twenty-one shillings.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUINEA FOWL,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> a well-known domestic gallinaceous bird,
+so called from the country whence in modern times it was
+brought to Europe, the <i>Meleagris</i> and <i>Avis</i> or <i>Gallina Numidica</i>
+of ancient authors.<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Little is positively known of the wild stock
+to which we owe our tame birds, nor can the period of its reintroduction
+(for there is apparently no evidence of its domestication
+being continuous from the time of the Romans) be assigned
+more than roughly to that of the African discoveries of the
+Portuguese. It does not seem to have been commonly known
+till the middle of the 16th century, when John Caius sent a
+description and figure, with the name <i>Gallus Mauritanus</i>, to
+Gesner, who published both in his <i>Paralipomena</i> in 1555, and
+in the same year Belon also gave a notice and woodcut under
+the name of <i>Poulle de la Guinée</i>; but while the former authors
+properly referred their bird to the ancient <i>Meleagris</i>, the latter
+confounded the <i>Meleagris</i> and the turkey.</p>
+
+<p>The ordinary guinea fowl of the poultry-yard (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Poultry
+and Poultry-Farming</a></span>) is the <i>Numida meleagris</i> of ornithologists.
+The chief or only changes which domestication seems
+to have induced in its appearance are a tendency to albinism
+generally shown in the plumage of its lower parts, and frequently,
+though not always, the conversion of the colour of its legs and
+feet from dark greyish-brown to bright orange. That the home
+of this species is West Africa from the Gambia<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> to the Gaboon
+is certain, but its range in the interior is quite unknown. It
+appears to have been imported early into the Cape Verd Islands,
+where, as also in some of the Greater Antilles and in Ascension,
+it has run wild. Representing the species in South Africa we
+have the <i>N. coronata</i>, which is very numerous from the Cape
+Colony to Ovampoland, and the <i>N. cornuta</i> of Drs Finsch and
+Hartlaub, which replaces it in the west as far as the Zambesi.
+Madagascar also has its peculiar species, distinguishable by its
+red crown, the <i>N. mitrata</i> of Pallas, a name which has often been
+misapplied to the last. This bird has been introduced to
+Rodriguez, where it is now found wild. Abyssinia is inhabited
+by another species, the <i>N. ptilorhyncha</i>,<a name="fa3j" id="fa3j" href="#ft3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a> which differs from all
+the foregoing by the absence of any red colouring about the head.
+Very different from all of them, and the finest species known, is
+the <i>N. vulturina</i> of Zanzibar, conspicuous by the bright blue in
+its plumage, the hackles that adorn the lower part of its neck,
+and its long tail. By some writers it is thought to form a separate
+genus, <i>Acryllium</i>. All these guinea fowls except the last are
+characterized by having the crown bare of feathers and elevated
+into a bony &ldquo;helmet,&rdquo; but there is another group (to which
+the name <i>Guttera</i> has been given) in which a thick tuft of feathers
+ornaments the top of the head. This contains four or five
+species, all inhabiting some part or other of Africa, the best known
+being the <i>N. cristata</i> from Sierra Leone and other places on the
+western coast. This bird, apparently mentioned by Marcgrave
+more than 200 years ago, but first described by Pallas, is remarkable
+for the structure&mdash;unique, if not possessed by its representative
+forms&mdash;of its <i>furcula</i>, where the head, instead of being
+the thin plate found in all other <i>Gallinae</i>, is a hollow cup opening
+upwards, into which the trachea dips, and then emerges on its
+way to the lungs. Allied to the genus <i>Numida</i>, but readily
+distinguished <span class="correction" title="amended from thereform">form</span> among other characters by the possession
+of spurs and the absence of a helmet, are two very rare forms,
+<i>Agelastes</i> and <i>Phasidus</i>, both from western Africa. Of their
+habits nothing is known. All these birds are beautifully figured
+in Elliot&rsquo;s <i>Monograph of the Phasianidae</i>, from drawings by
+Wolf.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Columella (<i>De re rustica</i>, viii. cap. 2) distinguishes the <i>Meleagris</i>
+from the <i>Gallina Africana</i> or <i>Numidica</i>, the latter having, he
+says, a red wattle (<i>palea</i>, a reading obviously preferable to <i>galea</i>),
+while it was blue in the former. This would look as if the <i>Meleagris</i>
+had sprung from what is now called <i>Numida ptilorhyncha</i>, while the
+<i>Gallina Africana</i> originated in the <i>N. meleagris</i>, species which
+have a different range, and if so the fact would point to two distinct
+introductions&mdash;one by Greeks, the other by Latins.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Specimens from the Gambia are said to be smaller, and have been
+described as distinct under the name of <i>N. rendalli</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3j" id="ft3j" href="#fa3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Darwin (<i>Anim. and Pl. under Domestication</i>, i. 294), gives this
+as the original stock of the modern domestic birds, but obviously by
+an accidental error. As before observed, it may possibly have been
+the true <span class="grk" title="meleagris">&#956;&#949;&#955;&#949;&#945;&#947;&#961;&#943;&#962;</span> of the Greeks.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUINEA-WORM<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (<i>Dracontiasis</i>), a disease due to the <i>Filaria
+medinensis</i>, or <i>Dracunculus</i>, or Guinea-worm, a filarious nematode
+like a horse-hair, whose most frequent habitat is the subcutaneous
+and intramuscular tissues of the legs and feet. It is common on
+the Guinea coast, and in many other tropical and subtropical
+regions and has been familiarly known since ancient times.
+The condition of dracontiasis due to it is a very common one,
+and sometimes amounts to an epidemic. The black races are
+most liable, but Europeans of almost any social rank and of
+either sex are not altogether exempt. The worm lives in water,
+and, like the <i>Filaria sanguinis hominis</i>, appears to have an
+intermediate host for its larval stage. It is doubtful whether
+the worm penetrates the skin of the legs directly; it is not
+impossible that the intermediate host (a cyclops) which contains
+the larvae may be swallowed with the water, and that the larvae
+of the <i>Dracunculus</i> may be set free in the course of digestion.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GÜINES,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> a town in the interior of Havana province, Cuba,
+about 30 m. S.E. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 8053. It is situated
+on a plain, in the midst of a rich plantation district, chiefly
+devoted to the cultivation of tobacco. The first railway in Cuba
+was built from Havana to Güines between 1835 and 1838. One
+of the very few good highways of the island also connects Güines
+with the capital. The pueblo of Güines, which was built on a
+great private estate of the same name, dates back to about 1735.
+The church dates from 1850. Güines became a &ldquo;villa&rdquo; in 1814,
+and was destroyed by fire in 1817.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUINGAMP,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> a town of north-western France, capital of an
+arrondissement in the department of Côtes-du-Nord, on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page698" id="page698"></a>698</span>
+right bank of the Trieux, 20 m. W.N.W. of St Brieuc on the
+railway to Brest. Pop. (1906), town 6937, commune 9212.
+Its chief church, Notre-Dame de Bon-Secours, dates from the
+14th to the 16th centuries; two towers rise on each side of the
+richly sculptured western portal and a third surmounts the
+crossing. A famous statue of the Virgin, the object of one of
+the most important &ldquo;pardons&rdquo; or religious pilgrimages in
+Brittany, stands in one of the two northern porches. The
+central square is decorated by a graceful fountain in the Renaissance
+style, restored in 1743. Remains of the ramparts and of
+the château of the dukes of Penthièvre, which belong to the
+15th century, still survive. Guingamp is the seat of a sub-prefect
+and of a tribunal of first instance. It is an important
+market for dairy-cattle, and its industries include flour-milling,
+tanning and leather-dressing. Guingamp was the chief town of
+the countship (subsequently the duchy) of Penthièvre. The
+Gothic chapel of Grâces, near Guingamp, contains fine
+sculptures.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUINNESS,<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> the name of a family of Irish brewers. The
+firm was founded by <span class="sc">Arthur Guinness</span>, who about the middle
+of the 18th century owned a modest brewing-plant at Leixlip,
+a village on the upper reaches of the river Liffey. In or about
+1759 Arthur Guinness, seeking to extend his trade, purchased
+a small porter brewery belonging to a Mr Rainsford at St James&rsquo;s
+Gate, Dublin. By careful attention to the purity of his product,
+coupled with a shrewd perception of the public taste, he built
+up a considerable business. But his third son, <span class="sc">Benjamin Lee
+Guinness</span> (1798-1868), may be regarded as the real maker of
+the firm, into which he was taken at an early age, and of which
+about 1825 he was given sole control. Prior to that date the
+trade in Guinness&rsquo;s porter and stout had been confined to Ireland,
+but Benjamin Lee Guinness at once established agencies in the
+United Kingdom, on the continent, in the British colonies and
+in America. The export trade soon assumed huge proportions;
+the brewery was continually enlarged, and when in 1855 his
+father died, Benjamin Lee Guinness, who in 1851 was elected
+first lord mayor of Dublin, found himself sole proprietor of the
+business and the richest man in Ireland. Between 1860 and
+1865 he devoted a portion of this wealth to the restoration
+of St Patrick&rsquo;s cathedral, Dublin. The work, the progress
+of which he regularly superintended himself, cost £160,000.
+Benjamin Lee Guinness represented the city of Dublin in parliament
+as a Conservative from 1865 till his death, and in 1867
+was created a baronet. He died in 1868, and was succeeded in
+the control of the business by Sir Arthur Edward Guinness (b.
+1840), his eldest, and Edward Cecil Guinness (b. 1847), his third,
+son. <span class="sc">Sir Arthur Edward Guinness</span>, who for some time represented
+Dublin in parliament, was in 1880 raised to the peerage
+as Baron Ardilaun, and about the same time disposed of his
+share in the brewery to his brother Edward Cecil Guinness.
+In 1886 <span class="sc">Edward Cecil Guinness</span> disposed of the brewery,
+the products of which were then being sent all over the world,
+to a limited company, in which he remained the largest shareholder.
+Edward Cecil Guinness was created a baronet in 1885,
+and in 1891 was raised to the peerage as Baron Iveagh.</p>
+
+<p>The Guinness family have been distinguished for their philanthropy
+and public munificence. Lord Ardilaun gave a recreation
+ground to Dublin, and the famous Muckross estate at Killarney
+to the nation. Lord Iveagh set aside £250,000 for the creation
+of the Guinness trust (1889) for the erection and maintenance
+of buildings for the labouring poor in London and Dublin, and
+was a liberal benefactor to the funds of Dublin university.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUINOBATAN,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> a town of the province of Albay, Luzon,
+Philippine Islands, on the Inaya river, 9 m. W. by N. of the town
+of Albay. Pop. (1903), 20,027. Its chief interest is in hemp,
+which is grown in large quantities in the neighbouring country.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUIPÚZCOA,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> a maritime province of northern Spain, included
+among the Basque provinces, and bounded on the N. by the
+Bay of Biscay; W. by the province of Biscay (<i>Vizcaya</i>); S. and
+S.E. by. Álava and Navarre: and N.E. by the river Bidassoa,<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+which separates it from France. Pop. (1900), 195,850; area,
+728 sq. m. Situated on the northern slope of the great Cantabrian
+chain at its junction with the Pyrenees, the province has
+a great variety of surface in mountain, hill and valley; and its
+scenery is highly picturesque. The coast is much indented,
+and has numerous harbours, but none of very great importance;
+the chief are those of San Sebastian, Pasajes, Guetaria, Deva
+and Fuenterrabia. The rivers (Deva, Urola, Oria, Urumea,
+Bidassoa) are all short, rapid and unnavigable. The mountains
+are for the most part covered with forests of oak, chestnut or
+pine; holly and arbutus are also common, with furze and heath
+in the poorer parts. The soil in the lower valleys is generally
+of hard clay and unfertile; it is cultivated with great care,
+but the grain raised falls considerably short of what is required
+for home consumption. The climate, though moist, is mild,
+pleasant and healthy; fruit is produced in considerable
+quantities, especially apples for manufacture into <i>zaragua</i> or
+cider. The chief mineral products are iron, lignite, lead, copper,
+zinc and cement. Ferruginous and sulphurous springs are very
+common, and are much frequented every summer by visitors
+from all parts of the kingdom. There are excellent fisheries,
+which supply the neighbouring provinces with cod, tunny,
+sardines and oysters; and the average yearly value of the coasting
+trade exceeds £400,000. By Irun, Pasajes and the frontier
+roads £4,000,000 of imports and £3,000,000 of exports pass to
+and from France, partly in transit for the rest of Europe. Apart
+from the four Catalan provinces, no province has witnessed such
+a development of local industries as Guipúzcoa. The principal
+industrial centres are Irun, Renteria, Villabona, Vergara and
+Azpéitia for cotton and linen stuffs; Zumarraga for <span class="correction" title="amended from osies">osiers</span>;
+Eibar, Plasencia and Elgoibar for arms and cannon and gold
+incrustations; Irun for soap and carriages; San Sebastian,
+Irun and Onate for paper, glass, chemicals and saw-mills;
+Tolosa for paper, timber, cloths and furniture; and the banks
+of the bay of Pasajes for the manufacture of liqueurs of every
+kind, and the preparation of wines for export and for consumption
+in the interior of Spain. This last industry occupies several
+thousand French and Spanish workmen. An arsenal was
+established at Azpéitia during the Carlist rising of 1870-1874;
+but the manufacture of ordnance and gunpowder was subsequently
+discontinued. The main line of the northern railway
+from Madrid to France runs through the province, giving access,
+by a loop line, to the chief industrial centres. The custom-house
+through which it passes on the frontier is one of the most
+important in Spain. Despite the steep gradients, where traffic
+is hardly possible except by ox-carts, there are over 350 m. of
+admirably engineered roads, maintained solely by the local
+tax-payers. After San Sebastian, the capital (pop. 1900, 37,812),
+the chief towns are Fuenterrabia (4345) and Irun (9912). Other
+towns with more than 6000 inhabitants are Azpéitia (6066),
+Eibar (6583), Tolosa (8111) and Vergara (6196). Guipúzcoa
+is the smallest and one of the most densely peopled provinces of
+Spain; for its constant losses by emigration are counterbalanced
+by a high birth-rate and the influx of settlers from other districts
+who are attracted by its industrial prosperity.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For an account of its inhabitants and their customs, language and
+history, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Basques</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Basque Provinces</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A small island in the Bidassoa, called La Isla de los Faisanes, or
+l&rsquo;Isle de la Conférence, is celebrated as the place where the marriage
+of the duke of Guienne was arranged between Louis XI. and Henry
+IV. in 1463, where Francis I., the prisoner of Charles V., was
+exchanged for his two sons in 1526, and where in 1659 &ldquo;the Peace of
+the Pyrenees&rdquo; was concluded between D. Luis de Haro and Cardinal
+Mazarin.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUIRAUD, ERNEST<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (1837-1892), French composer, was
+born at New Orleans on the 26th of June 1837. He studied at
+the Paris Conservatoire, where he won the <i>grand prix de Rome</i>.
+His father had gained the same distinction many years previously,
+this being the only instance of both father and son obtaining
+this prize. Ernest Guiraud composed the following operas:
+<i>Sylvie</i> (1864); <i>Le Kobold</i> (1870), <i>Madame Turlupin</i> (1872),
+<i>Piccolino</i> (1876), <i>Galante Aventure</i> (1882), and also the ballet
+<i>Gretna Green</i>, given at the Opéra in 1873. His opera <i>Frédégonde</i>
+was left in an unfinished condition and was completed by Camille
+Saint-Saëns. Guiraud, who was a fellow-student and intimate
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page699" id="page699"></a>699</span>
+friend of Georges Bizet, was for some years professor of composition
+at the Conservatoire. He was the author of an excellent
+treatise on instrumentation. He died in Paris on the 6th of
+May 1892.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUISBOROUGH,<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Guisbrough</span>, a market town in the
+Cleveland parliamentary division of the North Riding of Yorkshire,
+England, 10 m. E.S.E. of Middlesbrough by a branch of
+the North-Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 5645.
+It is well situated in a narrow, fertile valley at the N. foot of
+the Cleveland Hills. The church of St Nicholas is Perpendicular,
+greatly restored. Other buildings are the town hall, and the
+modern buildings of the grammar school founded in 1561. Ruins
+of an Augustinian priory, founded in 1129, are beautifully
+situated near the eastern extremity of the town. The church
+contains some fine Decorated work, and the chapter house and
+parts of the conventual buildings may be traced. Considerable
+fragments of Norman and transitional work remain. Among
+the historic personages who were buried within its walls was
+Robert Bruce, lord of Annandale, the competitor for the throne
+of Scotland with John Baliol, and the grandfather of King
+Robert the Bruce. About 1 m. S.E. of the town there is a
+sulphurous spring discovered in 1822. The district neighbouring
+to Guisborough is rich in iron-stone. Its working forms the
+chief industry of the town, and there are also tanneries and
+breweries.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUISE,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> a town of northern France, in the department of
+Aisne, on the Oise, 31 m. N. of Laon by rail. Pop. (1906), 7562.
+The town was formerly the capital of the district of Thiérache
+and afterwards of a countship (see below). There is a château
+dating in part from the middle of the 16th century. Camille
+Desmoulins was in 1762 born in the town, which has erected a
+statue to him. The chief industry is the manufacture of iron
+stoves and heating apparatus, carried on on the co-operative
+system in works founded by J. B. A. Godin, who built for his
+workpeople the huge buildings known as the <i>familistère</i>, in front
+of which stands his statue. A board of trade-arbitration is
+among the public institutions.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUISE, HOUSE OF,<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> a cadet branch of the house of Lorraine
+(<i>q.v.</i>). René II., duke of Lorraine (d. 1508), united the two
+branches of the house of Lorraine. From his paternal grandmother,
+Marie d&rsquo;Harcourt, René inherited the countships of
+Aumale, Mayenne, Elbeuf, Lillebonne, Brionne and other
+French fiefs, in addition to the honours of the elder branch,
+which included the countship of Guise, the dowry of Marie of
+Blois on her marriage in 1333 with Rudolph or Raoul of Lorraine.
+René&rsquo;s eldest surviving son by his marriage with Philippa,
+daughter of Adolphus of Egmont, duke of Gelderland, was
+Anthony, who succeeded his father as duke of Lorraine (d. 1544),
+while the second, Claude, count and afterwards duke of Guise,
+received the French fiefs. The Guises, though naturalized in
+France, continued to interest themselves in the fortunes of
+Lorraine, and their enemies were always ready to designate
+them as foreigners. The partition between the brothers Anthony
+and Claude was ratified by a further agreement in 1530, reserving
+the lapsed honours of the kingdoms of Jerusalem, Sicily, Aragon,
+the duchy of Anjou and the countships of Provence and Maine
+to the duke of Lorraine. Of the other sons of René II., John
+(1498-1550) became the first cardinal of Lorraine, while Ferri,
+Louis and Francis fell fighting in the French armies at Marignano
+(1515), Naples (1528) and Pavia (1525) respectively.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Claude of Lorraine</span>, count and afterwards 1st duke of
+Guise (1496-1550), was born on the 20th of October 1496. He
+was educated at the French court, and at seventeen allied
+himself to the royal house of France by a marriage with
+Antoinette de Bourbon (1493-1583) daughter of François, Count
+of Vendôme. Guise distinguished himself at Marignano (1515),
+and was long in recovering from the twenty-two wounds he
+received in the battle; in 1521 he fought at Fuenterrabia, when
+Louise of Savoy ascribed the capture of the place to his efforts; in
+1522 he defended northern France, and forced the English to
+raise the siege of Hesdin; and in 1523 he obtained the government
+of Champagne and Burgundy, defeating at Neufchâteau the
+imperial troops who had invaded his province. In 1525 he
+destroyed the Anabaptist peasant army, which was overrunning
+Lorraine, at Lupstein, near Saverne (Zabern). On the return
+of Francis I. from captivity, Guise was erected into a duchy
+in the peerage of France, though up to this time only princes of
+the royal house had held the title of duke and peer of France.
+The Guises, as cadets of the sovereign house of Lorraine and
+descendants of the house of Anjou, claimed precedence of the
+Bourbon princes. Their pretensions and ambitions inspired
+distrust in Francis I., although he rewarded Guise&rsquo;s services by
+substantial gifts in land and money. The duke distinguished
+himself in the Luxemburg campaign in 1542, but for some years
+before his death he effaced himself before the growing fortunes
+of his sons. He died on the 12th of April 1550.</p>
+
+<p>He had been supported in all his undertakings and intrigues
+by his brother <span class="sc">John</span>, cardinal of Lorraine (1498-1550), who
+had been made coadjutor of Metz at the age of three. The
+cardinal was archbishop of Reims, Lyons and Narbonne, bishop
+of Metz, Toul, Verdun, Thérouanne, Luçon, Albi, Valence,
+Nantes and Agen, and before he died had squandered most of
+the wealth which he had derived from these and other benefices.
+Part of his ecclesiastical preferments he gave up in favour of
+his nephews. He became a member of the royal council in 1530,
+and in 1536 was entrusted with an embassy to Charles V.
+Although a complaisant helper in Francis I.&rsquo;s pleasures, he was
+disgraced in 1542, and retired to Rome. He died at Nogent-sur-Yonne
+on the 18th of May 1550. He was extremely dissolute,
+but as an open-handed patron of art and learning, as
+the protector and friend of Erasmus, Marot and Rabelais he
+did something to counter-balance the general unpopularity of
+his calculating and avaricious brother.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Claude of Guise had twelve children, among them Francis, 2nd
+duke of Guise; Charles, 2nd cardinal of Lorraine (1524-1574), who
+became archbishop of Reims in 1538 and cardinal in 1547; Claude,
+marquis of Mayenne, duke of Aumale (1526-1573), governor of
+Burgundy, who married Louise de Brézé, daughter of Diane de
+Poitiers, thus securing a powerful ally for the family; Louis (1527-1578),
+bishop of Troyes, archbishop of Sens and cardinal of Guise;
+René, marquis of Elbeuf (1536-1566), from whom descended the
+families of Harcourt, Armagnac, Marsan and Lillebonne; Mary of
+Lorraine (<i>q.v.</i>), generally known as Mary of Guise, who after the
+death of her second husband, James V. of Scotland, acted as regent
+of Scotland for her daughter Mary, queen of Scots; and Francis
+(1534-1563), grand prior of the order of the Knights of Malta. The
+solidarity of this family, all the members of which through three
+generations cheerfully submitted to the authority of the head of the
+house, made it a formidable factor in French politics.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Francis of Lorraine,</span> 2nd duke of Guise (1519-1563), &ldquo;le
+grand Guise,&rdquo; was born at Bar on the 17th of February 1519.
+As count of Aumale he served in the French army, and was
+nearly killed at the siege of Boulogne in 1545 by a wound which
+brought him the name of &ldquo;Balafré.&rdquo; Aumale was made (1547)
+a peerage-duchy in his favour, and on the accession of Henry II.
+the young duke, who had paid assiduous court to Diane de
+Poitiers, shared the chief honours of the kingdom with the
+constable Anne de Montmorency. Both cherished ambitions
+for their families, but the Guises were more unscrupulous in
+subordinating the interests of France to their own. Montmorency&rsquo;s
+brutal manners, however, made enemies where Guise&rsquo;s
+grace and courtesy won him friends. Guise was a suitor for
+the hand of Jeanne d&rsquo;Albret, princess of Navarre, who refused,
+however, to become a sister-in-law of a daughter of Diane de
+Poitiers and remained one of the most dangerous and persistent
+enemies of the Guises. He married in December 1548 Anne of
+Este, daughter of Ercole II., duke of Ferrara, and through her
+mother Renée, a granddaughter of Louis XII. of France. In
+the same year he had put down a peasant rising in Saintonge
+with a humanity that compared very favourably with the
+cruelty shown by Montmorency to the town of Bordeaux. He
+made preparations in Lorraine for the king&rsquo;s German campaign
+of 1551-52. He was already governor of Dauphiné, and now
+became grand chamberlain, prince of Joinville, and hereditary
+seneschal of Champagne, with large additions to his already
+considerable revenues. He was charged with the defence of
+Metz, which Henry II. had entered in 1551. He reached the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page700" id="page700"></a>700</span>
+city in August 1552, and rapidly gave proof of his great powers
+as a soldier and organizer by the skill with which the place, badly
+fortified and unprovided with artillery, was put in a state of
+defence. Metz was invested by the duke of Alva in October
+with an army of 60,000 men, and the emperor joined his
+forces in November. An army of brigands commanded by Albert
+of Brandenburg had also to be reckoned with. Charles was
+obliged to raise the siege on the 2nd of January 1553, having
+lost, it is said, 30,000 men before the walls. Guise used his
+victory with rare moderation and humanity, providing medical
+care for the sick and wounded left behind in the besiegers&rsquo; camp.
+The subsequent operations were paralysed by the king&rsquo;s suspicion
+and carelessness, and the constable&rsquo;s inactivity, and a year later
+Guise was removed from the command. He followed the constable&rsquo;s
+army as a volunteer, and routed the army of Charles V.
+at the siege of Renty on the 12th of August 1554. Montmorency&rsquo;s
+inaction rendered the victory fruitless, and a bitter
+controversy followed between Guise and the constable&rsquo;s nephew
+Coligny, admiral of France, which widened a breach already
+existing.</p>
+
+<p>The conclusion of a six years&rsquo; truce at Vaucelles (1556) disappointed
+Guise&rsquo;s ambitions, and he was the main mover in the
+breach of the treaty in 1558, when he was sent at the head of a
+French army to Italy to the assistance of Pope Paul IV. against
+Spain. Guise, who perhaps had in view the restoration to his
+family of the Angevin dominion of Naples and Sicily, crossed the
+Alps early in 1557 and after a month&rsquo;s delay in Rome, where he
+failed to receive the promised support, marched on the kingdom
+of Naples, then occupied by the Spanish troops under Alva.
+He seized and sacked Campli (April 17th), but was compelled
+to raise the siege of Civitella. Meanwhile the pope had veered
+round to a Spanish alliance, and Guise, seeing that no honour
+was to be gained in the campaign, wisely spared his troops, so
+that his army was almost intact when, in August, he was hastily
+summoned home to repel the Spanish army which had invaded
+France from the north, and had taken St Quentin. On reaching
+Paris in October Guise was made lieutenant-general of the
+kingdom, and proceeded to prepare for the siege of Calais. The
+town was taken, after six days&rsquo; fighting, on the 6th of January
+1558, and this success was followed up by the capture of Guînes,
+Thionville and Arlon, when the war was ended by the treaty
+of Câteau Cambrésis (1559). Although his brother, the cardinal
+of Lorraine, was one of the negotiators, this peace was concluded
+against the wishes of Guise, and was regarded as a triumph of the
+constable&rsquo;s party. The Guises were provided with a weapon
+against Montmorency by the bishop of Arras (afterwards Cardinal
+Granvella), who gave to the cardinal of Lorraine at an interview
+at Péronne in 1558 an intercepted letter proving the Huguenot
+leanings of the constable&rsquo;s nephews.</p>
+
+<p>On the accession in 1559 of Francis II., their nephew by
+marriage with Mary Stuart, the royal authority was practically
+delegated to Guise and the cardinal, who found themselves
+beyond rivalry for the time being. They had, however, to cope
+with a new and dangerous force in Catherine de&rsquo; Medici, who
+was now for the first time free to use her political ability. The
+incapacity, suspicion and cruelty of the cardinal, who controlled
+the internal administration, roused the smaller nobility
+against the Lorraine princes. A conspiracy to overturn their
+government was formed at Nantes, with a needy Périgord
+nobleman named La Renaudie as its nominal head, though the
+agitation had in the first instance been fostered by the agents
+of Louis I., prince of Condé. The Guises were warned of the
+conspiracy while the court was at Blois, and for greater security
+removed the king to Amboise. La Renaudie, nothing daunted,
+merely postponed his plans; and the conspirators assembled
+in small parties in the woods round Amboise. They had, however,
+been again betrayed and many of them were surrounded
+and taken before the <i>coup</i> could be delivered; one party, which
+had seized the château of Noizay, surrendered on a promise
+of amnesty given &ldquo;on his faith as a prince&rdquo; by James of Savoy,
+duke of Nemours, a promise which, in spite of the duke&rsquo;s protest,
+was disregarded. On the 19th of March 1560, La Renaudie and
+the rest of the conspirators openly attacked the château of
+Amboise. They were repelled; their leader was killed; and
+a large number were taken prisoners. The merciless vengeance
+of the Guises was the measure of their previous fears. For a
+whole week the torturings, quarterings and hangings went on,
+the bodies being cast into the Loire, the young king and queen
+witnessing the bloody spectacle day by day from a balcony of the
+château.</p>
+
+<p>The cruel repression of this &ldquo;conspiracy of Amboise&rdquo; inspired
+bitter hatred of the Guises, since they were avenging a rising
+rather against their own than the royal authority. They now
+entrenched themselves with the king at Orleans, and the Bourbon
+princes, Anthony, king of Navarre, and his brother Condé, were
+summoned to court. The Guises convened a special commission
+to try Condé, who was condemned to death; but the affair was
+postponed by the chancellor, and the death of Francis II. in
+December saved Condé. Guise then made common cause with
+his old rival Montmorency and with the Marshal de Saint André
+against Catherine, the Bourbons and Coligny. This alliance,
+constituted on the 6th of April 1561, and known as the triumvirate,
+aimed at the annulment of the concessions made by
+Catherine to the Huguenots. The cardinal of Lorraine fomented
+the discord which appeared between the clergy of the two
+religions when they met at the colloquy of Poissy in 1561, but
+in spite of the extreme Catholic views he there professed, he was
+at the time in communication with the Lutheran princes of
+Germany, and in February 1562 met the duke of Württemberg
+at Zabern to discuss the possibility of a religious compromise.</p>
+
+<p>The signal for civil war was given by an attack of Guise&rsquo;s
+escort on a Huguenot congregation at Vassy (1st of March 1562).
+Although Guise did not initiate the massacre, and although,
+when he learned what was going on, he even tried to restrain
+his soldiers, he did not disavow their action. When Catherine de&rsquo;
+Medici forbade his entry into Paris, he accepted the challenge,
+and on the 16th of March he entered the city, where he was a
+popular hero, at the head of 2000 armed nobles. The provost of
+the merchants offered to put 20,000 men and two million livres
+at his disposal. In September he joined Montmorency in
+besieging Rouen, which was sacked as if it had been a foreign
+city, in spite of Guise&rsquo;s efforts to save it from the worst horrors.
+At the battle of Dreux (19th of December 1562) he commanded
+a reserve army, with which he saved Montmorency&rsquo;s forces from
+destruction and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Huguenots.
+The prince of Condé was his prisoner, while the capture of
+Montmorency by the Huguenots and the assassination of the
+Marshal de Saint-André after the battle left Guise the undisputed
+head of the Catholic party. He was appointed lieutenant-general
+of the kingdom, and on the 5th of February 1563 he appeared
+with his army before Orleans. On the 19th, however, he was
+shot by the Huguenot Jean Poltrot de Méré as he was returning
+to his quarters, and died on the 24th of the effects of the wound.
+Guise&rsquo;s splendid presence, his generosity and humanity and his
+almost unvarying success on the battlefield made him the idol
+of his soldiers. He attended personally to the minutest details,
+and Monluc complains that he even wrote out his own orders.
+The mistakes and cruelties associated with his name were partly
+due to the evil counsels of his brother Charles, the cardinal,
+whose cowardice and insincerity were the scorn of his contemporaries.
+The negotiations of the Guises with Spain dated from
+the interview with Granvella at Péronne, in 1558, and after the
+death of his brother the cardinal of Lorraine was constantly in
+communication with the Spanish court, offering, in the event
+of the failure of direct heirs to the Valois kings, to deliver up the
+frontier fortresses and to acknowledge Philip II. as king of France.
+His death in 1574 temporarily weakened the extreme Catholic
+party.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Of the children of Francis &ldquo;le Balafré&rdquo; five survived him: Henry,
+3rd duke of Guise; Charles, duke of Mayenne (1554-1611) (<i>q.v.</i>), who
+consolidated the League; Catherine (1552-1596), who married Louis
+of Bourbon, duke of Montpensier, and encouraged the fanaticism of
+the Parisian leaguers; Louis, second cardinal of Guise, afterwards of
+Lorraine (1555-1588), who was assassinated with his brother Henry;
+and Francis (1558-1573).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page701" id="page701"></a>701</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Henry of Lorraine</span>, 3rd duke of Guise (1550-1588), born
+on the 31st of December 1550, was thirteen years old at the
+time of his father&rsquo;s death, and grew up under the domination
+of a passionate desire for revenge. Catherine de&rsquo; Medici refused
+to take steps against Coligny, who was formally accused by the
+duchess of Guise and her brothers-in-law of having incited the
+murder. In 1566 she insisted on a formal reconciliation at
+Moulins between the Guises and Coligny, at which, however, none
+of the sons of the murdered man was present. Henry and his
+brothers were, however, compelled in 1572 to sign an ambiguous
+assent to this agreement. Guise&rsquo;s widow married James of
+Savoy, duke of Nemours, and the young duke at sixteen went
+to fight against the Turks in Hungary. On the fresh outbreak
+of civil war in 1567 he returned to France and served under his
+uncle Aumale. In the autumn of 1568 he received a considerable
+command, and speedily came into rivalry with Henry of Valois,
+duke of Anjou. He had not inherited his father&rsquo;s generalship,
+and his rashness and headstrong valour more than once brought
+disaster on his troops, but the showy quality of his fighting
+brought him great popularity in the army. In the defence of
+Poitiers in 1569 with his brother, the duke of Mayenne, he showed
+more solid abilities as a soldier. On the conclusion of peace in
+1570 he returned to court, where he made no secret of his attachment
+to Margaret of Valois. His pretensions were violently
+resented by her brothers, who threatened his life, and he saved
+himself by a precipitate marriage with Catherine of Cleves
+(daughter of Francis of Cleves, duke of Nevers, and Margaret
+of Bourbon), the widow of a Huguenot nobleman, Antoine de
+Crog, prince of Porcien. Presently he ended his disgrace by an
+apparent reconciliation with Henry of Valois and an alliance
+with Catherine de&rsquo; Medici. He was an accomplice in the first
+attack on Coligny&rsquo;s life, and when permission for the massacre
+of Saint Bartholomew had been extorted from Charles IX. he
+roused Paris against the Huguenots, and satisfied his personal
+vengeance by superintending the murder of Coligny. He was
+now the acknowledged chief of the Catholic party, and the
+power of his family was further increased by the marriage (1575)
+of Henry III. with Louise of Vaudémont, who belonged to the
+elder branch of the house of Lorraine. In a fight at Dormans
+(10th of October 1575), the only Catholic victory in a disastrous
+campaign, Guise received a face wound which won for him his
+father&rsquo;s name of Balafré and helped to secure the passionate
+attachment of the Parisians. He refused to acquiesce in the
+treaty of Beaulieu (5th of May 1576), and with the support of
+the Jesuits proceeded to form a &ldquo;holy league&rdquo; for the defence
+of the Roman Catholic Church. The terms of enrolment enjoined
+offensive action against all who refused to join. This association
+had been preceded by various provincial leagues among the
+Catholics, notably one at Péronne. Condé had been imposed
+on this town as governor by the terms of the peace, and the
+local nobility banded together to resist him. This, like the Holy
+League itself, was political as well as religious in its aims, and
+was partly inspired by revolt against the royal authority. In
+the direction of the League Guise was hampered by Philip
+of Spain, who subsidized the movement, while he also had to
+submit to the dictation of the Parisian democracy. Ulterior
+ambitions were freely ascribed to him. It was asserted that
+papers seized from his envoy to Rome, Jean David, revealed a
+definite design of substituting the Lorraines, who represented
+themselves as the successors of Charlemagne, for the Valois;
+but these papers were probably a Huguenot forgery. Henry III.
+eventually placed himself at the head of the League, and resumed
+the war against the Huguenots; but on the conclusion of peace
+(September 1577) he seized the opportunity of disbanding the
+Catholic associations. The king&rsquo;s jealousy of Guise increased
+with the duke&rsquo;s popularity, but he did not venture on an open
+attack, nor did he dare to avenge the murder by Guise&rsquo;s partisans
+of one of his personal favourites, Saint-Mégrin, who had been
+set on by the court to compromise the reputation of the duchess
+of Guise.<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the duke had entered on an equivocal alliance with
+Don John of Austria. He was also in constant correspondence
+with Mary of Lorraine, and meditated a descent on Scotland
+in support of the Catholic cause. But the great riches of the
+Guises were being rapidly dissipated, and in 1578 the duke
+became a pensioner of Philip II. When in 1584 the death of the
+duke of Anjou made Henry of Navarre the next heir to the
+throne, the prospect of a Huguenot dynasty roused the Catholics
+to forget their differences, and led to the formation of a new
+league of the Catholic nobles. At the end of the same year Guise
+and his brother, the duke of Mayenne, with the assent of other
+Catholic nobles, signed a treaty at Joinville with Philip II.,
+fixing the succession to the crown on Charles, cardinal of Bourbon,
+to the exclusion of the Protestant princes of his house. In March
+1585 the chiefs of the League issued the Declaration of Péronne,
+exposing their grievances against the government and announcing
+their intention to restore the dignity of religion by force of arms.
+On the refusal of Henry III. to accept Spanish help against
+his Huguenot subjects, war broke out. The chief cities of France
+declared for the League, and Guise, who had recruited his forces
+in Germany and Switzerland, took up his headquarters at
+Châlons, while Mayenne occupied Dijon, and his relatives, the
+dukes of Elbeuf, Aumale and Merc&oelig;ur,<a name="fa2l" id="fa2l" href="#ft2l"><span class="sp">2</span></a> roused Normandy
+and Brittany. Henry III. accepted, or feigned to accept, the
+terms imposed by the Guises at Nemours (7th of July 1585).
+The edicts in favour of the Huguenots were immediately revoked.
+Guise added to his reputation as the Catholic champion by
+defeating the German auxiliaries of the Huguenots at Vimory
+(October 1587) and Auneau (November 1587). The protestations
+of loyalty to Henry III. which had marked the earlier manifestoes
+of the League were modified. Obedience to the king was now
+stated to depend on his giving proof of Catholic zeal and showing
+no favour to heresy. In April 1588 Guise arrived in Paris,
+where he put himself at the head of the Parisian mob, and on
+the 12th of May, known as the Day of the Barricades, he actually
+had the crown within his grasp. He refused to treat with
+Catherine de&rsquo; Medici, who was prepared to make peace at any
+cost, but restrained the populace from revolution and permitted
+Henry to escape from Paris. Henry came to terms with the
+League in May, and made Guise lieutenant-general of the royal
+armies. The estates-general, which were assembled at Blois,
+were devoted to the Guise interest, and alarmed the king by
+giving voice to the political as well as the religious aspirations
+of the League. Guise remained at the court of Blois after
+receiving repeated warnings that Henry meditated treason.
+On the 25th of December he was summoned to the king&rsquo;s chamber
+during a sitting of the royal council, and was murdered by
+assassins carefully posted by Henry III. himself. The cardinal
+of Lorraine was murdered in prison on the next day. The
+history of the Guises thenceforward centres in the duke of
+Mayenne (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>By his wife, Catherine of Cleves, the third duke had fourteen
+children: among them Charles, 4th duke of Guise (1571-1640);
+Claude, duke of Chevreuse (1578-1657), whose wife, Marie de Rohan,
+duchess of Chevreuse, became famous for her intrigues; Louis (1585-1621),
+3rd cardinal of Guise, archbishop of Reims, remembered for
+his liaison with Charlotte des Essarts, mistress of Henry IV.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Charles</span>, 4th duke of Guise (1571-1640), was imprisoned
+for three years after his father&rsquo;s death. He married Henriette
+Catherine de Joyeuse, widow of the duke of Montpensier. His
+eldest son predeceased him, and he was succeeded by his second
+son <span class="sc">Henry</span> (1614-1664), who had been archbishop of Reims,
+but renounced the ecclesiastical estate and became 5th duke.
+He made an attempt (1647) on the crown of Naples, and was a
+prisoner in Spain from 1648 to 1652. A second expedition to
+Naples in 1654 was a fiasco. He was succeeded by his nephew,
+<span class="sc">Louis Joseph</span> (1650-1671), as 6th duke. With his son, <span class="sc">Francis
+Joseph</span> (1670-1675), the line failed; and the title and estates
+passed to his great-aunt, Marie of Lorraine, duchess of Guise
+(1615-1688), daughter of the 4th duke, and with her the title
+became extinct. The title is now vested in the family of the
+Bourbon-Orleans princes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page702" id="page702"></a>702</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF GUISE</p>
+
+<div class="center"><img style="width:900px; height:535px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img702.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page703" id="page703"></a>703</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;A number of contemporary documents relating to
+the Guises are included by L. Cimber and F. Danjou in their <i>Archives
+curieuses de l&rsquo;histoire de France</i> (Paris, 1834, &amp;c.). Vol. iii. contains a
+soldier&rsquo;s diary of the siege of Metz, first published in Italian (Lyons,
+1553), accounts of the sieges of Calais (Tours, 1558). of Thionville
+(Paris, 1558); vol. iv. an account of the tumult of Amboise from the
+<i>Mémoires</i> of Condé, and four accounts of the affair of Vassy; vol. v.
+four accounts of the battle of Dreux, one dictated by Guise, and
+accounts of the murder of Guise; vol. xi. accounts of the Parisian
+revolution of 1558; and vol. xii. numerous pamphlets and pieces
+dealing with the murder of Henry of Guise and his brother. An
+account of the murder of Guise and of the subsequent measures taken
+by Mayenne, which was supplied by the Venetian ambassador,
+G. Mocenigo, to his government, is printed by H. Brown in the <i>Eng.
+Hist. Rev.</i> (April 1895). For the foreign policy of the Guises, and
+especially their relations with Scotland, there is abundant material
+in the English <i>Calendar of State Papers</i> of Queen Elizabeth (Foreign
+Series) and in the correspondence of Cardinal Granvella. The
+memoirs of Francis, duke of Guise, covering the years 1547 to 1563,
+were published by Michel and Poujoulat in series 1, vol. iv. of their
+<i>Coll. de mémoires</i>. Among contemporary memoirs see especially those
+of the prince of Condé, of Blaise de Monluc and of Gaspard de Saulx-Tavannes.
+See also <i>La Vie de F. de Lorraine, duc de Guise</i> (Paris,
+1681), by J. B. H. du Trousset de Valincourt; A. de Ruble, <i>L&rsquo;Assassinat
+de F. de Lorraine, duc de Guise</i> (1897), where there is a list of
+the MS. sources available for a history of the house; R. de Bouillé,
+<i>Hist. des ducs de Guise</i> (4 vols., 1849); H. Forneron, <i>Les Guise et leur
+époque</i> (2 vols., 1887).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This incident supplied Alexandre Dumas <i>père</i> with the subject
+of his <i>Henri III et sa cour</i> (1829).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2l" id="ft2l" href="#fa2l"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Philippe-Emmanuel of Lorraine, duke of Merc&oelig;ur, a cadet of
+Lorraine and brother of Louise de Vaudémont, Henry III.&rsquo;s queen.
+His wife, Mary of Luxemburg, descended from the dukes of Brittany,
+and he was made governor of the province in 1582. He aspired to
+separate sovereignty, and called his son prince and duke of Brittany.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUITAR<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> (Fr. <i>guitarre</i>, Ger. <i>Guitarre</i>, Ital. <i>chitarra</i>, Span.
+<i>guitarra</i>), a musical instrument strung with gut strings twanged
+by the fingers, having a body with a flat back and graceful
+incurvations in complete contrast to the members of the family
+of lute (<i>i.e.</i>), whose back is vaulted. The construction of the
+instrument is of paramount importance in assigning to the
+guitar its true position in the history of musical instruments,
+midway between the cithara (<i>i.e.</i>) and the violin. The medieval
+stringed instruments with neck fall into two classes, characterized
+mainly by the construction of the body: (1) Those which,
+like their archetype the cithara, had a body composed of a flat
+or delicately arched back and soundboard joined by ribs. (2)
+Those which, like the lyre, had a body consisting of a vaulted
+back over which was glued a flat soundboard without the intermediary
+of ribs; this method of construction predominates
+among Oriental Instruments and is greatly inferior to the first.
+A striking proof of this inferiority is afforded by the fact that
+instruments with vaulted backs, such as the rebab or rebec,
+although extensively represented during the middle ages in all
+parts of Europe by numerous types, have shown but little or no
+development during the course of some twelve centuries, and
+have dropped out one by one from the realm of practical music
+without leaving a single survivor. The guitar must be referred
+to the first of these classes.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:181px; height:138px" src="images/img703a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The back and ribs of the guitar are of maple, ash or cherry-wood,
+frequently inlaid with rose-wood, mother-of-pearl,
+tortoise-shell, &amp;c., while the soundboard is of pine and has one
+large ornamental rose sound hole. The bridge, to which the
+strings are fastened, is of ebony with an ivory nut which determines
+the one end of the vibrating strings, while the nut at the
+end of the fingerboard determines the other. The neck and
+fingerboard are made of hard wood, such as ebony, beech or pear.
+The head, bent back from the neck at an obtuse angle contains
+two parallel barrels or long holes through
+which the pegs or metal screws pass, three
+on each side of the head. The correct
+positions for stopping the intervals are
+marked on the fingerboard by little metal
+ridges called frets. The modern guitar
+has six strings, three of gut and three of
+silk covered with silver wire, tuned as
+shown. To the thumb are assigned the three deepest strings,
+while the first, second and third fingers are used to twang the
+highest strings. It is generally stated that the sixth or lowest
+string was added in 1790 by Jacob August Otto of Jena, who
+was the first in Germany to take up the construction of guitars
+after their introduction from Italy in 1788 by the duchess Amalie
+of Weimar. Otto<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> states that it was Capellmeister Naumann of
+Dresden who requested him to make him a guitar with six
+strings by adding the low E, a spun wire string. The original
+guitar brought from Italy by the duchess Amalie had five
+strings,<a name="fa2m" id="fa2m" href="#ft2m"><span class="sp">2</span></a> the lowest A being the only one covered with wire. Otto
+also covered the D in order to increase the fulness of the
+tone. In Spain six-stringed guitars and vihuelas were known
+in the 16th century; they are described by Juan Bermudo<a name="fa3m" id="fa3m" href="#ft3m"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and
+others.<a name="fa4m" id="fa4m" href="#ft4m"><span class="sp">4</span></a> The lowest string was tuned to G.
+Other Spanish guitars of the same period
+had four, five or seven strings or courses of
+strings in pairs of unisons. They were always
+twanged by the fingers.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 150px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:96px; height:392px" src="images/img703b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Juan Bermudo.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.&mdash;Spanish Guitar with seven
+Strings. 1555. <i>Vihuela da Mano</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The guitar is derived from the cithara<a name="fa5m" id="fa5m" href="#ft5m"><span class="sp">5</span></a> both
+structurally and etymologically. It is usually
+asserted that the guitar was introduced into
+Spain by the Arabs, but this statement is open
+to the gravest doubts. There is no trace among
+the instruments of the Arabs known to us of any
+similar to the guitar in construction or shape,
+although a guitar (fig. 2) with slight incurvations
+was known to the ancient Egyptians.<a name="fa6m" id="fa6m" href="#ft6m"><span class="sp">6</span></a>
+There is also extant a fine example of the guitar,
+with ribs and incurvations and a long neck
+provided with numerous frets, on a Hittite
+bas-relief on the dromos at Euyuk (<i>c</i>. 1000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+in Cappadocia.<a name="fa7m" id="fa7m" href="#ft7m"><span class="sp">7</span></a> Unless other monuments of
+much later date should come to light showing
+guitars with ribs, we shall be justified in
+assuming that the instrument, which required
+skill in construction, died out in Egypt and in
+Asia before the days of classic Greece, and had
+to be evolved anew from the cithara by the
+Greeks of Asia Minor. That the evolution
+should take place within the Byzantine Empire
+or in Syria would be quite consistent with the
+traditions of the Greeks and their veneration
+for the cithara, which would lead them to adapt
+the neck and other improvements to it, rather
+than adopt the rebab, the tanbur or the
+barbiton from the Persians or Arabians. This is, in fact, what seems
+to have taken place. It is true that in the 14th century in
+an enumeration of musical instruments by the Archipreste de
+Hita, a <i>guitarra morisca</i> is mentioned and unfavourably compared
+with the <i>guitarra latina</i>; moreover, the Arabs of the present day still
+use an instrument called <i>kuitra</i> (which in N. Africa would be guithara),
+but it has a vaulted back, the body being like half a pear with a long
+neck; the strings are twanged by means of a quill. The Arab
+instrument therefore belongs to a different class, and to admit
+the instrument as the ancestor of the Spanish guitar would be tantamount
+to deriving the guitar from the lute.<a name="fa8m" id="fa8m" href="#ft8m"><span class="sp">8</span></a></p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 190px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:143px; height:218px" src="images/img704a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Denon&rsquo;s <i>Voyage in Egypt</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.&mdash;Ancient Egyptian Guitar. 1700 to 1200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>By piecing together various indications given by Spanish writers,
+we obtain a clue to the identity of the medieval instruments,
+which, in the absence of absolute proof, is entitled to serious consideration.
+From Bermudo&rsquo;s work, quoted above, we learn that
+the guitar and the <i>vihuela da mano</i> were practically identical, differing
+only in accordance and occasionally in the number of strings.<a name="fa9m" id="fa9m" href="#ft9m"><span class="sp">9</span></a>
+Three kinds of vihuelas were known in Spain during the middle ages,
+distinguished by the qualifying phrases <i>da arco</i> (with bow), <i>da mano</i> (by
+hand), <i>da penola</i> (with quill). Spanish scholars<a name="fa10m" id="fa10m" href="#ft10m"><span class="sp">10</span></a> who have inquired
+into this question of identity state that the <i>guitarra latina</i> was afterwards
+known as the <i>vihuela da mano</i>, a statement fully supported by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page704" id="page704"></a>704</span>
+other evidence. As the Arab <i>kuitra</i> was known to be played by means
+of a quill, we shall not be far wrong in identifying it with the <i>vihuela da
+penola</i>. The word <i>vihuela</i> or <i>vigola</i> is connected with the Latin
+<i>fidicula</i> or <i>fides</i>, a stringed instrument mentioned by Cicero<a name="fa11m" id="fa11m" href="#ft11m"><span class="sp">11</span></a> as being
+made from the wood of the plane-tree and having many strings.
+The remaining link in the chain of identification is afforded by St
+Isidore, bishop of Seville in the 7th century,
+who states that fidicula was another name for
+cithara, &ldquo;Veteres aut citharas fidicula vel
+fidice nominaverunt.&rdquo;<a name="fa12m" id="fa12m" href="#ft12m"><span class="sp">12</span></a> The fidicula therefore
+was the cithara, either in its original
+classical form or in one of the transitions which
+transformed it into the guitar. The existence
+of a superior <i>guitarra latina</i> side by side with
+the <i>guitarra morisca</i> is thus explained. It was
+derived directly from the classical cithara introduced
+by the Romans into Spain, the archetype
+of the structural beauty which formed the
+basis of the perfect proportions and delicate
+structure of the violin. In an inventory<a name="fa13m" id="fa13m" href="#ft13m"><span class="sp">13</span></a> made
+by Philip van Wilder of the musical instruments
+which had belonged to Henry VIII. is the
+following item bearing on the question: &ldquo;foure
+gitterons with iiii. cases <i>they are called Spanishe
+Vialles</i>.&rdquo; <i>Vial</i> or <i>viol</i> was the English equivalent
+of <i>vihuela</i>. The transitions whereby the cithara
+acquired a neck and became a guitar are shown in the miniatures (fig. 3)
+of a single MS., the celebrated Utrecht Psalter, which gave rise to so
+many discussions. The Utrecht Psalter was executed in the diocese
+of Reims in the 9th century, and the miniatures, drawn by an Anglo-Saxon
+artist attached to the Reims school, are unique, and illustrate
+the Psalter, psalm by psalm. It is evident that the Anglo-Saxon
+artist, while endowed with extraordinary talent and vivid imagination,
+drew his inspiration from an older Greek illustrated Psalter
+from the Christian East,<a name="fa14m" id="fa14m" href="#ft14m"><span class="sp">14</span></a> where the evolution of the guitar took
+place.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:523px; height:206px" src="images/img704b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 3.&mdash;Instrumentalists from the Utrecht Psalter, 9th century:
+(<i>a</i>) The bass rotta, first transition of cithara in (C); (<i>b, c, d</i>), Transitions
+showing the addition of neck to the body of the cithara.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:324px; height:251px" src="images/img704c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Dr H. Janitschek&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte der deutschen Malerei</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 4.&mdash;Representation of a European Guitar. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1180.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>One of the earliest representations (fig. 4) of a guitar in Western
+Europe occurs in a Passionale from Zwifalten <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1180, now in the
+Royal Library at Stuttgart.<a name="fa15m" id="fa15m" href="#ft15m"><span class="sp">15</span></a> St Pelagia seated on an ass holds a
+rotta, or cithara in transition, while one of the men-servants leading
+her ass holds her guitar. Both instruments have three strings and the
+characteristic guitar outline with incurvations, the rotta differing
+in having no neck. Mersenne<a name="fa16m" id="fa16m" href="#ft16m"><span class="sp">16</span></a> writing early in the 17th century
+describes and figures two
+Spanish guitars, one with
+four, the other with five
+strings; the former had
+a cittern head, the latter
+the straight head bent
+back at an obtuse angle
+from the neck, as in the
+modern instrument; he
+gives the Italian, French
+and Spanish tablatures
+which would seem to
+show that the guitar
+already enjoyed a certain
+vogue in France and
+Italy as well as in Spain.
+Mersenne states that the
+proportions of the guitar
+demand that the length
+of the neck from shoulder
+to nut shall be equal to
+the length of the body from the centre of the rose to the tail
+end. From this time until the middle of the 19th century the
+guitar enjoyed great popularity on the continent, and became
+the fashionable instrument in England after the Peninsular War,
+mainly through the virtuosity of Ferdinand Sor, who also
+wrote compositions for it. This popularity of the guitar was
+due less to its merits as a solo instrument than to the ease
+with which it could be mastered sufficiently to accompany the voice.
+The advent of the Spanish guitar in England led to the wane in the
+popularity of the cittern, also known at that time in contradistinction
+as the English or wire-strung guitar, although the two instruments
+differed in many particulars. As further evidence of the great
+popularity of the guitar all over Europe may be instanced the extraordinary
+number of books extant on the instrument, giving instructions
+how to play the guitar and read the tablature.<a name="fa17m" id="fa17m" href="#ft17m"><span class="sp">17</span></a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Über den Bau der Bogeninstrumente</i> (Jena, 1828), pp. 94 and 95.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2m" id="ft2m" href="#fa2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Pietro Millioni, <i>Vero e facil modo d&rsquo; imparare a sonare et
+accordare da se medesimo la chitarra spagnola</i>, with illustration
+(Rome, 1637).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3m" id="ft3m" href="#fa3m"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Declaracion de instrumentos musicales</i> (Ossuna, 1555), fol. xciii. <i>b</i>
+and fol. xci. <i>a</i>. See also illustration of <i>vihuela da mano</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4m" id="ft4m" href="#fa4m"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See also G. G. Kapsperger, <i>Libro primo di Villanelle con l&rsquo; infavolutura
+del chitarone et alfabeto per la chitarra spagnola</i> (three
+books, Rome, 1610-1623).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5m" id="ft5m" href="#fa5m"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See Kathleen Schlesinger, <i>The Instruments of the Orchestra</i>, part ii.
+&ldquo;Precursors of the Violin Family,&rdquo; pp. 230-248.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6m" id="ft6m" href="#fa6m"><span class="fn">6</span></a> See Denon&rsquo;s <i>Voyage in Egypt</i> (London, 1807, pl. 55).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7m" id="ft7m" href="#fa7m"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Illustrated from a drawing in Perrot and Chipiez, &ldquo;Judée
+Sardaigne, Syrie, Cappadoce.&rdquo; Vol. iv. of <i>Hist. de l&rsquo;art dans
+l&rsquo;antiquité</i>, Paris, 1887, p. 670. Also see plate from a photograph
+by Prof. John Garstang, in Kathleen Schlesinger, <i>op. cit.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8m" id="ft8m" href="#fa8m"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See Biernath, <i>Die Guitarre</i> (1908).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9m" id="ft9m" href="#fa9m"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See also Luys Milan, <i>Libro de musica de vihuela da mano,
+Intitulado Il Maestro</i>, where the accordance is D, G, C, E, A, D from
+bass to treble.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10m" id="ft10m" href="#fa10m"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Mariano Soriano, <i>Fuertes Historia de la musica española</i>
+(Madrid, 1855), i. 105, and iv. 208, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11m" id="ft11m" href="#fa11m"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>De natura deorum</i>, ii. 8, 22.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12m" id="ft12m" href="#fa12m"><span class="fn">12</span></a> See <i>Etymologiarium</i>, lib. iii., cap. 21.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13m" id="ft13m" href="#fa13m"><span class="fn">13</span></a> See British Museum, Harleian MS. 1419, fol. 200.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14m" id="ft14m" href="#fa14m"><span class="fn">14</span></a> The literature of the Utrecht Psalter embraces a large number of
+books and pamphlets in many languages of which the principal are
+here given: Professor J. O. Westwood, <i>Facsimiles of the Miniatures
+and Ornaments of Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS.</i> (London, 1868); Sir
+Thos. Duffus-Hardy, <i>Report on the Athanasian Creed in connection
+with the Utrecht Psalter</i> (London, 1872); <i>Report on the Utrecht
+Psalter</i>, addressed to the Trustees of the British Museum (London,
+1874); Sir Thomas Duffus-Hardy, <i>Further Report on the Utrecht
+Psalter</i> (London, 1874); Walter de Gray Birch, <i>The History, Art and
+Palaeography of the MS. styled the Utrecht Psalter</i> (London, 1876);
+Anton Springer, &ldquo;Die Psalterillustrationen im frühen Mittelalter mit
+besonderer Rücksicht auf den Utrecht Psalter,&rdquo; <i>Abhandlungen der
+kgl. sächs. Ges. d. Wissenschaften, phil.-hist. Klasse</i>, Bd. viii. pp. 187-296,
+with 10 facsimile plates in autotype from the MS.; Adolf
+Goldschmidt, &ldquo;Der Utrecht Psalter,&rdquo; in <i>Repertorium für Kunstwissenschaft</i>,
+Bd. xv. (Stuttgart, 1892), pp. 156-166; Franz Friedrich
+Leitschuh, <i>Geschichte der karolingischen Malerei, ihr Bilderkreis und
+seine Quellen</i> (Berlin, 1894), pp. 321-330; Adolf Goldschmidt, <i>Der
+Albani Psalter in Hildesheim</i>, &amp;c. (Berlin, 1895); Paul Durrieu,
+<i>L&rsquo;Origine du MS. célèbre dit le Psaultier d&rsquo;Utrecht</i> (Paris, 1895); Hans
+Graeven, &ldquo;Die Vorlage des Utrecht Psalters,&rdquo; paper read before the
+XI. International Oriental Congress, Paris, 1897. See also <i>Repertorium
+für Kunstwissenschaft</i> (Stuttgart, 1898), Bd. xxi. pp. 28-35;
+J. J. Tikkanen, <i>Abendländische Psalter-Illustration im Mittelalter</i>,
+part iii. &ldquo;Der Utrecht Psalter&rdquo; (Helsingfors, 1900), 320 pp. and
+77 ills. (Professor Tikkanen now accepts the Greek or Syrian origin
+of the Utrecht Psalter); Georg Swarzenski, &ldquo;Die karolingische
+Malerei und Plastik in Reims.&rdquo; in <i>Jahrbuch d. kgl. preussischen
+Kunstsammlungen</i>, Bd. xxiii. (Berlin, 1902), pp. 81-100; Ormonde
+M. Dalton, &ldquo;The Crystal of Lothair,&rdquo; in <i>Archäologie</i>, vol. lix. (1904);
+Kathleen Schlesinger, <i>The Instruments of the Orchestra</i>, part ii. &ldquo;The
+Precursors of the Violin Family,&rdquo; chap. viii. &ldquo;The Question of the
+Origin of the Utrecht Psalter,&rdquo; pp. 352-382 (with illustrations), where
+all the foregoing are summarized.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15m" id="ft15m" href="#fa15m"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Reproduced in Hubert Janitschek&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte der deutschen
+Malerei</i>, Bd. iii. of <i>Gesch. der deutschen Kunst</i> (Berlin, 1890), p. 118.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16m" id="ft16m" href="#fa16m"><span class="fn">16</span></a> <i>Harmonie universelle</i> (Paris, 1636), livre ii. prop. xiv.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17m" id="ft17m" href="#fa17m"><span class="fn">17</span></a> See C. F. Becker, <i>Darstellung der musik. Literatur</i> (Leipzig, 1836);
+and Wilhelm Tappert, &ldquo;Zur Geschichte der Guitarre,&rdquo; in <i>Monatshefte
+für Musikgeschichte</i> (Berlin, 1882), No. 5. pp. 77-85.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 440px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:375px; height:237px" src="images/img704d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Ruhlmann&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte der Bogeninstrumente</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.&mdash;Typical Alto Guitar Fiddle, 15th century (Pinakothek, Munich).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">GUITAR FIDDLE<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (<i>Troubadour Fiddle</i>), a modern name
+bestowed retrospectively upon certain precursors of the violin
+possessing characteristics of both guitar and fiddle. The name
+&ldquo;guitar fiddle&rdquo; is intended to emphasize the fact that the
+instrument in the shape of the guitar, which during the middle
+ages represented the most perfect principle of construction for
+stringed instruments with necks, adopted at a certain period the
+use of the bow from instruments of a less perfect type, the rebab
+and its hybrids. The use of the bow with the guitar entailed
+certain constructive changes in the instrument: the large central
+rose sound-hole was replaced by lateral holes of various shapes;
+the flat bridge, suitable for instruments whose strings were
+plucked, gave
+place to the
+arched bridge
+required in order
+to enable the bow
+to vibrate each
+string separately;
+the arched
+bridge, by raising
+the strings higher
+above the soundboard,
+made the
+stopping of
+strings on the
+neck extremely
+difficult if not impossible; this matter was adjusted by the
+addition of a finger-board of suitable shape and dimensions (fig. 1).
+At this stage the guitar fiddle possesses the essential features of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page705" id="page705"></a>705</span>
+the violin, and may justly claim to be its immediate predecessor<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+not so much through the viols which were the outcome of the
+Minnesinger fiddle with sloping shoulders, as through the intermediary
+of the Italian <i>lyra</i>, a guitar-shaped bowed instrument
+with from 7 to 12 strings.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 180px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:127px; height:215px" src="images/img705.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">From a Byzantine MS. in the British Museum.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.&mdash;Earliest example of the Guitar Fiddle. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1066.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>From such evidence as we now possess, it would seem that the
+evolution of the early guitar with a neck from the Greek cithara took
+place under Greek influence in the Christian East. The various
+stages of this transition have been definitely established by the remarkable
+miniatures of the Utrecht Psalter.<a name="fa2n" id="fa2n" href="#ft2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Two kinds of citharas
+are shown: the antique rectangular,<a name="fa3n" id="fa3n" href="#ft3n"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and the later design with
+rounded body having at the point where the arms are added indications
+of the waist or incurvations characteristic of the outline of the
+Spanish guitar.<a name="fa4n" id="fa4n" href="#ft4n"><span class="sp">4</span></a> The first stage in the transition is shown by a
+cithara or rotta<a name="fa5n" id="fa5n" href="#ft5n"><span class="sp">5</span></a> in which arms and transverse bar are replaced by a
+kind of frame repeating the outline of the body and thus completing
+the second lobe of the Spanish guitar. The next stages in the transition
+are concerned with the addition of a neck<a name="fa6n" id="fa6n" href="#ft6n"><span class="sp">6</span></a> and of frets.<a name="fa7n" id="fa7n" href="#ft7n"><span class="sp">7</span></a> All
+these instruments are twanged by the fingers. One may conclude that
+the use of the bow was either unknown at this time (<i>c.</i> 6th century
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span>), or that it was still confined to instruments of the rebab type.
+The earliest known representation of a guitar fiddle complete with
+bow<a name="fa8n" id="fa8n" href="#ft8n"><span class="sp">8</span></a> (fig. 2) occurs in a Greek Psalter written and illuminated in
+Caesarea by the archpriest Theodorus in 1066 (British Museum, Add.
+MS. 19352). Instances of perfect guitar fiddles
+abound in the 13th century MSS. and monuments,
+as for instance in a picture by Cimabue
+(1240-1302). in the Pitti Gallery in Florence.<a name="fa9n" id="fa9n" href="#ft9n"><span class="sp">9</span></a></p>
+
+<p>An evolution on parallel lines appears also
+to have taken place from the antique rectangular
+cithara<a name="fa10n" id="fa10n" href="#ft10n"><span class="sp">10</span></a> of the <i>citharoedes</i>, which was a favourite
+in Romano-Christian art.<a name="fa11n" id="fa11n" href="#ft11n"><span class="sp">11</span></a> In this case examples
+illustrative of the transitions are found represented
+in great variety in Europe. The old
+German rotta<a name="fa12n" id="fa12n" href="#ft12n"><span class="sp">12</span></a> of the 6th century preserved in
+the Völker Museum, Berlin, and the instruments
+played by King David in two early
+Anglo-Saxon illuminated MSS., one a Psalter
+(Cotton MS. Vesp. A. i. British Museum)
+finished in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 700, the other &ldquo;A Commentary
+on the Psalms by Cassiodorus <i>manu Bedae</i>&rdquo; of
+the 8th century preserved in the Cathedral
+Library at Durham<a name="fa13n" id="fa13n" href="#ft13n"><span class="sp">13</span></a> form examples of the first
+stage of transition. From such types as these
+the rectangular <i>crwth</i> or crowd was evolved by
+the addition of a finger-board and the reduction
+in the number of strings, which follows
+as a natural consequence as soon as an extended compass can be
+obtained by stopping the strings. By the addition of a neck we
+obtain the clue to the origin of rectangular citterns with rounded
+corners and of certain instruments played with the bow whose bodies
+or sound-chests have an outline based upon the rectangle with
+various modifications. We may not look upon this type of guitar
+fiddle as due entirely to western or southern European initiative;
+its origin like that of the type approximating to the violin is evidently
+Byzantine. It is found among the frescoes which cover walls and
+barrel vaults in the palace of Kosseir &lsquo;Amra,<a name="fa14n" id="fa14n" href="#ft14n"><span class="sp">14</span></a> believed to be that of
+Caliph Walid II. (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 744) of the Omayyad dynasty, or of Prince
+Ahmad, the Abbasid (862-866). The instrument, a cittern with four
+strings, is being played by a bear. Other examples occur in the
+Stuttgart Carolingian Psalter<a name="fa15n" id="fa15n" href="#ft15n"><span class="sp">15</span></a> (10th century); in MS. 1260 (Bibl.
+Imp. Paris) <i>Tristan and Yseult</i>; as guitar fiddle in the Liber Regalis
+preserved in Westminster Abbey (14th century); in the Sforza
+Book<a name="fa16n" id="fa16n" href="#ft16n"><span class="sp">16</span></a> (1444-1476), the Book of Hours executed for Bona of Savoy,
+wife of Galeazzo Maria Sforza; on one of the carvings of the 13th
+century in the Cathedral of Amiens. It has also been painted by
+Italian artists of the 15th and 16th centuries.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See &ldquo;The Precursors of the Violin Family,&rdquo; by Kathleen
+Schlesinger, part ii. of <i>An Illustrated Handbook on the Instruments of
+the Orchestra</i> (London, 1908), chs. ii. and x.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2n" id="ft2n" href="#fa2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Kathleen Schlesinger, <i>op. cit.</i> part ii., the &ldquo;Utrecht Psalter,&rdquo;
+pp. 127-135, and the &ldquo;Question of the Origin of the Utrecht
+Psalter,&rdquo; pp. 136-166, where the subject is discussed and illustrated.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3n" id="ft3n" href="#fa3n"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, see pl. vi. (2) to the right centre.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4n" id="ft4n" href="#fa4n"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, see pl. iii. centre and figs. 118 and 119.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5n" id="ft5n" href="#fa5n"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, see fig. 117, p. 341, and figs. 172 and 116.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6n" id="ft6n" href="#fa6n"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, see fig. 121, p. 246, figs. 122, 123, 125 and 126 pl. iii. vi.
+(1) and (2).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7n" id="ft7n" href="#fa7n"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, see fig. 126, p. 350, and pl. iii. right centre.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8n" id="ft8n" href="#fa8n"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, see fig. 173, p. 448.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9n" id="ft9n" href="#fa9n"><span class="fn">9</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, see fig. 205, p. 480.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10n" id="ft10n" href="#fa10n"><span class="fn">10</span></a> See <i>Museo Pio Clementino</i>, by Visconti (Milan, 1818).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11n" id="ft11n" href="#fa11n"><span class="fn">11</span></a> See for example <i>Georgics</i>, iv. 471-475 in the Vatican Virgil
+(Cod. 3225), in facsimile (Rome, 1899) (British Museum press-mark 8,
+tab. f. vol. ii.).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12n" id="ft12n" href="#fa12n"><span class="fn">12</span></a> This rotta was found in an Alamannic tomb of the 4th to the 7th
+centuries at Oberflacht in the Black Forest. A facsimile is preserved
+in the collection of the Kgl. Hochschule, Berlin, illustrations in
+&ldquo;Grabfunde am Berge Lupfen bei Oberflacht, 1846,&rdquo; <i>Jahresberichte
+d. Württemb. Altertums-Vereins</i>, iii. (Stuttgart, 1846), tab. viii. also
+Kathleen Schlesinger, <i>op. cit.</i> part ii. fig. 168 (drawing from the
+facsimile).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13n" id="ft13n" href="#fa13n"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Reproductions of both miniatures are to be found in Professor
+J. O. Westwood&rsquo;s <i>Facsimiles of the Miniatures and Ornaments of
+Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS.</i> (London, 1868).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14n" id="ft14n" href="#fa14n"><span class="fn">14</span></a> An illustration occurs in the fine publication of the Austrian
+Academy of Sciences, <i>Kusejr &lsquo;Amra</i> (Vienna, 1907, pl. xxxiv.).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15n" id="ft15n" href="#fa15n"><span class="fn">15</span></a> See reproduction of some of the miniatures in Jacob and H. von
+Hefner-Alteneck, <i>Trachten des christlichen Mittelalters</i> (Darmstadt.
+1840-1854, 3 vols.), and in <i>Trachten, Kunstwerke und Gerätschaften
+vom frühen Mittelalter</i> (Frankfort-on-Main, 1879-1890),</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16n" id="ft16n" href="#fa16n"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Add. MS. 34294, British Museum, vol. ii. fol. 83, 161, vol. iii.
+fol. 402, vol. iv. fols. 534 and 667.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUITRY, LUCIEN GERMAIN<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (1860-&emsp;&emsp;), French actor, was
+born in Paris. He became prominent on the French stage at the
+Porte Saint-Martin theatre in 1900, and the Variétés in 1901,
+and then became a member of the Comédie Française, but he
+resigned very soon in order to become director of the Renaissance,
+where he was principally associated with the actress Marthe
+Brandès, who had also left the Comédie. Here he established
+his reputation, in a number of plays, as the greatest contemporary
+French actor in the drama of modern reality.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUIZOT, FRANÇOIS PIERRE GUILLAUME<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (1787-1874),
+historian, orator and statesman, was born at Nîmes on the 4th of
+October 1787, of an honourable Protestant family belonging to the
+<i>bourgeoisie</i> of that city. It is characteristic of the cruel disabilities
+which still weighed upon the Protestants of France before the
+Revolution, that his parents, at the time of their union, could
+not be publicly or legally married by their own pastors, and that
+the ceremony was clandestine. The liberal opinions of his
+family did not, however, save it from the sanguinary intolerance
+of the Reign of Terror, and on the 8th April 1794 his father
+perished at Nîmes upon the scaffold. Thenceforth the education
+of the future minister devolved entirely upon his mother, a
+woman of slight appearance and of homely manners, but endowed
+with great strength of character and clearness of judgment.
+Madame Guizot was a living type of the Huguenots of the 16th
+century, stern in her principles and her faith, immovable in her
+convictions and her sense of duty. She formed the character of
+her illustrious son and shared every vicissitude of his life. In the
+days of his power her simple figure, always clad in deep mourning
+for her martyred husband, was not absent from the splendid
+circle of his political friends. In the days of his exile in 1848
+she followed him to London, and there at a very advanced age
+closed her life and was buried at Kensal Green. Driven from
+Nîmes by the Revolution, Madame Guizot and her son repaired
+to Geneva, where he received his education. In spite of her
+decided Calvinistic opinions, the theories of Rousseau, then
+much in fashion, were not without their influence on Madame
+Guizot. She was a strong Liberal, and she even adopted the
+notion inculcated in the <i>Émile</i> that every man ought to learn a
+manual trade or craft. Young Guizot was taught to be a carpenter,
+and he so far succeeded in his work that he made a table
+with his own hands, which is still preserved. Of the progress of
+his graver studies little is known, for in the work which he
+entitled <i>Memoirs of my own Times</i> Guizot omitted all personal
+details of his earlier life. But his literary attainments must
+have been precocious and considerable, for when he arrived in
+Paris in 1805 to pursue his studies in the faculty of laws, he
+entered at eighteen as tutor into the family of M. Stapfer,
+formerly Swiss minister in France, and he soon began to write
+in a journal edited by M. Suard, the <i>Publiciste</i>. This connexion
+introduced him to the literary society of Paris. In October 1809,
+being then twenty-two, he wrote a review of M. de Chateaubriand&rsquo;s
+<i>Martyrs</i>, which procured for him the approbation and
+cordial thanks of that eminent person, and he continued to
+contribute largely to the periodical press. At Suard&rsquo;s he had
+made the acquaintance of Pauline Meulan, an accomplished lady
+of good family, some fourteen years older than himself, who
+had been forced by the hardships of the Revolution to earn her
+living by literature, and who also was engaged to contribute a
+series of articles to Suard&rsquo;s journal. These contributions were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page706" id="page706"></a>706</span>
+interrupted by her illness, but immediately resumed and continued
+by an unknown hand. It was discovered that François
+Guizot had quietly supplied the deficiency on her behalf. The
+acquaintance thus begun ripened into friendship and love, and
+in 1812 Mademoiselle de Meulan consented to marry her youthful
+ally. She died in 1827; she was the author of many esteemed
+works on female education. An only son, born in 1819, died
+in 1837 of consumption. In 1828 Guizot married Elisa Dillon,
+niece of his first wife, and also an author. She died in 1833,
+leaving a son, Maurice Guillaume (1833-1892), who attained
+some reputation as a scholar and writer.</p>
+
+<p>During the empire, Guizot, entirely devoted to literary
+pursuits, published a collection of French synonyms (1809),
+an essay on the fine arts (1811), and a translation of Gibbon
+with additional notes in 1812. These works recommended him
+to the notice of M. de Fontanes, then grand-master of the
+university of France, who selected Guizot for the chair of modern
+history at the Sorbonne in 1812. His first lecture (which is
+reprinted in his <i>Memoirs</i>) was delivered on the 11th of December
+of that year. The customary compliment to the all-powerful
+emperor he declined to insert in it, in spite of the hints given him
+by his patron, but the course which followed marks the beginning
+of the great revival of historical research in France in the 19th
+century. He had now acquired a considerable position in the
+society of Paris, and the friendship of Royer-Collard and the
+leading members of the liberal party, including the young duc
+de Broglie. Absent from Paris at the moment of the fall of
+Napoleon in 1814, he was at once selected, on the recommendation
+of Royer-Collard, to serve the government of Louis XVIII.
+in the capacity of secretary-general of the ministry of the
+interior, under the abbé de Montesquiou. Upon the return
+of Napoleon from Elba he immediately resigned, on the 25th of
+March 1815 (the statement that he retained office under General
+Carnot is incorrect), and returned to his literary pursuits. After
+the Hundred Days, he repaired to Ghent, where he saw Louis
+XVIII., and in the name of the liberal party pointed out to his
+majesty that a frank adoption of a liberal policy could alone
+secure the duration of the restored monarchy&mdash;advice which
+was ill-received by M. de Blacas and the king&rsquo;s confidential
+advisers. This visit to Ghent, at the time when France was a
+prey to a second invasion, was made a subject of bitter reproach
+to Guizot in after life by his political opponents, as an unpatriotic
+action. &ldquo;The Man of Ghent&rdquo; was one of the terms of insult
+frequently hurled against him in the days of his power. But the
+reproach appears to be wholly unfounded. The true interests
+of France were not in the defence of the falling empire, but in
+establishing a liberal policy on a monarchical basis and in
+combating the reactionary tendencies of the ultra-royalists. It
+is at any rate a remarkable circumstance that a young professor
+of twenty-seven, with none of the advantages of birth or political
+experience, should have been selected to convey so important
+a message to the ears of the king of France, and a proof, if any
+were wanting, that the Revolution had, as Guizot said, &ldquo;done
+its work.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>On the second restoration, Guizot was appointed secretary-general
+of the ministry of justice under M. de Barbé-Marbois,
+but resigned with his chief in 1816. Again in 1819 he was
+appointed general director of communes and departments in
+the ministry of the interior, but lost his office with the fall of
+Decazes in February 1820. During these years Guizot was one
+of the leaders of the <i>Doctrinaires</i>, a small party strongly attached
+to the charter and the crown, and advocating a policy
+which has become associated (especially by Faguet) with the
+name of Guizot, that of the <i>juste milieu</i>, a <i>via media</i> between
+absolutism and popular government. Their opinions had more of
+the rigour of a sect than the elasticity of a political party. Adhering
+to the great principles of liberty and toleration, they were
+sternly opposed to the anarchical traditions of the Revolution.
+They knew that the elements of anarchy were still fermenting
+in the country; these they hoped to subdue, not by reactionary
+measures, but by the firm application of the power of a limited
+constitution, based on the suffrages of the middle class and
+defended by the highest literary talent of the times. Their
+motives were honourable. Their views were philosophical.
+But they were opposed alike to the democratical spirit of the
+age, to the military traditions of the empire, and to the bigotry
+and absolutism of the court. The fate of such a party might
+be foreseen. They lived by a policy of resistance; they perished
+by another revolution (1830). They are remembered more for
+their constant opposition to popular demands than by the
+services they undoubtedly rendered to the cause of temperate
+freedom.</p>
+
+<p>In 1820, when the reaction was at its height after the murder
+of the duc de Berri, and the fall of the ministry of the duc
+Decazes, Guizot was deprived of his offices, and in 1822 even
+his course of lectures were interdicted. During the succeeding
+years he played an important part among the leaders of the
+liberal opposition to the government of Charles X., although
+he had not yet entered parliament, and this was also the time
+of his greatest literary activity. In 1822 he had published his
+lectures on representative government (<i>Histoire des origines du
+gouvernement représentatif</i>, 1821-1822, 2 vols.; Eng. trans.
+1852); also a work on capital punishment for political offences
+and several important political pamphlets. From 1822 to 1830
+he published two important collections of historical sources, the
+memoirs of the history of England in 26 volumes, and the
+memoirs of the history of France in 31 volumes, and a revised
+translation of Shakespeare, and a volume of essays on the
+history of France. The most remarkable work from his own
+pen was the first part of his <i>Histoire de la révolution d&rsquo;Angleterre
+depuis Charles I<span class="sp">er</span> à Charles II.</i> (2 vols., 1826-1827; Eng.
+trans., 2 vols., Oxford, 1838), a book of great merit and impartiality,
+which he resumed and completed during his exile
+in England after 1848. The Martignac administration restored
+Guizot in 1828 to his professor&rsquo;s chair and to the council of
+state. Then it was that he delivered the celebrated courses
+of lectures which raised his reputation as an historian to the
+highest point of fame, and placed him amongst the best writers of
+France and of Europe. These lectures formed the basis of
+his general <i>Histoire de la civilisation en Europe</i> (1828; Eng.
+trans, by W. Hazlitt, 3 vols., 1846), and of his <i>Histoire de la
+civilisation en France</i> (4 vols., 1830), works which must ever be
+regarded as classics of modern historical research.</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto Guizot&rsquo;s fame rested on his merits as a writer on
+public affairs and as a lecturer on modern history. He had
+attained the age of forty-three before he entered upon the full
+display of his oratorical strength. In January 1830 he was
+elected for the first time by the town of Lisieux to the chamber
+of deputies, and he retained that seat during the whole of his
+political life. Guizot immediately assumed an important
+position in the representative assembly, and the first speech he
+delivered was in defence of the celebrated address of the 221,
+in answer to the menacing speech from the throne, which was
+followed by the dissolution of the chamber, and was the precursor
+of another revolution. On his returning to Paris from Nîmes
+on the 27th of July, the fall of Charles X. was already imminent.
+Guizot was called upon by his friends Casimir-Périer, Laffitte,
+Villemain and Dupin to draw up the protest of the liberal
+deputies against the royal ordinances of July, whilst he applied
+himself with them to control the revolutionary character of the
+late contest. Personally, Guizot was always of opinion that it
+was a great misfortune for the cause of parliamentary government
+in France that the infatuation and ineptitude of Charles X.
+and Prince Polignac rendered a change in the hereditary line of
+succession inevitable. But, though convinced that it was
+inevitable, he became one of the most ardent supporters of Louis-Philippe.
+In August 1830 Guizot was made minister of the
+interior, but resigned in November. He had now passed into
+the ranks of the conservatives, and for the next eighteen years
+was the most determined foe of democracy, the unyielding
+champion of &ldquo;a monarchy limited by a limited number of
+bourgeois.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1831 Casimir-Périer formed a more vigorous and compact
+administration, which was terminated in May 1832 by his death;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page707" id="page707"></a>707</span>
+the summer of that year was marked by a formidable republican
+rising in Paris, and it was not till the 11th of October 1832 that
+a stable government was formed, in which Marshal Soult was
+first minister, the duc de Broglie took the foreign office, Thiers
+the home department, and Guizot the department of public
+instruction. This ministry, which lasted for nearly four years,
+was by far the ablest that ever served Louis Philippe.
+Guizot, however, was already marked with the stigma of unpopularity
+by the more advanced liberal party. He remained
+unpopular all his life, &ldquo;not,&rdquo; said he, &ldquo;that I court unpopularity,
+but that I think nothing about it.&rdquo; Yet never were his great
+abilities more useful to his country than whilst he filled this
+office of secondary rank but of primary importance in the
+department of public instruction. The duties it imposed on him
+were entirely congenial to his literary tastes, and he was master
+of the subjects they concerned. He applied himself in the first
+instance to carry the law of the 28th of June 1833, and then for
+the next three years to put it into execution. In establishing
+and organizing primary education in France, this law marked
+a distinct epoch in French history. In fifteen years, under its
+influence, the number of primary schools rose from ten to
+twenty-three thousand; normal schools for teachers, and a
+general system of inspection, were introduced; and boards of
+education, under mixed lay and clerical authority, were created.
+The secondary class of schools and the university of France were
+equally the subject of his enlightened protection and care,
+and a prodigious impulse was given to philosophical study and
+historical research. The branch of the Institute of France
+known as the &ldquo;Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques,&rdquo;
+which had been suppressed by Napoleon, was revived by Guizot.
+Some of the old members of this learned body&mdash;Talleyrand,
+Siéyès, Roederer and Lakanal&mdash;again took their seats there,
+and a host of more recent celebrities were added by election for
+the free discussion of the great problems of political and social
+science. The &ldquo;Société de l&rsquo;Histoire de France&rdquo; was founded
+for the publication of historical works; and a vast publication
+of medieval chronicles and diplomatic papers was undertaken
+at the expense of the state (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">History</a></span>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>, <i>History</i>,
+section <i>Sources</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The object of the cabinet of October 1832 was to organize
+a conservative party, and to carry on a policy of resistance to the
+republican faction which threatened the existence of the monarchy.
+It was their pride and their boast that their measures never
+exceeded the limits of the law, and by the exercise of legal power
+alone they put down an insurrection amounting to civil war in
+Lyons and a sanguinary revolt in Paris. The real strength of
+the ministry lay not in its nominal heads, but in the fact that in
+this government and this alone Guizot and Thiers acted in cordial
+co-operation. The two great rivals in French parliamentary
+eloquence followed for a time the same path; but neither of
+them could submit to the supremacy of the other, and circumstances
+threw Thiers almost continuously on a course of
+opposition, whilst Guizot bore the graver responsibilities of
+power.</p>
+
+<p>Once again indeed, in 1839, they were united, but it was in
+opposition to M. Molé, who had formed an intermediate government,
+and this coalition between Guizot and the leaders of the
+left centre and the left, Thiers and Odilon Barrot, due to his
+ambition and jealousy of Molé, is justly regarded as one of the
+chief inconsistencies of his life. Victory was secured at the
+expense of principle, and Guizot&rsquo;s attack upon the government
+gave rise to a crisis and a republican insurrection. None of
+the three chiefs of that alliance took ministerial office, however,
+and Guizot was not sorry to accept the post of ambassador in
+London, which withdrew him for a time from parliamentary
+contests. This was in the spring of 1840, and Thiers succeeded
+shortly afterwards to the ministry of foreign affairs.</p>
+
+<p>Guizot was received with marked distinction by the queen
+and by the society of London. His literary works were highly
+esteemed, his character was respected, and France was never
+more worthily represented abroad than by one of her greatest
+orators. He was known to be well versed in the history and the
+literature of England, and sincerely attached to the alliance of
+the two nations and the cause of peace. But, as he himself
+remarked, he was a stranger to England and a novice in diplomacy;
+and unhappily the embroiled state of the Syrian question,
+on which the French government had separated itself from the
+joint policy of Europe, and possibly the absence of entire confidence
+between the ambassador and the minister of foreign
+affairs, placed him in an embarrassing and even false position.
+The warnings he transmitted to Thiers were not believed. The
+warlike policy of Thiers was opposed to his own convictions.
+The treaty of the 15th of July was signed without his knowledge
+and executed in the teeth of his remonstrances. For some weeks
+Europe seemed to be on the brink of war, until the king put an
+end to the crisis by refusing his assent to the military preparations
+of Thiers, and by summoning Guizot from London to form a
+ministry and to aid his Majesty in what he termed &ldquo;ma lutte
+tenace contre l&rsquo;anarchie.&rdquo; Thus began, under dark and adverse
+circumstances, on the 29th of October 1840, the important
+administration in which Guizot remained the master-spirit for
+nearly eight years. He himself took the office of minister for
+foreign affairs, to which he added some years later, on the
+retirement of Marshal Soult, the ostensible rank of prime
+minister. His first care was the maintenance of peace and the
+restoration of amicable relations with the other powers of Europe.
+If he succeeded, as he did succeed, in calming the troubled
+elements and healing the wounded pride of France, the result
+was due mainly to the indomitable courage and splendid
+eloquence with which he faced a raging opposition, gave unity
+and strength to the conservative party, who now felt that they
+had a great leader at their head, and appealed to the thrift and
+prudence of the nation rather than to their vanity and their
+ambition. In his pacific task he was fortunately seconded by
+the formation of Sir Robert Peel&rsquo;s administration in England,
+in the autumn of 1841. Between Lord Palmerston and Guizot
+there existed an incompatibility of character exceedingly
+dangerous in the foreign ministers of two great and in some
+respects rival countries. With Lord Palmerston in office, Guizot
+felt that he had a bitter and active antagonist in every British
+agent throughout the world; the combative element was strong
+in his own disposition; and the result was a system of perpetual
+conflict and counter-intrigues. Lord Palmerston held (as it
+appears from his own letters) that war between England and
+France was, sooner or later, inevitable. Guizot held that such
+a war would be the greatest of all calamities, and certainly never
+contemplated it. In Lord Aberdeen, the foreign secretary of
+Sir Robert Peel, Guizot found a friend and an ally perfectly
+congenial to himself. Their acquaintance in London had been
+slight, but it soon ripened into mutual regard and confidence.
+They were both men of high principles and honour; the Scotch
+Presbyterianism which had moulded the faith of Lord Aberdeen
+was reflected in the Huguenot minister of France; both were
+men of extreme simplicity of taste, joined to the refinement of
+scholarship and culture; both had an intense aversion to war
+and felt themselves ill-qualified to carry on those adventurous
+operations which inflamed the imagination of their respective
+opponents. In the eyes of Lord Palmerston and Thiers their
+policy was mean and pitiful; but it was a policy which secured
+peace to the world, and united the two great and free nations of
+the West in what was termed the <i>entente cordiale</i>. Neither of
+them would have stooped to snatch an advantage at the expense
+of the other; they held the common interest of peace and
+friendship to be paramount; and when differences arose, as they
+did arise, in remote parts of the world,&mdash;in Tahiti, in Morocco,
+on the Gold Coast,&mdash;they were reduced by this principle to their
+proper insignificance. The opposition in France denounced
+Guizot&rsquo;s foreign policy as basely subservient to England. He
+replied in terms of unmeasured contempt,&mdash;&ldquo;You may raise
+the pile of calumny as high as you will; vous n&rsquo;arriverez jamais
+à la hauteur de mon dédain!&rdquo; The opposition in England
+attacked Lord Aberdeen with the same reproaches, but in vain.
+King Louis Philippe visited Windsor. The queen of England
+(in 1843) stayed at the Château d&rsquo;Eu. In 1845 British and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page708" id="page708"></a>708</span>
+French troops fought side by side for the first time in an expedition
+to the River Plate.</p>
+
+<p>The fall of Sir Robert Peel&rsquo;s government in 1846 changed
+these intimate relations; and the return of Lord Palmerston to
+the foreign office led Guizot to believe that he was again exposed
+to the passionate rivalry of the British cabinet. A friendly
+understanding had been established at Eu between the two
+courts with reference to the future marriage of the young queen
+of Spain. The language of Lord Palmerston and the conduct
+of Sir Henry Bulwer (afterwards Lord Dalling) at Madrid led
+Guizot to believe that this understanding was broken, and that
+it was intended to place a Coburg on the throne of Spain.
+Determined to resist any such intrigue, Guizot and the king
+plunged headlong into a counter-intrigue, wholly inconsistent
+with their previous engagements to England, and fatal to the
+happiness of the queen of Spain. By their influence she was
+urged into a marriage with a despicable offset of the house of
+Bourbon, and her sister was at the same time married to the
+youngest son of the French king, in direct violation of Louis
+Philippe&rsquo;s promises. This transaction, although it was hailed
+at the time as a triumph of the policy of France, was in truth
+as fatal to the monarch as it was discreditable to the minister.
+It was accomplished by a mixture of secrecy and violence. It
+was defended by subterfuges. By the dispassionate judgment
+of history it has been universally condemned. Its immediate
+effect was to destroy the Anglo-French alliance, and to throw
+Guizot into closer relations with the reactionary policy of
+Metternich and the Northern courts.</p>
+
+<p>The history of Guizot&rsquo;s administration, the longest and the
+last which existed under the constitutional monarchy of France,
+bears the stamp of the great qualities and the great defects of his
+political character, for he was throughout the master-spirit of
+that government. His first object was to unite and discipline
+the conservative party, which had been broken up by previous
+dissensions and ministerial changes. In this he entirely succeeded
+by his courage and eloquence as a parliamentary leader, and by
+the use of all those means of influence which France too liberally
+supplies to a dominant minister. No one ever doubted the
+purity and disinterestedness of Guizot&rsquo;s own conduct. He
+despised money; he lived and died poor; and though he
+encouraged the fever of money-getting in the French nation, his
+own habits retained their primitive simplicity. But he did not
+disdain to use in others the baser passions from which he was
+himself free. Some of his instruments were mean; he employed
+them to deal with meanness after its kind. Gross abuses and
+breaches of trust came to light even in the ranks of the government,
+and under an incorruptible minister the administration
+was denounced as corrupt. <i>Licet uti alieno vitio</i> is a proposition
+as false in politics as it is in divinity.</p>
+
+<p>Of his parliamentary eloquence it is impossible to speak too
+highly. It was terse, austere, demonstrative and commanding,&mdash;not
+persuasive, not humorous, seldom adorned, but condensed
+with the force of a supreme authority in the fewest words. He
+was essentially a ministerial speaker, far more powerful in
+defence than in opposition. Like Pitt he was the type of
+authority and resistance, unmoved by the brilliant charges,
+the wit, the gaiety, the irony and the discursive power of his
+great rival. Nor was he less a master of parliamentary tactics
+and of those sudden changes and movements in debate which,
+as in a battle, sometimes change the fortune of the day. His
+confidence in himself, and in the majority of the chamber which
+he had moulded to his will, was unbounded; and long success
+and the habit of authority led him to forget that in a country
+like France there was a people outside the chamber elected by
+a small constituency, to which the minister and the king himself
+were held responsible.</p>
+
+<p>A government based on the principle of resistance and repression
+and marked by dread and distrust of popular power,
+a system of diplomacy which sought to revive the traditions of
+the old French monarchy, a sovereign who largely exceeded the
+bounds of constitutional power and whose obstinacy augmented
+with years, a minister who, though far removed from the servility
+of the courtier, was too obsequious to the personal influence of
+the king, were all singularly at variance with the promises of the
+Revolution of July, and they narrowed the policy of the administration.
+Guizot&rsquo;s view of politics was essentially historical
+and philosophical. His tastes and his acquirements gave him
+little insight into the practical business of administrative government.
+Of finance he knew nothing; trade and commerce were
+strange to him; military and naval affairs were unfamiliar to
+him; all these subjects he dealt with by second hand through
+his friends, P. S. Dumon (1797-1870), Charles Marie Tanneguy,
+Comte Duchâtel (1803-1867), or Marshal Bugeaud. The consequence
+was that few measures of practical improvement were
+carried by his administration. Still less did the government
+lend an ear to the cry for parliamentary reform. On this subject
+the king&rsquo;s prejudices were insurmountable, and his ministers
+had the weakness to give way to them. It was impossible to
+defend a system which confined the suffrage to 200,000 citizens,
+and returned a chamber of whom half were placemen. Nothing
+would have been easier than to strengthen the conservative
+party by attaching the suffrage to the possession of land in
+France, but blank resistance was the sole answer of the government
+to the just and moderate demands of the opposition.
+Warning after warning was addressed to them in vain by friends
+and by foes alike; and they remained profoundly unconscious
+of their danger till the moment when it overwhelmed them.
+Strange to say, Guizot never acknowledged either at the time
+or to his dying day the nature of this error; and he speaks of
+himself in his memoirs as the much-enduring champion of liberal
+government and constitutional law. He utterly fails to perceive
+that a more enlarged view of the liberal destinies of France and
+a less intense confidence in his own specific theory might have
+preserved the constitutional monarchy and averted a vast series
+of calamities, which were in the end fatal to every principle
+he most cherished. But with the stubborn conviction of
+absolute truth he dauntlessly adhered to his own doctrines to
+the end.</p>
+
+<p>The last scene of his political life was singularly characteristic
+of his inflexible adherence to a lost cause. In the afternoon oí
+the 23rd of February 1848 the king summoned his minister
+from the chamber, which was then sitting, and informed him
+that the aspect of Paris and the country during the banquet
+agitation for reform, and the alarm and division of opinion in
+the royal family, led him to doubt whether he could retain his
+ministry. That doubt, replied Guizot, is decisive of the question,
+and instantly resigned, returning to the chamber only to announce
+that the administration was at an end and that Molé had been
+sent for by the king. Molé failed in the attempt to form a government,
+and between midnight and one in the morning Guizot,
+who had according to his custom retired early to rest, was again
+sent for to the Tuileries. The king asked his advice. &ldquo;We are
+no longer the ministers of your Majesty,&rdquo; replied Guizot; &ldquo;it
+rests with others to decide on the course to be pursued. But
+one thing appears to be evident: this street riot must be put
+down; these barricades must be taken; and for this purpose
+my opinion is that Marshal Bugeaud should be invested with full
+power, and ordered to take the necessary military measures, and
+as your Majesty has at this moment no minister, I am ready to
+draw up and countersign such an order.&rdquo; The marshal, who
+was present, undertook the task, saying, &ldquo;I have never been
+beaten yet, and I shall not begin to-morrow. The barricades
+shall be carried before dawn.&rdquo; After this display of energy the
+king hesitated, and soon added: &ldquo;I ought to tell you that M.
+Thiers and his friends are in the next room forming a government!&rdquo;
+Upon this Guizot rejoined, &ldquo;Then it rests with them
+to do what they think fit,&rdquo; and left the palace. Thiers and
+Barrot decided to withdraw the troops. The king and Guizot
+next met at Claremont. This was the most perilous conjuncture
+of Guizot&rsquo;s life, but fortunately he found a safe refuge in Paris
+for some days in the lodging of a humble miniature painter
+whom he had befriended, and shortly afterwards effected his
+escape across the Belgian frontier and thence to London, where
+he arrived on the 3rd of March. His mother and daughters
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page709" id="page709"></a>709</span>
+had preceded him, and he was speedily installed in a modest
+habitation in Pelham Crescent, Brompton.</p>
+
+<p>The society of England, though many persons disapproved
+of much of his recent policy, received the fallen statesman with
+as much distinction and respect as they had shown eight years
+before to the king&rsquo;s ambassador. Sums of money were placed
+at his disposal, which he declined. A professorship at Oxford
+was spoken of, which he was unable to accept. He stayed in
+England about a year, devoting himself again to history. He
+published two more volumes on the English revolution, and in
+1854 his <i>Histoire de la république d&rsquo;Angleterre et de Cromwell</i>
+(2 vols., 1854), then his <i>Histoire du protectorat de Cromwell et
+du rétablissement des Stuarts</i> (2 vols., 1856). He also published
+an essay on Peel, and amid many essays on religion, during the
+ten years 1858-1868, appeared the extensive <i>Mémoires pour
+servir à l&rsquo;histoire de mon temps</i>, in nine volumes. His speeches
+were included in 1863 in his <i>Histoire parlementaire de la France</i>
+(5 vols. of parliamentary speeches, 1863).</p>
+
+<p>Guizot survived the fall of the monarchy and the government
+he had served twenty-six years. He passed abruptly from the
+condition of one of the most powerful and active statesmen in
+Europe to the condition of a philosophical and patriotic spectator
+of human affairs. He was aware that the link between himself
+and public life was broken for ever; and he never made the
+slightest attempt to renew it. He was of no party, a member
+of no political body; no murmur of disappointed ambition, no
+language of asperity, ever passed his lips; it seemed as if the
+fever of oratorical debate and ministerial power had passed from
+him and left him a greater man than he had been before, in the
+pursuit of letters, in the conversation of his friends, and as head
+of the patriarchal circle of those he loved. The greater part of
+the year he spent at his residence at Val Richer, an Augustine
+monastery near Lisieux in Normandy, which had been sold at
+the time of the first Revolution. His two daughters, who married
+two descendants of the illustrious Dutch family of De Witt,
+so congenial in faith and manners to the Huguenots of France,
+kept his house. One of his sons-in-law farmed the estate. And
+here Guizot devoted his later years with undiminished energy
+to literary labour, which was in fact his chief means of subsistence.
+Proud, independent, simple and contented he remained to the
+last; and these years of retirement were perhaps the happiest
+and most serene portion of his life.</p>
+
+<p>Two institutions may be said even under the second empire
+to have retained their freedom&mdash;the Institute of France and the
+Protestant Consistory. In both of these Guizot continued to the
+last to take an active part. He was a member of three of the five
+academies into which the Institute of France is divided. The
+Academy of Moral and Political Science owed its restoration
+to him, and he became in 1832 one of its first associates. The
+Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres elected him in 1833
+as the successor to M. Dacier; and in 1836 he was chosen a
+member of the French Academy, the highest literary distinction
+of the country. In these learned bodies Guizot continued for
+nearly forty years to take a lively interest and to exercise a
+powerful influence. He was the jealous champion of their
+independence. His voice had the greatest weight in the choice
+of new candidates; the younger generation of French writers
+never looked in vain to him for encouragement; and his constant
+aim was to maintain the dignity and purity of the profession
+of letters.</p>
+
+<p>In the consistory of the Protestant church in Paris Guizot
+exercised a similar influence. His early education and his
+experience of life conspired to strengthen the convictions of a
+religious temperament. He remained through life a firm believer
+in the truths of revelation, and a volume of <i>Meditations on the
+Christian Religion</i> was one of his latest works. But though
+he adhered inflexibly to the church of his fathers and combated
+the rationalist tendencies of the age, which seemed to threaten
+it with destruction, he retained not a tinge of the intolerance or
+asperity of the Calvinistic creed. He respected in the Church of
+Rome the faith of the majority of his countrymen; and the
+writings of the great Catholic prelates, Bossuet and Bourdaloue,
+were as familiar and as dear to him as those of his own persuasion,
+and were commonly used by him in the daily exercises of family
+worship.</p>
+
+<p>In these literary pursuits and in the retirement of Val Richer
+years passed smoothly and rapidly away; and as his grandchildren
+grew up around him, he began to direct their attention
+to the history of their country. From these lessons sprang his
+last and not his least work, the <i>Histoire de France racontée à mes
+petits enfants</i>, for although this publication assumed a popular
+form, it is not less complete and profound than it is simple and
+attractive. The history came down to 1789, and was continued
+to 1870 by his daughter Madame Guizot de Witt from her
+father&rsquo;s notes.</p>
+
+<p>Down to the summer of 1874 Guizot&rsquo;s mental vigour and
+activity were unimpaired. His frame, temperate in all things,
+was blessed with a singular immunity from infirmity and disease;
+but the vital power ebbed away, and he passed gently away on
+the 12th of September 1874, reciting now and then a verse of
+Corneille or a text of Scripture.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;See his own <i>Mémoires pour servir à l&rsquo;histoire de
+mon temps</i> (8 vols., 1858-1861); <i>Lettres de M. Guizot à sa famille et à
+ses amis</i> (1884); C. A. Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i> (vol. i., 1857)
+and <i>Nouveaux Lundis</i> (vols. i. and ix., 1863-1872); E. Scherer,
+<i>Études critiques sur la littérature contemporaine</i> (vol. iv., 1873);
+Mme de Witt, <i>Guizot dans sa famille</i> (1880); Jules Simon, <i>Thiers,
+Guizot et Rémusat</i> (1885); E. Faguet, <i>Politiques et moralistes au XIX<span class="sp">e</span>
+siècle</i> (1891); G. Bardoux, <i>Guizot</i> (1894) in the series of &ldquo;Les
+Grands Écrivains français&rdquo;; Maurice Guizot, <i>Les Années de retraite
+de M. Guizot</i> (1901); and for a long list of books and articles on
+Guizot in periodicals see H. P. Thieme, <i>Guide bibliographique de la
+littérature française de 1800 à 1906</i> (<i>s.v.</i> Guizot, Paris, 1907). For a
+notice of his first wife see C. A. Sainte-Beuve, <i>Portraits de femmes</i>
+(1884), and Ch. de Rémusat, <i>Critiques et études littéraires</i> (vol. ii.,
+1847).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. R.; J. T. S.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUJARAT<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Guzerat</span>, a region of India, in the Bombay
+Presidency. In the widest sense of the name it includes the
+whole of the country where the Gujarati language is spoken,
+<i>i.e.</i> the northern districts and states of the Presidency from
+Palanpur to Damaun, with Kathiawar and Cutch. But it is
+more properly confined to the country north of the Nerbudda
+and east of the Rann of Cutch and Kathiawar. In this sense
+it has an area of 29,071 sq. m., with a population in 1901 of
+4,798,504. It includes the states distributed among the agencies
+of Palanpur, Mahi Kantha, Rewa Kantha and Cambay, with
+most of Baroda and the British districts of Ahmedabad, Kaira,
+Panch Mahals and Broach. Less than one-fourth is British
+territory. The region takes its name from the Gujars, a tribe
+who passed into India from the north-west, established a kingdom
+in Rajputana, and spread south in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400-600. The ancient
+Hindu capital was Anhilvada; the Mahommedan dynasty,
+which ruled from 1396 to 1572, founded Ahmedabad, which is
+still the largest city; but Gujarat owed much of its historical
+importance to the seaports of Broach, Cambay and Surat.
+Its fertile plain, with a regular rainfall and numerous rivers,
+has caused it to be styled the &ldquo;garden of India.&rdquo; It suffered,
+however, severely from the famine of 1899-1901. For an
+account of the history, geography, &amp;c., of Gujarat see the
+articles on the various states and districts. Gujarat gives its
+name to the vernacular of northern Bombay, viz. Gujarati,
+one of the three great languages of that Presidency, spoken by
+more than 9 millions. It has an ancient literature and a peculiar
+character. As the language of the Parsis it is prominent in the
+Bombay press; and it is also the commercial language of
+Bombay city, which lies outside the territorial area of Gujarat.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Campbell, <i>History of Gujarat</i> (Bombay, 1896); Sir E. C.
+Bayley, <i>The Muhammedan Kingdom of Gujarat</i> (1886); A. K.
+Forbes, <i>Ras Mala</i> (1856).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUJARATI<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> and <b>RAJASTHANI</b>, the names of two members
+of the western sub-group of the Intermediate Group of Indo-Aryan
+languages (<i>q.v.</i>). The remaining member of this sub-group
+is Panjabi or Punjabi (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani</a></span>). In 1901 the speakers
+of those now dealt with numbered: Gujarati, 9,439,925, and
+Rajasthani, 10,917,712. The two languages are closely connected
+and might almost be termed co-dialects of the same form of
+speech. Together they occupy an almost square block of country,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page710" id="page710"></a>710</span>
+some 400 m. broad, reaching from near Agra and Delhi on the
+river Jumna to the Arabian Sea. Gujarati (properly <i>Gujar&#257;t&#299;</i>) is
+spoken in Gujarat, the northern maritime province of the Bombay
+Presidency, and also in Baroda and the native states adjoining.
+Rajasthani (properly <i>R&#257;jasth&#257;n&#299;</i>, from &ldquo;<i>R&#257;jasth&#257;n</i>,&rdquo; the native
+name for Rajputana) is spoken in Rajputana and the adjoining
+parts of Central India.</p>
+
+<p>In the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-Aryan Languages</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span> the
+history of the earlier stages of the Indo-Aryan vernaculars is
+given at some length. It is there shown that, from the most
+ancient times, there were two main groups of these forms of
+speech&mdash;one, the language of the Midland, spoken in the country
+near the Gangetic Doab, and the other, the so-called &ldquo;Outer
+Band,&rdquo; containing the Midland on three sides, west, north and
+south. The country to the west and south-west of the Midland,
+in which this outer group of languages was spoken, included
+the modern Punjab, Rajputana and Gujarat. In process of
+time the population of the Midland expanded and carried its
+language to its new homes. It occupied the eastern and central
+Punjab, and the mixed (or &ldquo;intermediate&rdquo;) language which
+there grew up became the modern Panjabi. To the west it
+spread into Rajputana, till its progress was stopped by the
+Indian desert, and in Rajputana another intermediate language
+took rise and became Rajasthani. As elsewhere explained, the
+language-wave of the Midland exercised less and less influence
+as it travelled farther from its home, so that, while in eastern
+Rajputana the local dialect is now almost a pure midland speech,
+in the west there are many evident traces of the old outer
+language still surviving. To the south-west of Rajputana there
+was no desert to stop the wave of Midland expansion, which
+therefore rolled on unobstructed into Gujarat, where it reached
+the sea. Here the survivals of the old outer language are
+stronger still. The old outer Prakrit of north Gujarat was known
+as &ldquo;Saur&#257;&#7779;&#7789;r&#299;,&rdquo; while the Prakrit of the Midland invaders was
+called &ldquo;&#346;auras&#275;n&#299;,&rdquo; and we may therefore describe Gujarati
+as being an intermediate language derived (as explained in the
+articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span>) from a mixture of the Apabhram&#347;a forms of
+Saur&#257;&#7779;&#7789;r&#299; and &#346;auras&#275;n&#299;, in which the latter predominated.</p>
+
+<p>It will be observed that, at the present day, Gujarati breaks
+the continuity of the outer band of Indo-Aryan languages.
+To its north it has Sindhi and to its south Marathi, both outer
+languages with which it has only a slight connexion. On the
+other hand, on the east and north-east it has Rajasthani, into
+which it merges so gradually and imperceptibly that at the
+conventional border-line, in the state of Palanpur, the inhabitants
+of Rajputana say that the local dialect is a form of Gujarati,
+while the inhabitants of Gujarat say that it is Rajasthani.</p>
+
+<p>Gujarati has no important local dialects, but there is considerable
+variation in the speeches of different classes of the community.
+Parsees and Mussulmans (when the latter
+use the language&mdash;as a rule the Gujarat Mussulmans
+speak Hindostani) have some striking peculiarities of pronunciation,
+<span class="sidenote">Language.</span>
+the most noticeable of which is the disregard by the latter
+of the distinction between cerebral and dental letters. The
+uneducated Hindus do not pronounce the language in the same
+way as their betters, and this difference is accentuated in northern
+Gujarat, where the lower classes substitute <i>&#275;</i> for <i>&#299;</i>, <i>c</i> for <i>k</i>, <i>ch</i> for
+<i>kh</i>, <i>s</i> for <i>c</i> and <i>ch</i>, <i>h</i> for <i>s</i>, and drop <i>h</i> as readily as any cockney.
+There is also (as in the case of the Mussulmans) a tendency to
+confuse cerebral and dental consonants, to substitute <i>r</i> for <i>&#7693;</i> and
+<i>l</i>, to double medial consonants, and to pronounce the letter
+<i>&#257;</i> as <i>å</i>, something like the <i>a</i> in &ldquo;all.&rdquo; The Bhils of the hills
+east of Gujarat also speak a rude Gujarati, with special dialectic
+peculiarities of their own, probably due to the fact that the
+tribes are of Dravidian origin. These Bhil peculiarities are
+further mixed with corruptions of Marathi idioms in Nimar
+and Khandesh, where we have almost a new language.</p>
+
+<p>Rajasthani has numerous dialects, each state claiming one
+or more of its own. Thus, in the state of Jaipur there have been
+catalogued no less than ten dialects among about 1,688,000
+people. All Rajasthani dialects can, however, be easily classed
+in four well-defined groups, a north-eastern, a southern, a
+western and an east-central. The north-eastern (M&#275;w&#257;t&#299;) is
+that form of Rajasthani which is merging into the Western
+Hindi of the Midland. It is a mixed form of speech, and need
+not detain us further. Similarly, the southern (M&#257;lv&#299;) is much
+mixed with the neighbouring Bund&#275;l&#299; form of Western Hindi.
+The western (M&#257;rw&#257;&#7771;&#299;) spoken in Marwar and its neighbourhood,
+and the east-central (Jaipur&#299;) spoken in Jaipur and its neighbourhood,
+may be taken as the typical Rajasthani dialects. In the
+following paragraphs we shall therefore confine ourselves to
+Gujarati, Marwari and Jaipuri.</p>
+
+<p>We know more about the ancient history of Gujarati than we
+do about that of any other Indo-Aryan language. The one
+native grammar of Apabhra&#7745;&#347;a Prakrit which we possess in a
+printed edition, was written by H&#275;macandra (12th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>),
+who lived in what is now north Gujarat, and who naturally
+described most fully the particular vernacular with which he was
+personally familiar. It was known as the N&#257;gara Apabhra&#7745;&#347;a,
+closely connected (as above explained) with &#346;auras&#275;n&#299;, and was
+so named after the N&#257;gara Brahmans of the locality. These
+men carried on the tradition of learning inherited from H&#275;macandra,
+and we see Gujarati almost in the act of taking birth
+in a work called the <i>Mugdh&#257;vab&#333;dhamauktika</i>, written by one
+of them only two hundred years after his death. Formal
+Gujarati literature is said to commence with the poet Narsingh
+M&#275;t&#257; in the 15th century. Rajasthani literature has received
+but small attention from European or native scholars, and we
+are as yet unable to say how far back the language goes.</p>
+
+<p>Both Gujarati and Rajasthani are usually written in current
+scripts related to the well-known N&#257;gar&#299; alphabet (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sanskrit</a></span>).
+The form employed in Rajputana is known all over northern
+India as the &ldquo;Mah&#257;jan&#299;&rdquo; alphabet, being used by bankers or
+<i>Mah&#257;jans</i>, most of whom are Marwaris. It is noteworthy as
+possessing two distinct characters for <i>&#7693;</i> and <i>&#7771;</i>. The Gujarati
+character closely resembles the Kaith&#299; character of northern
+India (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bihari</a></span>). The N&#257;gar&#299; character is also freely used in
+Rajputana, and to a less extent in Gujarat, where it is employed
+by the N&#257;gara Brahmans, who claim that their tribe has given
+the alphabet its name.</p>
+
+<p>In the following description of the main features of our two
+languages, the reader is presumed to be familiar with the leading
+facts stated in the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-Aryan Languages</a></span> and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span>. The article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani</a></span> may also be perused with
+advantage.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>(Abbreviations. Skr. = Sanskrit. Pr. = Prakrit. Ap. = Apabhra&#7745;&#347;a.
+G. = Gujar&#257;t&#299;. R. = R&#257;jasth&#257;n&#299;. H. = Hind&#333;st&#257;an&#299;.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Vocabulary.</i>&mdash;The vocabulary of both Gujarat and Rajasthani is
+very free from <i>tatsama</i> words. The great mass of both vocabularies
+is <i>tadbhava</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-Aryan Languages</a></span>). Rajputana was from
+an early period brought into close contact with the Mogul court at
+Agra and Delhi, and even in the 13th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> official documents
+of the Rajput princes contained many borrowed Persian and Arabic
+words. Gujarati, under the influence of the learned N&#257;gara Brahmans,
+has perhaps more <i>tatsama</i> words than Rajasthani, but their
+employment is not excessive. On the other hand, Parsees and
+Mussulmans employ Persian and Arabic words with great freedom;
+while, owing to its maritime connexions, the language has also
+borrowed occasional words from other parts of Asia and from Europe.
+This is specially marked in the strange dialect of the Kathiawar
+boatmen who travel all over the world as lascars on the great steamships.
+Their language is a mixture of Hindostani and Gujarati
+with a heterogeneous vocabulary.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phonetics.</i>&mdash;With a few exceptions to be mentioned below, the
+sound-system of the two languages is the same as that of Sanskrit,
+and is represented in the same manner in the Roman character
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sanskrit</a></span>). The simplest method for considering the subject
+in regard to Gujarati is to compare it with the phonetical system of
+Hindostani (<i>q.v.</i>). As a rule, Rajasthani closely follows Gujarati
+and need not be referred to except in special cases. G. invariably
+simplifies a medial Pr. double consonant, lengthening the preceding
+vowel in compensation. Thus Skr. <i>mrak&#7779;a&#7751;am</i>, Ap. <i>makkha&#7751;u</i>,
+H. <i>makkhan</i>, but G. <i>m&#257;kha&#7751;</i>, butter. In H. this rule is generally
+observed, but in G. it is universal, while, on the other hand, in
+Panjabi the double consonant is never simplified, but is retained as
+in Ap. In G. (and sometimes in R.) when <i>a</i> is followed by <i>h</i> it is
+changed to <i>e</i>, as in H. <i>shahr</i>, G. <i>&#347;eher</i>, a city. As in other outer
+languages H. <i>ai</i> and <i>au</i> are usually represented by a short <i>e</i> and by
+<i>å</i> (sounded like the <i>a</i> in &ldquo;all&rdquo;) respectively. Thus H. <i>bai&#7789;h&#257;</i>. G.
+<i>be&#7789;h&#333;</i>, seated; H. <i>cauth&#257;</i>, G. <i>cåth&#333;</i> (written <i>c&#333;th&#333;</i>), fourth. In R.
+this <i>e</i> is often further weakened to the sound of <i>a</i> in &ldquo;man,&rdquo; a change
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page711" id="page711"></a>711</span>
+which is also common in Bengali. Many words which have <i>i</i> in H.
+have <i>a</i> in G. and R., thus, H. <i>likh&#275;</i>, G. <i>lakh&#275;</i>, he writes; H. din,
+G. and R. <i>dan</i>, a day. Similarly we have <i>a</i> for <i>u</i>, as in H. <i>tum</i>, G., R.
+<i>tam&#275;</i>, you. In colloquial G. <i>&#257;</i> often becomes <i>&#7843;</i>, and <i>&#299;</i> becomes <i>&#275;</i>; thus,
+<i>p&#7843;&#7751;&#299;</i> for <i>p&#257;&#7751;&#299;</i>, water; <i>m&#257;r&#275;s</i> for <i>m&#257;r&#299;s</i>, I shall strike. As in most
+Indo-Aryan vernaculars an <i>a</i> after an accented syllable is very lightly
+pronounced, and is here represented by a small <span class="sp">a</span> above the line.</p>
+
+<p>The Vedic cerebral <i>l</i> and the cerebral <i>&#7751;</i> are very common as medial
+letters in both G. and R. (both being unknown to literary H.).
+The rule is, as elsewhere in western and southern intermediate
+and outer languages, that when <i>n</i> and <i>l</i> represent
+a double <i>&#7751;&#7751;</i> (or <i>nn</i>) or a double <i>ll</i> in Pr. they are dental,
+but when they represent single medial letters they are
+cerebralized. Thus Ap. <i>so&#7751;&#7751;a&#361;</i>, G. <i>s&#333;n&#361;</i>, gold; Ap.
+<i>gha&#7751;a&#361;</i>, G. <i>gha&#7751;&#361;</i>, dense; Ap. <i>callai</i>, G. <i>c&#257;l&#275;</i>, he goes;
+Ap. <i>calai</i>, G. <i>ca&#7735;&#275;</i>, he moves. In northern G. and in
+some caste dialects dental and cerebral letters are
+absolutely interchangeable, as in <i>&#7693;&#257;h<span class="sp">a</span>d&#333;</i> or
+<i>dah&#257;&#7693;&#333;</i>, a
+day; <i>t&#361;</i> or <i>&#7789;&#361;</i>, thou; <i>d&#299;dh&#333;</i> or <i>d&#299;&#7693;h&#333;</i>, given. In G. and R.
+medial <i>&#7693;</i> is pronounced as a rough cerebral <i>&#7771;</i>, and is
+then so transcribed. We have seen that in the Marwari
+alphabet there are actually distinct letters for these two
+sounds. In colloquial G. <i>c</i> and <i>ch</i> are pronounced <i>s</i>,
+especially in the north, as in <i>p&#7861;s</i> for <i>p&#7861;c</i>, five; <i>pusy&#333;</i>
+for <i>puchy&#333;</i>, he asked. Similarly, in the north, <i>j</i> and <i>jh</i>
+become <i>z</i>, as in <i>z&#257;&#7693;</i> for <i>jh&#257;&#7693;</i>, a tree. In some localities
+(as in Marathi) we have <i>ts</i> and <i>dz</i> for these sounds, as
+in <i>Tsar&#333;tar</i> (name of a tract of country) for <i>Car&#333;tar</i>. On
+the other hand, <i>k</i>, <i>kh</i> and <i>g</i>, especially when preceded or
+followed by <i>i</i>, <i>e</i> or <i>y</i>, become in the north <i>c</i>, <i>ch</i> and <i>j</i>
+respectively; thus, <i>dic<span class="sp">a</span>r&#333;</i> for <i>dik<span class="sp">a</span>r&#333;</i>, a son; <i>ch&#275;tar</i> for
+<i>kh&#275;tar</i>, a field; <i>l&#257;jy&#333;</i> for <i>l&#257;gy&#333;</i>, begun. A similar change
+is found in dialectic Marathi, and is, of course, one of
+the commonplaces of the philology of the Romance
+languages. The sibilants <i>s</i> and <i>&#347;</i> are colloquially pronounced
+<i>h</i> (as in several outer languages), especially in the
+north. Thus <i>d&#275;h</i> for <i>d&#275;&#347;</i>, a country; <i>h&#361;</i> for <i>&#347;&#361;</i>, what; <i>ham<span class="sp">a</span>j&#257;vy&#333;</i>
+for <i>sam<span class="sp">a</span>j&#257;vy&#333;</i>, he explained. An original aspirate
+is, however, often dropped, as in <i>&rsquo;&#361;</i> for <i>h&#361;</i>, I; <i>&rsquo;&#257;t&#275;</i> for
+<i>h&#257;th&#275;</i>, on the hand. Standard G. is at the same time
+fond of pronouncing an <i>h</i> where it is not written, as in
+<i>am&#275;</i>, we, pronounced <i>ahm&#275;</i>. In other respects both G.
+and R. closely agree in their phonetical systems with
+the Apabhra&#7745;&#347;a form of &#346;auras&#275;n&#299; Prakrit from which
+the Midland language is derived.</p>
+
+<p><i>Declension</i>.&mdash;Gujarati agrees with Marathi (an outer
+language) as against Hindostani in retaining the
+neuter gender of Sanskrit and Prakrit. Moreover,
+the neuter gender is often employed to indicate living
+beings of which the sex is uncertain, as in the case of
+<i>dik<span class="sp">a</span>r&#361;</i>, a child, compared with <i>dik<span class="sp">a</span>r&#333;</i>, a son, and
+<i>dik<span class="sp">a</span>r&#299;</i>, a daughter.
+In R. there are only sporadic instances of the neuter, which grow
+more and more rare as we approach the Midland. Nouns in both G.
+and R. may be weak or strong as is fully explained in the article
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani</a></span>. We have there seen that the strong form of masculine
+nouns in Western Hindi generally ends in <i>au</i>, the <i>&#257;</i> of words like
+the Hindostani <i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#257;</i>, a horse, being an accident due to the fact that
+the Hindostani dialect of Western Hindi borrows this termination
+from Panjabi. G. and R. follow Western Hindi, for their masculine
+strong forms end in <i>&#333;</i>. Feminine strong forms end in <i>&#299;</i> as elsewhere.
+Neuter strong forms in G. end in <i>&#361;</i>, derived as follows: Skr, <i>svar&#7751;akam</i>,
+Ap. <i>so&#7751;&#7751;a&#361;</i>, G. <i>s&#333;n&#361;</i>, gold. As an example of the three
+genders of the same word we may take G. <i>ch&#333;k<span class="sp">a</span>r&#333;</i> (masc.), a boy;
+<i>ch&#333;k<span class="sp">a</span>r&#299;</i> (fem.), a girl; <i>ch&#333;k<span class="sp">a</span>r&#361;</i> (neut.), a child. Long forms corresponding
+to the Eastern Hindi <i>gho&#7771;<span class="sp">a</span>w&#257;</i>, a horse, are not much used,
+but we not infrequently meet another long form made by suffixing
+the pleonastic termination <i>&#7693;&#333;</i> or <i>&#7771;&#333;</i> (fem. <i>&#7693;&#299;</i> or
+<i>&#7771;&#299;</i>; G. neut. <i>&#7693;&#361;</i> or <i>&#7771;&#361;</i>)
+which is directly descended from the Ap. pleonastic termination
+<i>&#7693;aü</i>, <i>&#7693;a&#299;</i>, <i>&#7693;a&#361;</i>. We come across this most often in R., where it is used
+contemptuously, as in <i>Turuk-&#7771;&#333;</i>, a Turk.</p>
+
+<p>In the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani</a></span> it is shown that all the oblique cases of
+each number in Sanskrit and Prakrit became melted down in the
+modern languages into one general oblique case, which, in the Midland,
+is derived in the singular from the Ap. termination <i>-hi</i> or <i>-h&#297;</i>, and
+that even this has survived only in the case of strong masculine
+nouns; thus, <i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#257;</i>, obl. <i>gh&#333;&#7771;&#275;</i>. In G. and R. this same termination
+has also survived, but for all nouns as the case sign of the agent and
+locative cases. The general oblique case is the same as the nominative,
+except in the case of strong masculine and neuter nouns in <i>&#333;</i>
+and <i>&#361;</i> respectively, where it ends in <i>&#257;</i>, not <i>&#275;</i>. This <i>&#257;</i>-termination is
+characteristic of the outer band of languages, and is one of the survivals
+already referred to. It is derived from the Apabhra&#7745;&#347;a
+genitive form in <i>-aha</i>, corresponding to the M&#257;gadh&#299; Pr. (an outer
+Prakrit) termination <i>-&#257;ha</i>. Thus, G. <i>ch&#333;k<span class="sp">a</span>r&#333;</i>, a son; <i>ch&#333;k<span class="sp">a</span>r&#361;</i>, a
+child; obl. sing. <i>ch&#333;k<span class="sp">a</span>r&#257;</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In G. the nominative and oblique plural for all nouns are formed
+by adding <i>&#333;</i> to the oblique form singular, but in the neuter strong
+forms the oblique singular is nasalized. The real plural is the same
+in form as the oblique singular in the case of masculines, and as a
+nasalized oblique singular in the case of neuter strong forms, as in
+other modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars, and the added <i>&#333;</i> is a further
+plural termination (making a double plural, exactly as it does in the
+Ardham&#257;gadh&#299; Prakrit <i>putt&#257;-&#333;</i>, sons) which is often dropped. The
+nasalization of the strong neuter plurals is inherited from Ap., in
+which the neuter nom. plural of such nouns ended in -<i>a&#257;&#297;</i> In R.
+the nominative plural of masculine nouns is the same in form as the
+oblique case singular, and the oblique plural ends in <i>&#7851;</i>. The feminine
+has <i>&#7851;</i> both in the nominative and in the oblique plural. These are
+all explained in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani</a></span>. We thus get the following
+paradigms of the declension of nouns.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Apabhra&#7745;&#347;a.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Gujarati.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Rajasthani.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Strong Noun Masc.&mdash;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">&rdquo;<i>A horse.</i>&rdquo; &emsp; Sing. Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;a&#361;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;&#333;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;aaha</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;&#257;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Ag.-Loc.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;aahi</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;&#275;</i>, <i>gh&#333;&#7693;&#257;&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;ai</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Plur. Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;a&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;&#257;-&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;&#257;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;a&#257;h&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;&#257;-&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;&#7851;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Ag.-Loc.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;aah&#297;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;&#257;-&#333;-&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;&#7851;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Strong Noun Neut.&mdash;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">&rdquo;<i>Gold.</i>&rdquo; &emsp; Sing. Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>so&#7751;&#7751;a&#361;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>s&#333;n&#361;</i></td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>so&#7751;&#7751;aaha</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>s&#333;n&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Ag.-Loc.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>so&#7751;&#7751;aahi</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>s&#333;n&#275;</i>, <i>s&#333;n&#257;&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Plur. Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>so&#7751;&#7751;a&#257;&#297;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>s&#333;n&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>so&#7751;&#7751;a&#257;h&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>s&#333;n&#7851;-&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Ag.-Loc.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>so&#7751;&#7751;aah&#297;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>s&#333;n&#7851;-&#333;-&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Strong Noun Fem.&mdash;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">&rdquo;<i>A mare.</i>&rdquo; &emsp; Sing. Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;i&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;&#299;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;&#299;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;iahi</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;&#299;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;&#299;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Ag.-Loc.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;iae</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;&#299;&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;&#299;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Plur. Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;i&#257;-&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;&#299;-&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;y&#7851;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;iahu</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;&#299;-&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;y&#7851;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Ag.-Loc.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;iah&#297;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;&#299;-&#333;-&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gh&#333;&#7693;y&#7851;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Weak Noun Masc. or Neut.&mdash;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">&rdquo;<i>A house.</i>&rdquo;  &emsp;  Sing. Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gharu</i> (neut.)</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gharaha</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Ag.-Loc.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gharahi</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gharai</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Plur. Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar&#257;&#297;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar-&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar&#257;h&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar-&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar&#7851;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Ag.-Loc.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gharah&#297;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar-&#333;-&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar&#7851;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Weak Noun Fem.&mdash;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">&rdquo;<i>A word.</i>&rdquo; &emsp; Sing. Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>vatt&#257;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>w&#257;t</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>b&#257;t</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>vattahi</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>w&#257;t</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>b&#257;t</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Ag.-Loc.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>vattae</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>w&#257;t&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>b&#257;t</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Plur. Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>vatt&#257;-&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>w&#257;t-&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>b&#257;t&#7851;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>vattahu</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>w&#257;t-&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>b&#257;t&#7851;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb bb">Ag.-Loc.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>vattah&#297;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>w&#257;t-&#333;-&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>b&#257;t&#7851;</i></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The general oblique case can be employed for any case except the
+nominative, but, in order to define the meaning, it is customary to
+add postpositions as in Hindostani. These are:</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Genitive.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dative.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Ablative.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Locative.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Gujarati</td> <td class="tcc rb"><i>n&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcc rb"><i>n&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcc rb"><i>th&#299;</i></td> <td class="tcc rb"><i>m&#7851;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Rajasthani</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"><i>r&#333;</i>, <i>k&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcc rb bb"><i>nai</i>, <i>rai</i>, <i>kai</i></td> <td class="tcc rb bb"><i>s<span class="ov">&#361;</span></i></td> <td class="tcc rb bb"><i>ma&#299;</i></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The suffix <i>n&#333;</i> of the genitive is believed to be a contraction of
+<i>ta&#7751;&#333;</i>, which is found in old Gujarati poetry, and which, under the
+form <i>tanas</i> in Sanskrit and <i>ta&#7751;aü</i> in Apabhra&#7745;&#347;a, mean &ldquo;belonging
+to.&rdquo; It is an adjective, and agrees in gender, number and case with
+the thing possessed. Thus, <i>r&#257;j&#257;-n&#333; dik<span class="sp">a</span>r&#333;</i>, the king&rsquo;s son; <i>r&#257;j&#257;-n&#299;
+dik<span class="sp">a</span>r&#299;</i>, the king&rsquo;s daughter; <i>r&#257;j&#257;-n&#361; ghar</i>, the king&rsquo;s house; <i>r&#257;j&#257;-n&#257;
+dik<span class="sp">a</span>r&#257;-n&#275;</i>, to the king&rsquo;s son (<i>n&#257;</i> is in the oblique case masculine to
+agree with <i>dik<span class="sp">a</span>r&#257;</i>); <i>r&#257;j&#257;-n&#275; ghar&#275;</i>, in the king&rsquo;s house. The <i>r&#333;</i> and
+<i>k&#333;</i> of R. are similarly treated, but, of course, have no neuter. The
+dative postpositions are simply locatives of the genitive ones, as in
+all modern Indo-Aryan languages (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani</a></span>). <i>Th&#299;</i>, the postposition
+of the G. ablative, is connected with <i>thaw&#361;</i>, to be, one of the
+verbs substantive in that language. The ablative suffix is made in
+this way in many modern Indo-Aryan languages (<i>e.g.</i> Bengali, <i>q.v.</i>).
+It means literally &ldquo;having been&rdquo; and is to be ultimately referred
+to the Sanskrit root, <i>sth&#257;</i>, stand. The derivation of the other
+postpositions is discussed in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>Strong adjectives agree with the nouns they qualify in gender,
+number and case, as in the examples of the genitive above. Weak
+adjectives are immutable.</p>
+
+<p>Pronouns closely agree with those found in Hindostani. In the
+table on following page we give the first two personal pronouns,
+and the demonstrative pronoun &ldquo;this.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Similarly are formed the remaining pronouns, viz. G. <i>&#257;</i>, R. <i>&#361;</i>, he,
+that; G. <i>t&#275;</i>, R. <i>s&#333;</i> (obl. sing. <i>t<span class="ov">&#297;</span></i>), that; G. <i>j&#275;</i>, R. <i>j&#333;</i>, who; G. <i>k&#7843;&#7751;</i>
+(obl. <i>k&#7843;&#7751;</i>, <i>k&#333;</i>, or <i>k&#275;</i>), R. <i>ku&#7751;</i> (obl. <i>ku&#7751;</i>), who?; G. <i>&#347;&#361;</i>, R. <i>k&#7861;<span class="ov">&#297;</span></i>, what?;
+G., R. <i>k&#333;&#299;</i>, anyone, someone, <i>k&#257;<span class="ov">&#297;</span></i> anything, something. G. has two
+other demonstratives, <i>p&#275;l&#333;</i> and <i>&#333;ly&#333;</i>, both meaning &ldquo;that.&rdquo; The
+derivation of these and of <i>&#347;&#361;</i> has been discussed without any decisive
+result. The rest are explained in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani</a></span>. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page712" id="page712"></a>712</span>
+reflexive pronoun is G. <i>&#257;p<span class="sp">a</span>&#7751;&#275;</i>, R. <i>&#257;p&#7851;</i>. It is generally employed as a
+plural of the first personal pronoun including the person addressed;
+thus G. <i>&#257;p<span class="sp">a</span>&#7751;&#275;</i>, we (including you), but <i>am&#275;</i>, we (excluding you).
+In G. <i>p&#333;t&#275;</i>, obl. <i>p&#333;t&#257;</i>, is used to mean &ldquo;self.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Apabhra&#7745;&#347;a.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Gujarati.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Rajasthani.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">i</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ha&#361;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>h&#361;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>h<span class="ov">&#361;</span>, mh<span class="ov">&#361;</span>, ma&#299;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ma&#297;, mahu, majjhu</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ma, maj</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ma, mha, m<span class="ov">&#361;</span></i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">my</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>mah&#257;raü</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>m&#257;r&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>m&#257;r&#333;, mh&#257;r&#333;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">we</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>amh&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>am&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>mh&#275;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>amhahã</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>am-&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>mh&#7851;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">our</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>amh&#257;raü</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>am&#257;r&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>mh&#7851;-r&#333;, mh&#7851;-k&#333;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">thou</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tuh&#361;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>t&#361;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>t<span class="ov">&#361;</span></i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ta&#297;, tuha, tujjhu</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ta, tuj</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ta, tha, t<span class="ov">&#361;</span></i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">thy</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tuh&#257;raü</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>t&#257;r&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>th&#257;r&#333;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">you</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tumh&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tam&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>th&#275;, tam&#275;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tumhahã</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tam-&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>th&#7851;, tam&#7851;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">your</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tumh&#257;raü</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tam&#257;r&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>th&#7851;-r&#333;, th&#7851;-k&#333;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">this, he</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&#275;ho</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>y&#333;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb">(?) <i>&#275;haha, imaha</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i><span class="ov">&#297;</span></i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">these, they</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&#275;i</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&#275;-&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>&#275;, y&#275;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>&#275;ammi, &#275;h&#257;&#7751;a</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>em</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>i&#7751;&#7851;, y&#7851;</i>.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Conjugation</i>.&mdash;The old present has survived as in Hindostani and
+other Indian languages. Taking the base <i>call</i> or <i>ca&#7735;</i>, go, as our model,
+we have:</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Apabhra&#7745;&#347;a.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Gujarati.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Rajasthani.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">Sing.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calla&#361;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>c&#257;l&#361;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ca&#7735;<span class="ov">&#361;</span></i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callahi</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>c&#257;l&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ca&#7735;ai</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callai</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>c&#257;l&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ca&#7735;ai</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">Plur.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callah&#361;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>c&#257;l&#299;&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ca&#7735;&#7851;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callahu</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>c&#257;l&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ca&#7735;&#333;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>callah&#297;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>c&#257;l&#275;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>ca&#7735;ai</i></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The derivation of the G. 1 plural is unknown. That of the other
+G. and R. forms is manifest. The imperative closely follows this,
+but as usual has no termination in the second person singular.</p>
+
+<p>In R. the future may be formed by adding <i>g&#333;</i> (cf. Hindostani <i>g&#257;</i>),
+<i>l&#333;</i>, or <i>l&#257;</i> to the old present. Thus, <i>ca&#7735;<span class="ov">&#361;</span>-g&#333;</i>,
+<i>ca&#7735;<span class="ov">&#361;</span>-lo</i> or <i>cal<span class="ov">&#361;</span>-l&#257;</i> I shall
+go. The <i>g&#333;</i> and <i>l&#333;</i> agree in gender and number with the subject,
+but <i>l&#257;</i> is immutable. The termination with <i>l</i> is also found in Bhojpuri
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bihari</a></span>), in Marathi and in Nepali. For <i>g&#333;</i> see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani</a></span>.
+Another form of the future has <i>s</i> or <i>h</i> for its characteristic letter,
+and is the only one employed in G. Thus, Ap. <i>callisa&#361;</i> or
+<i>calliha&#361;</i>,
+G. <i>c&#257;l&#299;&#347;</i>, R. (Jaipuri) <i>ca&#7735;<span class="sp">a</span>sy<span class="ov">&#361;</span></i>, (Marwari)
+<i>ca&#7735;<span class="sp">a</span>h&#361;</i>. The other personal
+terminations differ considerably from those of the old present, and
+closely follow Ap. Thus, Ap. 3 sing. <i>callisai</i> or <i>callihi</i>, G.
+<i>c&#257;l<span class="sp">a</span>&#347;&#275;</i>,
+Marwari <i>ca&#7735;<span class="sp">a</span>h&#299;</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The participles and infinitive are as follows:</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Apabhra&#7745;&#347;a.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Gujarati.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Rajasthani.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pres. Part. Active</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callantau</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>c&#257;l<span class="sp">a</span>t&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ca&#7735;<span class="sp">a</span>t&#333;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Past. Part. Passive</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calliau</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>c&#257;ly&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ca&#7735;y&#333;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Future Part. Passive</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calliavvau</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>c&#257;l<span class="sp">a</span>v&#333;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ca&#7735;<span class="sp">a</span>b&#333;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Infinitive</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>c&#257;l<span class="sp">a</span>v&#361;</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>ca&#7735;<span class="sp">a</span>b&#333;</i></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In G. the infinitive is simply the neuter of the future passive
+participle. The participles are employed to form finite tenses;
+thus G. <i>h&#361; c&#257;l<span class="sp">a</span>t&#333;</i>, I used to go; <i>h&#361; c&#257;ly&#333;</i>, I went. If the verb is
+transitive (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani</a></span>) the passive meaning of the past participle
+comes into force. The subject is put into the case of the agent, and
+the participle inflects to agree with the object, or, if there is no object,
+is employed impersonally in the neuter (in G.) or in the masculine
+(in R.). In Hindostani, if the object is expressed in the dative, the
+participle is also employed impersonally, in the masculine; thus
+<i>r&#257;j&#257;-n&#275; sh&#275;rn&#299;-k&#333; m&#257;r&#257;</i> (masc.), not <i>m&#257;r&#299;</i>, (fem.), by-the-king, with
+reference-to-the-tigress, it-(impersonal)-was-killed, <i>i.e.</i> the king killed
+the tigress. But in G. and R., even if the object is in the dative,
+the past participle agrees with it; thus, G. <i>r&#257;j&#257;&#275; w&#257;gha&#7751;-n&#275; m&#257;r&#299;</i>,
+by-the-king, with-reference-to-the-tigress, she-was-killed. Other
+examples from G. of this passive construction are <i>m<span class="ov">&#7869;</span> kahy&#361;</i>, by
+me it was said, I said; <i>t&#275;&#7751;&#275; ci&#7789;&#7789;h&#299; lakh&#299;</i>, by him a letter was written,
+he wrote a letter; <i>&#275; b&#257;&#299;&#275; vag<span class="sp">a</span>&#7693;&#257;-m&#7851;,
+dah&#257;&#7693;&#257; k&#257;&#7693;y&#257;</i>, by this lady, in the
+wilderness, days were passed, <i>i.e.</i> she passed her days in the wilderness;
+<i>r&#257;j&#257;&#275; vic&#257;ry&#361;</i>, the king considered. The idiom of R. is exactly
+the same in these cases, except that the masculine must be used
+where G. has the neuter; thus, <i>r&#257;j&#257;ai vic&#257;ryo</i>. The future passive
+participle is construed in much the same way, but (as in Latin) the
+subject may be put into the dative. Thus, <i>m&#257;r&#275; &#257; cåp<span class="sp">a</span>&#7693;&#299; v&#7851;c<span class="sp">a</span>v&#299;, mihi
+ille liber (est) legendus</i>, I must read that book, but also <i>t&#275;&#7751;&#275;</i> (agent
+case) <i>&#275; k&#257;m kar<span class="sp">a</span>v&#361;</i>, by him this business is to be done.</p>
+
+<p>G. also forms a past participle in <i>&#275;l&#333;</i> (<i>c&#257;l&#275;l&#333;</i>), which is one of the
+many survivals of the outer language. This -<i>l</i>- participle is typical
+of most of the languages of the outer band, including Marathi, Oriya,
+Bengali, Bihari and Assamese. It is formed by the addition of the
+Prakrit pleonastic suffix <i>-illa-</i>, which was not used by the Prakrit
+of the Midland, but was common elsewhere. Compare, for instance,
+the Ardham&#257;gadh&#299; past participle passive <i>&#257;&#7751;-illia-</i>, brought.</p>
+
+<p>The usual verbs substantive are as follows: G. <i>ch&#361;</i>, R. <i>h<span class="ov">&#361;</span></i> or <i>ch<span class="ov">&#361;</span></i>,
+I am, which are conjugated regularly as old presents, and G. <i>hat&#333;</i>,
+R. <i>h&#333;</i> or <i>ch&#333;</i>, was, which is a past participle, like the Hindostani
+(<i>q.v.</i>) <i>th&#257;</i>. <i>H<span class="ov">&#361;</span></i>, <i>hat&#333;</i> and <i>h&#333;</i> are explained in the article on that
+language. <i>Ch&#361;</i> is for Skr. <i>&#7769;cch&#257;mi</i>, Ap. <i>accha&#361;</i>. The use of this base
+is one of the outer band survivals. Even in Prakrit, it is not found
+(so far as the present writer is aware) in the &#346;auras&#275;n&#299; of the Midland.
+Using these as auxiliaries the finite verb makes a whole series of
+periphrastic tenses. A present definite is formed by conjugating the
+old present tense (not the present participle) with the present tense
+of the verb substantive. Thus, G. <i>c&#257;l&#361; ch&#361;</i>, I am going. A similar
+idiom is found in some Western Hindi dialects, but Hindostani employs
+the present participle; thus, <i>calt&#257; h<span class="ov">&#361;</span></i>. In G. and R., however,
+the imperfect is formed with the present participle as in H. Thus,
+G. <i>h&#361; c&#257;l<span class="sp">a</span>t&#333; hat&#333;</i>, I was going. So, as in H., we have a perfect
+<i>h&#361; c&#257;ly&#333;</i> (or <i>c&#257;l&#275;l&#333;</i>) <i>ch&#361;</i>, I have gone, and a pluperfect <i>h&#361; c&#257;ly&#333;</i> (or
+<i>c&#257;l&#275;l&#333;</i>) <i>hat&#333;</i>, I had gone. The R. periphrastic tenses are made on the
+same principles. With the genitive of the G. future passive participle,
+<i>c&#257;l<span class="sp">a</span>v&#257;-n&#333;</i>, we have a kind of gerundive, as in <i>h&#361; c&#257;l<span class="sp">a</span>v&#257;n&#333; ch&#361;</i>, I am
+to be gone, <i>i.e.</i> I am about to go; <i>h&#361; c&#257;l<span class="sp">a</span>v&#257;n&#333; hat&#333;</i>, I was about to go.</p>
+
+<p>The same series of derivative verbs occurs in G. and R. as in H.
+Thus, we have a potential passive (a simple passive in G.) formed by
+adding <i>&#257;</i> to the base, as in G. <i>lakh<span class="sp">a</span>v&#361;</i>, to write, <i>lakh&#257;v&#361;</i>, to be written;
+and a causal by adding <i>&#257;v</i> or <i>&#257;&#7693;</i>, as in <i>lakh&#257;v<span class="sp">a</span>v&#361;</i>, to cause to write;
+<i>bes<span class="sp">a</span>v&#361;</i>, to sit, <i>bes&#257;&#7693;<span class="sp">a</span>v&#361;</i>, to seat. A new passive may be formed in
+G. from the causal, as in <i>tap<span class="sp">a</span>v&#361;</i>, to be hot; <i>tap&#257;v<span class="sp">a</span>v&#361;</i>, to cause to be
+hot; to heat; <i>tap&#257;v&#257;v&#361;</i>, to be heated.</p>
+
+<p>Several verbs have irregular past participles. These must be
+learnt from the grammars. So also the numerous compound verbs,
+such as (G.) <i>c&#257;l&#299; &#347;ak<span class="sp">a</span>v&#361;</i>, to be able to go; <i>c&#257;l&#299; cuk<span class="sp">a</span>v&#361;</i>, to have completed
+going; <i>c&#257;ly&#257; kar<span class="sp">a</span>v&#361;</i>, to be in the habit of going, and so on.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Very little is known about the literature of Rajputana, except
+that it is of large extent. It includes a number of bardic chronicles
+of which only one has been partially edited, but the
+contents of which have been described by Tod in his
+admired <i>Rajasthan</i>. It also includes a considerable religious
+<span class="sidenote">Literature.</span>
+literature, but the whole mass of this is still in MS. From those
+specimens which the present writer has examined, it would
+appear that most of the authors wrote in Braj Bhasha, the
+Hindu literary dialect of Hindostani (<i>q.v.</i>) In Marwar it is an
+acknowledged fact that the literature falls into two branches,
+one called <i>Pingal</i> and couched in Braj Bhasha, and the other
+called <i>&#7692;ingal</i> and couched in Rajasthani. The most admired
+work in &#7692;ingal is the <i>Raghun&#257;th R&#361;pak</i> written by Mans&#257; R&#257;m
+in the beginning of the 19th century. It is nominally a treatise
+on prosody, but, like many other works of the same kind, it
+contrives to pay a double debt, for the examples of the metres
+are so arranged as to form a complete epic poem celebrating the
+deeds of the hero R&#257;ma.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest writer of importance in Gujarati, and its most
+admired poet, was Narsingh M&#275;t&#257;, who lived in the 15th
+century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Before him there were writers on Sanskrit grammar,
+rhetoric and the like, who employed an old form of Gujarati
+for their explanations. Narsingh does not appear to have
+written any considerable work, his reputation depending on his
+short songs, many of which exhibit much felicity of diction.
+He had several successors, all admittedly his inferiors. Perhaps
+the most noteworthy of these was R&#275;w&#257; &#346;ankar, the translator
+of the <i>Mah&#257;bh&#257;rata</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sanskrit</a></span>: <i>Literature</i>). A more
+important side of Gujarati literature is its bardic chronicles,
+the contents of which have been utilized by Forbes in his <i>R&#257;s
+M&#257;l&#257;</i>. Modern Gujarati literature mostly consists of translations
+or imitations of English works.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Volume ix. of the <i>Linguistic Survey of India</i>
+contains a full and complete account of Gujarati and Rajasthani,
+including their various dialectic forms.</p>
+
+<p>For Rajasthani, see S. H. Kellogg, <i>Grammar of the Hindi Language</i>
+(2nd ed., London, 1893). In this are described several dialects of
+Rajasthani. See also R&#257;m Kar&#7751; &#346;arm&#257;, <i>M&#257;rw&#257;&#7771;i Vy&#257;kara&#7751;a</i>
+(Jodhpur, 1901) (a Marwari grammar written in that language),
+and G. Macalister, <i>Specimens of the Dialects spoken in the State of
+Jaipur</i> (contains specimens, vocabularies and grammars) (Allahabad,
+1898).</p>
+
+<p>For Gujarati, there are numerous grammars, amongst which we
+may note W. St C. Tisdall, <i>Simplified Grammar of the Gujarati
+Language</i> (London, 1892) and (the most complete) G. P. Taylor,
+<i>The Student&rsquo;s Gujarati Grammar</i> (2nd ed., Bombay, 1908). As for
+dictionaries, the most authoritative is the <i>Narma-k&#333;&#347;</i> of Narmad&#257;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page713" id="page713"></a>713</span>
+&#346;ankar (Bhaunagar and Surat, 1873), in Gujarati throughout. For
+English readers we may mention Shahpurji Edalji&rsquo;s (2nd ed.,
+Bombay, 1868), the introduction to which contains an account of
+Gujarati literature by J. Glasgow, Belsare&rsquo;s (Ahmedabad, 1895), and
+Karbhari&rsquo;s (Ahmedabad, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. A. Gr.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUJRANWALA,<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the
+Lahore division of the Punjab. The town is situated 40 m. N.
+of Lahore by rail. It is of modern growth, and owes its importance
+to the father and grandfather of Maharaja Ranjit Singh,
+whose capital it formed during the early period of the Sikh
+power. Pop. (1901) 29,224. There are manufactures of brass-ware,
+jewellery, and silk and cotton scarves.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">District</span> comprises an area of 3198 sq. m. In 1901 the
+population was 756,797, showing an increase of 29% in the
+decade. The district is divided between a low alluvial tract
+along the rivers Chenab and Degh and the upland between them,
+which forms the central portion of the Rechna Doab, intermediate
+between the fertile submontane plains of Sialkot and
+the desert expanses of Jhang. Part of the upland tract has been
+brought under cultivation by the Chenab canal. The country
+is very bare of trees, and the scenery throughout is tame and in
+the central plateau becomes monotonous. It seems likely that
+the district once contained the capital of the Punjab, at an epoch
+when Lahore had not begun to exist. We learn from the Chinese
+Buddhist pilgrim, Hsuan Tsang, that about the year 630 he
+visited a town known as Tse-kia (or Taki), the metropolis of the
+whole country of the five rivers. A mound near the modern
+village of Asarur has been identified as the site of the ancient
+capital. Until the Mahommedan invasions little is known of
+Gujranwala, except that Taki had fallen into oblivion and Lahore
+had become the chief city. Under Mahommedan rule the district
+flourished for a time; but a mysterious depopulation fell upon
+the tract, and the whole region seems to have been almost
+entirely abandoned. On the rise of Sikh power, the waste plains
+of Gujranwala were seized by various military adventurers.
+Charat Singh took-possession of the village of Gujranwala, and
+here his grandson the great Maharaja Ranjit Singh was born.
+The Sikh rule, which was elsewhere so disastrous, appears to
+have been an unmitigated benefit to this district. Ranjit Singh
+settled large colonies in the various villages, and encouraged
+cultivation throughout the depopulated plain. In 1847 the
+district came under British influence in connexion with the
+regency at Lahore; and in 1849 it was included in the territory
+annexed after the second Sikh war. A large export trade is
+carried on in cotton, wheat and other grains. The district is
+served by the main line and branches of the North-Western
+railway.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUJRAT,<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the Rawalpindi
+division of the Punjab, lying on the south-western border
+of Kashmir. The town stands about 5 m. from the right bank
+of the river Chenab, 70 m. N. of Lahore by rail. Pop. (1901)
+19,410. It is built upon an ancient site, formerly occupied,
+according to tradition, by two successive cities, the second of
+which is supposed to have been destroyed in 1303, the year of
+a Mongol invasion. More than 200 years later either Sher Shah
+or Akbar founded the existing town. Though standing in the
+midst of a Jat neighbourhood, the fort was first garrisoned by
+Gujars, and took the name of Gujrat. Akbar&rsquo;s fort, largely
+improved by Gujar Singh, stands in the centre of the town.
+The neighbouring shrine of the saint Shah Daula serves
+as a kind of native asylum for lunatics. The town has manufactures
+of furniture, inlaid work in gold and iron, brass-ware,
+boots, cotton goods and shawls.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">District of Gujrat</span> comprises a narrow wedge of sub-Himalayan
+plain country, possessing few natural advantages.
+From the basin of the Chenab on the south the general level
+rises rapidly towards the interior, which, owing to the great
+distance of the water beneath the surface, assumes a dreary
+and desert aspect. A range of low hills, known as the Pabbi,
+traverses the northern angle of Gujrat. They are composed
+of a friable Tertiary sandstone and conglomerate, destitute of
+vegetation, and presenting a mere barren chaos of naked rock,
+deeply scored with precipitous ravines. Immediately below the
+Pabbi stretches a high plateau, terminating abruptly in a precipitous
+bluff some 200 ft. in height. At the foot of this plateau
+is a plain, which forms the actual valley of the Chenab and
+participates in the irrigation from the river bed.</p>
+
+<p>Numerous relics of antiquity stud the surface of the district.
+Mounds of ancient construction yield early coins, and bricks are
+found whose size and type prove them to belong to the prehistoric
+period. A mound now occupied by the village of Moga
+or Mong has been identified as the site of Nicaea, the city built
+by Alexander the Great on the field of his victory over Porus.
+The Delhi empire established its authority in this district under
+Bahlol Lodi (1451-1489). A century later it was visited by
+Akbar, who founded Gujrat as the seat of government. During
+the decay of the Mogul power, the Ghakkars of Rawalpindi
+overran this portion of the Punjab and established themselves in
+Gujrat about 1741. Meanwhile the Sikh power had been asserting
+itself in the eastern Punjab, and in 1765 the Ghakkar chief
+was defeated by Sirdar Gujar Singh, chief of the Bhangi confederacy.
+On his death, his son succeeded him, but after a
+few months&rsquo; warfare, in 1798, he submitted himself as vassal
+to the Maharaja Ranjit Singh. In 1846 Gujrat first came under
+the supervision of British officials. Two years later the district
+became the theatre for the important engagements which decided
+the event of the second Sikh war. After several bloody battles
+in which the British were unsuccessful, the Sikh power was
+irretrievably broken at the engagement which took place at
+Gujrat on the 22nd of February 1849. The Punjab then passed
+by annexation under British rule.</p>
+
+<p>The district comprises an area of 2051 sq. m. In 1901 the
+population was 750,548, showing a decrease of 1%, compared
+with an increase of 10% in the previous decade. The district
+has a large export trade in wheat and other grains, oil, wool,
+cotton and hides. The main line and the Sind-Sagar branch
+of the North-Western railway traverse it.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GULA,<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> a Babylonian goddess, the consort of Ninib. She is
+identical with another goddess, known as Bau, though it would
+seem that the two were originally independent. The name Bau
+is more common in the oldest period and gives way in the post-Khammurabic
+age to Gula. Since it is probable that Ninib (<i>q.v.</i>)
+has absorbed the cults of minor sun-deities, the two names may
+represent consorts of different gods. However this may be, the
+qualities of both are alike, and the two occur as synonymous
+designations of Ninib&rsquo;s female consort. Other names borne by
+this goddess are Nin-Karrak, Ga-tum-dug and Nin-din-dug,
+the latter signifying &ldquo;the lady who restores to life.&rdquo; The
+designation well emphasizes the chief trait of Bau-Gula which is
+that of healer. She is often spoken of as &ldquo;the great physician,&rdquo;
+and accordingly plays a specially prominent rôle in incantations
+and incantation rituals intended to relieve those suffering from
+disease. She is, however, also invoked to curse those who
+trample upon the rights of rulers or those who do wrong with
+poisonous potions. As in the case of Ninib, the cult of Bau-Gula
+is prominent in Shirgulla and in Nippur. While generally in
+close association with her consort, she is also invoked by herself,
+and thus retains a larger measure of independence than most
+of the goddesses of Babylonia and Assyria. She appears in a
+prominent position on the designs accompanying the Kudurrus
+boundary-stone monuments of Babylonia, being represented
+by a statue, when other gods and goddesses are merely pictured
+by their shrines, by sacred animals or by weapons. In neo-Babylonian
+days her cult continues to occupy a prominent
+position, and Nebuchadrezzar II. speaks of no less than
+three chapels or shrines within the sacred precincts of E-Zida
+in the city of Borsippa, besides a temple in her honour at
+Babylon.</p>
+<div class="author">(M. Ja.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GULBARGA,<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> an ancient city of India, situated in the Nizam&rsquo;s
+dominions, 70 m. S.E. of Sholapur. Pop. (1901) 29,228. Originally
+a Hindu city, it was made the capital of the Bahmani kings
+when that dynasty established their independence in the Deccan
+in 1347, and it remained such until 1422. The palaces, mosques
+and tombs of these kings still stand half-ruined. The most
+notable building is a mosque modelled after that of Cordova
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page714" id="page714"></a>714</span>
+in Spain, covering an area of 38,000 sq. ft., which is almost
+unique in India as being entirely covered in. Since the opening
+of a station on the Great India Peninsula railway, Gulbarga
+has become a centre of trade, with cotton-spinning and weaving
+mills. It is also the headquarters of a district and division of the
+same name. The district, as recently reconstituted, has an area
+of 6004 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 1,041,067.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GULF STREAM,<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span><a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the name properly applied to the stream
+current which issues from the Gulf of Mexico and flows north-eastward,
+following the eastern coast of North America, and
+separated from it by a narrow strip of cold water (the <i>Cold Wall</i>),
+to a point east of the Grand Banks off Newfoundland. The
+Gulf Stream is a narrow, deep current, and its velocity is estimated
+at about 80 m. a day. It is joined by, and often indistinguishable
+from, a large body of water which comes from
+outside the West Indies and follows the same course. The term
+was formerly applied to the drift current which carries the mixed
+waters of the Gulf Stream and the Labrador current eastwards
+across the Atlantic. This is now usually known as the &ldquo;Gulf
+Stream drift,&rdquo; although the name is not altogether appropriate.
+See Atlantic.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word &ldquo;gulf,&rdquo; a portion of the sea partially enclosed by the
+coast-line, and usually taken as referring to a tract of water larger
+than a bay and smaller than a sea, is derived through the Fr. <i>golfe</i>,
+from Late Gr. <span class="grk" title="kolphos">&#954;&#972;&#955;&#966;&#959;&#962;</span>, class. Gr. <span class="grk" title="kolpos">&#954;&#972;&#955;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span>, bosom, hence bay, cf. Lat.
+sinus. In University slang, the term is used of the position of those
+who fail to obtain a place in the honours list at a public examination,
+but are allowed a &ldquo;pass.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GULFWEED,<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> in botany, a popular name for the seaweed
+<i>Sargassum bacciferum</i>, one of the brown seaweeds (Phaeophyceae),
+large quantities of which are found floating in the Gulf of Mexico,
+whence it is carried northwards by the Gulf Stream, small
+portions sometimes being borne as far as the coasts of the British
+Isles. It was observed by Columbus, and is remarkable among
+seaweeds for its form, which resembles branches bearing leaves and
+berries; the latter, to which the species-name <i>bacciferum</i> refers,
+are hollow floats answering the same purpose as the bladders
+in another brown seaweed, <i>Fucus vesiculosus</i>, which is common
+round the British Isles between high and low water.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GULL, SIR WILLIAM WITHEY,<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> 1st Bart. (1816-1890),
+English physician, was the youngest son of John Gull, a barge-owner
+and wharfinger of Thorpe-le-Soken, Essex, and was born
+on the 31st of December 1816 at Colchester. He began life
+as a schoolmaster, but in 1837 Benjamin Harrison, the treasurer
+of Guy&rsquo;s Hospital, who had noticed his ability, brought him up
+to London from the school at Lewes where he was usher, and
+gave him employment at the hospital, where he also gained
+permission to attend the lectures. In 1843 he was made a
+lecturer in the medical school of the hospital, in 1851 he was
+chosen an assistant physician, and in 1856 he became full
+physician. In 1847 he was elected Fullerian professor of
+physiology in the Royal Institution, retaining the post for the
+usual three years, and in 1848 he delivered the Gulstonian
+Lectures at the College of Physicians, where he filled every office
+of honour but that of president. He died in London on the 29th
+of January 1890 after a series of paralytic strokes, the first of
+which had occurred nearly three years previously. He was
+created a baronet in 1872, in recognition of the skill and care he
+had shown in attending the prince of Wales during his attack
+of typhoid in 1871. Sir William Gull&rsquo;s fame rested mainly on
+his success as a clinical practitioner; as he said himself, he was
+&ldquo;a clinical physician or nothing.&rdquo; This success must be largely
+ascribed to his remarkable powers of observation, and to the
+great opportunities he enjoyed for gaining experience of disease.
+He was sometimes accused of being a disbeliever in drugs.
+That was not the case, for he prescribed drugs like other
+physicians when he considered them likely to be beneficial.
+He felt, however, that their administration was only a part of
+the physician&rsquo;s duties, and his mental honesty and outspokenness
+prevented him from deluding either himself or his patients with
+unwarranted notions of what they can do. But though he
+regarded medicine as primarily an art for the relief of physical
+suffering, he was far from disregarding the scientific side of his
+profession, and he made some real contributions to medical
+science. His papers were printed chiefly in <i>Guy&rsquo;s Hospital
+Reports</i> and in the proceedings of learned societies: among the
+subjects he wrote about were cholera, rheumatic fever, taenia,
+paraplegia and abscess of the brain, while he distinguished for
+the first time (1873) the disease now known as myxoedema,
+describing it as a &ldquo;cretinoid state in adults.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GULL<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (Welsh <i>gwylan</i>, Breton, <i>goelann</i>, whence Fr. <i>goêland</i>),
+the name commonly adopted, to the almost entire exclusion
+of the O. Eng. <span class="sc">Mew</span> (Icel. <i>máfur</i>, Dan. <i>maage</i>, Swedish
+<i>måse</i>, Ger. <i>Meve</i>, Dutch <i>meeuw</i>, Fr. <i>mouette</i>), for a group
+of sea-birds widely and commonly known, all belonging to the
+genus <i>Larus</i> of Linnaeus, which subsequent systematists have
+broken up in a very arbitrary and often absurd fashion. The
+family <i>Laridae</i> is composed of two chief groups, <i>Larinae</i> and
+<i>Sterninae</i>&mdash;the gulls and the terns, though two other subfamilies
+are frequently counted, the skuas (<i>Stercorariinae</i>), and that
+formed by the single genus <i>Rhynchops</i>, the skimmers; but
+there seems no strong reason why the former should not be
+referred to the <i>Larinae</i> and the latter to the <i>Sterninae</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Taking the gulls in their restricted sense, Howard Saunders,
+who has subjected the group to a rigorous revision (<i>Proc. Zool.
+Society</i>, 1878, pp. 155-211), admits forty-nine species of them,
+which he places in five genera instead of the many which some
+prior investigators had sought to establish. Of the genera
+recognized by him, <i>Pagophila</i> and <i>Rhodostethia</i> have but one
+species each, <i>Rissa</i> and <i>Xema</i> two, while the rest belong to <i>Larus</i>.
+The <i>Pagophila</i> is the so-called ivory-gull, <i>P. eburnea</i>, names
+which hardly do justice to the extreme whiteness of its plumage,
+to which its jet-black legs offer a strong contrast. The young,
+however, are spotted with black. An inhabitant of the most
+northern seas, examples, most commonly young birds of the
+year, find their way in winter to more temperate shores. Its
+breeding-place has seldom been discovered, and the first of its
+eggs ever seen by ornithologists was brought home by Sir L.
+M&rsquo;Clintock in 1853 from Cape Krabbe (<i>Journ. R. Dubl. Society</i>,
+i. 60, pl. 1); others were subsequently obtained by Dr Malmgren
+in Spitsbergen. Of the species of <i>Rissa</i>, one is the abundant
+and well-known kittiwake, <i>R. tridactyla</i>, of circumpolar range,
+breeding, however, also in comparatively low latitudes, as on
+the coasts of Britain, and in winter frequenting southern waters.
+The other is <i>R. brevirostris</i>, limited to the North Pacific, between
+Alaska and Kamchatka. The singular fact requires to be noticed
+that in both these species the hind toe is generally deficient,
+but that examples of each are occasionally found in which this
+functionless member has not wholly disappeared. We have
+then the genus <i>Larus</i>, which ornithologists have attempted most
+unsuccessfully to subdivide. It contains the largest as well as
+the smallest of gulls. In some species the adults assume a dark-coloured
+head every breeding-season, in others any trace of dark
+colour is the mark of immaturity. The larger species prey fiercely
+on other kinds of birds, while the smaller content themselves
+with a diet of small animals, often insects and worms. But
+however diverse be the appearance, structure or habits of the
+extremities of the series of species, they are so closely connected
+by intermediate forms that it is hard to find a gap between them
+that would justify a generic division. Forty-three species of
+this genus are recognized by Saunders. About fifteen belong to
+Europe and fourteen to North America, of which (excluding
+stragglers) some five only are common to both countries. Our
+knowledge of the geographical distribution of several of them
+is still incomplete. Some have a very wide range, others very
+much the reverse, as witness <i>L. fuliginosus</i>, believed to be
+confined to the Galapagos, and <i>L. scopulinus</i> and <i>L. bulleri</i> to
+New Zealand,&mdash;the last indeed perhaps only to the South Island.
+The largest species of the group are the glaucous gull and greater
+black-backed gull, <i>L. glaucus</i> and <i>L. marinus</i>, of which the former
+is circumpolar, and the latter nearly so&mdash;not being hitherto found
+between Labrador and Japan. The smallest species is the
+European <i>L. minutus</i>, though the North American <i>L. Philadelphia</i>
+does not much exceed it in size. Many of the gulls congregate
+in vast numbers to breed, whether on rocky cliffs of the sea-coast
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page715" id="page715"></a>715</span>
+or on healthy islands in inland waters. Some of the settlements
+of the black-headed or &ldquo;peewit&rdquo; gull, <i>L. ridibundus</i>, are a
+source of no small profit to their proprietors,&mdash;the eggs, which
+are rightly accounted a great delicacy, being taken on an orderly
+system up to a certain day, and the birds carefully protected.
+Ross&rsquo;s or the roseate gull, <i>Rhodostethia rosea</i>, forms a well-marked
+genus, distinguished not so much by the pink tint of its plumage
+(for that is found in other species) but by its small dove-like bill
+and wedge-shaped tail. It is an exceedingly scarce bird, and
+beyond its having an Arctic habitat, little has yet been ascertained
+about it. More rare still is one of the species of <i>Xema</i>, <i>X.
+furcatum</i>, of which only two specimens, both believed to have
+come from the Galapagos, have been seen. Its smaller congener
+Sabine&rsquo;s gull, <i>X. sabinii</i>, is more common, and has been found
+breeding both in Arctic America and in Siberia, and several
+examples, chiefly immature birds, have been obtained in the
+British islands. Both species of <i>Xema</i> are readily distinguished
+from all other gulls by their forked tails.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GULLY, JOHN<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (1783-1863), English sportsman and politician,
+was born at Wick, near Bath, on the 21st of August 1783, the son
+of an innkeeper. He came into prominence as a boxer, and in
+1805 he was matched against Henry Pearce, the &ldquo;Game Chicken,&rdquo;
+before the duke of Clarence (afterwards William IV.) and
+numerous other spectators, and after fighting sixty-four rounds,
+which occupied an hour and seventeen minutes, was beaten.
+In 1807 he twice fought Bob Gregson, the Lancashire giant, for
+two hundred guineas a side, winning on both occasions. As the
+landlord of the &ldquo;Plough&rdquo; tavern in Carey Street, London, be
+retired from the ring in 1808, and took to horse-racing. In
+1827 he lost £40,000 by backing his horse &ldquo;Mameluke&rdquo; (for
+which he had paid four thousand guineas) for the St Leger.
+In partnership with Robert Ridskale, in 1832, he made £85,000
+by winning the Derby and St Leger with &ldquo;St Giles&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Margrave.&rdquo; In partnership with John Day he won the Two
+Thousand Guineas with &ldquo;Ugly Buck&rdquo; in 1844, and two years
+later he took the Derby and the Oaks with &ldquo;Pyrrhus the First&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Mendicant,&rdquo; in 1854 the Two Thousand Guineas with
+&ldquo;Hermit,&rdquo; and in the same year, in partnership with Henry
+Padwick, the Derby with &ldquo;Andover.&rdquo; Having bought Ackworth
+Park near Pontefract he was M.P. from December 1832
+to July 1837. In 1862 he purchased the Wingate Grange estate
+and collieries. Gully was twice married and had twelve children
+by each wife. He died at Durham on the 9th of March 1863.
+He appears to have been no relation of the subsequent Speaker,
+Lord Selby.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GULPÁÏGÁN<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> (<i>Jerbádegán</i> of the Arab geographers), a district
+and city in Central Persia, situated N.W. of Isfahán and S.E.
+of Irák. Together with Khunsár it forms a small province,
+paying a yearly revenue of about £6000. The city of Gulpáïgán
+is situated 87 m. N.W. of Isfahán, at an elevation of 5875 ft.
+in 33° 24&prime; N. and 50° 20&prime; E., and has a population of about 5000.
+The district is fertile and produces much grain and some opium.
+Sometimes it is under the governor-general of the Isfahán
+province, at others it forms part of the province of Irák, and at
+times, as in 1906, is under a governor appointed from Teheran.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUM<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (Fr. <i>gomme</i>, Lat. <i>gommi</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="kommi">&#954;&#972;&#956;&#956;&#953;</span>, possibly a Coptic
+word; distinguish &ldquo;gum,&rdquo; the fleshy covering of the base of
+a tooth, in O. Eng. <i>góma</i>, palate, cf. Ger. <i>Gaumen</i>, roof of the
+mouth; the ultimate origin is probably the root <i>gha</i>, to open
+wide, seen in Gr. <span class="grk" title="chainein">&#967;&#945;&#943;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to gape, cf. &ldquo;yawn&rdquo;), the generic
+name given to a group of amorphous carbo-hydrates of the
+general formula (C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">10</span>O<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">n</span>, which exist in the juices of almost
+all plants, and also occur as exudations from stems, branches
+and fruits of plants. They are entirely soluble or soften in water,
+and form with it a thick glutinous liquid or mucilage. They
+yield mucic and oxalic acids when treated with nitric acid.
+In structure the gums are quite amorphous, being neither organized
+like starch nor crystallized like sugar. They are odourless
+and tasteless, and some yield clear aqueous solutions&mdash;the real
+gums&mdash;while others swell up and will not percolate filter paper&mdash;the
+vegetable mucilages. The acacias and the Rosaceae yield
+their gums most abundantly when sickly and in an abnormal
+state, caused by a fulness of sap in the young tissues, whereby
+the new cells are softened and finally disorganized; the cavities
+thus formed fill with liquid, which exudes, dries and constitutes
+the gum.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gum arabic</i> may be taken as the type of the gums entirely
+soluble in water. Another variety, obtained from the <i>Prosopis
+dulcis</i>, a leguminous plant, is called gum mesquite or mezquite;
+it comes from western Texas and Mexico, and is yellowish in
+colour, very brittle and quite soluble in water.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Gum arabic occurs in pieces of varying size, and some kinds
+are full of minute cracks. The specific gravity of Turkey picked gum
+(the purest variety) is 1.487, or, when dried at 100° C., 1.525. It is
+soluble in water to an indefinite extent; boiled with dilute sulphuric
+acid it is converted into the sugar galactose. Moderately strong
+nitric acid changes it into mucic, saccharic, tartaric and oxalic acids.
+Under the influence of yeast it does not enter into the alcoholic
+fermentation, but M. P. E. Berthelot, by digesting with chalk and
+cheese, obtained from it 12% of its weight of alcohol, along with
+calcium lactate, but no appreciable quantity of sugar. Gum arabic
+may be regarded as a potassium and calcium salt of gummic or arabic
+acid. T. Graham (<i>Chemical and Physical Researches</i>) recommended
+dialysis as the best mode of preparing gummic acid, and stated that
+the power of gum to penetrate the parchment septum is 400 times
+less than that of sodium chloride, and, further, that by mixing the gum
+with substances of the crystalloid class the diffusibility is lowered,
+and may be even reduced to nothing. The mucilage must be acidulated
+with hydrochloric acid before dialysing, to set free the gummic
+acid. By adding alcohol to the solution, the acid is precipitated as
+a white amorphous mass, which becomes glassy at 100°. Its formula
+is (C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">10</span>O<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">2</span>O, and it forms compounds with nearly all bases which
+are easily soluble in water. Gummic acid reddens litmus, its reaction
+being about equal to carbonic acid. When solutions of gum
+arabic and gelatin are mixed, oily drops of a compound of the two
+are precipitated, which on standing form a nearly colourless jelly,
+melting at 25° C., or by the heat of the hand. This substance can
+be washed without decomposition. Gummic acid is soluble in
+water; when well dried at 100° C., it becomes transformed into
+metagummic acid, which is insoluble, but swells up in water like
+gum tragacanth.</p>
+
+<p>Gum arabic, when heated to 150° C. with two parts of acetic
+anhydride, swells up to a mass which, when washed with boiling
+water, and then with alcohol, gives a white amorphous insoluble
+powder called acetyl arabin C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">8</span>(C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">3</span>O)<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">5</span>. It is saponified by
+alkalies, with reproduction of soluble gum. Gum arabic is not
+precipitated from solution by alum, stannous chloride, sulphate or
+nitrate of copper, or neutral lead acetate; with basic lead acetate
+it forms a white jelly, with ferric chloride it yields a stiff clear
+gelatinoid mass, and its solutions are also precipitated by borax.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The finer varieties are used as an emollient and demulcent
+in medicine, and in the manufacture of confectionery; the
+commoner qualities are used as an adhesive paste, for giving
+lustre to crape, silk, &amp;c., in cloth finishing to stiffen the fibres,
+and in calico-printing. For labels, &amp;c., it is usual to mix sugar
+or glycerin with it to prevent it from cracking.</p>
+
+<p>Gum senegal, a variety of gum arabic produced by <i>Acacia
+Verek</i>, occurs in pieces generally rounded, of the size of a pigeon&rsquo;s
+egg, and of a reddish or yellow colour, and specific gravity 1.436.
+It gives with water a somewhat stronger mucilage than gum
+arabic, from which it is distinguished by its clear interior, fewer
+cracks and greater toughness. It is imported from the river
+Gambia, and from Senegal and Bathurst.</p>
+
+<p>Chagual gum, a variety brought from Santiago, Chile, resembles
+gum senegal. About 75% is soluble in water. Its solution is
+not thickened by borax, and is precipitated by neutral lead
+acetate; and dilute sulphuric acid converts it into <i>d</i>-glucose.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gum tragacanth</i>, familiarly called gum dragon, exudes from
+the stem, the lower part especially, of the various species of
+<i>Astragalus</i>, especially <i>A. gummifer</i>, and is collected in Asia
+Minor, the chief port of shipment being Smyrna. Formerly only
+what exuded spontaneously was gathered; this was often of
+a brownish colour; but now the flow of the gum is aided by
+incisions cut near the root, and the product is the fine, white,
+flaky variety so much valued in commerce. The chief flow of
+gum takes place during the night, and hot and dry weather is
+the most favourable for its production.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In colour gum tragacanth is of a dull white; it occurs in horny,
+flexible and tough, thin, twisted flakes, translucent, and with peculiar
+wavy lines on the surface. When dried at temperatures under
+100° C. it loses about 14% of water, and is then easily powdered.
+Its specific gravity is 1.384. With water it swells by absorption, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page716" id="page716"></a>716</span>
+with even fifty times its weight of that liquid forms a thick mucilage.
+Part of it only is soluble in water, and that resembles gummic acid in
+being precipitated by alcohol and ammonium oxalate, but differs
+from it in giving a precipitate with neutral lead acetate and none
+with borax. The insoluble part of the gum is a calcium salt of
+bassorin (C<span class="su">12</span>H<span class="su">20</span>O<span class="su">10</span>), which is devoid of taste and smell, forms a
+gelatinoid mass with water, but by continued boiling is rendered
+soluble.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Gum tragacanth is used in calico-printing as a thickener of
+colours and mordants; in medicine as a demulcent and vehicle
+for insoluble powders, and as an excipient in pills; and for
+setting and mending beetles and other insect specimens. It is
+medicinally superior to gum acacia, as it does not undergo
+acetous fermentation. The best pharmacopeial preparation
+is the <i>Mucilago Tragacanthae</i>. The compound powder is a
+useless preparation, as the starch it contains is very liable to
+ferment.</p>
+
+<p>Gum kuteera resembles in appearance gum tragacanth, for
+which the attempt has occasionally been made to substitute it.
+It is said to be the product of <i>Sterculia urens</i>, a plant of the
+natural order Sterculiaceae.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cherry tree gum</i> is an exudation from trees of the genera
+<i>Prunus</i> and <i>Cerasus</i>. It occurs in shiny reddish lumps, resembling
+the commoner kinds of gum arabic. With water, in which
+it is only partially soluble, it forms a thick mucilage. Sulphuric
+acid converts it into l-arabinose; and nitric acid oxidizes it to
+oxalic acid (without the intermediate formation of mucic acid
+as in the case of gum arabic).</p>
+
+<p><i>Gum of Bassora</i>, from Bassora or Bussorah in Asia, is sometimes
+imported into the London market under the name of the
+hog tragacanth. It is insipid, crackles between the teeth, occurs
+in variable-sized pieces, is tough, of a yellowish-white colour,
+and opaque, and has properties similar to gum tragacanth.
+Its specific gravity is 1.36. It contains only 1% of soluble
+gum or arabin. Under the name of Caramania gum it is mixed
+with inferior kinds of gum tragacanth before exportation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mucilage</i>.&mdash;Very many seeds, roots, &amp;c., when infused in
+boiling water, yield mucilages which, for the most part, consist
+of bassorin. Linseed, quince seed and marshmallow root yield
+it in large quantity. In their reactions the different kinds of
+mucilage present differences; <i>e.g.</i> quince seed yields only
+oxalic acid when treated with nitric acid, and with a solution of
+iodine in zinc iodide it gives, after some time, a beautiful red
+tint. Linseed does not give the latter reaction; by treatment
+with boiling nitric acid it yields mucic and oxalic acids.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Gum Resins.</i>&mdash;This term is applied to the inspissated milky juices
+of certain plants, which consist of gum soluble in water, resin and
+essential oil soluble in alcohol, other vegetable matter and a small
+amount of mineral matter. They are generally opaque and solid, and
+often brittle. When finely powdered and rubbed down with water
+they form emulsions, the undissolved resin being suspended in the
+gum solution. Their chief uses are in medicine. Examples are
+ammoniacum, asafetida, bdellium, euphorbium, gamboge, myrrh,
+sagapanum and scammony.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GÜMBEL, KARL WILHELM VON,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1823-1898),
+German geologist, was born at Dannenfels, in the Palatinate
+of the Rhine, on the 11th of February 1823, and is known chiefly
+by his researches on the geology of Bavaria. He received a
+practical and scientific education in mining at Munich and
+Heidelberg, taking the degree of Ph.D. at Munich in 1862;
+and he was engaged for a time at the colliery of St Ingbert and
+as a surveyor in that district. In 1851, when the Geological
+Survey of Bavaria was instituted, Gümbel was appointed chief
+geologist; in 1863 he was made honorary professor of geognosy
+and surveying at the university of Munich, and in 1879, Oberberg
+director of the Bavarian mining department with which the
+Geological Survey was incorporated. His geological map of
+Bavaria appeared in 1858, and the official memoir descriptive
+of the detailed work, entitled <i>Geognostische Beschreibung des
+Königreichs Bayern</i> was issued in three parts (1861, 1868 and
+1879). He subsequently published his <i>Geologie von Bayern</i> in
+2 vols. (1884-1894), an elaborate treatise on geology, with special
+reference to the geology of Bavaria. In the course of his long
+and active career he engaged in much palaeontological work:
+he studied the fauna of the Trias, and in 1861 introduced the
+term Rhaetic for the uppermost division of that system; he
+supported at first the view of the organic nature of <i>Eozoon</i> (1866
+and 1876), he devoted special attention to Foraminifera, and
+described those of the Eocene strata of the northern Alps (1868);
+he dealt also with Receptaculites (1875) which he regarded as a
+genus belonging to the Foraminifera. He died on the 18th of
+June 1898.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUMBINNEN,<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
+of East Prussia, on the Pissa, an affluent of the Pregel, 22 m. by
+rail S.W. of Eydtkuhnen on the line to Königsberg. Pop. (1905),
+14,194. The surrounding country is pleasant and fruitful, and
+the town has spacious and regular streets shaded by linden
+trees. It has a Roman Catholic and three Evangelical churches,
+a synagogue, a gymnasium, two public schools, a public library,
+a hospital and an infirmary. In the market square there is a
+statue of the king of Prussia Frederick William I., who in 1724
+raised Gumbinnen to the rank of a town, and in 1732 brought
+to it a number of persons who had been driven from Salzburg by
+religious persecution. On the bridge over the Pissa a monument
+has been erected to the soldiers from the neighbourhood who
+fell in the Franco-German war of 1870-71. Iron founding and
+the manufacture of machinery, wool, cotton, and linen weaving,
+stocking-making, tanning, brewing and distilling are the principal
+industries. There are horse and cattle markets, and some trade
+in corn and linseed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Schneider, <i>Aus Gumbinnens Vergangenheit</i> (Gumbinnen,
+1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUMBO,<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Okra</span>, termed also <i>Okro, Ochro, Ketmia,
+Gubbo</i> and Syrian mallow (Sans. <i>Tindisa</i>, Bengali <i>Dheras</i>,
+Pers. <i>Bámiyah</i>&mdash;the <i>Bammia</i> of Prosper Alpinus; Fr.
+<i>Gombaut</i>, or better <i>Gombo</i>, and <i>Ketmie comestible</i>), <i>Hibiscus
+esculentus</i>, a herbaceous hairy annual plant of the natural order
+<i>Malvaceae</i>, probably of African origin, and now naturalized or
+cultivated in all tropical countries. The leaves are cordate,
+and 3 to 5-lobed, and the flowers yellow, with a crimson centre;
+the fruit or pod, the <i>Bendi-Kai</i> of the Europeans of southern
+India, is a tapering, 10-angled capsule, 4 to 10 in. in length,
+except in the dwarf varieties of the plant, and contains numerous
+oval dark-coloured seeds, hairy at the base. Three distinct
+varieties of the gumbo (<i>Quiabo</i> and <i>Quimgombo</i>) in Brazil have
+been described by Pacheco. The unripe fruit is eaten either
+pickled or prepared like asparagus. It is also an ingredient
+in various dishes, <i>e.g.</i> the <i>gumbo</i> of the Southern United States
+and the <i>calalou</i> of Jamaica; and on account of the large amount
+of mucilage it contains, it is extensively consumed, both fresh
+and in the form of the prepared powder, for the thickening of
+broths and soups. For winter use it is salted or sliced and dried.
+The fruit is grown on a very large scale in the vicinity of Constantinople.
+It was one of the esculents of Egypt in the time
+of Abul-Abbas el-Neb&#257;ti, who journeyed to Alexandria in 1216
+(Wüstenfeld, <i>Gesch. d. arab. Ärzte</i>, p. 118, Gött., 1840), and is
+still cultivated by the Egyptians, who called it <i>Bammgé</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The seeds of the gumbo are used as a substitute for coffee.
+From their demulcent and emollient properties, the leaves and
+immature fruit have long been in repute in the East for the
+preparation of poultices and fomentations. Alpinus (1592)
+mentions the employment of their decoction in Egypt in ophthalmia
+and in uterine and other complaints.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The musk okra (Sans., <i>Latákasturiká</i>, cf. the Gr. <span class="grk" title="kástor">&#954;&#940;&#963;&#964;&#969;&#961;</span>; Bengali,
+<i>Latákasturi</i>; Ger. <i>Bisamkörnerstrauch</i>; Fr. <i>Ketmie musquée</i>),
+<i>Hibiscus Abelmoschus</i> (<i>Abelmoschus moschatus</i>), indigenous to India,
+and cultivated in most warm regions of the globe, is a suffruticose
+plant, bearing a conical 5-ridged pod about 3 in. in length, within
+which are numerous brown reniform seeds, smaller than those of <i>H.
+esculentus.</i> The seeds possess a musky odour, due to an oleo-resin
+present in the integument, and are known to perfumers under the
+name of <i>ambrette</i> as a substitute for musk. They are said to be used
+by the Arabs for scenting coffee. The seeds (in the Fantee language,
+<i>Incromahom</i>) are used in Africa as beads; and powdered and steeped
+in rum they are valued in the West Indies as a remedy for snakebites.
+The plant yields an excellent fibre, and, being rich in mucilage,
+is employed in Upper India for the clarifying of sugar. The best-perfumed
+seeds are reported to come from Martinique.</p>
+
+<p>See P. Alpinus, <i>De plantis Aegypti</i>, cap. xxvii. p. 38 (Venice, 1592);
+J. Sontheimer&rsquo;s <i>Abd Allah ibn Ahmad</i>, &amp;c., i. 118 (Stuttgart,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page717" id="page717"></a>717</span>
+1840-1842); P. P. Pacheco, &ldquo;La Ketmie potagère ou comestible,&rdquo;
+<i>La Belgique horticole</i>, iv. 63 (1853); Della Sudda, &ldquo;De l&rsquo;emploi
+à Constantinople de la racine de l&rsquo;Hibiscus esculentus,&rdquo; <i>Répert. de
+pharm.</i>, January 1860, p. 229; E. J. Waring, <i>Pharm. of India</i>, p.
+35 (1868); O. Popp, &ldquo;Über die Aschenbestandteile der Samen von
+Acacia nilotica und Hibiscus esculentus in Ägypten,&rdquo; <i>Arch. der
+Pharm.</i> cxcv. p. 140 (1871); Drury, <i>The Useful Plants of India</i>, pp.
+1, 2 (2nd ed., 1873); U. C. Dutt, <i>The Mat. Med. of the Hindus</i>, pp.
+123, 321 (1877); Lanessan, <i>Hist. des drogues</i>, i. 181-184 (1878);
+G. Watt, <i>Dictionary of the Economic Products of India</i> (1890).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUMTI,<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> a river of northern India. It rises in a depression in
+the Pilibhit district of the United Provinces, and after a sinuous
+but generally south-easterly course of 500 m. past Lucknow and
+Jaunpur joins the Ganges in Ghazipar district. At Jaunpur it
+is a fine stream, spanned by a 16th-century bridge of sixteen
+arches, and is navigable by vessels of 17 tons burden. There
+is also a small river of the same name in the Tippera district
+of eastern Bengal and Assam.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUMULJINA,<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gumurdjina</span>, a town of European Turkey,
+in the vilayet of Adrianople. Pop. (1905), about 8000, of whom
+three-fourths are Turks and the remainder Greeks, Jews or
+Armenians. Gumuljina is situated on the river Karaja-Su,
+south of the eastern extremity of the Rhodope range of mountains
+and 13 m. inland from the Aegean Sea. It has a station on the
+railway between Salonica and Dédéagatch. The district produces
+wheat, maize, barley and tobacco; sericulture and viticulture
+are both practised on a limited scale. A cattle fair is held
+annually on Greek Palm Sunday. Copper and antimony are
+found in the neighbourhood.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUMUS,<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gumz</span>, Negroes of the Shangalla group of tribes,
+dwelling in the mountainous district of Fazogli on the Sudan-Abyssinian
+frontier. They live in independent groups, some
+being mountaineers while others are settled on the banks
+of the Blue Nile. Gumz in the native tongue signifies
+&ldquo;people,&rdquo; and the sub-tribes have distinctive names. The Gumus
+are nature-worshippers, God and the sun being synonymous.
+On ceremonial occasions they carry parasols of honour (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Shangalla</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GÜMÜSH-KHANEH,<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> the chief town of a sanjak of the same
+name in the Trebizond vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, situated on
+high ground (4400 ft.) in the valley of the Kharshut Su, about
+½ m. to south of the Trebizond-Erzerum <i>chaussée</i>. The silver
+mines from which the place takes its name were noted in ancient
+times and are mentioned by Marco Polo. Pop. about 3000,
+chiefly Greeks, who are in the habit of emigrating to great
+distances to work in mines. They practically supply the whole
+lead and silver-mining labour in Asiatic Turkey, and in consequence
+the Greek bishop of Gümüsh-Khaneh has under his
+jurisdiction all the communities engaged in this particular class
+of mines.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUN,<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> a general term for a weapon, tubular in form, from
+which a projectile is discharged by means of an explosive.
+When applied to artillery the word is confined to those pieces
+of ordnance which have a direct as opposed to a high-angle fire,
+in which case the terms &ldquo;howitzer&rdquo; and &ldquo;mortar&rdquo; are used
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ordnance</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Machine-Gun</a></span>). &ldquo;Gun&rdquo; as applied to
+firearms which are carried in the hand and fired from the shoulder,
+the old &ldquo;hand gun,&rdquo; is now chiefly used of the sporting shot-gun,
+with which this article mainly deals; in military usage this type
+of weapon, whether rifle, carbine, &amp;c., is known collectively as
+&ldquo;small arms&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rifle</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pistol</a></span>). The origin of the word,
+which in Mid. Eng. is <i>gonne</i> or <i>gunne</i>, is obscure, but it has
+been suggested by Professor W. W. Skeat that it conceals a
+female name, <i>Gunnilde</i> or <i>Gunhilda</i>. The names, <i>e.g.</i> Mons Meg
+at Edinburgh Castle and <i>faule Grete</i> (heavy Peg), known to
+readers of Carlyle&rsquo;s <i>Frederick the Great</i>, will be familiar parallelisms.
+&ldquo;Gunne&rdquo; would be a shortened &ldquo;pet name&rdquo; of Gunnhilde.
+The <i>New English Dictionary</i> finds support for the suggestion
+in the fact that in Old Norwegian <i>gunne</i> and <i>hilde</i> both
+mean &ldquo;war,&rdquo; and quotes an inventory of war material at
+Windsor Castle in 1330-1331, where is mentioned &ldquo;una magna
+balista de cornu quae vocatur Domina Gunilda.&rdquo; Another
+suggestion for the origin of the word is that the word represents
+a shortened form, <i>gonne</i>, of a supposed French <i>mangonne</i>, a
+mangonel, but the French word is <i>mangonneau</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:318px; height:227px" src="images/img717a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:220px; height:208px" src="images/img717b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Hand Gun.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Mounted Man
+with Hand Gun.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Firearms are said to have been first used in European warfare
+in the 14th century. The hand gun (see fig. 1) came into
+practical use in 1446
+and was of very rude
+construction. It consisted
+of a simple iron
+or brass tube with a
+touch-hole at the top
+fixed in a straight stock
+of wood, the end of
+which passed under the
+right armpit when the
+&ldquo;gonne&rdquo; was about to
+be fired.  A similar
+weapon (see fig. 2) was
+also used by the horse-soldier, with a ring at the end of the
+stock, by which it was suspended by a cord round the neck;
+a forked rest, fitted by a ring to the saddlebow, served to steady
+the gun. This rest, when not in use, hung down in front of the
+right leg. A match was made of cotton or hemp spun slack,
+and boiled in a strong solution of saltpetre or in the lees of
+wine. The touch-hole was first placed on the top of the barrel,
+but afterwards at the side, with a
+small pan underneath to hold the
+priming, and guarded by a cover
+moving on a pivot.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 430px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:382px; height:360px" src="images/img717c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From General Hardÿ de Périnï&rsquo;s <i>Turenne et Condé 1626-1675</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Musketeer, 1626.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>An improvement in firearms took
+place in the first year of the reign
+of Henry VII., or at the close of
+Edward IV., by fixing a cock (Fr.
+<i>serpentine</i>) on the hand gun to hold
+the match, which was brought
+down to the priming by a trigger,
+whence the term matchlock. This
+weapon is still in use among the
+Chinese, Tatars, Sikhs, Persians and Turks. An improvement
+in the stock was also made during this period by forming it
+with a wide butt end to be placed against the right breast.
+Subsequently the stock was bent, a German invention, and the
+arm was called a hackbutt or hagbut, and the smaller variety
+a demihague. The arquebus and hackbutt were about a yard
+in length, including barrel and stock, and the demihague was
+about half the
+size and weight,
+the forerunner of
+the pistol. The
+arquebus was
+the standard
+infantry firearm
+in Europe from
+the battle of
+Pavia to the introduction
+of the
+heavier and
+more powerful
+musket. It did
+not as a rule
+require a rest, as
+did the musket.
+The wheel-lock,
+an improvement
+on the matchlock,
+was invented
+in Nuremberg in 1517; was first used at the siege
+of Parma in 1521; was brought to England in 1530, and continued
+in partial use there until the time of Charles II. This
+wheel-lock consisted of a fluted or grooved steel wheel which
+protruded into the priming pan, and was connected with a
+strong spring. The cock, also regulated by a spring, was fitted
+with a piece of iron pyrites. In order to discharge the gun the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page718" id="page718"></a>718</span>
+lock was wound up by a key, the cock was let down on the
+priming pan, the pyrites resting on the wheel; on the trigger
+being pressed the wheel was released and rapidly revolved,
+emitting sparks, which ignited the powder in the pan. The
+complicated and expensive nature of this lock, with its liability
+to injury, no doubt prevented its general adoption.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:428px; height:271px" src="images/img718a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From General Hardÿ de Périnï&rsquo;s <i>Turenne et Condé</i>, 1626-1675.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figs. 4</span> and 5.&mdash;Musketeers, 1675.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:286px; height:1357px" src="images/img718b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span> (left)&mdash;Moorish Flint-lock.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span> (right)&mdash;Indian Matchlock.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>About 1540 the Spaniards constructed a larger and heavier
+firearm (matchlock), carrying a ball of 10 to the pound, called
+a musket. This weapon was introduced into England before the
+middle of the 16th century, and soon came into general use
+throughout Europe. The snaphance was invented about this
+period in Germany, and from its comparative cheapness was
+much used in England, France and Holland. It held a flint
+instead of the pyrites of the wheel or firelock, which ignited the
+powder in the pan by striking on a piece of furrowed steel, when
+released by the trigger, and emitting sparks.</p>
+
+<p>As a sporting weapon the gun may be said to date from the
+invention of the wheel-lock in the beginning of the 16th century,
+though firearms were used for sporting purposes in Italy, Spain,
+Germany, and to some extent in France, in the 15th century.
+Before that period the longbow in England and the crossbow on
+the Continent were the usual weapons of the chase. In Great
+Britain little use appears to have been made of firearms for game
+shooting until the latter half of the 17th century, and the arms
+then used for the purpose were entirely of foreign make.</p>
+
+<p>The French gunmakers of St-Étienne claim for their town
+that it is the oldest centre of the firearms industry. They do
+not appear to have made more than the barrels of the finest
+sporting arms, and these even were sometimes made in Paris.
+The production of firearms by the artists of Paris reached its
+zenith about the middle of the 17th century. The Italian,
+German, Spanish and Russian gunsmiths also showed great
+skill in the elegance and design of their firearms, the Spaniards
+in particular being makers of fine barrels. The pistol (<i>q.v.</i>) is
+understood to have been made for the first time about 1540 at
+Pistoia in Italy. About 1635 the modern firelock or flint-lock
+was invented, which only differed from the snaphance by the cover
+of the pan forming part of the furrowed steel struck by the flint.
+Originally the priming was put into the pan from a flask containing
+a fine-grained powder called serpentine powder. Later the
+top of the cartridge was bitten off and the pan filled therefrom
+before loading. The mechanism of the flint-lock musket rendered
+all this unnecessary, as, in loading, a portion of the charge passed
+through the vent into the pan, where it was held by the cover or
+hammer. The matchlock, as a military weapon, gradually gave
+way to the firelock, which came into general use in the last half
+of the 17th century, and was the weapon of Marlborough&rsquo;s and
+Wellington&rsquo;s armies. This was the famous &ldquo;Brown Bess&rdquo; of the
+British army. The highest development of the flint-lock is found
+in the fowling-pieces of the end of the 18th and beginning of the
+19th centuries, particularly those made by Joseph Manton, the
+celebrated English gunsmith and inventor. The Napoleonic wars
+afforded English gunmakers an opportunity, which they fully
+utilized, of gaining the supremacy over their foreign competitors
+in the gunmaking trade. English gunmakers reduced the weight,
+improved the shooting powers, and perfected the lock mechanism
+of the sporting gun, and increased the range
+and efficiency of the rifle. This transference
+of the gunmaking craft from the Continent
+to England was also assisted by the tyranny
+of the foreign gunmaking gilds. In 1637 the
+London gunmakers obtained their charter of
+incorporation. The important gunmaking
+industry of Birmingham dates from 1603, and
+soon rivalled that of London. Double shot-guns
+do not appear to have been generally
+used until the 19th century.
+The first successful double
+guns were built with the
+barrels over and under, and
+not side by side, and were
+invented about 1616 by
+one Guilliano Bossi of
+Rome. In 1784 double
+shot guns were described as
+a novelty. Joseph Manton
+patented the elevated rib
+which rested on the barrels.
+The general success of the
+double gun was eventually
+due to the light weight
+which the better material
+and workmanship of the
+best gunmakers made possible,
+and to the quickness
+and certainty of ignition of
+the modern cartridge.</p>
+
+<p>The objections to the
+flint-lock were that it did
+not entirely preserve the
+priming from wet, and that
+the flint sparks sometimes
+failed to ignite the charge.
+In 1807 the Rev. Alexander
+John Forsyth obtained a
+patent for priming with a
+fulminating powder made
+of chlorate of potash, sulphur
+and charcoal, which
+exploded by concussion.
+This important improvement
+in firearms was not
+recognized and adopted by
+the military authorities
+until more than thirty
+years later. In the meantime
+it was gradually developed,
+and the copper
+percussion cap invented,
+by various gunmakers and
+private individuals.
+Thomas Shaw of Philadelphia
+first used fulminate
+in a steel cap in 1814, which
+he changed to a copper cap
+in 1816. It was not until
+the introduction of the
+copper cap that the percussion
+gun could be considered
+in every way
+superior to the flint. In
+1834, in the reign of William
+IV., Forsyth&rsquo;s invention
+was tested at Woolwich by
+firing 6000 rounds from six
+flint-lock muskets, and a
+similar number from six percussion muskets, in all weathers.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page719" id="page719"></a>719</span>
+This trial established the percussion principle. The shooting
+was found to be more accurate, the recoil less, the charge
+of powder having been reduced from 6 to 4½ drs., the
+rapidity of firing greater and the number of miss-fires much
+reduced, being as 1 to 26 nearly in favour of the percussion
+system. In consequence of this successful trial the military
+flint-lock in 1839 was altered to suit the percussion principle.
+This was easily accomplished by replacing the hammer and pan
+by a nipple with a hole through its centre to the vent or touch-hole,
+and by replacing the cock which held the flint by a smaller
+cock or hammer with a hollow to fit on the nipple when released
+by the trigger. On the nipple was placed the copper cap containing
+the detonating composition, now made of three parts of
+chlorate of potash, two of fulminate of mercury and one of
+powdered glass.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:900px; height:793px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img719a.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:516px; height:357px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img719b.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">In 1840 the Austrian army was supplied with the percussion
+musket, and in 1842 a new model percussion musket with a block
+or back-sight for 150 yds. was issued to the British army, 11 &#8468;
+6 oz. in weight, 4 ft. 6¾ in. in length without bayonet, 6 ft.
+with bayonet and with a barrel 3 ft. 3 in. in length, firing a
+bullet of 14½ to the &#8468; with 4½ drs. of powder. This musket
+was larger in bore than that of France, Belgium, Russia and
+Austria, and thus had the advantage of being able to fire their
+balls, while the English balls could not be fired from their barrels.
+But the greater weight and momentum of the English ball was
+counteracted by the excess of windage. This percussion musket
+of 1842, the latest development of the renowned Brown Bess,
+continued in use in the British army until partially superseded
+in 1851 by the Minié rifle, and altogether by the Enfield rifle
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page720" id="page720"></a>720</span>
+in 1855. For further information as to the history and development
+of military, target and sporting rifles see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rifle</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Illustrations are given herewith of a German carbine of the 16th
+century, with double wheel-lock (fig. 8); a snaphance (fig. 9);
+several forms of the Brown Bess or flint-lock military musket (English,
+William III., fig. 10; George II., fig. 11; George III., fig. 12;
+French, Napoleon, fig. 13); and of the percussion musket adopted in
+the British service in 1839 (fig. 14). Examples of non-European
+firearms are shown in figs. 6 and 7, representing a Moorish flint-lock
+and an Indian matchlock respectively. Figs. 15-18 represent
+various carbines, musketoons and blunderbusses, fig. 15 showing
+a small blunderbuss or musketoon of the early 18th century, fig. 16
+a large blunderbuss of 1750, fig. 17 a flint-lock cavalry carbine of
+about 1825 and fig. 18 a percussion carbine of 1830. All these are
+drawn from arms in the museum of the Royal United Service
+Institution, London.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Modern Shot Guns.</i>&mdash;The modern sporting breech-loaders
+may be said to have originated with the invention of the cartridge-case
+containing its own means of ignition. The breech-loading
+mechanism antedated the cartridge by many years, the earliest
+breech-loading hand guns dating back to 1537. Another distinct
+type of breech-loader was invented in France about the middle
+of the 17th century. During the 17th and 18th centuries breech-loading
+arms were very numerous and of considerable variety.
+The original cartridge, a charge of powder and bullet in a paper
+envelope, dates from 1586. These were used with muzzle-loaders,
+the base of the cartridge being ripped or bitten off by the soldier
+before placing in the barrel. It was only when the detonating
+cap came into use that the paper cartridge answered well in
+breech-loaders. The modern breech-loader has resulted from a
+gradual series of improvements, and not from any one great
+invention. Its essential feature is the prevention of all escape
+of gas at the breech when the gun is fired by means of an expansive
+cartridge-case containing its own means of ignition. The
+earlier breech-loaders were not gas-tight, because the cartridge-cases
+were either consumable or the load was placed in a strong
+non-expansive breech-plug. The earliest efficient modern
+cartridge-case was the pin-fire, patented by Houiller, a Paris
+gunsmith, in 1847, with a thin weak shell which expanded by
+the force of the explosion, fitted perfectly in the barrel, and thus
+formed an efficient gas check. Probably no invention connected
+with firearms has wrought such changes in the principle of gun-construction
+as those effected by the expansive cartridge-case.
+This invention has completely revolutionized the art of gunmaking,
+has been successfully applied to all descriptions of
+firearms, and has produced a new and important industry&mdash;that
+of cartridge manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>About 1836, C. Lefaucheux, a Paris gunsmith, improved
+the old Pauly system of breech-loading, but its breech action
+was a crude mechanism, with single grip worked by a
+bottom lever. The double grip for the barrels was the subsequent
+invention of a Birmingham gunmaker. The central-fire cartridge,
+practically as now in use, was introduced into England in 1861
+by Daw. It is said to have been the invention of Pottet, of
+Paris, improved upon by Schneider, and gave rise to considerable
+litigation in respect of its patent rights. Daw, who controlled
+the English patents, was the only exhibitor of central-fire guns
+and cartridges at the International Exhibition of 1862. In
+his system the barrels work on a hinge joint, the bottom lever
+withdraws the holding-down bolt; the cartridge is of the modern
+type, the cap being detonated by a striker passing through the
+standing breech to the inner face. The cartridge-case is withdrawn
+by a sliding extractor fitted to the breech ends of the
+barrels. Daw was subsequently defeated in his control of the
+patents by Eley Bros., owing to the patent not having been kept
+in force in France. The modern breech-loading gun has been
+gradually and steadily improved since 1860. Westley Richards
+adopted and improved Matthews&rsquo; top-lever mechanism. About
+1866 the rebounding lock was introduced, and improved in 1869.
+The treble wedge-fast mechanism for holding down the barrels
+was originated by W. W. Greener in 1865, and perfected in 1873.
+A very important improvement was the introduction of the
+hammerless gun, in which the mechanism for firing is placed
+entirely within the gun. This was made possible by the introduction
+of the central-fire cartridge. In 1862 Daw, and in 1866
+Green, introduced hammerless guns in which the cocking was
+effected by the under lever. These guns did not attain popularity.
+In 1871 T. Murcott patented a hammerless gun, the first to obtain
+distinct success. This also was a lever-cocking gun. About the
+same time Needham introduced the principle of utilizing the
+weight of the barrels to assist in cocking. In 1875 Anson and
+Deeley utilized the fore-end attached to the barrels to cock the
+locks. From this date hammerless guns became really popular.
+Subsequently minor improvements were made by many other
+gun-makers, including alternative movements introduced by
+Purdey and Rogers. Improvements were also introduced
+by Westley Richards, Purdey and others, including cocking by
+means of the mainspring. In 1874 J. Needham introduced
+the ejector mechanism, by which each empty cartridge-case is
+separately and automatically thrown out of the gun when the
+breech is opened, the necessary force being provided by the
+mainspring of the lock. W. W. Greener and some other gunmakers
+have since introduced minor modifications and improvements
+of this mechanism. Next in turn came Perks and other
+inventors, who separated the ejector mechanism from the lock
+work. This very decided improvement is universal to-day.
+A later innovation in the modern breech-loader is the single
+trigger mechanism introduced by some of the leading English
+gun-makers, by which both barrels can be fired in succession
+by a single trigger. This improvement enables both barrels
+to be rapidly fired without altering the grip of the right hand,
+but deprives the shooter of the power of selecting his barrel.</p>
+
+<p>Repeating or magazine shot-guns on the principle of the
+repeating rifle, with a magazine below the single firing barrel,
+are also made by some American and continental gun-makers,
+but as yet have not come into general use, being comparatively
+cumbersome and not well balanced. The difficulty of a shifting
+balance as each cartridge is fired has also yet to be overcome.
+Several varieties of a combination rifle and shot-gun are also
+made, for a description of which see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rifle</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>The chief purposes for which modern shot-guns are required
+are game-shooting, trap-shooting at pigeons and wild-fowling.
+The game gun may be any bore from 32 to 10 gauge. The usual
+standard bore is 12 gauge unless it be for a boy, when it is 20
+gauge. The usual weight of the 12-bore double-barrelled game
+gun is from 6 to 7 &#8468; with barrels 30 in. long, there, however,
+being a present tendency to barrels of a shorter length. These
+barrels are made of steel, as being a stronger and more homogeneous
+material than the barrels formerly produced, which were
+mostly of Damascus pattern, a mixture of iron and steel. Steel
+barrels, drilled from the solid block, were originally produced
+by Whitworth. To-day the makers of steel for this purpose
+are many. The standard charge for the 12-bore is 42 grains of
+smokeless powder and 1 oz. to 1<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>th oz. of shot. Powder of a
+lighter gravimetric density is occasionally employed, when the
+weight of the charge is reduced to 33 grains. This charge of
+powder corresponds to the 3 drams of black powder formerly
+used. The ordinary game gun should have a killing circle of
+30 in. at 30 yds. with the first barrel and at 40 yds. with the
+second. Improved materials and methods of manufacture, and
+what is known as &ldquo;choke&rdquo; boring of the barrels, have enabled
+modern gun-makers to regulate the shooting of guns to a nicety.
+Choke-boring is the constriction of the diameter of the barrel
+near the muzzle, and was known in America in the early part
+of the 19th century. In 1875 Pape of Newcastle was awarded
+a prize for the invention of choke-boring, there being no other
+claimant. The methods of choke-boring have since been varied
+and improved by the leading English gun-makers. The pigeon
+gun is usually heavier than the game gun and more choked. It
+generally weighs from 7 to 8 &#8468;. Its weight, by club rules, is
+frequently restricted to 7½ &#8468; and its bore to 12 gauge. The
+standard wild-fowling gun is a double 8-bore with 30-in. barrels
+weighing 15 &#8468; and firing a charge of 7 drams of powder and
+2¾ to 3 oz. of shot. These guns are also made in both smaller and
+larger varieties, including a single barrel 4-bore, which is the
+largest gun that can be used from the shoulder, and single
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page721" id="page721"></a>721</span>
+barrel punt guns of 1½-in. bore, weighing 100 &#8468;. While no
+conspicuous advance in improved gun-mechanism and invention
+has been made during the last few years, the materials and
+methods of manufacture, and the quality and exactitude of the
+gun-maker&rsquo;s work, have continued gradually and steadily to
+improve. English, and particularly London-made, guns stand
+pre-eminent all over the world.</p>
+<div class="author">(H. S.-K.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUNA,<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> a town and military station in Central India, in the
+state of Gwalior. Pop. (1901) 11,452. After the Mutiny, it
+became the headquarters of the Central India Horse, whose
+commanding officer acts as ex-officio assistant to the resident of
+Gwalior; and its trade has developed rapidly since the opening
+of a station on a branch of the Great Indian Peninsula railway
+in 1899.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUNCOTTON,<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> an explosive substance produced by the action
+of strong nitric acid on cellulose at the ordinary temperature;
+chemically it is a nitrate of cellulose, or a mixture of nitrates,
+according to some authorities. The first step in the history of
+guncotton was made by T. J. Pelouze in 1838, who observed that
+when paper or cotton was immersed in cold concentrated nitric
+acid the materials, though not altered in physical appearance,
+became heavier, and after washing and drying were possessed
+of self-explosive properties. At the time these products were
+thought to be related to the nitrated starch obtained a little
+previously by Henri Braconnot and called <i>xyloidin</i>; they are
+only related in so far as they are nitrates. C. F. Schönbein of
+Basel published his discovery of guncotton in 1846 (<i>Phil. Mag.</i>
+[3], 31, p. 7), and this was shortly after followed by investigations
+by R. R. Böttger of Frankfort and Otto and Knop, all of whom
+added to our knowledge of the subject, the last-named introducing
+the use of sulphuric along with nitric acid in the nitration process.
+The chemical composition and constitution of guncotton has
+been studied by a considerable number of chemists and many
+divergent views have been put forward on the subject. W. Crum
+was probably the first to recognize that some hydrogen atoms
+of the cellulose had been replaced by an oxide of nitrogen, and
+this view was supported more or less by other workers, especially
+Hadow, who appears to have distinctly recognized that at least
+three compounds were present, the most violently explosive of
+which constituted the main bulk of the product commonly
+obtained and known as guncotton. This particular product was
+insoluble in a mixture of ether and alcohol, and its composition
+could be expressed by the term tri-nitrocellulose. Other products
+were soluble in the ether-alcohol mixture: they were less
+highly nitrated, and constituted the so-called collodion guncotton.</p>
+
+<p>The smallest empirical formula for cellulose (<i>q.v.</i>) may certainly
+be written C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">10</span>O<span class="su">5</span>. How much of the hydrogen and oxygen
+are in the hydroxylic (OH) form cannot be absolutely stated,
+but from the study of the acetates at least three hydroxyl groups
+may be assumed. The oldest and perhaps most reasonable idea
+represents guncotton as cellulose trinitrate, but this has been
+much disputed, and various formulae, some based on cellulose
+as C<span class="su">12</span>H<span class="su">20</span>O<span class="su">10</span>, others on a still more complex molecule, have been
+proposed. The constitution of guncotton is a difficult matter to
+investigate, primarily on account of the very insoluble nature
+of cellulose itself, and also from the fact that comparatively
+slight variations in the concentration and temperature of the
+acids used produce considerable differences in the products.
+The nitrates are also very insoluble substances, all the so-called
+solvents merely converting them into jelly. No method has yet
+been devised by which the molecular weight can be ascertained.<a name="fa1p" id="fa1p" href="#ft1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+The products of the action of nitric acid on cellulose are not
+nitro compounds in the sense that picric acid is, but are nitrates
+or nitric esters.</p>
+
+<p>Guncotton is made by immersing cleaned and dried cotton
+waste in a mixture of strong nitric and sulphuric acids. The
+relative amounts of the acids in the mixture and the time of
+duration of treatment of the cotton varies somewhat in different
+works, but the underlying idea is the same, viz. employing such
+an excess of sulphuric over nitric that the latter will be rendered
+anhydrous or concentrated and maintained as such in solution in
+the sulphuric acid, and that the sulphuric acid shall still be sufficiently
+strong to absorb and combine with the water produced
+during the actual formation of the guncotton. In the recent
+methods the cotton remains in contact with the acids for two to
+four hours at the ordinary air temperature (15° C.), in which time
+it is almost fully nitrated, the main portion, say 90%, having
+a composition represented by the formula<a name="fa2p" id="fa2p" href="#ft2p"><span class="sp">2</span></a> C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">7</span>O<span class="su">2</span>(NO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>, the
+remainder consisting of lower nitrated products, some oxidation
+products and traces of unchanged cellulose and cellulose
+sulphates. The acid is then slowly run out by an opening in the
+bottom of the pan in which the operation is conducted, and water
+distributed carefully over its surface displaces it in the interstices
+of the cotton, which is finally subjected to a course of boiling
+and washing with water. This washing is a most important part
+of the process. On its thoroughness depends the removal of
+small quantities of products other than the nitrates, for instance,
+some sulphates and products from impurities contained in the
+original cellulose. Cellulose sulphates are one, and possibly the
+main, cause of instability in guncotton, and it is highly desirable
+that they should be completely hydrolysed and removed in
+the washing process. The nitrated product retains the outward
+form of the original cellulose. In the course of the washing,
+according to a method introduced by Sir F. Abel, the cotton is
+ground into a pulp, a process which greatly facilitates the
+complete removal of acids, &amp;c. This pulp is finally drained, and
+is then either compressed, while still moist, into slabs or blocks
+when required for blasting purposes, or it is dried when required
+for the manufacture of propellants. Sometimes a small quantity
+of an alkali (<i>e.g.</i> sodium carbonate) is added to the final washing
+water, so that quantities of this alkaline substance ranging from
+0.5% to a little over 1% are retained by the guncotton. The
+idea is that any traces of acid not washed away by the washing
+process or produced later by a slow decomposition of the substance
+will be thereby neutralized and rendered harmless.
+Guncotton in an air-dry state, whether in the original form or
+after grinding to pulp and compressing, burns with very great
+rapidity but does not detonate unless confined.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately after the discovery of guncotton Schönbein
+proposed its employment as a substitute for gunpowder, and
+General von Lenk carried out a lengthy and laborious series of
+experiments intending to adapt it especially for artillery use.
+All these and many subsequent attempts to utilize it, either loose
+or mechanically compressed in any way, signally failed. However
+much compressed by mechanical means it is still a porous
+mass, and when it is confined as in a gun the flame and hot gases
+from the portion first ignited permeate the remainder, generally
+causing it actually to detonate, or to burn so rapidly that its
+action approaches detonation. The more closely it is confined
+the greater is the pressure set up by a small part of the charge
+burning, and the more completely will the explosion of the
+remainder assume the detonating form. The employment of
+guncotton as a propellant was possible only after the discovery
+that it could be gelatinized or made into a colloid by the action
+of so-called solvents, <i>e.g.</i> ethylacetate and other esters, acetone
+and a number of like substances (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cordite</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>When quite dry guncotton is easily detonated by a blow on an
+anvil or hard surface. If dry and warm it is much more sensitive to
+percussion or friction, and also becomes electrified by friction under
+those conditions. The amount of contained moisture exerts a considerable
+effect on its sensitiveness. With about 2% of moisture it
+can still be detonated on an anvil, but the action is generally confined
+to the piece struck. As the quantity of contained water increases it
+becomes difficult or even impossible to detonate by an ordinary
+blow. Compressed dry guncotton is easily detonated by an initiative
+detonator such as mercuric fulminate. Guncotton containing more
+than 15% of water is uninflammable, may be compressed or worked
+without danger and is much more difficult to detonate by a fulminate
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page722" id="page722"></a>722</span>
+detonator than when dry.<a name="fa3p" id="fa3p" href="#ft3p"><span class="sp">3</span></a> A small charge of dry guncotton will,
+however, detonate the wet material, and this peculiarity is made
+use of in the employment of guncotton for blasting purposes. A
+charge of compressed wet guncotton may be exploded, even under
+water, by the detonation of a small primer of the dry and waterproofed
+material, which in turn can be started by a small fulminate
+detonator. The explosive wave from the dry guncotton primer is
+in fact better responded to by the wet compressed material than the
+dry, and its detonation is somewhat sharper than that of the dry.
+It is not necessary for the blocks of wet guncotton to be actually in
+contact if they be under water, and the peculiar explosive wave
+can also be conveyed a little distance by a piece of metal such as a
+railway rail. The more nearly the composition of guncotton
+approaches that represented by C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">7</span>O<span class="su">2</span>(NO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>, the more stable is
+it as regards storing at ordinary temperatures, and the higher the
+igniting temperature. Carefully prepared guncotton after washing
+with alcohol-ether until nothing more dissolves may require to be
+heated to 180-185° C. before inflaming. Ordinary commercial guncottons,
+containing from 10 to 15% of lower nitrated products, will
+ignite as a rule some 20-25° lower.</p>
+
+<p>Assuming the above formula to represent guncotton, there is
+sufficient oxygen for internal combustion without any carbon being
+left. The gaseous mixture obtained by burning guncotton in a
+vacuum vessel contains steam, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
+nitrogen, nitric oxide, and methane. When slowly heated in a
+vacuum vessel until ignition takes place, some nitrogen dioxide, NO<span class="su">2</span>,
+is also produced. When kept for some weeks at a temperature of
+100° in steam, a considerable number of fatty acids, some bases, and
+glucose-like substances result. Under different pressures the relative
+amounts of the combustion products vary considerably. Under very
+great pressures carbon monoxide, steam and nitrogen are the main
+products, but nitric oxide never quite disappears.</p>
+
+<p>Dilute mineral acids have little or no action on guncotton. Strong
+sulphuric acid in contact with it liberates first nitric acid and later
+oxides of nitrogen, leaving a charred residue or a brown solution
+according to the quantity of acid. It sometimes fires on contact with
+strong sulphuric acid, especially when slightly warmed. The alkali
+hydroxides (<i>e.g.</i> sodium hydroxide) will in a solid state fire it on
+contact. Strong or weak solutions of these substances also decompose
+it, producing some alkali nitrate and nitrite, the cellulose
+molecule being only partially restored, some quantity undergoing
+oxidation. Ammonia is also active, but not quite in the same
+manner as the alkali hydroxides. Dry guncotton heated in ammonia
+gas detonates at about 70°, and ammonium hydroxide solutions of all
+strengths slowly decompose it, yielding somewhat complex products.
+Alkali sulphohydrates reduce guncotton, or other nitrated celluloses,
+completely to cellulose. The production of the so-called &ldquo;artificial
+silk&rdquo; depends on this action.</p>
+
+<p>A characteristic difference between guncotton and collodion
+cotton is the insolubility of the former in ether or alcohol or a mixture
+of these liquids. The so-called collodion cottons are nitrated
+celluloses, but of a lower degree of nitration (as a rule) than guncotton.
+They are sometimes spoken of as &ldquo;lower&rdquo; or &ldquo;soluble&rdquo; cottons or
+nitrates. The solubility in ether-alcohol may be owing to a lower
+degree of nitration, or to the temperature conditions under which the
+process of manufacture has been carried on. If guncotton be correctly
+represented by the formula C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">7</span>O<span class="su">2</span>(NO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>, it should contain a little
+more than 14% of nitrogen. Guncottons are examined for degree
+of nitration by the nitrometer, in which apparatus they are decomposed
+by sulphuric acid in contact with mercury, and all the nitrogen
+is evolved as nitric oxide, NO, which is measured and the weight of its
+contained nitrogen calculated. Ordinary guncottons seldom contain
+more than 13% of nitrogen, and in most cases the amount does not
+exceed 12.5%. Generally speaking, the lower the nitrogen content of
+a guncotton, as found by the nitrometer, the higher the percentage of
+matters soluble in a mixture of ether-alcohol. These soluble matters
+are usually considered as &ldquo;lower&rdquo; nitrates.</p>
+
+<p>Guncottons are usually tested by the Abel heat test for stability
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cordite</a></span>). Another heat test, that of Will, consists in heating
+a weighed quantity of the guncotton in a stream of carbon dioxide
+to 130° C., passing the evolved gases over some red-hot copper, and
+finally collecting them over a solution of potassium hydroxide which
+retains the carbon dioxide and allows the nitrogen, arising from the
+guncotton decomposition, to be measured. This is done at definite
+time intervals so that the <i>rate</i> of decomposition can be followed.
+The relative stability is then judged by the amount of nitrogen gas
+collected in a certain time. Several modifications of this and of the
+Abel heat test are also in use. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Explosives</a></span>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. R. E. H.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1p" id="ft1p" href="#fa1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The composition of the cellulose nitrates was reviewed by G.
+Lunge (<i>Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1901, 23, p. 527), who, assuming the
+formula C<span class="su">24</span>H<span class="su">40</span>O<span class="su">20</span> for cellulose, showed how the nitrocelluloses
+described by different chemists may be expressed by the formula
+C<span class="su">24</span>H{46-x}O<span class="su">20</span>(NO<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">x</span>, where x has the values 4, 5, 6, ... 12.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2p" id="ft2p" href="#fa2p"><span class="fn">2</span></a> This formula is retained mainly on account of its simplicity.
+It also expresses all that is necessary in this connexion.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3p" id="ft3p" href="#fa3p"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Air-dried guncotton will contain 2% or less of moisture.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUNDULICH, IVAN<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (1588-1638), known also as Giovanni
+Gondola, Servian poet, was born at Ragusa on the 8th of January
+1588. His father, Franco Gundulich, once the Ragusan envoy
+to Constantinople and councillor of the republic, gave him an
+excellent education. He studied the &ldquo;humanities&rdquo; with the
+Jesuit, Father Muzzi, and philosophy with Father Ricasoli.
+After that he studied Roman law and jurisprudence in general.
+He was member of the Lower Council and once served as the
+chief magistrate of the republic. He died on the 8th of December
+1638. A born poet, he admired much the Italian poets of his
+time, from whom he made many translations into Servian. It
+is believed that he so translated Tasso&rsquo;s <i>Gerusalemme liberata</i>.
+He is known to have written eighteen works, of which eleven
+were dramas, but of these only three have been fully preserved,
+others having perished during the great earthquake and fire in
+1667. Most of those dramas were translations from the Italian,
+and were played, seemingly with great success, by the amateurs
+furnished by the noble families of Ragusa. But his greatest
+and justly celebrated work is an epic, entitled <i>Osman</i>, in twenty
+cantos. It is the first political epic on the Eastern Question,
+glorifying the victory of the Poles over Turks and Tatars in the
+campaign of 1621, and encouraging a league of the Christian
+nations, under the guidance of Vladislaus, the king of Poland,
+for the purpose of driving away the Turks from Europe. The
+fourteenth and fifteenth cantos are lost. It is generally believed
+that the Ragusan government suppressed them from consideration
+for the Sultan, the protector of the republic, those two
+cantos having been violently anti-Turkish.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Osman</i> was printed for the first time in Ragusa in 1826, the two
+missing cantos being replaced by songs written by Pietro Sorgo (or
+Sorkochevich). From this edition the learned Italian, Francesco
+Appendini, made an Italian translation published in 1827. Since
+that time several other editions have been made. The best are considered
+to be the edition of the South Slavonic Academy in Agram
+(1877) and the edition published in Semlin (1889) by Professor
+Yovan Boshkovich. In the edition of 1844 (Agram) the last cantos,
+fourteen and fifteen, were replaced by very fine compositions of the
+Serbo-Croatian poet, Mazhuranich (Ma&#382;urani&#263;). The complete
+works of Gundulich have been published in Agram, 1847, by V.
+Babukich and by the South Slavonic Academy of Agram in 1889.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. Mi.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUNG&rsquo;L, JOSEF<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> (1810-1889), Hungarian composer and
+conductor, was born on the 1st of December 1810, at Zsámbék,
+in Hungary. After starting life as a school-teacher, and learning
+the elements of music from Ofen, the school-choirmaster, he
+became first oboist at Graz, and, at twenty-five, bandmaster of
+the 4th regiment of Austrian artillery. His first composition,
+a Hungarian march, written in 1836, attracted some notice,
+and in 1843 he was able to establish an orchestra in Berlin.
+With this band he travelled far, even (in 1849) to America. It is
+worth recording that Mendelssohn&rsquo;s complete <i>Midsummer
+Night&rsquo;s Dream</i> music is said to have been first played by Gung&rsquo;l&rsquo;s
+band. In 1853 he became bandmaster to the 23rd Infantry
+Regiment at Brünn, but in 1864 he lived at Munich, and in 1876
+at Frankfort, after (in 1873) having conducted with great success
+a series of promenade concerts at Covent Garden, London. From
+Frankfort Gung&rsquo;l went to Weimar to live with his daughter,
+a well-known German opera singer and local prima donna.
+There he died, on the 31st of January 1889. Gung&rsquo;l&rsquo;s dances
+number over 300, perhaps the most popular being the &ldquo;Amoretten,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Hydropaten,&rdquo; &ldquo;Casino,&rdquo; &ldquo;Dreams on the Ocean&rdquo;
+waltzes; &ldquo;In Stiller Mitternacht&rdquo; polka, and &ldquo;Blue Violets&rdquo;
+mazurka. His Hungarian march was transcribed by Liszt.
+His music is characterized by the same easy flowing melodies
+and well-marked rhythm that distinguish the dances of Strauss,
+to whom alone he can be ranked second in this kind of composition.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUNNER,<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Master Gunner</span>, in the navy, the warrant
+officer who has charge of the ordnance and ammunition, and
+of the training of the men at gun drill. His functions in this
+respect are of less relative importance than they were in former
+times, when specially trained corps of seamen gunners had not
+been formed.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUNNING, PETER<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (1614-1684), English divine, was born at
+Hoo, in Kent, and educated at the King&rsquo;s School, Canterbury,
+and Clare College, Cambridge, where he became a fellow in 1633.
+Having taken orders, he advocated the royalist cause from the
+pulpit with much eloquence. In 1644 he retired to Oxford,
+and held a chaplaincy at New College until the city surrendered
+to the parliamentary forces in 1646. Subsequently he was
+chaplain, first to the royalist Sir Robert Shirley of Eatington
+(1629-1656), and then at the Exeter House chapel. After the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page723" id="page723"></a>723</span>
+Restoration in 1660 he returned to Clare College as master, and
+was appointed Lady Margaret professor of divinity. He also
+received the livings of Cottesmore, Rutlandshire, and Stoke
+Bruerne, Northamptonshire. In 1661 he became head of St
+John&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, and was elected Regius professor
+of divinity. He was consecrated bishop of Chichester in 1669,
+and was translated to the see of Ely in 1674-1675. Holding
+moderate religious views, he deprecated alike the extremes
+represented by Puritanism and Roman Catholicism.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His works are chiefly reports of his disputations, such as that
+which appears in the <i>Scisme Unmask&rsquo;t</i> (Paris, 1658), in which the
+definition of a schism is discussed with two Romanist opponents.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUNNY,<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> a sort of cloth, the name of which is supposed to be
+derived from <i>ganga</i> or <i>gania</i> of Rumphius, or from <i>gonia</i>, a
+vernacular name of the <i>Crotolaria juncea</i>&mdash;a plant common in
+Madras. One of the first notices of the term itself is to be found
+in Knox&rsquo;s <i>Ceylon</i>, in which he says: &ldquo;The filaments at the bottom
+of the stem (coir from the coco-nut husk, <i>Cocos nucifera</i>) may
+be made into a coarse cloth called gunny, which is used for bags
+and similar purposes.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Warden, in <i>The Linen Trade</i>, says:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;A very large proportion of the jute grown in Bengal is made into
+cloth in the districts where it is cultivated, and this industry forms
+the grand domestic manufacture of all the populous eastern districts
+of Bengal. It pervades all classes, and penetrates into every household,
+almost every one, man, woman and child, being in some way
+engaged in it. Boatmen, husbandmen, palankeen carriers, domestic
+servants, everyone, in fact, being Hindu&mdash;for Mussulmans spin cotton
+only&mdash;pass their leisure moments, distaff in hand, spinning gunny
+twist. It is spun by the takur and dhara, the former being a kind of
+spindle, which is turned upon the thigh or the sole of the foot, and
+the latter a reel, on which the thread, when sufficiently twisted, is
+wound up. Another kind of spinning machine, called a ghurghurea, is
+occasionally used. A bunch of the raw material is hung up in every
+farmer&rsquo;s house, or on the protruding stick of a thatched roof, and
+every one who has leisure forms with these spindles some coarse
+pack-thread, of which ropes are twisted for the use of the farm.
+The lower Hindu castes, from this pack-thread, spin a finer thread
+for being made into cloth, and, there being a loom in nearly every
+house, very much of it is woven by the women of the lower class of
+people. It is especially the employment of the Hindu widow, as it
+enables her to earn her bread without being a burden on her family.
+The cloth thus made is of various qualities, such as clothing for the
+family (especially the women, a great proportion of whom on all the
+eastern frontier wear almost nothing else), coarse fabrics, bedding,
+rice and sugar bags, sacking, pack-sheet, &amp;c. Much of it is woven into
+short lengths and very narrow widths, two or three of which are sometimes
+sewed into one piece before they are sold. That intended for
+rice and sugar bags is made about 6 feet long, and from 24 to 27 inches
+wide, and doubled. A considerable quantity of jute yarn is dyed and
+woven into cloth for various local purposes, and some of it is also
+sent out of the district. The principal places where chotee, or jute
+cloth for gunny bags, is made are within a radius of perhaps 150 to
+200 miles around Dacca, and there both labour and land are remarkably
+cheap. The short, staple, common jute is generally consumed in
+the local manufacture, the finer and long stapled being reserved for
+the export trade. These causes enable gunny cloth and bags to be
+sold almost as cheaply as the raw material, which creates an
+immense demand for them in nearly every market of the world.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Such appeared to be the definition of gunny cloth at the time
+the above was written&mdash;between 1850 and 1860. Most of the
+Indian cloth for gunny bags is now made by power, and within
+about 20 m. of Calcutta. In many respects the term gunny cloth
+is still applied to all and sundry, but there is no doubt that the
+original name was intended for cloth which was similar to what
+is now known as &ldquo;cotton bagging.&rdquo; This particular type of
+cloth is still largely made in the hand loom, even in Dundee,
+this method of manufacture being considered, for certain reasons,
+more satisfactory than the power loom method (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jute</a></span> and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bagging</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUNPOWDER,<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> an explosive composed of saltpetre, charcoal
+and sulphur. Very few substances have had a greater effect
+on civilization than gunpowder. Its employment altered the
+whole art of war, and its influence gradually and indirectly
+permeated and affected the whole fabric of society. Its direct
+effect on the arts of peace was but slight, and had but a limited
+range, which could not be compared to the modern extended
+employment of high explosives for blasting in mining and
+engineering work.</p>
+
+<p>It is probably quite incorrect to speak of the <i>discovery</i> of
+gunpowder. From modern researches it seems more likely and
+more just to think of it as a thing that has developed, passing
+through many stages&mdash;mainly of improvement, but some
+undoubtedly retrograde. There really is not sufficient solid
+evidence on which to pin down its invention to one man. As
+Lieutenant-Colonel H. W. L. Hime (<i>Gunpowder and Ammunition</i>,
+1904) says, the invention of gunpowder was impossible until
+the properties of nearly pure saltpetre had become known. The
+honour, however, has been associated with two names in particular,
+Berthold Schwartz, a German monk, and Friar Roger
+Bacon. Of the former Oscar Guttmann writes (<i>Monumenta
+pulveris pyrii</i>, 1904, p. 6): &ldquo;Berthold Schwartz was generally
+considered to be the inventor of gunpowder, and only in England
+has Roger Bacon&rsquo;s claim been upheld, though there are English
+writers who have pleaded in favour of Schwartz. Most writers
+are agreed that Schwartz invented the first firearms, and as
+nothing was known of an inventor of gunpowder, it was perhaps
+considered justifiable to give Schwartz the credit thereof.
+There is some ambiguity as to when Schwartz lived. The year
+1354 is sometimes mentioned as the date of his invention of
+powder, and this is also to be inferred from an inscription on
+the monument to him in Freiburg. But considering there can
+be no doubt as to the manufacture in England of gunpowder
+and cannon in 1344, that we have authentic information of
+guns in France in 1338 and in Florence in 1326, and that the
+Oxford MS. <i>De officiis regum</i> of 1325 gives an illustration of a
+gun, Berthold Schwartz must have lived long before 1354 to
+have been the inventor of gunpowder or guns.&rdquo; In Germany
+also there were powder-works at Augsburg in 1340, in Spandau
+in 1344, and Liegnitz in 1348.</p>
+
+<p>Roger Bacon, in his <i>De mirabili potestate artis et naturae</i>
+(1242), makes the most important communication on the history
+of gunpowder. Reference is made to an explosive mixture as
+known before his time and employed for &ldquo;diversion, producing
+a noise like thunder and flashes like lightning.&rdquo; In one passage
+Bacon speaks of saltpetre as a violent explosive, but there is
+no doubt that he knew it was not a self-explosive substance,
+but only so when mixed with other substances, as appears from
+the statement in <i>De secretis operibus artis et naturae</i>, printed
+at Hamburg in 1618, that &ldquo;from saltpetre and other ingredients
+we are able to make a fire that shall burn at any distance we
+please.&rdquo; A great part of his three chapters, 9, 10, 11, long
+appeared without meaning until the anagrammatic nature of
+the sentences was realized. The words of this anagram are
+(chap. 11): &ldquo;Item ponderis totum 30 sed tamen salis petrae <i>luru
+vopo vir can utri</i><a name="fa1q" id="fa1q" href="#ft1q"><span class="sp">1</span></a> et sulphuris; et sic facies tonitruum et coruscationem,
+si scias artificium. Videas tamen utrum loquar aenigmate
+aut secundum veritatem.&rdquo; Hime, in his chapter on the
+origin of gunpowder, discusses these chapters at length, and gives,
+omitting the anagram, the translation: &ldquo;Let the total weight
+of the ingredients be 30, however, of saltpetre ... of sulphur;
+and with such a mixture you will produce a bright flash and a
+thundering noise, if you know the trick. You may find (by
+actual experiment) whether I am writing riddles to you or the
+plain truth.&rdquo; The anagram reads, according to Hime, &ldquo;salis
+petrae r(ecipe) vii part(es), v nov(ellae) corul(i), v et sulphuris&rdquo;
+(take seven parts of saltpetre, five of young hazel-wood, and five
+of sulphur). Hime then goes on to show that Bacon was in
+possession of an explosive which was a considerable advance on
+mere incendiary compositions. Bacon does not appear to have
+been aware of the projecting power of gunpowder. He knew
+that it exploded and that perhaps people might be blown up or
+frightened by it; more cannot be said. The behaviour of small
+quantities of any explosive is hardly ever indicative of its
+behaviour in large quantities and especially when under confinement.
+Hime is of opinion that Bacon blundered upon
+gunpowder whilst playing with some incendiary composition,
+such as those mentioned by Marcus Graecus and others, in which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page724" id="page724"></a>724</span>
+he employed his comparatively pure saltpetre instead of crude
+nitrum. It has been suggested that Bacon derived his knowledge
+of these fiery mixtures from the MS. <i>Liber ignium</i>, ascribed to
+Marcus Graecus, in the National Library in Paris (Dutens,
+<i>Enquiry into Origin of Discoveries attributed to Moderns</i>).
+Certainly this Marcus Graecus appears to have known of some
+incendiary composition containing the gunpowder ingredients,
+but it was not gunpowder. Hime seems to doubt the existence
+of any such person as Marcus Graecus, as he says: &ldquo;The <i>Liber
+ignium</i> was written from first to last in the period of literary
+forgeries and pseudographs ... and we may reasonably
+conclude that Marcus Graecus is as unreal as the imaginary
+Greek original of the tract which bears his name.&rdquo; Albertus
+Magnus in the <i>De mirabilibus mundi</i> repeats some of the receipts
+given in Marcus Graecus, and several other writers give receipts
+for Greek fire, rockets, &amp;c. Dutens gives many passages in his
+work, above-named, from old authors in support of his view
+that a composition of the nature of gunpowder was not unknown
+to the ancients. Hime&rsquo;s elaborate arguments go to show that
+these compositions could only have been of the incendiary type
+and not real explosives. His arguments seem to hold good as
+regards not only the Greeks but also the Arabs, Hindus and
+Chinese (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fireworks</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>There seems no doubt that incendiary compositions, some
+perhaps containing nitre, mostly, however, simply combustible
+substances as sulphur, naphtha, resins, &amp;c., were employed and
+projected both for defence and offence, but they were projected
+or blown by engines and not by themselves. It is quite inconceivable
+that a real propelling explosive should have been
+known in the time of Alexander or much later, and not have
+immediately taken its proper place. In a chapter discussing
+this question of explosives amongst the Hindus, Hime says:
+&ldquo;It is needless to enlarge the list of quotations: incendiaries
+pursued much the same course in Upper India as in Greece and
+Arabia.&rdquo; No trustworthy evidence of an explosive in India is
+to be found until the 21st of April 1526, the date of the decisive
+battle of Panipat, in which Ibrahim, sultan of Delhi, was killed
+and his army routed by Baber the Mogul, who possessed both
+great and small firearms.</p>
+
+<p>As regards also the crusader period (1097-1291), so strange
+and deadly an agent of destruction as gunpowder could not
+possibly have been employed in the field without the full knowledge
+of both parties, yet no historian, Christian or Moslem,
+alludes to an explosive of any kind, while all of them carefully
+record the use of incendiaries. The employment of rockets
+and &ldquo;wildfire&rdquo; incendiary composition seems undoubtedly of
+very old date in India, but the names given to pieces of artillery
+under the Mogul conqueror of Hindustan point to a European,
+or at least to a Turkish origin, and it is quite certain that
+Europeans were retained in the service of Akbar and Aurangzeb.
+The composition of present day Chinese gunpowder is almost
+identical with that employed in Europe, so that in all probability
+the knowledge of it was obtained from Western sources.</p>
+
+<p>In the writings of Bacon there is no mention of guns or the
+use of powder as a propellant, but merely as an explosive and
+destructive power. Owing perhaps to this obscurity hanging
+over the early history of gunpowder, its employment as a
+propelling agent has been ascribed to the Moors or Saracens.
+J. A. Conde (<i>Historia de la dominacion de los Arabes en España</i>)
+states that Ismail Ben Firaz, king of Granada, who in 1325
+besieged Boza, had among his machines &ldquo;some that cast globes
+of fire,&rdquo; but there is not the least evidence that these were guns.
+The first trustworthy document relative to the use of gunpowder
+in Europe, a document still in existence, and bearing date
+February 11, 1326, gives authority to the council of twelve of
+Florence and others to appoint persons to superintend the
+manufacture of cannons of brass and iron balls, for the defence
+of the territory, &amp;c., of the republic. John Barbour, archdeacon
+of Aberdeen, writing in 1375, states that cannons (crakys
+of war) were employed in Edward III.&rsquo;s invasion of Scotland
+in 1327. An indenture first published by Sir N. H. Nicolas
+in his <i>History of the Royal Navy</i> (London, 1846), and again by
+Lieutenant-Colonel H. Brackenbury (<i>Proc. R.A. Inst.</i>, 1865),
+stated to be 1338, contains references to small cannon as among
+the stores of the Tower, and also mentions &ldquo;un petit barrell de
+gonpoudre le quart&rsquo; plein.&rdquo; If authentic, this is possibly the
+first mention of gunpowder as such in England, but some doubts
+have been thrown upon the date of this MS. From a contemporary
+document in the National Library in Paris it seems that
+in the same year (1338) there existed in the marine arsenal at
+Rouen an iron weapon called <i>pot de feu</i>, for propelling bolts,
+together with some saltpetre and sulphur to make powder for
+the same. Preserved in the Record Office in London are trustworthy
+accounts from the year 1345 of the purchase of ingredients
+for making powder, and of the shipping of cannon to France.
+In 1346 Edward III. appears to have ordered all available
+saltpetre and sulphur to be bought up for him. In the first
+year of Richard II. (1377) Thomas Norbury was ordered to buy,
+amongst other munitions, sulphur, saltpetre and charcoal, to
+be sent to the castle of Brest. In 1414 Henry V. ordered
+that no gunpowder should be taken out of the kingdom
+without special licence, and in the same year ordered twenty
+pipes of willow charcoal and other articles for the use of the
+guns.</p>
+
+<p>The manufacture of gunpowder seems to have been carried
+on as a crown monopoly about the time of Elizabeth, and
+regulations respecting gunpowder and nitre were made about
+1623 (James I.). Powder-mills were probably in existence at
+Waltham Abbey about the middle or towards the end of the
+16th century.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Ingredients and their Action.</i>&mdash;Roger Bacon in his anagram gives
+the first real recipe for gunpowder, viz. (according to Hime, ch. xii.)
+saltpetre 41.2, charcoal 29.4, sulphur 29.4. Dr John Arderne of
+Newark, who began to practise about 1350 and was later surgeon to
+Henry IV., gives a recipe (Sloane MSS. 335, 795), saltpetre 66.6,
+charcoal 22.2, sulphur 11.1, &ldquo;which are to be thoroughly mixed on
+a marble and then sifted through a cloth.&rdquo; This powder is nominally
+of the same composition as one given in a MS. of Marcus Graecus,
+but the saltpetre of this formula by Marcus Graecus was undoubtedly
+answerable for the difference in behaviour of the two compositions.
+Roger Bacon had not only refined and obtained pure nitre, but had
+appreciated the importance of thoroughly mixing the components of
+the powder. Most if not all the early powder was a &ldquo;loose&rdquo; mixture
+of the three ingredients, and the most important step in connexion
+with the development of gunpowder was undoubtedly the introduction
+of wet mixing or &ldquo;incorporating.&rdquo; Whenever this was done, the
+improvement in the product must have been immediately evident.
+In the damp or wetted state pressure could be applied with comparative
+safety during the mixing. The loose powder mixture came to be
+called &ldquo;serpentine&rdquo;; after wet mixing it was more or less granulated
+or corned and was known as &ldquo;corned&rdquo; powder. Corned powder
+seems to have been gradually introduced. It is mentioned in the
+<i>Fire Book</i> of Conrad von Schöngau (in 1429), and was used for hand-guns
+in England long before 1560. It would seem that corned powder
+was used for hand-guns or small arms in the 15th century, but cannon
+were not made strong enough to withstand its explosion for quite
+another century (Hime). According to the same writer, in the period
+1250-1450, when serpentine only was used, one powder could differ
+from another in the proportions of the ingredients; in the modern
+period&mdash;say 1700-1886&mdash;the powders in use (in each state) differed
+only as a general rule in the size of the grain, whilst during the transition
+period&mdash;1450-1700&mdash;they generally differed both in composition
+and size of grain.</p>
+
+<p>Corned or grained powder was adopted in France in 1525, and in
+1540 the French utilized an observation that large-grained powder
+was the best for cannon, and restricted the manufacture to three sizes
+of grain or corn, possibly of the same composition. Early in the 18th
+century two or three sizes of grain and powder of one composition
+appear to have become common. The composition of English
+powder seems to have settled down to 75 nitre, 15 charcoal, and 10
+sulphur, somewhere about the middle of the 18th century.</p>
+
+<p>The composition of gunpowders used in different countries at
+different times is illustrated in the following tables:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>English Powders</i> (<i>Hime</i>).</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">1250.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1350.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1560.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1647.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1670.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1742.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1781.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Saltpetre</td> <td class="tcc rb">41.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">66.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">50.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">66.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">71.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">75.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">75.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Charcoal</td> <td class="tcc rb">29.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">22.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">33.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">14.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Sulphur</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">29.4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">11.1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">16.6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">16.6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">14.3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">12.5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10.0<a name="fa2q" id="fa2q" href="#ft2q"><span class="sp">2</span></a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page725" id="page725"></a>725</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>Foreign Powders</i> (<i>Hime</i>).</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">France.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sweden.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Germany.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Denmark.</td> <td class="tcc allb">France.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sweden.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Germany.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">1338.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1560.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1595.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1608.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1650.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1697.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1882.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Saltpetre</td> <td class="tcc rb">50</td> <td class="tcc rb">66.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">52.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">68.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">75.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">73</td> <td class="tcc rb">78</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Charcoal</td> <td class="tcc rb">?</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">26.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">23.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">17</td> <td class="tcc rb">19</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Sulphur</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">25</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">16.6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">21.7</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&ensp;8.5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10.8</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&ensp;3<a name="fa3q" id="fa3q" href="#ft3q"><span class="sp">3</span></a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>When reasonably pure, none of the ingredients of gunpowder
+absorbs any material quantity of moisture from the atmosphere,
+and the nitre only is a soluble substance. It seems extremely
+probable that for a long period the three substances were simply
+mixed dry, indeed sometimes kept separate and mixed just before
+being required; the consequence must have been that, with every
+care as to weighing out, the proportions of any given quantity
+would alter on carriage. Saltpetre is considerably heavier than
+sulphur or charcoal, and would tend to separate out towards the
+bottom of the containing vessel if subjected to jolting or vibration.
+When pure there can only be one kind of saltpetre or sulphur,
+because they are chemical individuals, but charcoal is not. Its composition,
+rate of burning, &amp;c., depend not only on the nature of the
+woody material from which it is made, but quite as much on the
+temperature and time of heating employed in the making. The woods
+from which it is made contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and
+the two latter are never thoroughly expelled in charcoal-making.
+If they were, the resulting substance would be of no use for gunpowder.
+1-3% of hydrogen and 8-15% of oxygen generally
+remain in charcoals suitable for gunpowder. A good deal of the
+fieriness and violence of explosion of a gunpowder depends on the
+mode of burning of the charcoal as well as on the wood from which
+it is made.</p>
+
+<p><i>Properties of Ingredients.</i>&mdash;Charcoal is the chief combustible in
+powder. It must burn freely, leaving as little ash or residue as
+possible; it must be friable, and grind into a non-gritty powder.
+The sources from which powder charcoal is made are dogwood
+(<i>Rhamnus frangula</i>), willow (<i>Salix alba</i>), and alder (<i>Betula alnus</i>).
+Dogwood is mainly used for small-arm powders. Powders made from
+dogwood charcoal burn more rapidly than those from willow, &amp;c.
+The wood after cutting is stripped of bark and allowed to season for
+two or three years. It is then picked to uniform size and charred in
+cylindrical iron cases or slips, which can be introduced into slightly
+larger cylinders set in a furnace. The slips are provided with
+openings for the escape of gases. The rate of heating as well as the
+absolute temperature attained have an effect on the product, a slow
+rate of heating yielding more charcoal, and a high temperature
+reducing the hydrogen and oxygen in the final product. When heated
+for seven hours to about 800° C. to 900° C. the remaining hydrogen
+and oxygen amount to about 2% and 12% respectively. The time
+of charring is as a rule from 5 to 7 hours. The slips are then removed
+from the furnace and placed in a larger iron vessel, where they are
+kept comparatively air-tight until quite cold. The charcoal is then
+sorted, and stored for some time before grinding. The charcoal is
+ground, and the powder sifted on a rotating reel or cylinder of fine
+mesh copper-wire gauze. The sifted powder is again stored for
+some time before use in closed iron vessels.</p>
+
+<p>Sicilian sulphur is most generally employed for gunpowder, and
+for complete purification is first distilled and then melted and cast
+into moulds. It is afterwards ground into a fine powder and sifted
+as in the case of the charcoal.</p>
+
+<p>Potassium nitrate is eminently suitable as an oxygen-provider,
+not being deliquescent. Nitrates are continually being produced in
+surface soils, &amp;c., by the oxidation of nitrogenous substances.
+Nitric and nitrous acids are also produced by electric discharges
+through the atmosphere, and these are found eventually as nitrates
+in soils, &amp;c. Nitre is soluble in water, and much more so in hot than
+in cold. Crude nitre, obtained from soils or other sources, is purified
+by recrystallization. The crude material is dissolved almost to
+saturation in boiling water: on filtering and then cooling this liquor
+to about 30° C. almost pure nitre crystallizes out, most of the usual
+impurities still remaining in solution. By rapidly cooling and agitating
+the nitre solution crystals are obtained of sufficient fineness for the
+manufacture of powder without special grinding. Nitre contains
+nearly 48% of oxygen by weight, five-sixths of which is available for
+combustion purposes. Nearly all the gases of the powder explosion
+are derived from the nitre. The specific gravity of nitre is 2.2 : 200
+grams will therefore occupy about 100 cubic centimetres volume.
+This quantity on its decomposition by heat alone yields 28 grams or
+22,400 c.c. of nitrogen, and 80 grams or 56,000 c.c. of oxygen as gases,
+and 94 grams of potassium oxide, a fusible solid which vaporizes
+at a very high temperature.</p>
+
+<p><i>Incorporation.</i>&mdash;The materials are weighed out separately, mixed
+by passing through a sieve, and then uniformly moistened with a
+certain quantity of water, whilst on the bed of the incorporating
+mill. This consists of two heavy iron wheels mounted so as to
+run in a circular bed. The incorporation requires about four hours.
+The mechanical action of rollers on
+the powder paste is a double one:
+not only crushing but mixing by
+pushing forwards and twisting sideways.
+The pasty mass is deflected so
+that it repeatedly comes under first one
+roller and then the next by scrapers,
+set at an angle to the bed, which follow
+each wheel.</p>
+
+<p>Although the charge is wet it is
+possible for it to be fired either by the
+heat developed by the roller friction, by
+sparks from foreign matters, as bits of
+stone, &amp;c., or possibly by heat generated by oxidation of the
+materials. The mills are provided with a drenching apparatus
+so arranged that in case of one mill firing it and its neighbours
+will be drowned by water from a cistern or tank immediately
+above the mill. The product from the incorporation is termed
+&ldquo;mill-cake.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>After this incorporation in the damp state the ingredients never
+completely separate on drying, however much shaken, because each
+particle of nitre is surrounded by a thin layer of water containing
+nitre in solution in which the particles of charcoal and sulphur are
+entangled and retained. After due incorporation, powders are
+pressed to a certain extent whilst still moist. The density to which
+a powder is pressed is an important matter in regard to the rate of
+burning. The effect of high density is to slow down the initial rate
+of burning. Less dense powders burn more rapidly from the first
+and tend to put a great strain on the gun. Fouling is usually less
+with denser powders; and, as would be expected, such powders bear
+transport better and give less dust than light powders. Up to a
+certain pressure, hardness, density, and size of grain of a powder
+have an effect on the rate of burning and therefore on pressure.
+Glazing or polishing powder grains, also exerts a slight retarding
+action on burning and enables the powders to resist atmospheric
+moisture better. Excess of moisture in gunpowder has a marked
+effect in reducing the explosiveness. All powders are liable to
+absorb moisture, the quality and kind of charcoal being the main
+determinant in this respect; hard burnt black charcoal is least
+absorbent. The material employed in brown powders absorbs
+moisture somewhat readily. Powder kept in a very damp atmosphere,
+and especially in a changeable one, spoils rapidly, the saltpetre
+coming to the surface in solution and then crystallizing out.
+The pieces also break up owing to the formation of large crystals
+of nitre in the mass. After the pressing of the incorporated powder
+into a &ldquo;press-cake,&rdquo; it is broken up or granulated by suitable
+machines, and the resulting grains separated and sorted by sifting
+through sieves of determined sizes of mesh. Some dust is formed
+in this operation, which is sifted away and again worked up under
+the rollers (for sizes of grains see fig. 1). These grains, cubes, &amp;c.,
+are then either polished by rotating in drums alone or with graphite,
+which adheres to and coats the surfaces of the grains. This process
+is generally followed with powders intended for small-arms or
+moderately small ordnance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Shaped Powders.</i>&mdash;Prisms or prismatic powder are made by
+breaking up the press-cake into a moderately fine state, whilst still
+moist, and pressing a certain quantity in a mould. The moulds
+generally employed consist of a thick plate of bronze in which are
+a number of hexagonal perforations. Accurately fitting plungers
+are so applied to these that one can enter at the top and the other
+at the bottom. The lower plunger being withdrawn to the bottom
+of the plate the hexagonal hole is charged with the powder and the
+two plungers set in motion, thus compressing the powder between
+them. After the desired pressure has been applied the top plunger
+is withdrawn, and the lower one pushed upward to eject the prism
+of powder. The axial perforations in prism powders are made by
+small bronze rods which pass through the lower plunger and fit
+into corresponding holes in the upper one. If these prisms are
+made by a steadily applied pressure a density throughout of about
+1.78 may be obtained. Further to regulate the rate of burning so
+that it shall be slow at first and more rapid as the powder is consumed,
+another form of machine was devised, the cam press, in which
+the pressure is applied very rapidly to the powder. It receives in
+fact one blow, which compresses the powder to the same dimensions,
+but the density of the outer layers of substance of the prism is much
+greater than in the interior.</p>
+
+<p>The leading idea in connexion with all shaped powder grains,
+and with the very large sizes, was to regulate the rate of burning so
+as to avoid extreme pressure when first ignited and to keep up the
+pressure in the gun as more space was provided in the chamber or
+tube by the movement of the shot towards the muzzle. In the
+perforated prismatic powder the ignition is intended to proceed
+through the perforations; since in a charge the faces of the prisms
+fit pretty closely together, it was thought that this arrangement
+would prevent unburnt cores or pieces of powder from being blown
+out. These larger grain powders necessitated a lengthened bore to
+take advantage of the slower production of gases and complete
+combustion of the powder. General T. J. Rodman first suggested
+and employed the perforated cake cartridge in 1860, the cake having
+nearly the diameter of the bore and a thickness of 1 to 2 in.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page726" id="page726"></a>726</span>
+with perforations running parallel with the gun axis. The burning
+would then start from the comparatively small surfaces of the
+perforations, which would become larger as the powder burnt away.
+Experiments bore out this theory perfectly. It was found that
+small prisms were more convenient to make than large disks, and
+as the prisms practically fit together into a disk the same result
+was obtained. This effect of mechanical density on rate of burning
+is good only up to a certain pressure, above which the gases are
+driven through the densest form of granular material. After
+granulating or pressing into shapes, all powders must be dried.
+This is done by heating in specially ventilated rooms heated by
+steam pipes. As a rule this drying is followed by the finishing or
+polishing process. Powders are finally blended, <i>i.e.</i> products from
+different batches or &ldquo;makes&rdquo; are mixed so that identical proof
+results are obtained.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sizes and Shapes of Powders.</i>&mdash;In fig. 1, <i>a</i> to <i>k</i> show the relative
+sizes and shapes of grain as formerly employed for military purposes,
+except that the three largest powders, <i>e-f-g</i> and <i>h</i> are figured half-size
+to save space, whereas the remainder indicate the actual dimensions
+of the grains. <i>a</i> is for small-arms, all the others are for cannon
+of various sizes.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:476px; height:726px" src="images/img726.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Proof of Powder.</i>&mdash;In addition to chemical examination powder is
+passed through certain mechanical tests:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>For colour, glaze, texture and freedom from dust.</i></p>
+
+<p>2. <i>For proper incorporation.</i></p>
+
+<p>3. <i>For shape, size and proportion of the grains.</i>&mdash;The first is judged
+by eye, and grains of the size required are obtained by the use of
+sieves of different sizes.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Density.</i>&mdash;The density is generally obtained in some form of
+mercury densimeter, the powder being weighed in air and then
+under mercury. In some forms of the instrument the air can be
+pumped out so that the weighing takes place <i>in vacuo</i>.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Moisture and absorption of moisture.</i>&mdash;The moisture and
+hygroscopic test consists in weighing a sample, drying at 100° C.
+for a certain time, weighing again, &amp;c., until constant. The dried
+weighed sample can then be exposed to an artificial atmosphere of
+known moisture and temperature, and the gain in weight per hour
+similarly ascertained by periodic weighings.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Firing proof.</i>&mdash;The nature of this depends upon the purpose for
+which the powder is intended. For sporting powders it consists in
+the &ldquo;pattern&rdquo; given by the shot upon a target at a given distance,
+or, if fired with a bullet, upon the &ldquo;figure of merit,&rdquo; or mean radial
+deviation of a certain number of rounds; also upon the penetrative
+power. For military purposes the &ldquo;muzzle&rdquo; velocity produced
+by a powder is ascertained by a chronograph which measures the
+exact time the bullet or other projectile takes to traverse a known
+distance between two wire screens. By means of &ldquo;crusher gauges&rdquo;
+the exact pressure per square inch upon certain points in the interior
+of the bore can be found.</p>
+
+<p>In the chemical examination of gunpowder the points to be
+ascertained are, in addition to moisture, freedom from chlorides or
+sulphates, and correct proportion of nitre and sulphur to charcoal.</p>
+
+<p><i>Products of Fired Powder and Changes taking place on Explosion.</i>&mdash;With
+a mixture of the complexity of gunpowder it is quite impossible
+to say beforehand what will be the relative amounts of products.
+The desired products are nitrogen and carbon dioxide as gases, and
+potassium sulphate and carbonate as solids. But the ingredients
+of the mixture are not in any simple chemical proportion. Burning
+in contact with air under one atmosphere pressure, and burning in
+a closed or partially closed vessel under a considerable number of
+atmospheres pressure, may produce quite different results. The
+temperature of a reaction always rises with increased pressure.
+Although the main function of the nitre is to give up oxygen and
+nitrogen, of the charcoal to produce carbon dioxide and most of
+the heat, and of the sulphur by vaporizing to accelerate the rate of
+burning, it is quite impossible to represent the actions taking place
+on explosion by any simple or single chemical equation. Roughly
+speaking, the gases from black powder burnt in a closed vessel have
+a volume at 0° C. and 760 mm. pressure of about 280 times that of
+the original powder. The temperature produced under one atmosphere
+is above 2000° C., and under greater pressures considerably
+higher.</p>
+
+<p>Experiments have been made by Benjamin Robins (1743), Charles
+Hutton (1778), Count Rumford (1797), Gay-Lussac (1823), R.
+Bunsen and L. Schiskoff (1857), T. J. Rodman (1861), C. Karolyi
+(1863), and later many researches by Sir Andrew Noble and Sir
+F. A. Abel, and by H. Debus and others, all with the idea of getting
+at the precise mechanism of the explosion. Debus (<i>Ann.</i>, 1882,
+vols. 212, 213; 1891, vol. 265) discussed at great length the results
+of researches by Bunsen, Karolyi, Noble and Abel, and others on
+the combustion of powder in closed vessels in such manner that all
+the products could be collected and examined and the pressures
+registered. A Waltham Abbey powder, according to an experiment
+by Noble and Abel, gave when fired in a closed vessel the following
+quantities of products calculated from one gram of powder:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc pb1">Fractions of<br />a gram.</td> <td class="tcc pb1">Fractions of a<br />molecule or atom.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Potassium carbonate</td> <td class="tcc">.2615</td> <td class="tcl">.00189 molecule</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Potassium sulphate</td> <td class="tcc">.1268</td> <td class="tcl">.00072 &emsp; &rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Potassium thiosulphate</td> <td class="tcc">.1666</td> <td class="tcl">.00087 &emsp; &rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Potassium sulphide</td> <td class="tcc">.0252</td> <td class="tcl">.00017 &emsp; &rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sulphur</td> <td class="tcc">.0012</td> <td class="tcl">.00004 atom</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Carbon dioxide</td> <td class="tcc">.2678</td> <td class="tcl">.00608 molecule</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Carbon monoxide</td> <td class="tcc">.0339</td> <td class="tcl">.00121 &emsp; &rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Nitrogen</td> <td class="tcc">.1071</td> <td class="tcl">.00765 atom</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Hydrogen</td> <td class="tcc">.0008</td> <td class="tcl">.0008 &emsp; &rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Hydrogen sulphide</td> <td class="tcc">.0080</td> <td class="tcl">.00023 molecule</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Potassium thiocyanate</td> <td class="tcc">.0004</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Nitre</td> <td class="tcc">.0005</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ammonium carbonate</td> <td class="tcc">.0002</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">From this, and other results, Debus concluded that Waltham
+Abbey powder could be represented by the formula 16KNO<span class="su">3</span> + 21.18C + 6.63S
+and that on combustion in a closed vessel the end results
+could be fairly expressed (rounding off fractions) by
+16KNO<span class="su">3</span> + 21C + 5S = 5K<span class="su">2</span>CO<span class="su">3</span> + K<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span> + 2K<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">2</span> + 13CO<span class="su">2</span> + 3CO + 8N<span class="su">2</span>. Some of
+the sulphur is lost, part combining with the metal of the apparatus
+and part with hydrogen in the charcoal. The military powders
+of most nations can be represented by the formula 16KNO<span class="su">3</span> + 21.2C + 6.6S,
+proportions which are reasonably near to a theoretical
+mixture, that is one giving most complete combustion, greatest
+gas volume and temperature. The combustion of powder consists
+of two processes: (i.) oxidation, during which potassium carbonate
+and sulphate, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are mainly formed, and
+(ii.) a reduction process in which free carbon acts on the potassium
+sulphate and free sulphur on the potassium carbonate, producing
+potassium sulphide and carbon monoxide respectively. Most
+powders contain more carbon and sulphur than necessary, hence
+the second stage. In this second stage heat is lost. The potassium
+sulphide is also the most objectionable constituent as regards fouling.</p>
+
+<p>The energy of a powder is given, according to Berthelot, by
+multiplying the gas volume by the heat (in calories) produced during
+burning; Debus shows that a powder composed of 16KNO<span class="su">3</span> to 8C
+and 8S would have the least, and one of composition 16KNO<span class="su">3</span> + 24C + 16S
+the greatest, when completely burnt. The greatest
+capability with the lowest proportion of carbon and sulphur to nitre
+would be obtained from the mixture ÷ 16KNO<span class="su">3</span> + 22C + 8S.</p>
+
+<p>Smokeless and even noiseless powders seem to have been sought
+for during the whole gunpowder period. In 1756 one was experimented
+with in France, but was abandoned owing to difficulties
+in manufacture. Modern smokeless powders are certainly less noisy
+than the black powders, mainly because of the absence of metallic
+salts which although they may be gaseous whilst in the gun are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page727" id="page727"></a>727</span>
+certainly ejected as solids or become solids at the moment of contact
+with air.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brown Powders.</i>&mdash;About the middle of the 19th century guns and
+projectiles were made much larger and heavier than previously,
+and it was soon found that the ordinary black powders of the most
+dense form burnt much too rapidly, straining or bursting the pieces.
+Powders were introduced containing about 3% sulphur and 17-19%
+of a special form of charcoal made from slightly charred straw,
+or similar material. This &ldquo;brown charcoal&rdquo; contains a considerable
+amount of the hydrogen and oxygen of the original plant substance.
+The mechanical processes of manufacture of these brown powders
+is the same as for black. They, however, differ from black by burning
+very slowly, even under considerable pressure. This comparative
+slowness is caused by (1) the presence of a small amount of water
+even when air-dry; (2) the fact that the brown charcoal is practically
+very slightly altered cellulosic material, which before it can
+burn completely must undergo a little further resolution or charring
+at the expense of some heat from the portion of charge first ignited;
+and (3) the lower content of sulphur. An increase of a few per cent
+in the sulphur of black powder accelerates its rate of burning, and
+it may become almost a blasting powder. A decrease in sulphur has
+the reverse effect. It is really the sulphur vapour that in the early
+period of combustion spreads the flame through the charge.</p>
+
+<p>Many other powders have been made or proposed in which nitrates
+or chlorates of the alkalis or of barium, &amp;c., are the oxygen providers
+and substances as sugar, starch, and many other organic compounds
+as the combustible elements. Some of these compositions have found
+employment for blasting or even as sporting powders, but in most
+cases their objectionable properties of fouling, smoke and mode of
+exploding have prevented their use for military purposes. The
+adoption by the French government of the comparatively smokeless
+nitrocellulose explosive of Paul Vieille in 1887 practically put an
+end to the old forms of gunpowders. The first smokeless powder
+was made in 1865 by Colonel E. Schultze (<i>Ding. Pol. Jour.</i> 174,
+p. 323; 175, p. 453) by nitrating wood meal and adding potassium
+and barium nitrates. It is somewhat similar in composition to the
+E. C. sporting powder. F. Uchatius, in Austria, proposed a smokeless
+powder made from nitrated starch, but it was not adopted
+owing to its hygroscopic nature and also its tendency to detonate.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Vanucchio Biringuccio, <i>De la pirotechnia</i> (Venice,
+1540); Tartaglia, <i>Quesiti e invenzioni diversi</i> (lib. iii.) (Venice, 1546);
+Peter Whitehorne, <i>How to make Saltpetre, Gunpowder, &amp;c.</i> (London,
+1573); Nic. Macchiavelli, <i>The Arte of Warre</i>, trans. by Whitehorne
+(London, 1588); Hanzelet, <i>Recueil de plusiers machines militaires</i>
+(Paris, 1620); Boillet Langrois, <i>Modelles artifices de feu</i>
+(1620); Kruger, <i>Chemical Meditations on the Explosion of Gunpowder</i>
+(in Latin) (1636); Collado, <i>On the Invention of Gunpowder</i>
+(Spanish) (1641); <i>The True Way to make all Sorts of Gunpowder
+and Matches</i> (1647); Hawksbee, <i>On Gunpowder</i> (1686); Winter,
+<i>On Gunpowder</i> (in Latin); Robins, <i>New Principles of Gunnery</i>
+(London, 1742) (new ed. by Hutton, 1805); D&rsquo;Antoni, <i>Essame della
+polvere</i> (Turin, 1765) (trans. by Captain Thomson, R. A., London,
+1787); Count Rumford, &ldquo;Experiments on Fired Gunpowder,&rdquo;
+<i>Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.</i> (1797); Charles Hutton, <i>Mathematical Tracts</i>,
+vol. iii. (1812); Sir W. Congreve, <i>A Short Account of Improvements
+in Gunpowder made by</i> (London, 1818); Bunsen and Schiskoff,
+&ldquo;On the Chemical Theory of Gunpowder,&rdquo; <i>Pogg. Ann.</i>, 1857,
+vol. cii.; General Rodman, <i>Experiments on Metal for Cannon, and
+Qualities of Cannon Powder</i> (Boston, 1861); Napoleon III., <i>Études
+sur le passé et l&rsquo;avenir de l&rsquo;artillerie</i>, vol. iii. (Paris, 1862); Von Karolyi,
+&ldquo;On the Products of the Combustion of Gun Cotton and Gunpowder,&rdquo;
+<i>Phil. Mag.</i> (October 1863); Captain F. M. Smith, <i>Handbook
+of the Manufacture and Proof of Gunpowder at Waltham Abbey</i>
+(London, 1870); Noble and Abel, <i>Fired Gunpowder</i> (London, 1875,
+1880); Noble, <i>Artillery and Explosives</i> (1906); H. W. L. Hime,
+<i>Gunpowder and Ammunition, their Origin and Progress</i> (1904);
+O. Guttmann, <i>The Manufacture of Explosives</i> (1895), <i>Monumenta
+pulveris pyrii</i> (1906); <i>Notes on Gunpowder and Gun Cotton</i>, published
+by order of the secretary of state for war (London, 1907). (See also
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Explosives</a></span>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. R. E. H.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1q" id="ft1q" href="#fa1q"><span class="fn">1</span></a> These words were emended by some authors to read <i>luru mope
+can ubre</i>, the letters of which can be arranged to give <i>pulvere carbonum</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2q" id="ft2q" href="#fa2q"><span class="fn">2</span></a> This represents the composition of English powder at present,
+and no doubt it has remained the same for a longer time than the
+above date indicates.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3q" id="ft3q" href="#fa3q"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Brown or coco-powder for large charges in guns. The charcoal is not burnt black but roasted
+until brown, and is made from some variety of straw, not wood.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUNPOWDER PLOT,<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> the name given to a conspiracy for
+blowing up King James I. and the parliament on the 5th of
+November 1605.</p>
+
+<p>To understand clearly the nature and origin of the famous
+conspiracy, it is necessary to recall the political situation and
+the attitude of the Roman Catholics towards the government
+at the accession of James I. The Elizabethan administration
+had successfully defended its own existence and the Protestant
+faith against able and powerful antagonists, but this had not
+been accomplished without enforcing severe measures of repression
+and punishment upon those of the opposite faith.
+The beginning of a happier era, however, was expected with
+the opening of the new reign. The right of James to the crown
+could be more readily acknowledged by the Romanists than
+that of Elizabeth: Pope Clement VIII. appeared willing to
+meet the king half-way. James himself was by nature favourable
+to the Roman Catholics and had treated the Roman
+Catholic lords in Scotland with great leniency, in spite of their
+constant plots and rebellions. Writing to Cecil before his
+accession he maintained, &ldquo;I am so far from any intention of
+persecution as I protest to God I reverence their church as our
+mother church, although clogged with many infirmities and
+corruptions, besides that I did ever hold persecution as one of
+the infallible notes of a false church.&rdquo; He declared to Northumberland,
+the kinsman and master of Thomas Percy, the
+conspirator, &ldquo;as for the Catholics, I will neither persecute any
+that will be quiet and give but an outward obedience to the
+law, neither will I spare to advance any of them that will be of
+good service and worthily deserved.&rdquo; It is probable that these
+small but practical concessions would have satisfied the lay
+Roman Catholics and the secular priests, but they were very
+far from contenting the Jesuits, by whom the results of such
+leniency were especially feared: &ldquo;What rigour of laws would
+not compass in so many years,&rdquo; wrote Henry Tichborne, the
+Jesuit, in 1598, &ldquo;this liberty and lenity will effectuate in 20 days,
+to wit the disfurnishing of the seminaries, the disanimating of
+men to come and others to return, the expulsion of the society
+and confusion as in Germany, extinction of zeal and favour,
+disanimation of princes from the hot pursuit of the enterprise....
+We shall be left as a prey to the wolves that will besides
+drive our greatest patron [the king of Spain] to stoop to a peace
+which will be the utter ruin of our edifice, this many years in
+building.&rdquo; Unfortunately, about this time the Jesuits, who
+thus thrived on political intrigue, and who were deeply implicated
+in treasonable correspondence with Spain, had obtained
+a complete ascendancy over the secular priests, who were for
+obeying the civil government as far as possible and keeping free
+from politics. The time, therefore, as far as the Roman Catholics
+themselves were concerned, was not a propitious one for introducing
+the moderate concessions which alone James had
+promised: James, too, on his side, found that religious toleration,
+though clearly sound in principle, was difficult in practice.
+During the first few months of the reign all went well. In July
+1603 the fines for recusancy were remitted. In January 1604
+peaceable Roman Catholics could live unmolested and &ldquo;serve
+God according to their consciences without any danger.&rdquo; But
+James&rsquo;s expectations that the pope would prevent dangerous
+and seditious persons from entering the country were unfulfilled
+and the numbers of the Jesuits and the Roman Catholics
+greatly increased. Rumours of plots came to hand. Cecil,
+though like his master naturally in favour of toleration, with
+his experience gained in the reign of Elizabeth, was alarmed
+at the policy pursued and its results, and great anxiety was
+aroused in the government and nation, which was in the end
+shared by the king. It was determined finally to return to the
+earlier policy of repression. On the 22nd of February 1604 a
+proclamation was issued banishing priests; on the 28th of
+November 1604, recusancy fines were demanded from 13 wealthy
+persons, and on the 10th of February 1605 the penal laws were
+ordered to be executed. The plot, however, could not have
+been occasioned by these measures, for it had been already
+conceived in the mind of Robert Catesby. It was aimed at the
+repeal of the whole Elizabethan legislation against the Roman
+Catholics and perhaps derived some impulse at first from the
+leniency lately shown by the administration, afterwards gaining
+support from the opposite cause, the return of the government
+to the policy of repression.</p>
+
+<p>It was in May 1603 that Catesby told Percy, in reply to the
+latter&rsquo;s declaration of his intention to kill the king, that he was
+&ldquo;thinking of a most sure way.&rdquo; Subsequently, about the 1st of
+November 1603, Catesby sent a message to his cousin Robert
+Winter at Huddington, near Worcester, to come to London,
+which the latter refused. On the arrival of a second urgent
+summons shortly afterwards he obeyed, and was then at a house
+at Lambeth, probably in January 1604, initiated by Catesby
+together with John Wright into the plot to blow up the parliament
+house. Before putting this plan into execution, however,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page728" id="page728"></a>728</span>
+it was decided to try a &ldquo;quiet way&rdquo;; and Winter was sent over
+to Flanders to obtain the good offices of Juan de Velasco, duke of
+Frias and constable of Castile, who had arrived there to conduct
+the negotiations for a peace between England and Spain, in order
+to obtain the repeal of the penal laws. Winter, having secured
+nothing but vain promises from the constable, returned to
+England about the end of April, bringing with him Guy Fawkes,
+a man devoted to the Roman Catholic cause and recommended
+for undertaking perilous adventures. Subsequently the three
+and Thomas Percy, who joined the conspiracy in May, met in a
+house behind St Clement&rsquo;s and, having taken an oath of secrecy
+together, heard Mass and received the Sacrament in an adjoining
+apartment from a priest stated by Fawkes to have been Father
+Gerard. Later several other persons were included in the plot,
+viz. Winter&rsquo;s brother Thomas, John Grant, Ambrose Rokewood,
+Robert Keyes, Sir Everard Digby, Francis Tresham, a cousin of
+Catesby and Thomas Bates Catesby&rsquo;s servant, all, with the
+exception of the last, being men of good family and all Roman
+Catholics. Father Greenway and Father Garnet, the Jesuits,
+were both cognisant of the plot (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Garnet, Henry</a></span>). On the
+24th of May 1604 a house was hired in Percy&rsquo;s name adjoining
+the House of Lords, from the cellar of which they proposed to
+work a mine. They began on the 11th of December 1604, and by
+about March had got half-way through the wall. They then
+discovered that a vault immediately under the House of Lords
+was available. This was at once hired by Percy, and 36 barrels of
+gunpowder, amounting to about 1 ton and 12 cwt., were brought
+in and concealed under coal and faggots. The preparations
+being completed in May the conspirators separated. Fawkes
+was despatched to Flanders, where he imparted the plot to Hugh
+Owen, a zealous Romanist intriguer. Sir Edmund Baynham
+was sent on a mission to Rome to be at hand when the news came
+to gain over the pope to the cause of the successful conspirators.
+An understanding was arrived at with several officers levied for
+the service of the archduke, that they should return at once to
+England when occasion arose of defending the Roman Catholic
+cause. A great hunting match was organized at Danchurch in
+Warwickshire by Digby, to which large numbers of the Roman
+Catholic gentry were invited, who were to join the plot after
+the successful accomplishment of the explosion of the 5th of
+November, the day fixed for the opening of parliament, and
+get possession of the princess Elizabeth, then residing in the
+neighbourhood; while Percy was to seize the infant prince
+Charles and bring him on horseback to their meeting-place. Guy
+Fawkes himself was to take ship immediately for Flanders, spread
+the news on the continent and get supporters. The conspirators
+imagined that a terrorized and helpless government would
+readily agree to all their demands. Hitherto the secret had been
+well kept and the preparations had been completed with extraordinary
+success and without a single drawback; but a very
+serious difficulty now confronted the conspirators as the time for
+action arrived, and disturbed their consciences. The feelings of
+ordinary humanity shrunk from the destruction of so many
+persons guiltless of any offence. But in addition, among the
+peers to be assassinated were included many Roman Catholics
+and some lords nearly connected in kinship or friendship with the
+plotters themselves. Several appeals, however, made to Catesby
+to allow warning to be given to certain individuals were firmly
+rejected.</p>
+
+<p>On the 26th of October Lord Monteagle, a brother-in-law of
+Francis Tresham, who had formerly been closely connected with
+some of the other conspirators and had engaged in Romanist
+plots against the government, but who had given his support to
+the new king, unexpectedly ordered supper to be prepared at his
+house at Haxton, from which he had been absent for more than a
+year. While at supper about 6 o&rsquo;clock an anonymous letter was
+brought by an unknown messenger which, having glanced at, he
+handed to Ward, a gentleman of his service and an intimate
+friend of Winter, the conspirator, to be read aloud. The celebrated
+letter ran as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;My lord, out of the love I bear to some of your friends, I have
+a care for your preservation. Therefore I would advise you, as you
+tender your life, to devise some excuse to shift of your attendance
+of this Parliament, for God and man hath concurred to punish the
+wickedness of this time. And think not slightly of this advertisement,
+but retire yourself into your country, where you may expect
+the event in safety, for though there be no appearance of any stir,
+yet I say they shall receive a terrible blow the Parliament, and
+yet they shall not see who hurts them. This counsel is not to be
+contemned, because it may do you good and can do you no harm,
+for the danger is past as soon as you have burnt the letter: and I
+hope God will give you the grace to make good use of it, to whose
+holy protection I commend you.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The authorship of the letter has never been disclosed or proved,
+but all evidence seems to point to Tresham, and to the probability
+that he had some days before warned Monteagle and agreed
+with him as to the best means of making known the plot and
+preventing its execution, and at the same time of giving the
+conspirators time to escape (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tresham, Francis</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Monteagle at once started for Whitehall, found Salisbury and
+other ministers about to sit down to supper, and showed the
+letter, whereupon it was decided to search the cellar under the
+House of Lords before the meeting of parliament, but not too
+soon, so that the plot might be ripe and be fully disclosed.
+Meanwhile Ward, on the 27th of October, as had evidently been
+intended, informed Winter that the plot was known, and on the
+28th Winter informed Catesby and begged him to give up the
+whole project. Catesby, however, after some hesitation, finding
+from Fawkes that nothing had been touched in the cellar, and
+prevailed upon by Percy, determined to stand firm, hoping that
+the government had put no credence in Monteagle&rsquo;s letter, and
+Fawkes returned to the cellar to keep guard as before. On the
+4th the king, having been shown the letter, ordered the earl of
+Suffolk, as lord chamberlain, to examine the buildings. He was
+accompanied by Monteagle. On arriving at the cellar, the door
+was opened to him by Fawkes. Seeing the enormous piles of
+faggots he asked the name of their owner, to which Fawkes
+replied that they belonged to Percy. His name immediately
+aroused suspicions, and accordingly it was ordered that a further
+search should be made by Thomas Knyvett, a Westminster
+magistrate who, coming with his men at night, discovered the
+gunpowder and arrested Fawkes on the threshold.</p>
+
+<p>The opinion that the whole plot was the work of Salisbury, that
+he acted as an <i>agent provocateur</i> and lured on his victims to
+destruction, repeated by some contemporary and later writers and
+recently formulated and urged with great ability, has no solid
+foundation. Nor is it even probable that he was aware of its
+existence till he received Monteagle&rsquo;s letter. Even after its
+reception complete belief was not placed in the warning. A
+search was made only to make sure that nothing was wrong and
+guided only by Monteagle&rsquo;s letter, while no attempt was made to
+seize the conspirators. The steps taken by Salisbury after the
+discovery of the gunpowder do not show the possession of any
+information of the plot or of the persons who were its chief agents
+outside Fawkes&rsquo;s first statement, and his knowledge is seen to
+develop according to the successive disclosures and confessions of
+the latter. Thus on the 7th of November he had no knowledge
+of the <i>mine</i>, and it is only after Fawkes&rsquo;s examination by torture
+on the 9th, when the names of the conspirators were drawn from
+him, that the government was able to classify them according
+to their guilt and extent of their participation. The inquiry was
+not conducted by Salisbury alone, but by several commissioners,
+some of whom were Roman Catholics, and many rivals and
+secret enemies. To conceal his intrigue from all these would
+have been impossible, and that he should have put himself in their
+power to such an extent is highly improbable. Again, the plan
+agreed upon for disclosing the plot was especially designed to
+allow the conspirators to escape, and therefore scarcely a method
+which would have been arranged with Salisbury. Not one of the
+conspirators, even when all hope of saving life was gone, made any
+accusation against Salisbury or the government and all died
+expressing contrition for their crime. Lastly Salisbury had no
+conceivable motive in concocting a plot of this description. His
+political power and position in the new reign had been already
+secured and by very different methods. He was now at the
+height of his influence, having been created Viscount Cranborne
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page729" id="page729"></a>729</span>
+in August 1604 and earl of Salisbury in May 1605; and James
+had already, more than 16 months before the discovery of the
+plot, consented to return to the repressive measures against the
+Romanists. The success with which the conspirators concealed
+their plot from Salisbury&rsquo;s spies is indeed astonishing, but is
+probably explained by its very audacity and by the absence of
+incriminating correspondence, the medium through which the
+minister chiefly obtained his knowledge of the plans of his
+enemies.</p>
+
+<p>On the arrest of Fawkes the other conspirators, except Tresham,
+fled in parties by different ways, rejoining each other in Warwickshire,
+as had been agreed in case the plot had been successful.
+Catesby, who with some others had covered the distance of
+80 m. between London and his mother&rsquo;s house at Ashby St
+Legers in eight hours, informed his friends in Warwickshire, who
+had been awaiting the issue of the plot, of its failure, but succeeded
+in persuading Sir Everard Digby, by an unscrupulous
+falsehood, to further implicate himself in his hopeless cause by
+assuring him that both James and Salisbury were dead; and,
+according to Father Garnet, this was not the first time that
+Catesby had been guilty of lies in order to draw men into the plot.
+He pushed on the same day with his companions in the direction
+of Wales, where, it was hoped, they would be joined by bands of
+insurgents. They arrived at Huddington at 2 in the afternoon.
+On the morning of the 7th the band, numbering about 36 persons,
+confessed and heard Mass, and then rode away to Holbeche,
+2 m. from Stourbridge, in Staffordshire, the house of Stephen
+Littleton, who had been present at the hunting at Danchurch
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Digby, Everard</a></span>), where they arrived at 10 o&rsquo;clock at night,
+having on their way broken into Lord Windsor&rsquo;s house at Hewell
+Grange and taken all the armour they found there. Their case
+was now desperate. None had joined them: &ldquo;Not one came to
+take our part,&rdquo; said Sir Everard Digby, &ldquo;though we had expected
+so many.&rdquo; They were being followed by the sheriff and all the
+forces of the county. All spurned them from their doors when
+they applied for succour. One by one their followers fled from
+the house in which the last scene was to be played out. They
+now began to feel themselves abandoned not only by man but
+by God; for an explosion of some of their gunpowder, on the
+morning of the 8th, by which Catesby and some others were
+scorched, struck terror into their hearts as a judgment from
+heaven. The assurance of innocence and of a just cause which
+till now had alone supported them was taken away. The greatness
+of their crime, its true nature, now struck home to them, and
+the few moments which remained to them of life were spent in
+prayer and in repentance. The supreme hour had now arrived.
+About 11 o&rsquo;clock the sheriff and his men came up and immediately
+began firing into the house. Catesby, Percy and the two Wrights
+were killed, Winter and Rokewood wounded and taken prisoners
+with the men who still adhered to them. In all eight of the conspirators,
+including the two Winters, Digby, Fawkes, Rokewood,
+Keyes and Bates, were executed, while Tresham died in the
+Tower. Of the priests involved, Garnet was tried and executed,
+while Greenway and Gerard succeeded in escaping.</p>
+
+<p>So ended the strange and famous Gunpowder Plot. However
+atrocious its conception and its aims, it is impossible not to feel,
+together with horror for the deed, some pity and admiration for
+the guilty persons who took part in it. &ldquo;Theirs was a crime
+which it would never have entered into the heart of any man to
+commit who was not raised above the lowness of the ordinary
+criminal.&rdquo; They sinned not against the light but in the dark.
+They erred from ignorance, from a perverted moral sense rather
+than from any mean or selfish motive, and exhibited extraordinary
+courage and self-sacrifice in the pursuit of what seemed to them
+the cause of God and of their country. Their punishment was
+terrible. Not only had they risked and lost all in the attempt
+and drawn upon themselves the frightful vengeance of the state,
+but they saw themselves the means of injuring irretrievably the
+cause for which they felt such devotion. Nothing could have
+been more disastrous to the cause of the Roman Catholics than
+their crime. The laws against them were immediately increased
+in severity, and the gradual advance towards religious toleration
+was put back for centuries. In addition a new, increased and
+long-enduring hostility was aroused in the country against the
+adherents of the old faith, not unnatural in the circumstances,
+but unjust and undiscriminating, because while some of the
+Jesuits were no doubt implicated, the secular priests and Roman
+Catholic laity as a whole had taken no part in the conspiracy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;The recent controversy concerning the nature
+and origin of the plot can be followed in <i>What was the Gunpowder
+Plot?</i> by John Gerard, S.J. (1897); <i>What Gunpowder Plot was</i>, by
+S. R. Gardiner (a rejoinder) (1897); <i>The Gunpowder Plot ... in
+reply to Professor Gardiner</i>, by John Gerard, S.J. (1897); <i>Thomas
+Winter&rsquo;s Confession and the Gunpowder Plot</i>, by John Gerard, S.J.
+(with facsimiles of his writing) (1898); <i>Eng. Hist. Rev.</i> iii. 510
+and xii. 791; <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, clxxxv. 183; <i>Athenaeum</i>
+1897, ii. 149, 785, 855; 1898, i. 23, ii. 352, 420; <i>Academy</i>, vol. 52
+p. 84; <i>The Nation</i>, vol. 65 p. 400. A considerable portion of the
+controversy centres round the question of the authenticity of
+Thomas Winter&rsquo;s confession, the MS. of which is at Hatfield, supported
+by Professor Gardiner, but denied by Father Gerard principally
+on account of the document having been signed &ldquo;Winter&rdquo;
+instead of &ldquo;Wintour,&rdquo; the latter apparently being the conspirator&rsquo;s
+usual style of signature. The document was deposited by the 3rd
+Marquess of Salisbury for inspection at the Record Office, and
+was pronounced by two experts, one from the British Museum and
+another from the Record Office, to be undoubtedly genuine. The
+cause of the variation in the signature still remains unexplained, but
+ceases to have therefore any great historical importance. The
+bibliography of the contemporary controversy is given in the article
+on Henry Garnet in the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i> and in
+<i>The Gunpowder Plot</i> by David Jardine (1857), the latter work still
+remaining the principal authority on the subject; add to these
+Gardiner&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of England</i>, i., where an excellent account is given;
+<i>History of the Jesuits in England</i>, by Father Ethelred Taunton
+(1901); Father Gerard&rsquo;s <i>Narrative in Condition of the Catholics
+under James I.</i> (1872), and Father Greenway&rsquo;s Narrative in <i>Troubles
+of our Catholic Forefathers</i>, 1st series (1872), interesting as contemporary
+accounts, but not to be taken as complete or infallible
+authorities, of the same nature being <i>Historia Provinciae Anglicanae
+Societatis Jesu</i>, by Henry More, S.J. (1660), pp. 309 et seq.; also
+History of Great Britain, by John Speed (1611), pp. 839 et seq.;
+<i>Archaeologia</i>, xii. 200, xxviii. 422, xxix. 80; <i>Harleian Miscellany</i>
+(1809), iii. 119-135, or <i>Somers Tracts</i> (1809), ii. 97-117; M. A.
+Tierney&rsquo;s ed. of <i>Dodd&rsquo;s Church History</i>, vol. iv. (1841); <i>Treason
+and Plot</i>, by Martin Hume (1901); <i>Notes and Queries</i>, 7 ser. vi.,
+8 ser. iv. 408, 497, v. 55, xii. 505, 9 ser. xi. 115; <i>Add. MSS.
+Brit. Mus.</i> 6178; <i>State Trials</i>, ii.; <i>Calendar of State Pap. Dom.</i>
+(1603-1610), and the official account, <i>A True and Perfect Relation of
+the Whole Proceedings against the late most Barbarous Traitors</i> (1606),
+a neither true nor complete narrative however, now superseded as
+an authority, reprinted as <i>The Gunpowder Treason ...</i> with additions
+in 1679 by Thomas Barlow, bishop of Lincoln. A large
+number of letters and papers in the State Paper Office relating to
+the plot were collected in one volume in 1819, called the <i>Gunpowder
+Plot Book</i>; these are noted in their proper place in the printed
+calendars of State Papers, Domestic Series; see also articles on
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fawkes, Guy</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tresham, Francis</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Monteagle, William
+Parker, 4th Baron</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Percy, Thomas</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Catesby, Robert</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Garnet, Henry</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Digby, Sir Everard</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUN-ROOM,<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> a ship cabin occupied by the officers below the
+rank of lieutenant, but who are not warrant officers of the class of
+the boatswain, gunner or carpenter. In the wooden sailing ships
+it was on the lower deck, and was originally the quarters of the
+gunner.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUNTER, EDMUND<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> (1581-1626), English mathematician, of
+Welsh extraction, was born in Hertfordshire in 1581. He was
+educated at Westminster school, and in 1599 was elected a student
+of Christ Church, Oxford. He took orders, became a preacher
+in 1614, and in 1615 proceeded to the degree of bachelor in
+divinity. Mathematics, however, which had been his favourite
+study in youth, continued to engross his attention, and on the
+6th of March 1619 he was appointed professor of astronomy in
+Gresham College, London. This post he held till his death on the
+10th of December 1626. With Gunter&rsquo;s name are associated
+several useful inventions, descriptions of which are given in his
+treatises on the <i>Sector, Cross-staff, Bow, Quadrant and other
+Instruments</i>. He contrived his sector about the year 1606, and
+wrote a description of it in Latin, but it was more than sixteen
+years afterwards before he allowed the book to appear in English.
+In 1620 he published his <i>Canon triangulorum</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Logarithms</a></span>).
+There is reason to believe that Gunter was the first to discover
+(in 1622 or 1625) that the magnetic needle does not retain the
+same declination in the same place at all times. By desire of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page730" id="page730"></a>730</span>
+James I. he published in 1624 <i>The Description and Use of His
+Majestie&rsquo;s Dials in Whitehall Garden</i>, the only one of his works
+which has not been reprinted. He introduced the words cosine
+and cotangent, and he suggested to Henry Briggs, his friend and
+colleague, the use of the arithmetical complement (see Brigg&rsquo;s
+<i>Arithmetica Logarithmica</i>, cap. xv.). His practical inventions are
+briefly noticed below:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Gunter&rsquo;s Chain</i>, the chain in common use for surveying, is 22 yds.
+long and is divided into 100 links. Its usefulness arises from its
+decimal or centesimal division, and the fact that 10 square chains
+make an acre.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gunter&rsquo;s Line</i>, a logarithmic line, usually laid down upon scales,
+sectors, &amp;c. It is also called <i>the line of lines</i> and <i>the line of numbers</i>,
+being only the logarithms graduated upon a ruler, which therefore
+serves to solve problems instrumentally in the same manner as
+logarithms do arithmetically.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gunter&rsquo;s Quadrant</i>, an instrument made of wood, brass or other
+substance, containing a kind of stereographic projection of the sphere
+on the plane of the equinoctial, the eye being supposed to be placed
+in one of the poles, so that the tropic, ecliptic, and horizon form the
+arcs of circles, but the hour circles are other curves, drawn by
+means of several altitudes of the sun for some particular latitude
+every year. This instrument is used to find the hour of the day,
+the sun&rsquo;s azimuth, &amp;c., and other common problems of the sphere
+or globe, and also to take the altitude of an object in degrees.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gunter&rsquo;s Scale</i> (generally called by seamen the <i>Gunter</i>) is a large
+plane scale, usually 2 ft. long by about 1½ in. broad, and engraved
+with various lines of numbers. On one side are placed the natural
+lines (as the line of chords, the line of sines, tangents, rhumbs, &amp;c.),
+and on the other side the corresponding artificial or logarithmic
+ones. By means of this instrument questions in navigation, trigonometry,
+&amp;c., are solved with the aid of a pair of compasses.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GÜNTHER, JOHANN CHRISTIAN<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> (1695-1723), German poet,
+was born at Striegau in Lower Silesia on the 8th of April 1695.
+After attending the gymnasium at Schweidnitz, he was sent in
+1715 by his father, a country doctor, to study medicine at
+Wittenberg; but he was idle and dissipated, had no taste for the
+profession chosen for him, and came to a complete rupture with
+his family. In 1717 he went to Leipzig, where he was befriended
+by J. B. Mencke (1674-1732), who recognized his genius; and
+there he published a poem on the peace of Passarowitz (concluded
+between the German emperor and the Porte in 1718) which
+acquired him reputation. A recommendation from Mencke to
+Frederick Augustus II. of Saxony, king of Poland, proved worse
+than useless, as Günther appeared at the audience drunk. From
+that time he led an unsettled and dissipated life, sinking ever
+deeper into the slough of misery, until he died at Jena on the
+15th of March 1723, when only in his 28th year. Goethe pronounces
+Günther to have been a poet in the fullest sense of the
+term. His lyric poems as a whole give evidence of deep and
+lively sensibility, fine imagination, clever wit, and a true ear for
+melody and rhythm; but an air of cynicism is more or less
+present in most of them, and dull or vulgar witticisms are not
+infrequently found side by side with the purest inspirations of
+his genius.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Günther&rsquo;s collected poems were published in four volumes (Breslau,
+1723-1735). They are also included in vol. vi. of Tittmann&rsquo;s <i>Deutsche
+Dichter des 17ten Jahrh.</i> (Leipzig, 1874), and vol. xxxviii. of
+Kürschner&rsquo;s <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i> (1883). A pretended autobiography
+of Günther appeared at Schweidnitz in 1732, and a life
+of him by Siebrand at Leipzig in 1738. See Hoffmann von Fallersleben,
+<i>J. Ch. Günther</i> (Breslau, 1833); O. Roquette, <i>Leben und Dichten
+J. Ch. Günthers</i> (Stuttgart, 1860); M. Kalbeck, <i>Neue Beiträge zur
+Biographie des Dichters C. Günther</i> (Breslau, 1879).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GÜNTHER OF SCHWARZBURG<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> (1304-1349), German king, was
+a descendant of the counts of Schwarzburg and the younger son
+of Henry VII., count of Blankenburg. He distinguished himself
+as a soldier, and rendered good service to the emperor Louis IV.,
+on whose death in 1347 he was offered the German throne, after
+it had been refused by Edward III., king of England. He was
+elected German king at Frankfort on the 30th of January 1349
+by four of the electors, who were partisans of the house of Wittelsbach
+and opponents of Charles of Luxemburg, afterwards the
+emperor Charles IV. Charles, however, won over many of
+Günther&rsquo;s adherents, defeated him at Eltville, and Günther, who
+was now seriously ill, renounced his claims for the sum of 20,000
+marks of silver. He died three weeks afterwards at Frankfort,
+and was buried in the cathedral of that city, where a statue was
+erected to his memory in 1352.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Graf L. Ütterodt zu Scharffenberg, <i>Günther, Graf von Schwarzburg,
+erwählter deutscher König</i> (Leipzig, 1862); and K. Janson,
+<i>Das Königtum Günthers von Schwarzburg</i> (Leipzig, 1880).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUNTRAM,<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gontran</span> (561-592), king of Burgundy, was one
+of the sons of Clotaire I. On the death of his father (561) he
+and his three brothers divided the Frankish realm between them,
+Guntram receiving as his share the valleys of the Saône and
+Rhone, together with Berry and the town of Orleans, which he
+made his capital. On the death of Charibert (567), he further
+obtained the <i>civitates</i> of Saintes, Angoulême and Périgueux.
+During the civil war which broke out between the kings of
+Neustria and Austrasia, his policy was to try to maintain a state of
+equilibrium. After the assassination of Sigebert (575), he took
+the youthful Childebert II. under his protection, and, thanks to
+his assistance against the intrigues of the great lords, the latter
+was able to maintain his position in Austrasia. After the death
+of Chilperic (584) he protected the young Clotaire II. in the same
+way, and prevented Childebert from seizing his dominions. His
+course was rendered easier by the fact that his own sons had
+died; consequently, having an inheritance at his disposal, he
+was able to offer it to whichever of his nephews he wished. The
+danger to the Frankish realm caused by the expedition of
+Gundobald (585), and the anxiety which was caused him by the
+revolts of the great lords in Austrasia finally decided him in favour
+of Childebert. He adopted him as his son, and recognized him as
+his heir at the treaty of Andelot (587); he also helped him to
+crush the great lords, especially Ursion and Berthefried, who were
+conquered in la Woëvre. From this time on he ceased to play a
+prominent part in the affairs of Austrasia. He died in 592, and
+Childebert received his inheritance without opposition. Gregory
+of Tours is very indulgent to Guntram, who showed himself on
+occasions generous towards the church; he almost always calls
+him &ldquo;good king Guntram,&rdquo; and in his writings are to be found
+such phrases as &ldquo;good king Guntram took as his servant a concubine
+Veneranda&rdquo; (iv. 25); but Guntram was really no better
+than the other kings of his age; he was cruel and licentious,
+putting his <i>cubicularius</i> Condo to death, for instance, because he
+was suspected of having killed a buffalo in the Vosges. He was
+moreover a coward, and went in such constant terror of assassination
+that he always surrounded himself with a regular bodyguard.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Krusch, &ldquo;Zur Chronologie der merowingischen Könige,&rdquo; in
+the <i>Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte</i>, xxii. 451-490; Ulysse
+Chevalier, <i>Bio-bibliographie</i> (2nd ed.), s.v. &ldquo;Guntram.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. Pf.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUNTUR,<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the Madras
+presidency. The town (pop. in 1901, 30,833) has a station on the
+Bellary-Bezwada branch of the Southern Mahratta railway. It
+is situated east of the Kondavid hills, and is very healthy.
+It appears to have been founded in the 18th century by the
+French. At the time of the cession of the Circars to the English
+in 1765, Guntur was specially exempted during the life of Basalat
+Jang, whose personal <i>jagir</i> it was. In 1788 it came into British
+possession, the cession being finally confirmed in 1823. It has
+an important trade in cotton, with presses and ginning factories.
+There is a second-grade college supported by the American
+Lutheran Mission. Until 1859, Guntur was the headquarters of
+a district of the same name, and in 1904 a new <span class="sc">District of
+Guntur</span> was constituted, covering territory which till then had
+been divided between Kistna and Nellore. Area, 5733 sq. m.
+The population on this area in 1901 was 1,490,635. The district
+is bounded on the E. and N. by the river Kistna; in the W. a
+considerable part of the boundary is formed by the Gundlakamma
+river. The greater part consists of a fertile plain irrigated by
+canals from the Kistna, and producing cotton, rice and other
+crops.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUPTA,<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> an empire and dynasty of northern India, which
+lasted from about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 320 to 480. The dynasty was founded by
+Chandragupta I., who must not be confounded with his famous
+predecessor Chandragupta Maurya. He gave his name to the
+Gupta era, which continued in use for several centuries, dating
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page731" id="page731"></a>731</span>
+from the 26th of February, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 320. Chandragupta was succeeded
+by Samudragupta (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 326-375), one of the greatest
+of Indian kings, who conquered nearly the whole of India, and
+whose alliances extended from the Oxus to Ceylon; but his
+name was at one time entirely lost to history, and has only
+been recovered of recent years from coins and inscriptions. His
+empire rivalled that of Asoka, extending from the Hugli on the
+east to the Jumna and Chambal on the west, and from the foot of
+the Himalayas on the north to the Nerbudda on the south. His
+son Chandragupta II. (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 375-413) was also known as Vikra-Maditya
+(<i>q.v.</i>), and seems to have been the original of the mythical
+Hindu king of that name. About 388 he conquered the Saka
+satrap of Surashtra (Kathiawar) and penetrated to the Arabian
+Sea. His administration is described in the work of Fa-hien,
+the earliest Chinese pilgrim, who visited India in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 405-411.
+Pataliputra was the capital of the dynasty, but Ajodhya seems to
+have been sometimes used by both Samudragupta and Chandragupta
+II. as the headquarters of government. The Gupta
+dynasty appears to have fostered a revival of Brahmanism at the
+expense of Buddhism, and to have given an impulse to art and
+literature. The golden age of the empire lasted from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 330 to
+455, beginning to decline after the latter date. When Skandagupta
+came to the throne in 455, India was threatened with an irruption
+of the White Huns, on whom he inflicted a severe defeat, thus
+saving his kingdom for a time; but about 470 the White Huns
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ephthalites</a></span>) returned to the attack, and the empire was
+gradually destroyed by their repeated inroads. When Skandagupta
+died about 480, the Gupta empire came to an end, but the
+dynasty continued to rule in the eastern provinces for several
+generations. The last known prince of the imperial line of
+Guptas was Kamaragupta II. (<i>c.</i> 535), after whom it passed &ldquo;by
+an obscure transition&rdquo; into a dynasty of eleven Gupta princes,
+known as &ldquo;the later Guptas of Magadha,&rdquo; who seem for the
+most part to have been merely local rulers of Magadha. One of
+them, however, Adityasena, after the death of the paramount
+sovereign in 648, asserted his independence. The last known
+Gupta king was Jivitagupta II., who reigned early in the 8th
+century. About the middle of the century Magadha passed under
+the sway of the Pal kings of Bengal.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. F. Fleet, <i>Gupta Inscriptions</i> (1888); and Vincent A. Smith,
+<i>The Early History of India</i> (2nd ed., Oxford, 1908), pp. 264-295.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GURA, EUGEN<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> (1842-1906), German singer, was born near
+Saatz in Bohemia, and educated at first for the career of a painter
+at Vienna and Munich; but later, developing a fine baritone
+voice, he took up singing and studied it at the Munich Conservatorium.
+In 1865 he made his début at the Munich opera, and in
+the following years he gained the highest reputation in Germany,
+being engaged principally at Leipzig till 1876 and then at Hamburg
+till 1883. He sang in 1876 in the <i>Ring</i> at Bayreuth, and was
+famous for his Wagnerian rôles; and his Hans Sachs in <i>Meistersinger</i>,
+as performed in London in 1882, was magnificent. In
+later years he showed the perfection of art in his singing of German
+<i>Lieder</i>. He died in Bavaria on the 26th of August 1906.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GURDASPUR,<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the
+Lahore division of the Punjab. The town had a population
+in 1901 of 5764. It has a fort (now containing a Brahman
+monastery) which was famous for the siege it sustained in 1712
+from the Moguls. The Sikh leader, Banda, was only reduced by
+starvation, when he and his men were tortured to death after
+capitulating.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">District</span> comprises an area of 1889 sq. m. It is bounded
+on the N. by the native states of Kashmir and Chamba, on the E.
+by Kangra district and the river Beas, on the S.W. by Amritsar
+district, and on the W. by Sialkot, and occupies the submontane
+portion of the Bari Doab, or tract between the Beas and the
+Ravi. An intrusive spur of the British dominions runs northward
+into the lower Himalayan ranges, to include the mountain
+sanatorium of Dalhousie, 7687 ft. above sea-level. This station,
+which has a large fluctuating population during the warmer
+months, crowns the most westerly shoulder of a magnificent
+snowy range, the Dhaoladhar, between which and the plain two
+minor ranges intervene. Below the hills stretches a picturesque
+and undulating plateau covered with abundant timber, made
+green by a copious rainfall, and watered by the streams of the
+Bari Doab, which, diverted by dams and embankments, now
+empty their waters into the Beas directly, in order that their
+channels may not interfere with the Bari Doab canal. The
+district contains several large <i>jhils</i> or swampy lakes, and is
+famous for its snipe-shooting. It is historically important in
+connexion with the rise of the Sikh confederacy. The whole of
+the Punjab was then distributed among the Sikh chiefs who
+triumphed over the imperial governors. In the course of a few
+years, however, the maharaja Ranjit Singh acquired all the
+territory which those chiefs had held. Pathankot and the
+neighbouring villages in the plain, together with the whole hill
+portion of the district, formed part of the area ceded by the
+Sikhs to the British after the first Sikh war in 1846. In
+1862, after receiving one or two additions, the district was
+brought into its present shape. In 1901 the population was
+940,334, showing a slight decrease, compared with an increase of
+15% in the previous decade. A branch of the North-Western
+railway runs through the district. The largest town and chief
+commercial centre is Batala. There are important woollen mills
+at Dhariwal, and besides their products the district exports
+cotton, sugar, grain and oil-seeds.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GURGAON,<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the Delhi
+division of the Punjab. The town (pop. in 1901, 4765) is the
+headquarters of the district, but is otherwise unimportant. The
+district has an area of 1984 sq. m. It is bounded on the N. by
+Rohtak, on the W. and S.W. by portions of the Alwar, Nabha
+and Jind native states, on the S. by the Muttra district of the
+United Provinces, on the E. by the river Jumna and on the N.E.
+by Delhi. It comprises the southernmost corner of the Punjab
+province, stretching away from the level plain towards the hills
+of Rajputana. Two low rocky ranges enter its borders from the
+south and run northward in a bare and unshaded mass toward
+the plain country. East of the western ridge the valley is wide
+and open, extending to the banks of the Jumna. To the west
+lies the subdivision of Rewari, consisting of a sandy plain dotted
+with isolated hills. Numerous torrents carry off the drainage
+from the upland ranges, and the most important among them
+empty themselves at last into the Najafgarh <i>jhil</i>. This swampy
+lake lies to the east of the civil station of Gurgaon, and stretches
+long arms into the neighbouring districts of Delhi and Rohtak.
+Salt is manufactured in wells at several villages. The mineral
+products are iron ore, copper ore, plumbago and ochre.</p>
+
+<p>In 1803 Gurgaon district passed into the hands of the British
+after Lord Lake&rsquo;s conquests. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in
+May 1857, the nawab of Farukhnagar, the principal feudatory of
+the district, rose in rebellion. The Meos and many Rajput
+families followed his example. A faithful native officer preserved
+the public buildings and records at Rewari from destruction;
+but with this exception, British authority became extinguished
+for a time throughout Gurgaon. After the fall of the rebel
+capital, a force marched into the district and either captured or
+dispersed the leaders of rebellion. The territory of the nawab was
+confiscated on account of his participation in the Mutiny. Civil
+administration was resumed under orders from the Punjab
+government, to which province the district was formally annexed
+on the final pacification of the country. The population in 1901
+was 746,208, showing an increase of 11% in the decade. The
+largest town and chief trade centre is Rewari. The district is
+now traversed by several lines of railway, and irrigation is
+provided by the Agra canal. The chief trade is in cereals, but
+hardware is also exported.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GURKHA<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> (pronounced <i>góorka</i>; from Sans. <i>g&#257;u</i>, a cow, and
+<i>raks</i>, to protect), the ruling Hindu race in Nepal (<i>q.v.</i>). The
+Gurkhas, or Gurkhalis, claim descent from the rajas of Chitor in
+Rajputana. When driven out of their own country by the
+Mahommedan invasion, they took refuge in the hilly districts
+about Kumaon, whence they gradually invaded the country to
+the eastward as far as Gurkha, Noakote and ultimately to the
+valley of Nepal and even Sikkim. They were stopped by the
+English in an attempt to push south, and the treaty of Segauli,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page732" id="page732"></a>732</span>
+which ended the Gurkha War of 1814, definitely limited their
+territorial growth. The Gurkhas of the present day remain
+Hindus by religion, but show in their appearance a strong
+admixture of Mongolian blood. They make splendid infantry
+soldiers, and by agreement with their government about 20,000
+have been recruited for the Gurkha regiments of the Indian army.
+As a rule they are bold, enduring, faithful, frank, independent
+and self-reliant. They despise other Orientals, but admire and
+fraternize with Europeans, whose tastes in sport and war they
+share. They strongly resemble the Japanese, but are of a
+sturdier build. Their national weapon is the <i>kukri</i>, a heavy
+curved knife, which they use for every possible purpose.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Capt. Eden Vansittart, <i>Notes on the Gurkhas</i> (1898); and P.
+D. Bonarjee, <i>The Fighting Races of India</i> (1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GURNALL, WILLIAM<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> (1617-1679), English author, was born
+in 1617 at King&rsquo;s Lynn, Norfolk. He was educated at the free
+grammar school of his native town, and in 1631 was nominated
+to the Lynn scholarship in Emmanuel College, Cambridge, where
+he graduated B.A. in 1635 and M.A. in 1639. He was made
+rector of Lavenham in Suffolk in 1644; and before he received
+that appointment he seems to have officiated, perhaps as curate,
+at Sudbury. At the Restoration he signed the declaration
+required by the Act of Uniformity, and on this account he was
+the subject of a libellous attack, published in 1665, entitled
+<i>Covenant-Renouncers Desperate Apostates</i>. He died on the 12th
+of October 1679. Gurnall is known by his <i>Christian in Complete
+Armour</i>, published in three volumes, dated 1655, 1658 and 1662.
+It consists of a series of sermons on the latter portion of the 6th
+chapter of Ephesians, and is described as a &ldquo;magazine from
+whence the Christian is furnished with spiritual arms for the
+battle, helped on with his armour, and taught the use of his
+weapon; together with the happy issue of the whole war.&rdquo;
+The work is more practical than theological; and its quaint
+fancy, graphic and pointed style, and its fervent religious tone
+render it still popular with some readers.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also <i>An Inquiry into the Life of the Rev. W. Gurnall</i>, by
+H. M&rsquo;Keon (1830), and a biographical introduction by Bishop Ryle
+to the <i>Christian in Complete Armour</i> (1865).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GURNARD<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> (<i>Trigla</i>), a genus of fishes forming a group of the
+family of &ldquo;mailed cheeks&rdquo; (<i>Triglidae</i>), and easily recognized by
+three detached finger-like appendages in front of the pectoral fins,
+and by their large, angular, bony head, the sides of which are
+protected by strong, hard and rough bones. The pectoral
+appendages are provided with strong nerves, and serve not only
+as organs of locomotion when the fish moves on the bottom, but
+also as organs of touch, by which it detects small animals on
+which it feeds. Gurnards are coast-fishes, generally distributed
+over the tropical and temperate areas; of the forty species
+known six occur on the coast of Great Britain, viz. the red
+gurnard (<i>T. pini</i>), the streaked gurnard (<i>T. lineata</i>), the sapphirine
+gurnard (<i>T. hirundo</i>), the grey gurnard (<i>T. gurnardus</i>), the piper
+(<i>T. lyra</i>) and the long-finned gurnard (<i>T. obscura</i> or <i>T. lucerna</i>).
+Although never found very far from the coast, gurnards descend
+to depths of several hundred fathoms; and as they are bottom-fish
+they are caught chiefly by means of the trawl. Not rarely,
+however, they may be seen floating on the surface of the water,
+with their broad, finely coloured pectoral fins spread out like
+fans. In very young fishes, which abound in certain localities
+on the coast in the months of August and September, the pectorals
+are comparatively much longer than in the adult, extending to
+the end of the body; they are beautifully coloured and kept
+expanded, the little fishes looking like butterflies. When caught
+and taken out of the water, gurnards emit a grunting noise,
+which is produced by the vibrations of a diaphragm situated
+transversely across the cavity of the bladder and perforated in
+the centre. This grunting noise gave rise to the name &ldquo;gurnard,&rdquo;
+which is probably an adaptation or variation of the Fr.
+<i>grognard</i>, grumbler, cf. the Fr. <i>grondin</i>, gurnard, from <i>gronder</i>,
+and Ger. <i>Knurrfisch</i>. Their flesh is very white, firm and wholesome.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:444px; height:229px" src="images/img732.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><i>Trigla pleuracanthica.</i></td></tr></table>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GURNEY,<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> the name of a philanthropic English family of
+bankers and merchants, direct descendants of Hugh de Gournay,
+lord of Gournay, one of the Norman noblemen who accompanied
+William the Conqueror to England. Large grants of land were
+made to Hugh de Gournay in Norfolk and Suffolk, and Norwich
+has since that time been the headquarters of the family, the
+majority of whom were Quakers. Here in 1770 the brothers
+John and Henry Gurney founded a banking-house, the business
+passing in 1779 to Henry&rsquo;s son, Bartlett Gurney. On the death of
+Bartlett Gurney in 1802 the bank became the property of his
+three cousins, of whom <span class="sc">John Gurney</span> (1750-1809) was the most
+remarkable. One of his daughters was Elizabeth Fry; another
+married Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton. Of his sons one was Joseph
+<span class="sc">John Gurney</span> (1788-1847), a well-known philanthropist of the
+day; another, <span class="sc">Samuel Gurney</span> (1786-1856) assumed on his
+father&rsquo;s death the control of the Norwich bank. Samuel Gurney
+also took over about the same time the control of the London bill-broking
+business of Richardson, Overend &amp; Company, in which
+he was already a partner. This business had been founded in
+1800 by Thomas Richardson, clerk to a London bill-discounter,
+and John Overend, chief clerk in the bank of Smith, Payne &amp;
+Company at Nottingham, the Gurneys supplying the capital.
+At that time bill-discounting was carried on in a spasmodic
+fashion by the ordinary merchant in addition to his regular
+business, but Richardson considered that there was room for a
+London house which should devote itself entirely to the trade in
+bills. This, at that time, novel idea proved an instant success.
+The title of the firm was subsequently changed to Overend,
+Gurney &amp; Company, and for forty years it was the greatest
+discounting-house in the world. During the financial crisis of
+1825 Overend, Gurney &amp; Company were able to make short
+loans to many other bankers. The house indeed became known as
+&ldquo;the bankers&rsquo; banker,&rdquo; and secured many of the previous clients
+of the Bank of England. Samuel Gurney died in 1856. He was
+a man of very charitable disposition, and during the latter years
+of his life charitable and philanthropic undertakings almost
+monopolized his attention. In 1865 the business of Overend,
+Gurney &amp; Company, which had come under less competent
+control, was converted into a joint stock company, but in 1866
+the firm suspended payment with liabilities amounting to eleven
+millions sterling.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GURNEY, EDMUND<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> (1847-1888), English psychologist, was
+born at Hersham, near Walton-on-Thames, on the 23rd of March
+1847. He was educated at Blackheath and at Trinity College,
+Cambridge, where he took a high place in the classical tripos and
+obtained a fellowship. His work for the schools was done, says
+his friend F. W. H. Myers, &ldquo;in the intervals of his practice on the
+piano.&rdquo; Dissatisfied with his own executive skill as a musician,
+he wrote <i>The Power of Sound</i> (1880), an essay on the philosophy
+of music. He then studied medicine with no intention of practising,
+devoting himself to physics, chemistry and physiology. In
+1880 he passed the second M.B. Cambridge examination in the
+science of the healing profession. These studies, and his great
+logical powers and patience in the investigation of evidence, he
+devoted to that outlying field of psychology which is called
+&ldquo;Psychical Research.&rdquo; He asked whether, as universal tradition
+declares, there is an unexplored region of human faculty transcending
+the normal limitations of sensible knowledge. That
+there is such a region it was part of the system of Hegel to declare,
+and the subject had been metaphysically treated by Hartmann,
+Schopenhauer, Du Prel, Hamilton and others, as the philosophy
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page733" id="page733"></a>733</span>
+of the Unconscious or Subconscious. But Gurney&rsquo;s purpose was
+to approach the subject by observation and experiment, especially
+in the hypnotic field, whereas vague and ill-attested anecdotes
+had hitherto been the staple of the evidence of metaphysicians.
+The tendency of his mind was to investigate whatever facts may
+give a colour of truth to the ancient belief in the persistence of the
+conscious human personality after the death of the body. Like
+Joseph Glanvill&rsquo;s, the natural bent of Gurney&rsquo;s mind was sceptical.
+Both thought the current and traditional reports of supernormal
+occurrences suggestive and worth investigating by the ordinary
+methods of scientific observation, and inquisition into evidence
+at first hand. But the method of Gurney was, of course, much
+more strict than that of the author of <i>Sadducismus Triumphatus</i>,
+and it included hypnotic and other experiments unknown to
+Glanvill. Gurney began at what he later saw was the wrong end
+by studying, with Myers, the &ldquo;séances&rdquo; of professed spiritualistic
+&ldquo;mediums&rdquo; (1874-1878). Little but detection of imposture
+came of this, but an impression was left that the subject ought
+not to be abandoned. In 1882 the Society for Psychical Research
+was founded. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Psychical Research</a></span>.) Paid mediums were
+discarded, at least for the time, and experiments were made in
+&ldquo;thought-transference&rdquo; and hypnotism. Personal evidence as
+to uninduced hallucinations was also collected. The first results
+are embodied in the volumes of <i>Phantasms of the Living</i>, a vast
+collection (Podmore, Myers and Gurney), and in Gurney&rsquo;s
+remarkable essay, <i>Hallucinations</i>. The chief consequence was
+to furnish evidence for the process called &ldquo;telepathy,&rdquo; involving
+the provisional hypothesis that one human mind can affect
+another through no recognized channel of sense. The fact was
+supposed to be established by the experiments chronicled in the
+<i>Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research</i>, and it was
+argued that similar experiences occurred spontaneously, as, for
+example, in the many recorded instances of &ldquo;deathbed wraiths&rdquo;
+among civilized and savage races. (Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i>, i.
+chapter xi., especially pp. 449-450, 1873. Lang, <i>Making of
+Religion</i>, pp. 120-124, 1898.) The dying man is supposed
+to convey the hallucination of his presence as one living
+person experimentally conveys his thought to another, by
+&ldquo;thought-transference.&rdquo; Gurney&rsquo;s hypnotic experiments,
+marked by great exactness, patience and ingenuity, were undertaken
+in 1885-1888. Their tendency was, in Myers&rsquo;s words,
+&ldquo;to prove&mdash;so far as any one operator&rsquo;s experience in this protean
+subject can be held to prove anything&mdash;that there is sometimes,
+in the induction of hypnotic phenomena, some agency at work
+which is neither ordinary nervous stimulation (monotonous or
+sudden) nor suggestion conveyed by any ordinary channel to the
+subject&rsquo;s mind.&rdquo; These results, if accepted, of course corroborate
+the idea of telepathy. (See Gurney, &ldquo;Hypnotism and Telepathy,&rdquo;
+<i>Proceedings S. P. R.</i> vol. iv.) Experiments by MM. Gibert, Janet,
+Richet, Héricourt and others are cited as tending in the same
+direction. Other experiments dealt with &ldquo;the relation of the
+memory in the hypnotic state to the memory in another hypnotic
+state, and of both to the normal or waking memory.&rdquo; The result
+of Gurney&rsquo;s labours, cut short by his early death, was to raise and
+strengthen the presumption that there exists an unexplored
+region of human faculty which ought not to be neglected by
+science as if the belief in it were a mere survival of savage superstition.
+Rather, it appears to have furnished the experiences
+which, misinterpreted, are expressed in traditional beliefs.
+That Gurney was credulous and easily imposed upon those who
+knew him, and knew his penetrating humour, cannot admit;
+nor is the theory likely to be maintained by those whom bias
+does not prevent from studying with care his writings. In controversy
+&ldquo;he delighted in replying with easy courtesy to attacks
+envenomed with that <i>odium plus quam theologicum</i> which the
+very allusion to a ghost or the human soul seems in some philosophers
+to inspire.&rdquo; In discussion of themes unpopular and
+obscure Gurney displayed the highest tact, patience, good
+temper, humour and acuteness. There never was a more disinterested
+student. In addition to his work on music and his
+psychological writings, he was the author of <i>Tertium Quid</i>
+(1887), a collection of essays, on the whole a protest against one-sided
+ideas and methods of discussion. He died at Brighton on
+23rd June 1888, from the effects of an overdose of narcotic
+medicine.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. L.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GURWOOD, JOHN<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> (1790-1845), British soldier, began his
+career in a merchant&rsquo;s office, but soon obtained an ensigncy in
+the 52nd (1808). With his regiment he served in the &ldquo;Light
+Division&rdquo; of Wellington&rsquo;s army throughout the earlier Peninsular
+campaigns, and at Ciudad Rodrigo (19th Jan. 1812) he
+led one of the forlorn hopes and was severely wounded. For his
+gallant conduct on this occasion Wellington presented Gurwood
+with the sword of the French governor of Ciudad Rodrigo. A
+little later, transferring to the 9th Light Dragoons, he was made
+brigade-major to the Guards&rsquo; cavalry which had just arrived in
+the Peninsula. In the latter part of the war he served as brigade-major
+to Lambert&rsquo;s brigade of the sixth infantry division, and
+was present at the various actions in which that division played
+a conspicuous part&mdash;the Nivelle, the Nive, Orthes and Toulouse.
+At Waterloo Captain Gurwood was for the third time severely
+wounded. In the first twelve years of the peace he was promoted
+up to the grade of lieut.-colonel, and in 1841 became
+brevet-colonel. He was for many years the duke of Wellington&rsquo;s
+private secretary, and was entrusted by him with the collection
+and editing of the <i>Wellington Despatches</i>, which occupied Gurwood
+from 1837 to the end of his life. This work is a monument
+of industrious skill, and earned its author a Civil List Pension of
+£200. But overwork and the effects of his wounds had broken
+his health, and he committed suicide on Christmas day 1845.
+He was a C.B. and deputy-lieutenant of the Tower.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUSLA,<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gusli</span>, an ancient stringed instrument still in use
+among the Slavonic races. The modern Servian gusla is a kind
+of tanbur (see Pandura), consisting of a round, concave body
+covered with a parchment soundboard; there is but one horse-hair
+string, and the peg for tuning it is inserted in oriental fashion
+in the back of the head. The gusla is played with a primitive
+bow called <i>goudalo</i>. The <i>gouslars</i> or blind bards of Servia and
+Croatia use it to accompany their chants. C. G. Anton<a name="fa1r" id="fa1r" href="#ft1r"><span class="sp">1</span></a> mentions
+an instrument of that name in the shape of a half-moon
+strung with eighteen strings in use among the Tatars. Prosper
+Merimée<a name="fa2r" id="fa2r" href="#ft2r"><span class="sp">2</span></a> has taken the <i>gusla</i> as the title for a book of Servian
+poems, which are supposed to have been collected by him among
+the peasants, but which are thought to have been inspired by the
+<i>Viaggio in Dalmazia</i> of Albarto Fortis.</p>
+
+<p>Among the Russians, the gusli is an instrument of a different
+type, a kind of psaltery having five or more strings stretched
+across a flat, shallow sound-chest in the shape of a wing. In the
+gusli the strings, of graduated length, are attached to little nails
+or pins at one end, and at the other they are wound over a rod
+having screw attachments for increasing and slackening the
+tension. There is no bridge to determine the vibrating length of
+the strings. The body of the instrument is shaped roughly like
+the tail of the grand piano, following the line of the strings; the
+longest being at the left of the instrument. Matthew Guthrie
+gives an illustration of the gusli.<a name="fa3r" id="fa3r" href="#ft3r"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1r" id="ft1r" href="#fa1r"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Erste Linien eines Versuchs über den Ursprung der alten Slaven</i>
+(Leipzig, 1783-1789), p. 145.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2r" id="ft2r" href="#fa2r"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>La Guzla, ou choix de poésies lyriques recueillies dans la Dalmatie,
+la Bosnie, la Croatie, &amp;c.</i> (Paris, 1827).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3r" id="ft3r" href="#fa3r"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Dissertations sur les antiquités de Russie</i> (St Petersburg, 1795),
+pl. ii. No. 9, p. 31.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUSTAVUS I. ERIKSSON<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> (1496-1560), king of Sweden, was
+born at his mother&rsquo;s estate at Lindholm on Ascension Day 1496.
+He came of a family which had shone conspicuously in 15th-century
+politics, though it generally took the anti-national side.
+His father, Erik Johansson of Rydboholm, &ldquo;a merry and jocose
+gentleman,&rdquo; but, like all the Swedish Vasas, liable to sudden
+fierce gusts of temper, was one of the senators who voted for the
+deposition of Archbishop Trolle, at the <i>riksdag</i> of 1517 (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>, <i>History</i>), for which act of patriotism he lost his head.
+Gustavus&rsquo;s mother, Cecilia Månsdåtter, was closely connected
+by marriage with the great Sture family. Gustavus&rsquo;s youthful
+experiences impressed him with a life-long distrust of everything
+Danish. In his eighteenth year he was sent to the court of his
+cousin Sten Sture. At the battle of Brännkyrka, when Sture
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page734" id="page734"></a>734</span>
+defeated Christian II. of Denmark, the young Gustavus bore the
+governor&rsquo;s standard, and in the same year (1518) he was delivered
+with five other noble youths as a hostage to King Christian, who
+treacherously carried him prisoner to Denmark. He was
+detained for twelve months in the island fortress of Kalö, on the
+east coast of Jutland, but contrived to escape to Lübeck in
+September 1519. There he found an asylum till the 20th of May
+1520, when he chartered a ship to Kalmar, one of the few Swedish
+fortresses which held out against Christian II.</p>
+
+<p>It was while hunting near Lake Mälar that the news of the
+Stockholm massacre was brought to him by a peasant fresh from
+the capital, who told him, at the same time, that a price had been
+set upon his head. In his extremity, Gustavus saw only one
+way of deliverance, an appeal for help to the sturdy yeomen of the
+dales. How the dalesmen set Gustavus on the throne and how
+he and they finally drove the Danes out of Sweden (1521-1523)
+is elsewhere recorded (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i>). But his worst
+troubles only began after his coronation on the 6th of June 1523.
+The financial position of the crown was the most important of all
+the problems demanding solution, for upon that everything else
+depended. By releasing his country from the tyranny of
+Denmark, Gustavus had made the free independent development
+of Sweden a possibility. It was for him to realize that possibility.
+First of all, order had to be evolved from the chaos in which
+Sweden had been plunged by the disruption of the Union; and
+the shortest, perhaps the only, way thereto was to restore the
+royal authority, which had been in abeyance during ninety years.
+But an effective reforming monarchy must stand upon a sound
+financial basis; and the usual revenues of the crown, always
+inadequate, were so diminished that they did not cover half the
+daily expenses of government. New taxes could only be imposed
+with extreme caution, while the country was still bleeding from
+the wounds of a long war. And men were wanted even more
+than money. The lack of capable, trustworthy administrators
+in Sweden was grievous. The whole burden of government
+weighed exclusively on the shoulders of the new king, a young
+man of seven and twenty. Half his time was taken up in
+travelling from one end of the kingdom to the other, and doing
+purely clerical work for want of competent assistance. We can
+form some idea of his difficulties when we learn that, in 1533, he
+could not send an ambassador to Lübeck because not a single
+man in his council, except himself, knew German. It was this
+lack of native talent which compelled Gustavus frequently to
+employ the services of foreign adventurers like Berent von
+Mehlen, John von Hoja, Konrad von Pyhy and others.</p>
+
+<p>It was not the least of Gustavus&rsquo;s many anxieties that he had
+constantly to be on the watch lest a formidable democratic rival
+should encroach on his prerogative. That rival was the Swedish
+peasantry. He succeeded indeed in putting down the four
+formidable rebellions which convulsed the realm from 1525 to
+1542, but the consequent strain upon his resources was very
+damaging, and more than once he was on the point of abdicating
+and emigrating, out of sheer weariness. Moreover he was in constant
+fear of the Danes. Necessity compelled him indeed (1534-1536)
+to take part in <i>Grevens fejde</i> (Counts&rsquo; War) (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Denmark</a></span>,
+<i>History</i>), as the ally of Christian III., but his exaggerated
+distrust of the Danes was invincible. &ldquo;We advise and exhort
+you,&rdquo; he wrote to the governor of Kalmar, &ldquo;to put no hope or
+trust in the Danes, or in their sweet scribbling, inasmuch as they
+mean nothing at all by it except how best they may deceive and
+betray us Swedes.&rdquo; Such instructions were not calculated to
+promote confidence between Swedish and Danish negotiators.
+A fresh cause of dispute was generated in 1548, when Christian
+III.&rsquo;s daughter was wedded to Duke Augustus of Saxony. On
+that occasion, apparently by way of protest against the decree of
+the diet of Vesterås (15th of January 1544), declaring the
+Swedish crown hereditary in Gustavus&rsquo;s family, the Danish king
+caused to be quartered on his daughter&rsquo;s shield not only the three
+Danish lions and the Norwegian lion with the axe of St Olaf, but
+also &ldquo;the three crowns&rdquo; of Sweden. Gustavus, naturally
+suspicious, was much perturbed by the innovation, and warned
+all his border officials to be watchful and prepare for the worst.
+In 1557 he even wrote to the Danish king protesting against the
+placing of &ldquo;the three crowns&rdquo; in the royal Danish seal beneath
+the arms of Denmark. Christian III. replied that &ldquo;the three
+crowns&rdquo; signified not Sweden in especial, but the three Scandinavian
+kingdoms, and that their insertion in the Danish shield
+was only a reminiscence of the union of Kalmar. But Gustavus
+was not satisfied, and this was the beginning of &ldquo;the three
+crowns&rdquo; dispute which did so much damage to both kingdoms.</p>
+
+<p>The events which led to the rupture of Gustavus with the Holy
+See are set forth in the proper place (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i>).
+Here it need only be added that it was a purely political act, as
+Gustavus, personally, had no strong dogmatic leanings either
+way. He not unnaturally expressed his amazement when that
+very juvenile reformer Olavus Petri confidently informed him
+that the pope was antichrist. He consulted the older and graver
+Laurentius Andreae, who told him how &ldquo;Doctor Martinus had
+clipped the wings of the pope, the cardinals and the big bishops,&rdquo;
+which could not fail to be pleasing intelligence to a monarch who
+was never an admirer of episcopacy, while the rich revenues of the
+church, accumulated in the course of centuries, were a tempting
+object to the impecunious ruler of an impoverished people.
+Subsequently, when the Protestant hierarchy was forcibly
+established in Sweden, matters were much complicated by the
+absolutist tendencies of Gustavus. The incessant labour, the
+constant anxiety, which were the daily portion of Gustavus Vasa
+during the seven and thirty years of his reign, told at last even
+upon his magnificent constitution. In the spring of 1560,
+conscious of an ominous decline of his powers, Gustavus summoned
+his last diet, to give an account of his stewardship. On
+the 16th of June 1560 the assembly met at Stockholm. Ten days
+later, supported by his sons, Gustavus greeted the estates in the
+great hall of the palace, when he took a retrospect of his reign,
+reminding them of the misery of the kingdom during the union
+and its deliverance from &ldquo;that unkind tyrant, King Christian.&rdquo;
+Four days later the diet passed a resolution confirming the
+hereditary right of Gustavus&rsquo;s son, Prince Eric, to the throne.
+The old king&rsquo;s last anxieties were now over and he could die in
+peace. He expired on the 29th of September 1560.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus was thrice married. His first wife, Catherine,
+daughter of Magnus I., duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, bore him in
+1533 his eldest son Eric. This union was neither long nor happy,
+but the blame for its infelicity is generally attributed to the lady,
+whose abnormal character was reflected and accentuated in her
+unhappy son. Much more fortunate was Gustavus&rsquo;s second
+marriage, a year after the death of his first consort, with his own
+countrywoman, Margaret Lejonhufvud, who bore him five sons
+and five daughters, of whom three sons, John, Magnus and
+Charles, and one daughter, Cecilia, survived their childhood.
+Queen Margaret died in 1551; and a twelvemonth later
+Gustavus wedded her niece, Catharine Stenbock, a handsome
+girl of sixteen, who survived him more than sixty years.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus&rsquo;s outward appearance in the prime of life is thus
+described by a contemporary: &ldquo;He was of the middle
+height, with a round head, light yellow hair, a fine long beard,
+sharp eyes, a ruddy countenance ... and a body as fitly and
+well proportioned as any painter could have painted it. He was
+of a sanguine-choleric temperament, and when untroubled and
+unvexed, a bright and cheerful gentleman, easy to get on with,
+and however many people happened to be in the same room with
+him, he was never at a loss for an answer to every one of them.&rdquo;
+Learned he was not, but he had naturally bright and clear understanding,
+an unusually good memory, and a marvellous capacity
+for taking pains. He was also very devout, and his morals were
+irreproachable. On the other hand, Gustavus had his full share
+of the family failings of irritability and suspiciousness, the latter
+quality becoming almost morbid under the pressure of adverse
+circumstances. His energy too not infrequently degenerated
+into violence, and when crossed he was apt to be tyrannical.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Alberg, <i>Gustavus Vasa and his Times</i> (London, 1882);
+R. N. Bain, <i>Scandinavia</i>, chaps. iii. and v. (Cambridge, 1905);
+P. B. Watson, <i>The Swedish Revolution under Gustavus Vasa</i> (London,
+1889); O. Sjögren, <i>Gustaf Vasa</i> (Stockholm, 1896); C. M. Butler,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page735" id="page735"></a>735</span>
+<i>The Reformation in Sweden</i> (New York, 1883); <i>Sveriges Historia</i>
+(Stockholm, 1877-1881); J. Weidling, <i>Schwedische Geschichte im
+Zeitalter der Reformation</i> (Gotha, 1882).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUSTAVUS II. ADOLPHUS<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> (1594-1632), king of Sweden,
+the eldest son of Charles IX. and of Christina, daughter of
+Adolphus, duke of Holstein-Gottorp, was born at Stockholm
+castle on the 9th of December 1594. From the first he was
+carefully nurtured to be the future prop of Protestantism by his
+austere parents. Gustavus was well grounded in the classics,
+and his linguistic accomplishments were extraordinary. He may
+be said to have grown up with two mother-tongues, Swedish and
+German; at twelve he had mastered Latin, Italian and Dutch;
+and he learnt subsequently to express himself in Spanish, Russian
+and Polish. But his practical father took care that he should
+grow up a prince, not a pedant. So early as his ninth year he was
+introduced to public life; at thirteen he received petitions and
+conversed officially with the foreign ministers; at fifteen he
+administered his duchy of Vestmanland and opened the Örebro
+diet with a speech from the throne; indeed from 1610 he may be
+regarded as his father&rsquo;s co-regent. In all martial and chivalrous
+accomplishments he was already an adept; and when, a year
+later, he succeeded to supreme power, his superior ability was as
+uncontested as it was incontestable.</p>
+
+<p>The first act of the young king was to terminate the fratricidal
+struggle with Denmark by the peace of Knäred (28th
+of January 1613). Simultaneously, another war, also an heritage
+from Charles IX., had been proceeding in the far distant regions
+round lakes Ilmen, Peipus and Ladoga, with Great Novgorod as
+its centre. It was not, however, like the Danish War, a national
+danger, but a political speculation meant to be remunerative and
+compensatory, and was concluded very advantageously for Sweden
+by the peace of Stolbova on the 27th of February 1617 (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i>). By this peace Gustavus succeeded in excluding
+Muscovy from the Baltic. &ldquo;I hope to God,&rdquo; he declared to
+the Stockholm diet in 1617, when he announced the conclusion of
+peace, &ldquo;that the Russians will feel it a bit difficult to skip over
+<i>that</i> little brook.&rdquo; The war with Poland which Gustavus resumed
+in 1621 was a much more difficult affair. It began with an
+attack upon Riga as the first step towards conquering Livonia.
+Riga was invested on the 13th of August and surrendered on the
+15th of September; on the 3rd of October Mitau was occupied;
+but so great were the ravages of sickness during the campaign
+that the Swedish army had to be reinforced by no fewer than
+10,000 men. A truce was thereupon concluded and hostilities
+were suspended till the summer of 1625, in the course of which
+Gustavus took Kokenhusen and invaded Lithuania. In January
+1626 he attacked the Poles at Walhof and scattered the whole of
+their army after slaying a fifth part of it. This victory, remarkable
+besides as Gustavus&rsquo;s first pitched battle, completed the
+conquest of Livonia. As, however, it became every year more
+difficult to support an army in the Dvina district, Gustavus now
+resolved to transfer the war to the Prussian provinces of Poland
+with a view to securing the control of the Vistula, as he had already
+secured the control of the Dvina. At the end of 1626, the
+Swedish fleet, with 14,000 men on board, anchored in front of the
+chain of sand-dunes which separates the Frische-Haff from the
+Baltic. Pillau, the only Baltic port then accessible to ships of
+war, was at once occupied, and Königsberg shortly afterwards
+was scared into an unconditional neutrality. July was passed in
+conquering the bishopric of Ermeland. The surrender of Elbing
+and Marienburg placed Gustavus in possession of the fertile and
+easily defensible delta of the Vistula, which he treated as a
+permanent conquest, making Axel Oxenstjerna its first governor-general.
+Communications between Danzig and the sea were cut
+off by the erection of the first of Gustavus&rsquo;s famous entrenched
+camps at Dirschau. From the end of August 1626 the city was
+blockaded, and in the meantime Polish irregulars, under the
+capable Stanislaus Koniecpolski, began to harass the Swedes.
+But the object of the campaign, a convenient basis of operations,
+was won; and in October the king departed to Sweden to get
+reinforcements. He returned in May 1627 with 7000 men,
+which raised his forces to 14,000, against which Koniecpolski
+could only oppose 9000. But his superior strategy frustrated all
+the efforts of the Swedish king, who in the course of the year was
+twice dangerously wounded and so disabled that he could never
+wear armour again. Gustavus had made extensive preparations
+for the ensuing campaign and took the field with 32,000 men.
+But once again, though far outnumbered, and unsupported by
+his own government, the Polish grand-hetman proved more than
+a match for Gustavus, who, on the 10th of September, broke up
+his camp and returned to Prussia; the whole autumn campaign
+had proved a failure and cost him 5000 men. During the ensuing
+campaign of 1629 Gustavus had to contend against the combined
+forces of Koniecpolski and 10,000 of Wallenstein&rsquo;s mercenaries.
+The Polish commander now showed the Swedes what he could do
+with adequate forces. At Stuhm, on the 29th of June, he
+defeated Gustavus, who lost most of his artillery and narrowly
+escaped capture. The result of the campaign was the conclusion
+of the six years&rsquo; truce of Altmark, which was very advantageous
+to Sweden.</p>
+
+<p>And now Gustavus turned his attention to Germany. The
+motives which induced the Swedish king to intervene directly in
+the Thirty Years&rsquo; War are told us by himself in his correspondence
+with Oxenstjerna. Here he says plainly that it was the fear lest
+the emperor should acquire the Baltic ports and proceed to build
+up a sea-power dangerous to Scandinavia. For the same reason,
+the king rejected the chancellor&rsquo;s alternative of waging a simply
+defensive war against the emperor by means of the fleet, with
+Stralsund as his base. He was convinced by the experience of
+Christian IV. of Denmark that the enemies&rsquo; harbours could be
+wrested from them only by a successful offensive war on land;
+and, while quite alive to the risks of such an enterprise in the
+face of two large armies, Tilly&rsquo;s and Wallenstein&rsquo;s, each of them
+larger than his own, he argued that the vast extent of territory
+and the numerous garrisons which the enemy was obliged to
+maintain, more than neutralized his numerical superiority.
+Merely to blockade all the German ports with the Swedish fleet
+was equally impossible. The Swedish fleet was too weak for
+that; it would be safer to take and fortify the pick of them. In
+Germany itself, if he once got the upper hand, he would not find
+himself without resources. It is no enthusiastic crusader, but an
+anxious and farseeing if somewhat speculative statesman who
+thus opens his mind to us. No doubt religious considerations
+largely influenced Gustavus. He had the deepest sympathy for
+his fellow-Protestants in Germany; he regarded them as God&rsquo;s
+peculiar people, himself as their divinely appointed deliverer.
+But his first duty was to Sweden; and, naturally and rightly,
+he viewed the whole business from a predominantly Swedish
+point of view. Lutherans and Calvinists were to be delivered
+from a &ldquo;soul-crushing tyranny&rdquo;; but they were to be delivered
+by a foreign if friendly power; and that power claimed as her
+reward the hegemony of Protestant Europe and all the political
+privileges belonging to that exalted position.</p>
+
+<p>On the 19th of May 1630 Gustavus solemnly took leave of the
+estates of the realm assembled at Stockholm. He appeared
+before them holding in his arms his only child and heiress, the
+little princess Christina, then in her fourth year, and tenderly
+committed her to the care of his loyal and devoted people. Then
+he solemnly took the estates to witness, as he stood there &ldquo;in the
+sight of the Almighty,&rdquo; that he had begun hostilities &ldquo;out of no
+lust for war, as many will certainly devise and imagine,&rdquo; but in
+self-defence and to deliver his fellow-Christians from oppression.
+On the 7th of June 1630 the Swedish fleet set sail, and two days
+after midsummer day, the whole army, 16,000 strong, was
+disembarked at Peenemünde. Gustavus&rsquo;s plan was to take
+possession of the mouths of the Oder Haff, and, resting upon
+Stralsund in the west and Prussia in the east, penetrate into
+Germany. In those days rivers were what railways now are, the
+great military routes; and Gustavus&rsquo;s German war was a war
+waged along river lines. The opening campaign was to be fought
+along the line of the Oder. Stettin, the capital of Pomerania,
+and the key of the Oder line, was occupied and converted into a
+first-class fortress. He then proceeded to clear Pomerania of the
+piebald imperial host composed of every nationality under
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page736" id="page736"></a>736</span>
+heaven, and officered by Italians, Irishmen, Czechs, Croats,
+Danes, Spaniards and Walloons. Gustavus&rsquo;s army has often
+been described by German historians as an army of foreign
+invaders; in reality it was far more truly Teutonic than the
+official defenders of Germany at that period. Gustavus&rsquo;s
+political difficulties (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i>) chained him to his
+camp for the remainder of the year. But the dismissal of
+Wallenstein and the declaration in Gustavus&rsquo;s favour of Magdeburg,
+the greatest city in the Lower Saxon Circle, and strategically
+the strongest fortress of North Germany, encouraged him
+to advance boldly. But first, honour as well as expediency
+moved him to attempt to relieve Magdeburg, now closely invested
+by the imperialists, especially as his hands had now been considerably
+strengthened by a definite alliance with France (treaty
+of Bärwalde, 13th of January 1631). Magdeburg, therefore,
+became the focus of the whole campaign of 1631; but the
+obstructive timidity of the electors of Brandenburg and Saxony
+threw insuperable obstacles in his way, and, on the very day
+when John George I. of Saxony closed his gates against Gustavus
+the most populous and prosperous city in North Germany
+became a heap of smoking ruins (20th of May). Gustavus, still
+too weak to meet the foe, entrenched himself at Werben, at the
+confluence of the Havel and Elbe. Only on the 12th of September
+did the elector of Saxony, alarmed for the safety of his own
+states, now invaded by the emperor, place himself absolutely at
+the disposal of Gustavus; and, five days later, at the head of the
+combined Swedish-Saxon army, though the Swedes did all the
+fighting, Gustavus routed Tilly at the famous battle of Breitenfeld,
+north of Leipzig.</p>
+
+<p>The question now was: In what way should Gustavus utilize
+his advantage? Should he invade the Austrian crown lands,
+and dictate peace to Ferdinand II. at the gates of Vienna? Or
+should he pursue Tilly westwards and crush the league at its own
+hearth and home? Oxenstjerna was the first alternative,
+but Gustavus decided in favour of the second. His decision has
+been greatly blamed. More than one modern historian has
+argued that if Gustavus had done in 1631 what Napoleon did in
+1805 and 1809, there would have been a fifteen instead of a thirty
+years&rsquo; war. But it should be borne in mind that, in the days of
+Gustavus, Vienna was by no means so essential to the existence
+of the Habsburg monarchy as it was in the days of Napoleon;
+and even Gustavus could not allow so dangerous an opponent as
+Tilly time to recover himself. Accordingly, he set out for the
+Rhine, taking Marienberg and Frankfort on his way, and on the
+20th of December entered Mainz, where he remained throughout
+the winter of 1631-1632. At the beginning of 1632, in order to
+bring about the general peace he so earnestly desired, he proposed
+to take the field with an overwhelming numerical majority. The
+signal for Gustavus to break up from the Rhine was the sudden
+advance of Tilly from behind the Danube. Gustavus pursued
+Tilly into Bavaria, forced the passage of the Danube at Donauwörth
+and the passage of the Lech, in the face of Tilly&rsquo;s strongly
+entrenched camp at Rain, and pursued the flying foe to the
+fortress of Ingolstadt where Tilly died of his wounds a fortnight
+later. Gustavus then liberated and garrisoned the long-oppressed
+Protestant cities of Augsburg and Ulm, and in May occupied
+Munich. The same week Wallenstein chased John George from
+Prague and man&oelig;uvred the Saxons out of Bohemia. Then,
+armed as he was with plenipotentiary power, he offered the
+elector of Saxony peace on his own terms. Gustavus suddenly
+saw himself exposed to extreme peril. If Tilly had made John
+George such an offer as Wallenstein was now empowered to
+make, the elector would never have become Gustavus&rsquo;s ally;
+would he remain Gustavus&rsquo;s ally now? Hastily quitting his
+quarters in Upper Swabia, Gustavus hastened towards Nuremberg
+on his way to Saxony, but finding that Wallenstein and
+Maximilian of Bavaria had united their forces, he abandoned the
+attempt to reach Saxony, and both armies confronted each
+other at Nuremberg which furnished Gustavus with a point of
+support of the first order. He quickly converted the town into
+an entrenched and fortified camp. Wallenstein followed the
+king&rsquo;s example, and entrenched himself on the western bank of
+the Regnitz in a camp twelve English miles in circumference.
+His object was to pin Gustavus fast to Nuremberg and cut off his
+retreat northwards. Throughout July and August the two
+armies faced each other immovably. On the 24th of August,
+after an unsuccessful attempt to storm Alte Veste, the key of
+Wallenstein&rsquo;s position, the Swedish host retired southwards.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of October, Wallenstein, after devastating
+Saxony, was preparing to go into winter quarters at Lützen,
+when the king surprised him as he was crossing the Rippach
+(1st of November) and a rearguard action favourable to the
+Swedes ensued. Indeed, but for nightfall, Wallenstein&rsquo;s scattered
+forces might have been routed. During the night, however,
+Wallenstein re-collected his host for a decisive action, and at daybreak
+on the 6th of November, while an autumn mist still lay
+over the field, the battle began. It was obviously Gustavus&rsquo;s plan
+to drive Wallenstein away from the Leipzig road, north of which
+he had posted himself, and thus, in case of success, to isolate, and
+subsequently, with the aid of the Saxons in the Elbe fortresses,
+annihilate him. The king, on the Swedish right wing, succeeded
+in driving the enemy from the trenches and capturing his cannon.
+What happened after that is mere conjecture, for a thick mist
+now obscured the autumn sun, and the battle became a colossal
+mêlée the details of which are indistinguishable. It was in the
+midst of that awful obscurity that Gustavus met his death&mdash;how
+or where is not absolutely certain; but it would seem that he
+lost his way in the darkness while leading the Småland horse to
+the assistance of his infantry, and was despatched as he lay
+severely wounded on the ground by a hostile horseman.</p>
+
+<p>By his wife, Marie Eleonora, a sister of the elector of Brandenburg,
+whom he married in 1620, Gustavus Adolphus had one
+daughter, Christina, who succeeded him on the throne of Sweden.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Sveriges Historia</i> (Stockholm, 1877, 81), vol. iv.; A. Oxenstjerna,
+<i>Skrifter och Brefvexling</i> (Stockholm, 1900, &amp;c.); G. Björlen,
+<i>Gustaf Adolf</i> (Stockholm, 1890); R. N. Bain, <i>Scandinavia</i> (Cambridge,
+1905); C. R. L. Fletcher, <i>Gustavus Adolphus</i> (London,
+1892); J. L. Stevens, <i>History of Gustavus Adolphus</i> (London, 1885);
+J. Mankell, <i>Om Gustaf II. Adolfs politik</i> (Stockholm, 1881); E.
+Bluemel, <i>Gustav Adolf, König von Schweden</i> (Eisleben, 1894); A.
+Rydfors, <i>De diplomatiska förbindelserna mellan Sverige och England
+1624-1630</i> (Upsala, 1890).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUSTAVUS III.<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> (1746-1792), king of Sweden, was the eldest
+son of Adolphus Frederick, king of Sweden, and Louisa Ulrica of
+Prussia, sister of Frederick the Great, and was born on the 24th
+of January 1746. Gustavus was educated under the care of two
+governors who were amongst the most eminent Swedish statesmen
+of the day, Carl Gustaf Tessin and Carl Scheffer; but he
+owed most perhaps to the poet and historian Olof von Dalin.
+The interference of the state with his education, when he was
+quite a child, was, however, doubly harmful, as his parents
+taught him to despise the preceptors imposed upon him by the
+diet, and the atmosphere of intrigue and duplicity in which he
+grew up made him precociously experienced in the art of dissimulation.
+But even his most hostile teachers were amazed by the
+brilliance of his natural gifts, and, while still a boy, he possessed
+that charm of manner which was to make him so fascinating and
+so dangerous in later life, coupled with the strong dramatic
+instinct which won for him his honourable place in Swedish
+literature. On the whole, Gustavus cannot be said to have been
+well educated, but he read very widely; there was scarce a
+French author of his day with whose works he was not intimately
+acquainted; while his enthusiasm for the new French ideas of
+enlightenment was as sincere as, if more critical than, his
+mother&rsquo;s. On the 4th of November 1766, Gustavus married
+Sophia Magdalena, daughter of Frederick V. of Denmark. The
+match was an unhappy one, owing partly to incompatibility of
+temper, but still more to the mischievous interference of the
+jealous queen-mother.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus first intervened actively in politics in 1768, at the
+time of his father&rsquo;s interregnum, when he compelled the dominant
+Cap faction to summon an extraordinary diet from which he
+hoped for the reform of the constitution in a monarchical direction.
+But the victorious Hats refused to redeem the pledges which they
+had given before the elections. &ldquo;That we should have lost the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page737" id="page737"></a>737</span>
+constitutional battle does not distress us so much,&rdquo; wrote
+Gustavus, in the bitterness of his heart; &ldquo;but what does dismay
+me is to see my poor nation so sunk in corruption as to place its
+own felicity in absolute anarchy.&rdquo; From the 4th of February to
+the 25th of March 1771, Gustavus was at Paris, where he carried
+both the court and the city by storm. The poets and the philosophers
+paid him enthusiastic homage, and all the distinguished
+women of the day testified to his superlative merits. With many
+of them he maintained a lifelong correspondence. But his visit
+to the French capital was no mere pleasure trip; it was also a
+political mission. Confidential agents from the Swedish court
+had already prepared the way for him, and the duc de Choiseul,
+weary of Swedish anarchy, had resolved to discuss with him the
+best method of bringing about a revolution in Sweden. Before
+he departed, the French government undertook to pay the outstanding
+subsidies to Sweden unconditionally, at the rate of one
+and a half million livres annually; and the comte de Vergennes,
+one of the great names of French diplomacy, was transferred
+from Constantinople to Stockholm. On his way home Gustavus
+paid a short visit to his uncle, Frederick the Great, at Potsdam.
+Frederick bluntly informed his nephew that, in concert with
+Russia and Denmark, he had guaranteed the integrity of the
+existing Swedish constitution, and significantly advised the
+young monarch to play the part of mediator and abstain from
+violence.</p>
+
+<p>On his return to Sweden Gustavus made a sincere and earnest
+attempt to mediate between the Hats and Caps who were ruining
+the country between them (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i>). On the 21st
+of June 1771 he opened his first parliament in a speech which
+awakened strange and deep emotions in all who heard it. It was
+the first time for more than a century that a Swedish king had
+addressed a Swedish diet from the throne in its native tongue.
+The orator laid especial stress on the necessity of the sacrifice of
+all party animosities to the common weal, and volunteered, as
+&ldquo;the first citizen of a free people,&rdquo; to be the mediator between
+the contending factions. A composition committee was actually
+formed, but it proved illusory from the first, the patriotism of
+neither of the factions being equal to the puniest act of self-denial.
+The subsequent attempts of the dominant Caps still
+further to limit the prerogative, and reduce Gustavus to the
+condition of a <i>roi fainéant</i>, induced him at last to consider the
+possibility of a revolution. Of its necessity there could be no
+doubt. Under the sway of the Cap faction, Sweden, already the
+vassal, could not fail to become the prey of Russia. She was
+on the point of being absorbed in that northern system, the
+invention of the Russian vice-chancellor, Count Nikita Panin,
+which that patient statesman had made it the ambition of his
+life to realize. Only a swift and sudden <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> could save the
+independence of a country isolated from the rest of Europe by a
+hostile league. At this juncture Gustavus was approached by
+Jakob Magnus Sprengtporten, a Finnish nobleman of determined
+character, who had incurred the enmity of the Caps, with the
+project of a revolution. He undertook to seize the fortress of
+Sveaborg by a <i>coup de main</i>, and, Finland once secured, Sprengtporten
+proposed to embark for Sweden, meet the king and his
+friends near Stockholm, and surprise the capital by a night
+attack, when the estates were to be forced, at the point of the
+bayonet, to accept a new constitution from the untrammelled
+king. The plotters were at this juncture reinforced by an ex-ranger
+from Scania (Skåne), Johan Kristoffer Toll, also a victim
+of Cap oppression. Toll proposed that a second revolt should
+break out in the province of Scania, to confuse the government
+still more, and undertook personally to secure the southern fortress
+of Kristianstad. After some debate, it was finally arranged
+that, a few days after the Finnish revolt had begun, Kristianstad
+should openly declare against the government. Prince Charles,
+the eldest of the king&rsquo;s brothers, was thereupon hastily to mobilize
+the garrisons of all the southern fortresses, for the ostensible
+purpose of crushing the revolt at Kristianstad; but on arriving
+before the fortress he was to make common cause with the rebels,
+and march upon the capital from the south, while Sprengtporten
+attacked it simultaneously from the east. On the 6th of August
+1772 Toll succeeded, by sheer bluff, in winning the fortress of
+Kristianstad. On the 16th Sprengtporten succeeded in surprising
+Sveaborg. But contrary winds prevented him from crossing to
+Stockholm, and in the meanwhile events had occurred which made
+his presence there unnecessary.</p>
+
+<p>On the 16th of August the Cap leader, Ture Rudbeck, arrived
+at Stockholm with the news of the insurrection in the south,
+and Gustavus found himself isolated in the midst of enemies.
+Sprengtporten lay weather-bound in Finland, Toll was five
+hundred miles away, the Hat leaders were in hiding. Gustavus
+thereupon resolved to strike the decisive blow without waiting
+for the arrival of Sprengtporten. He acted with military
+promptitude. On the evening of the 18th all the officers whom
+he thought he could trust received secret instructions to assemble
+in the great square facing the arsenal on the following morning.
+At ten o&rsquo;clock on the 19th Gustavus mounted his horse and rode
+straight to the arsenal. On the way his adherents joined him in
+little groups, as if by accident, so that by the time he reached his
+destination he had about two hundred officers in his suite. After
+parade he reconducted them to the guard-room of the palace
+and unfolded his plans to them. He then dictated a new oath of
+allegiance, and every one signed it without hesitation. It absolved
+them from their allegiance to the estates, and bound them solely
+to obey their lawful king, Gustavus III. Meanwhile the senate
+and the governor-general, Rudbeck, had been arrested and the
+fleet secured. Then Gustavus made a tour of the city and was
+everywhere received by enthusiastic crowds, who hailed him as a
+deliverer. On the evening of the 20th heralds perambulated the
+streets proclaiming that the estates were to meet in the Rikssaal
+on the following day; every deputy absenting himself would be
+regarded as the enemy of his country and his king. On the 21st,
+a few moments after the estates had assembled, the king in full
+regalia appeared, and taking his seat on the throne, delivered that
+famous philippic, one of the masterpieces of Swedish oratory, in
+which he reproached the estates for their unpatriotic venality
+and licence in the past. A new constitution was recited by the
+estates and accepted by them unanimously. The diet was then
+dissolved.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus was inspired by a burning enthusiasm for the greatness
+and welfare of Sweden, and worked in the same reformatory
+direction as the other contemporary sovereigns of the &ldquo;age of
+enlightenment.&rdquo; He took an active part in every department of
+business, but relied far more on extra-official counsellors of his
+own choosing than upon the senate. The effort to remedy the
+frightful corruption which had been fostered by the Hats and
+Caps engaged a considerable share of his time and he even found
+it necessary to put the whole of a supreme court of justice (<i>Göta
+Hofrätt</i>) on its trial. Measures were also taken to reform the
+administration and the whole course of judicial procedure, and
+torture as an instrument of legal investigation was abolished.
+In 1774 an ordinance providing for the liberty of the press was
+even issued. The national defences were at the same time
+developed on a &ldquo;Great Power&rdquo; scale, and the navy was so
+enlarged as to become one of the most formidable in Europe.
+The dilapidated finances were set in good order by the &ldquo;currency
+realization ordinance&rdquo; of 1777. Gustavus also introduced new
+national economic principles. In 1775 free trade in corn was
+promoted and a number of oppressive export-tolls were abolished.
+The poor law was also amended, absolute religious liberty was
+proclaimed, and he even succeeded in inventing and popularizing
+a national costume which was in general use from 1778 till his
+death. His one great economic blunder was the attempt to make
+the sale of spirits a government monopoly, which was an obvious
+infringement upon the privileges of the estates. His foreign
+policy, on the other hand, was at first both wise and wary.
+Thus, when the king summoned the estates to assemble at
+Stockholm on the 3rd of September 1778, he could give a
+brilliant account of his six years&rsquo; stewardship. Never was a
+parliament more obsequious or a king more gracious. &ldquo;There
+was no room for a single No during the whole session.&rdquo; Yet,
+short as the session was, it was quite long enough to open the
+eyes of the deputies to the fact that their political supremacy had
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page738" id="page738"></a>738</span>
+departed. They had changed places with the king. He was now
+indeed their sovereign lord; and, for all his gentleness, the
+jealousy with which he guarded, the vigour with which he
+enforced the prerogative, plainly showed that he meant to remain
+so. Even the few who were patriotic enough to acquiesce in the
+change by no means liked it. The diet of 1778 had been
+obsequious; the diet of 1786 was mutinous. The consequence
+was that nearly all the royal propositions were either rejected
+outright or so modified that Gustavus himself withdrew
+them.</p>
+
+<p>The diet of 1786 marks a turning-point in Gustavus&rsquo;s history.
+Henceforth we observe a determination on his part to rule without
+a parliament; a passage, cautious and gradual, yet unflinching,
+from semi-constitutionalism to semi-absolutism. His
+opportunity came in 1788, when the political complications
+arising out of his war with Catherine II. of Russia enabled him
+by the Act of Unity and Security (on the 17th of February 1789)
+to override the opposition of the rebellious and grossly unpatriotic
+gentry, and, with the approbation of the three lower estates,
+establish a new and revolutionary constitution, in which, though
+the estates still held the power of the purse, the royal authority
+largely predominated. Throughout 1789 and 1790 Gustavus, in
+the national interests, gallantly conducted the unequal struggle
+with Russia, finally winning in the Svensksund (9th-10th July)
+the most glorious naval victory ever gained by the Swedish arms,
+the Russians losing one-third of their fleet and 7000 men. A
+month later, on the 14th of August 1790, peace was signed
+between Russia and Sweden at Värälä. Only eight months
+before, Catherine had haughtily declared that &ldquo;the odious and
+revolting aggression&rdquo; of the king of Sweden would be &ldquo;forgiven&rdquo;
+only if he &ldquo;testified his repentance&rdquo; by agreeing to a
+peace granting a general and unlimited amnesty to all his rebels,
+and consenting to a guarantee by the Swedish diet (&ldquo;as it would
+be imprudent to confide in his good faith alone&rdquo;) for the observance
+of peace in the future. The peace of Värälä saved Sweden
+from any such humiliating concession, and in October 1791
+Gustavus took the bold but by no means imprudent step of concluding
+an eight years&rsquo; defensive alliance with the empress, who
+thereby bound herself to pay her new ally annual subsidies
+amounting to 300,000 roubles.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus now aimed at forming a league of princes against the
+Jacobins, and every other consideration was subordinated
+thereto. His profound knowledge of popular assemblies enabled
+him, alone among contemporary sovereigns, accurately to gauge
+from the first the scope and bearing of the French Revolution.
+But he was hampered by poverty and the jealousy of the other
+European Powers, and, after showing once more his unrivalled
+mastery over masses of men at the brief Gefle diet (22nd of
+January-24th of February 1792), he fell a victim to a widespread
+aristocratic conspiracy. Shot in the back by Anckarström at a
+midnight masquerade at the Stockholm opera-house, on the 16th
+of March 1792, he expired on the 29th.</p>
+
+<p>Although he may be charged with many foibles and extravagances,
+Gustavus III. was indisputably one of the greatest
+sovereigns of the 18th century. Unfortunately his genius never
+had full scope, and his opportunity came too late. Gustavus was,
+moreover, a most distinguished author. He may be said to have
+created the Swedish theatre, and some of the best acting dramas
+in the literature are by his hand. His historical essays, notably
+the famous anonymous eulogy on Torstenson crowned by the
+Academy, are full of feeling and exquisite in style,&mdash;his letters to
+his friends are delightful. Every branch of literature and art
+interested him, every poet and artist of his day found in him a
+most liberal and sympathetic protector.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R. N. Bain, <i>Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries</i> (London,
+1904); E. G. Geijer, <i>Konung Gustaf III.&rsquo;s efterlemnade papper</i>
+(Upsala, 1843-1845); C. T. Odhner, <i>Sveriges politiska historia under
+Konung Gustaf III.&rsquo;s regering</i> (Stockholm, 1885-1896); B. von
+Beskow, <i>Om Gustaf III. såsom Konung och människa</i> (Stockholm,
+1860-1861); O. Levertin, <i>Gustaf III. som dramatisk författare</i>
+(Stockholm, 1894); <i>Gustaf III.&rsquo;s bref till G. M. Armfelt</i> (Fr.) (Stockholm,
+1883); Y. K. Grot, <i>Catharine II. and Gustavus III.</i> (Russ.)
+(St Petersburg, 1884).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUSTAVUS IV.<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> (1778-1837), king of Sweden, the son of
+Gustavus III. and Queen Sophia Magdalena, was born at Stockholm
+on the 1st of November 1778. Carefully educated under
+the direction of Nils von Rosenstein, he grew up serious and
+conscientious. In August 1796 his uncle the regent Charles, duke
+of Sudermania, visited St Petersburg for the purpose of arranging
+a marriage between the young king and Catherine II.&rsquo;s granddaughter,
+the grand-duchess Alexandra. The betrothal was
+actually fixed for the 22nd of September, when the whole
+arrangement foundered on the obstinate refusal of Gustavus to
+allow his destined bride liberty of worship according to the rites
+of the Greek Orthodox Church&mdash;a rebuff which undoubtedly
+accelerated the death of the Russian empress. Nobody seems to
+have even suspected at the time that serious mental derangement
+lay at the root of Gustavus&rsquo;s abnormal piety. On the contrary,
+there were many who prematurely congratulated themselves on
+the fact that Sweden had now no disturbing genius, but an
+economical, God-fearing, commonplace monarch to deal with.
+Gustavus&rsquo;s prompt dismissal of the generally detested Gustaf
+Reuterholm added still further to his popularity. On the 31st of
+October 1797 Gustavus married Frederica Dorothea, daughter of
+Charles Frederick, grand-duke of Baden, a marriage which might
+have led to a war with Russia but for the fanatical hatred of the
+French republic shared by the emperor Paul and Gustavus IV.,
+which served as a bond of union between them. Indeed the
+king&rsquo;s horror of Jacobinism was morbid in its intensity, and drove
+him to adopt all sorts of reactionary measures and to postpone
+his coronation for some years, so as to avoid calling together a
+diet; but the disorder of the finances, caused partly by the
+continental war and partly by the almost total failure of the crops
+in 1798 and 1799, compelled him to summon the estates to
+Norrköping in March 1800, and on the 3rd of April Gustavus was
+crowned. The notable change which now took place in Sweden&rsquo;s
+foreign policy and its fatal consequences to the country are elsewhere
+set forth (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>, <i>History</i>). By the end of 1808 it was
+obvious to every thinking Swede that the king was insane. His
+violence had alienated his most faithful supporters, while his
+obstinate incompetence paralysed the national efforts. To
+remove a madman by force was the one remaining expedient;
+and this was successfully accomplished by a conspiracy of officers
+of the western army, headed by Adlersparre, the Anckarsvärds,
+and Adlercreutz, who marched rapidly from Skåne to Stockholm.
+On the 13th of March 1809 seven of the conspirators broke into
+the royal apartments in the palace unannounced, seized the king,
+and conducted him to the château of Gripsholm; Duke Charles
+was easily persuaded to accept the leadership of a provisional
+government, which was proclaimed the same day; and a diet,
+hastily summoned, solemnly approved of the revolution. On the
+29th of March Gustavus, in order to save the crown for his son,
+voluntarily abdicated; but on the 10th of May the estates,
+dominated by the army, declared that not merely Gustavus but
+his whole family had forfeited the throne. On the 5th of June
+the duke regent was proclaimed king under the title of Charles
+XIII., after accepting the new liberal constitution, which was
+ratified by the diet the same day. In December Gustavus and
+his family were transported to Germany. Gustavus now assumed
+the title of count of Gottorp, but subsequently called himself
+Colonel Gustafsson, under which pseudonym he wrote most of his
+works. He led, separated from his family, an erratic life for
+some years; was divorced from his consort in 1812; and finally
+settled at St Gall in Switzerland in great loneliness and indigence.
+He died on the 7th of February 1837, and, at the suggestion of
+King Oscar II. his body was brought to Sweden and interred in
+the Riddarholmskyrka. From him descend both the Baden and
+the Oldenburg princely houses on the female side.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. G. Trolle-Wachtmeister, <i>Anteckningar och minnen</i> (Stockholm,
+1889); B. von Beskow, <i>Lefnadsminnen</i> (Stockholm, 1870);
+K. V. Key-Åberg, <i>De diplomatiska förbindelserna mellan Sverige och
+Storbrittannien under Gustaf IV.&rsquo;s Krig emot Napoléon</i> (Upsala, 1890);
+Colonel Gustafsson, <i>La Journée du treize mars</i>, &amp;c. (St Gall, 1835);
+<i>Memorial des Obersten Gustafsson</i> (Leipzig, 1829).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUSTAVUS V.<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> (1858-&emsp;&emsp;), king of Sweden, son of Oscar II.,
+king of Sweden and Norway, and Queen Sophia Wilhelmina, was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page739" id="page739"></a>739</span>
+born at Drottningholm on the 16th of June 1858. He entered the
+army, and was, like his father, a great traveller. As crown prince
+he held the title of duke of Wärmland. He married in 1881
+Victoria (b. 1862), daughter of Frederick William Louis, grand
+duke of Baden, and of Louise, princess of Prussia. The duchess
+of Baden was the granddaughter of Sophia, princess of Sweden,
+and the marriage of the crown prince thus effected a union
+between the Bernadotte dynasty and the ancient Swedish royal
+house of Vasa. During the absence or illness of his father
+Gustavus repeatedly acted as regent, and was therefore already
+thoroughly versed in public affairs when he succeeded to the
+Swedish throne on the 8th of December 1907, the crown of
+Norway having been separated from that of Sweden in 1905.
+He took as his motto &ldquo;With the people for the Fatherland.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The crown prince, Oscar Frederick William Gustavus Adolphus,
+duke of Scania (b. 1882), married in 1905 Princess Margaret of
+Connaught (b. 1882), niece of King Edward VII. A son was
+born to them at Stockholm on the 22nd of April 1906, and another
+son in the following year. The king&rsquo;s two younger sons were
+William, duke of Sudermania (b. 1884), and Eric, duke of
+Westmanland (b. 1889).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS UNION<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Gustav-Adolf-Stiftung</span>,
+<span class="sc">Gustav-Adolf-Verein</span>, <span class="sc">Evangelischer Verein der Gustav-Adolf-Stiftung</span>),
+a society formed of members of the Evangelical
+Protestant churches of Germany, which has for its object the aid
+of feeble sister churches, especially in Roman Catholic countries.
+The project of forming such a society was first broached in connexion
+with the bicentennial celebration of the battle of Lützen
+on the 6th of November 1832; a proposal to collect funds for a
+monument to Gustavus Adolphus having been agreed to, it was
+suggested by Superintendent Grossmann that the best memorial
+to the great champion of Protestantism would be the formation
+of a union for propagating his ideas. For some years the society
+was limited in its area and its operations, being practically
+confined to Leipzig and Dresden, but at the Reformation festival
+in 1841 it received a new impulse through the energy and eloquence
+of Karl Zimmermann (1803-1877), court preacher at
+Darmstadt, and in 1843 a general meeting was held at Frankfort-on-the-Main,
+where no fewer than twenty-nine branch associations
+belonging to all parts of Germany except Bavaria and Austria
+were represented. The want of a positive creed tended to make
+many of the stricter Protestant churchmen doubtful of the
+usefulness of the union, and the stricter Lutherans have always
+held aloof from it. On the other hand, its negative attitude in
+relation to Roman Catholicism secured for it the sympathy of
+the masses. At a general convention held in Berlin in September
+1846 a keen dispute arose about the admission of the Königsberg
+delegate, Julius Rupp (1809-1884), who in 1845 had been
+deprived for publicly repudiating the Athanasian Creed and
+became one of the founders of the &ldquo;Free Congregations&rdquo;; and
+at one time it seemed likely that the society would be completely
+broken up. Amid the political revolutions of the year 1848 the
+whole movement fell into stagnation; but in 1849 another
+general convention (the seventh), held at Breslau, showed that,
+although the society had lost both in membership and income,
+it was still possessed of considerable vitality. From that date
+the Gustav-Adolf-Verein has been more definitely &ldquo;evangelical&rdquo;
+in its tone than formerly; and under the direction of Karl
+Zimmermann it greatly increased both in numbers and in wealth.
+It has built over 2000 churches and assisted with some two
+million pounds over 5000 different communities. Apart from its
+influence in maintaining Protestantism in hostile areas, there can
+be no doubt that the union has had a great effect in helping the
+various Protestant churches of Germany to realize the number
+and importance of their common interests.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See K. Zimmermann, <i>Geschichte des Gustav-Adolf-Vereins</i> (Darmstadt,
+1877).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GÜSTROW,<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of
+Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on the Nebel and the railway from
+Lübeck to Stettin, 20 m. S. of Rostock. Pop. (1875), 10,923;
+(1905) 17,163. The principal buildings are the castle, erected in
+the middle of the 16th century and now used as a workhouse;
+the cathedral, dating from the 13th century and restored in
+1868, containing many fine monuments and possessing a square
+tower 100 ft. high; the Pfarrkirche, with fine altar-paintings;
+the town hall (Rathaus), dating from the 16th century; the
+music hall, and the theatre. Among the educational establishments
+are the ducal gymnasium, which possesses a library of
+15,000 volumes, a modern and a commercial school. The town
+is one of the most prosperous in the duchy, and has machine
+works, foundries, tanneries, sawmills, breweries, distilleries, and
+manufactories of tobacco, glue, candles and soap. There is also
+a considerable trade in wool, corn, wood, butter and cattle, and
+an annual cattle show and horse races are held.</p>
+
+<p>Güstrow, capital of the Mecklenburg duchy of that name, or of
+the Wend district, was a place of some importance as early as the
+12th century, and in 1219 it became the residence of Henry
+Borwin II., prince of Mecklenburg, from whom it received
+Schwerin privileges. From 1316 to 1436 the town was the
+residence of the princes of the Wends, and from 1556 to 1695 of the
+dukes of Mecklenburg-Güstrow. In 1628 it was occupied by the
+imperial troops, and Wallenstein resided in it during part of the
+years 1628 and 1629.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUTENBERG, JOHANN<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> (<i>c</i>. 1398-1468), German printer, is
+supposed to have been born <i>c</i>. 1398-1399 at Mainz of well-to-do
+parents, his father being Friele zum Gensfleisch and his mother
+Elsgen Wyrich (or, from her birthplace, zu Gutenberg, the name
+he adopted). He is assumed to be mentioned under the name of
+&ldquo;Henchen&rdquo; in a copy of a document of 1420, and again in a
+document of <i>c.</i> 1427-1428, but it is not stated where he then
+resided. On January 16, 1430, his mother arranged with the
+city of Mainz about an annuity belonging to him; but when, in
+the same year, some families who had been expelled a few years
+before were permitted to return to Mainz, Gutenberg appears not
+to have availed himself of the privilege, as he is described in the
+act of reconciliation (dated March 28) as &ldquo;not being in Mainz.&rdquo;
+It is therefore assumed that the family had taken refuge in
+Strassburg, where Gutenberg was residing later. There he is
+said to have been in 1434, and to have seized and imprisoned the
+town clerk of Mainz for a debt due to him by the corporation of
+that city, releasing him, however, at the representations of the
+mayor and councillors of Strassburg, and relinquishing at the
+same time all claims to the money (310 Rhenish guilders = about
+2400 mark).<a name="fa1s" id="fa1s" href="#ft1s"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Between 1436 and 1439 certain documents
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page740" id="page740"></a>740</span>
+represent him as having been engaged there in some experiments
+requiring money, with Andreas Dritzehn, a fellow-citizen, who
+became not only security for him but his partner to carry out
+Gutenberg&rsquo;s plan for polishing stones and the manufacture of
+looking-glasses, for which a lucrative sale was expected at the
+approaching pilgrimage of 1440 (subsequently postponed, according
+to the documents, although there is no evidence for this
+postponement) to Aix-la-Chapelle. Money was lent for this
+purpose by two other friends. In 1438 another partnership was
+arranged between Gutenberg, Andreas Dritzehn, and Andreas
+and Anton Heilmann, and that this had in view the art of
+printing has been inferred from the word &ldquo;drucken&rdquo; used by one
+of the witnesses in the law proceedings which soon after followed.
+An action was brought, after the death of Dritzehn, by his two
+brothers to force Gutenberg to accept them as partners in their
+brother&rsquo;s place, but the decision was in favour of the latter. In
+1441 Gutenberg became surety to the St Thomas Chapter at
+Strassburg for Johann Karle, who borrowed 100 guilders (about
+£16) from the chapter, and on November 17, 1442, he himself
+borrowed 80 livres through Martin Brechter (or Brehter) from
+the same chapter. Of his whereabouts from the 12th of March
+1444 (when he paid a tax at Strassburg) to the 17th of October
+1448 nothing certain is known. But on the latter date we find
+him at Mainz, borrowing 150 gold guilders of his kinsman, Arnold
+Gelthus, against an annual interest of 7½ gold guilders. We do
+not know whether the interest on this debt has ever been paid, but
+the debt itself appears never to have been paid off, as the contract
+of this loan was renewed (<i>vidimused</i>) on August 23, 1503, for
+other parties. It is supposed that soon afterwards Gutenberg
+must have been able to show some convincing results of his work,
+for it appears that about 1450 Johann Fust (<i>q.v.</i>) advanced him
+800 guilders to promote it, on no security except that of
+&ldquo;tools&rdquo; still to be made. Fust seems also to have undertaken to
+advance him 300 guilders a year for expenses, wages, house-rent,
+parchment, paper, ink, &amp;c., but he does not appear to have ever
+done so. If at any time they disagreed, Gutenberg was to return
+the 800 guilders, and the &ldquo;tools&rdquo; were to cease to be security.
+It is not known to what purpose Gutenberg devoted the money
+advanced to him. In the minutes of the law-suit of 1455 he
+himself says that he had to make his &ldquo;tools&rdquo; with it. But he
+is presumed to have begun a large folio Latin Bible, and to have
+printed during its progress some smaller books<a name="fa2s" id="fa2s" href="#ft2s"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and likewise the
+Letter of Indulgence (granted on the 12th of April 1451 by Pope
+Nicholas V. in aid of John II., king of Cyprus, against the Turks),
+of 31 lines, having the earliest printed date 1454, of which
+several copies are preserved in various European libraries. A
+copy of the 1455 issue of the same Indulgence is in the Rylands
+Library at Manchester (from the Althorp Library).</p>
+
+<p>It is not known whether any books were printed while this
+partnership between Gutenberg and Fust lasted. Trithemius
+(<i>Ann. Hirsaug.</i> ii. 421) says they first printed, from wooden
+blocks, a vocabulary called <i>Catholicon</i>, which cannot have been
+the <i>Catholicon</i> of Johannes de Janua, a folio of 748 pages in two
+columns of 66 lines each, printed in 1460, but was perhaps a
+small glossary now lost.<a name="fa3s" id="fa3s" href="#ft3s"><span class="sp">3</span></a> The Latin <i>Bible of 42 lines</i>, a folio
+of 1282 printed pages, in two columns with spaces left for
+illuminated initials (so called because each column contains
+42 lines, and also known as the <i>Mazarin Bible</i>, because the
+first copy described was found in the library of Cardinal Mazarin),
+was finished before the 15th of August 1456;<a name="fa4s" id="fa4s" href="#ft4s"><span class="sp">4</span></a> German bibliographers
+now claim this Bible for Gutenberg, but, according
+to bibliographical rules, it must be ascribed to Peter Schöffer,
+perhaps in partnership with Fust. It is in smaller type than
+the <i>Bible of 36 lines</i>, which latter is called either (<i>a</i>) the <i>Bamberg
+Bible</i>, because nearly all the known copies were found in the
+neighbourhood of Bamberg, or (<i>b</i>) <i>Schelhorn&rsquo;s Bible</i>, because
+J. G. Schelhorn was the first who described it in 1760, or (<i>c</i>)
+<i>Pfister&rsquo;s Bible</i>, because its printing is ascribed to Albrecht
+Pfister of Bamberg, who used the same type for several small
+German books, the chief of which is Boner&rsquo;s <i>Edelstein</i> (1461, 4to),
+88 leaves, with 85 woodcuts, a book of fables in German rhyme.
+Some bibliographers believe this 36-line Bible to have been
+begun, if not entirely printed, by Gutenberg during his partnership
+with Fust, as its type occurs in the 31-line Letters of Indulgence
+of 1454, was used for the 27-line Donatus (of 1451?), and,
+finally, when found in Pfister&rsquo;s possession in 1461, appears to
+be old and worn, except the additional letters k, w, z required
+for German, which are clear and sharp like the types used in
+the Bible. Again, others profess to prove (Dziatzko, <i>Gutenberg&rsquo;s
+früheste Druckerpraxis</i>) that B<span class="sp">36</span> was a reprint of B<span class="sp">42</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Gutenberg&rsquo;s work, whatever it may have been, was not a
+commercial success, and in 1452 Fust had to come forward
+with another 800 guilders to prevent a collapse. But some time
+before November 1455 the latter demanded repayment of his
+advances (see the Helmasperger Notarial Document of November
+6, 1455, in Dziatzko&rsquo;s <i>Beiträge zur Gutenbergfrage</i>, Berlin, 1889),
+and took legal proceedings against Gutenberg. We do not know
+the end of these proceedings, but if Gutenberg had prepared any
+printing materials it would seem that he was compelled to yield
+up the whole of them to Fust; that the latter removed them to
+his own house at Mainz, and there, with the assistance of Peter
+Schöffer, issued various books until the sack of the city in 1462
+by Adolphus II. caused a suspension of printing for three years,
+to be resumed again in 1465.</p>
+
+<p>We have no Information as to Gutenberg&rsquo;s activity, and very
+little of his whereabouts, after his separation from Fust. In a
+document dated June 21, 1457, he appears as witness on behalf
+of one of his relatives, which shows that he was then still at
+Mainz. Entries in the registers of the St Thomas Church at
+Strassburg make it clear that the annual interest on the money
+which Gutenberg on the 17th of November 1442 (see above) had
+borrowed from the chapter of that church was regularly paid
+till the 11th of November 1457, either by himself or by his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page741" id="page741"></a>741</span>
+surety, Martin Brechter. But the payment due on the latter
+date appears to have been delayed, as an entry in the register
+of that year shows that the chapter had incurred expenses in
+taking steps to have both Gutenberg and Brechter arrested.
+This time the difficulties seem to have been removed, but on and
+after the 11th of November 1458 Gutenberg and Brechter
+remained in default. The chapter made various efforts, all
+recorded in their registers, to get their money, but in vain.
+Every year they recorded the arrears with the expenses to which
+they were put in their efforts to arrest the defaulters, till at last
+in 1474 (six years after Gutenberg&rsquo;s death) their names are no
+longer mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime Gutenberg appears to have been <i>printing</i>, as we
+learn from a document dated February 26, 1468, that a syndic
+of Mainz, Dr Conrad Homery (who had formerly been in the
+service of the elector Count Diether of Ysenburg), had at one
+time supplied him, not with money, but with some formes, types,
+tools, implements and other things belonging to printing, which
+Gutenberg had left after his death, and which had, and still,
+belonged to him (Homery); this material had come into the
+hands of Adolf, the archbishop of Mainz, who handed or sent
+it back to Homery, the latter undertaking to use it in no other
+town but Mainz, nor to sell it to any person except a citizen of
+Mainz, even if a stranger should offer him a higher price for the
+things. This material has never yet been identified, so that we
+do not know what types Gutenberg may have had at his disposal;
+they could hardly have included the types of the <i>Catholicon</i> of
+1460, as is suggested, this work being probably executed by
+Heinrich Bechtermünze (d. 1467), who afterwards removed to
+Eltville, or perhaps by Peter Schöffer, who, about 1470, advertises
+the book as his property (see K. Burger, <i>Buchhändler-Anzeigen</i>).
+It is uncertain whether Gutenberg remained in Mainz or removed
+to the neighbouring town of Eltville, where he may have been
+engaged for a while with the brothers Bechtermünze, who
+printed there for some time with the types of the 1460 <i>Catholicon</i>.
+On the 17th of January 1465 he accepted the post of salaried
+courtier from the archbishop Adolf, and in this capacity received
+annually a suit of livery together with a fixed allowance of corn
+and wine. Gutenberg seems to have died at Mainz at the
+beginning of 1468, and was, according to tradition, buried in
+the Franciscan church in that city. His relative Arnold Gelthus
+erected a monument to his memory near his supposed grave,
+and forty years afterwards Ivo Wittig set up a memorial tablet
+at the legal college at Mainz. No books bearing the name of
+Gutenberg as printer are known, nor is any genuine portrait
+of him known, those appearing upon medals, statues or engraved
+plates being all fictitious.</p>
+
+<p>In 1898 the firm of L. Rosenthal, at Munich, acquired a
+<i>Missale speciale</i> on paper, which Otto Hupp, in two treatises
+published in 1898 and 1902, asserts to have been printed by
+Gutenberg about 1450, seven years before the 1457 Psalter.
+Various German bibliographers, however, think that it could
+not have been printed before 1480, and, judging from the facsimiles
+published by Hupp, this date seems to be approximately
+correct.</p>
+
+<p>On the 24th of June 1900 the five-hundredth anniversary of
+Gutenberg&rsquo;s birth was celebrated in several German cities,
+notably in Mainz and Leipzig, and most of the recent literature
+on the invention of printing dates from that time.</p>
+
+<p>So we may note that in 1902 a vellum fragment of an Astronomical
+Kalendar was discovered by the librarian of Wiesbaden,
+Dr G. Zedler (<i>Die älteste Gutenbergtype</i>, Mainz, 1902), apparently
+printed in the 36-line Bible type, and as the position of the sun,
+moon and other planets described in this document suits the
+years 1429, 1448 and 1467, he ascribes the printing of this
+Kalendar to the year 1447. A paper fragment of a poem in
+German, entitled <i>Weltgericht</i>, said to be printed in the 36-line
+Bible type, appears to have come into the possession of Herr
+Eduard Beck at Mainz in 1892, and was presented by him in
+1903 to the Gutenberg Museum in that city. Zedler published
+a facsimile of it in 1904 (for the <i>Gutenberg Gesellschaft</i>), with a
+description, in which he places it before the 1447 <i>Kalendar</i>,
+c. 1444-1447. Moreover, fragments of two editions of Donatus
+different from that of 1451 (?) have recently been found; see
+Schwenke in <i>Centralbl. für Bibliothekwesen</i> (1908).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The recent literature upon Gutenberg&rsquo;s life and work and early
+printing in general includes the following: A. von der Linde,
+<i>Geschichte und Erdichtung</i> (Stuttgart, 1878); <i>id. Geschichte der
+Buchdruckerkunst</i> (Berlin, 1886); J. H. Hessels, <i>Gutenberg, Was he
+the Inventor of Printing?</i> (London, 1882); <i>id. Haarlem, the Birthplace
+of Printing, not Mentz</i> (London, 1886); O. Hartwig, <i>Festschrift zum
+fünfhundertjährigen Geburtstag von Johann Gutenberg</i> (Leipzig, 1900),
+which includes various treatises by Schenk zu Schweinsberg, K.
+Schorbach, &amp;c.; P. Schwenke, <i>Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des
+ersten Buchdrucks</i> (Berlin, 1900); A. Börckel, <i>Gutenberg, sein Leben</i>,
+&amp;c. (Giessen, 1897); <i>id. Gutenberg und seine berühmten Nachfolger
+im ersten Jahrhundert der Typographie</i> (Frankfort, 1900); F.
+Schneider, <i>Mainz und seine Drucker</i> (1900); G. Zedler, <i>Gutenberg-Forschungen</i>
+(Leipzig, 1901); J. H. Hessels, <i>The so-called Gutenberg
+Documents</i> (London, 1910). For other works on the subject see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Typography</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. H. H.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1s" id="ft1s" href="#fa1s"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It is difficult to know which of the Gutenberg documents can
+be trusted and which not. Schorbach, in his recent biography of
+Gutenberg, accepts and describes 27 of them (<i>Festschrift</i>, 1900, p.
+163 sqq.), 17 of which are known only from (not always accurate)
+copies or transcripts. Under ordinary circumstances history might
+be based on them. But it is certain that some so-called Gutenberg
+documents, not included in the above 27, are forgeries. Fr. J.
+Bodmann (1754-1820), for many years professor and librarian at
+Mainz, forged at least two; one (dated July 20, 1459) he even
+provided with four forged seals; the other (dated Strassburg, March
+24, 1424) purported to be an autograph letter of Gutenberg to a
+fictitious sister of his named Bertha. Of these two documents
+French and German texts were published about 1800-1802; the
+forger lived for twenty years afterwards but never undeceived the
+public. He enriched the Gutenberg literature with other fabrications.
+In fact Bodmann had trained himself for counterfeiting MSS. and
+documents; he openly boasted of his abilities in this respect, and
+used them, sometimes to amuse his friends who were searching for
+Gutenberg documents, sometimes for himself to fill up gaps in
+Gutenberg&rsquo;s life. (For two or three more specimens of his capacities
+see A. Wyss in <i>Zeitschr. für Altert. u. Gesch. Schlesiens</i>, xv. 9 sqq.)
+To one of his friends (Professor Gotthelf Fischer, who preceded him
+as librarian of Mainz) one or two other fabrications may be ascribed.
+There are, moreover, serious misgivings as to documents said to have
+been <i>discovered</i> about 1740 (when the citizens of Strassburg claimed
+the honour of the invention for their city) by Jacob Wencker (the
+then archivist of Strassburg) and J. D. Schoepflin (professor and
+canon of St Thomas&rsquo;s at Strassburg). For instance, of the above
+document of 1434 no original has ever come to light; while the draft
+of the transaction, alleged to have been written at the time in a
+register of contracts, and to have been found about 1740 by Wencker,
+has also disappeared with the register itself. The document (now
+only known from a copy said to have been taken by Wencker from
+the draft) is upheld as genuine by Schorbach, who favours an invention
+of printing at Strassburg, but Bockenheimer, though
+supporting Gutenberg and Mainz, declares it to be a fiction
+(<i>Gutenberg-Feier</i>, Mainz, 1900, pp. 24-33). Again, suspicions are justified
+with respect to the documents recording Gutenberg&rsquo;s lawsuit of 1439
+at Strassburg. Bockenheimer explains at great length (<i>l.c.</i> pp. 41-72)
+that they are forgeries. He even explains (<i>ibid.</i> pp. 97-107) that the
+so-called Helmasperger document of November 6, 1455, may be a
+fabrication of the Faust von Aschaffenburg family, who endeavoured
+to claim Johann Fust as their ancestor. There are also (1) a fragment
+of a fictitious &ldquo;press,&rdquo; said to have been constructed by Gutenberg
+in 1441, and to have been discovered (!) at Mainz in 1856; (2) a
+forged imprint with the date 1458 in a copy of Pope Gregory&rsquo;s
+<i>Dialogues</i>, really printed at Strassburg about 1470; (3) a forged
+rubric in a copy of the <i>Tractatus de celebratione missarum</i>, from
+which it would appear that Johann Gutenberg and Johann Nummeister
+had presented it on June 19, 1463, to the Carthusian monastery
+near Mainz: (4) four forged copies of the Indulgence of 1455, in the
+Culemann Collection in the Kästner Museum at Hanover, &amp;c. (see
+further, Hessels, &ldquo;The so-called Gutenberg Documents,&rdquo; in <i>The
+Library</i>, 1909).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2s" id="ft2s" href="#fa2s"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Among these were perhaps (1) one or two editions of the work of
+Donatus, <i>De octo partibus orationis</i>, 27 lines to a page, of one of which
+two leaves, now in the Paris National Library, were discovered at
+Mainz in the original binding of an account book, one of them having,
+but in a later hand, the year 1451 (?); (2) the <i>Turk-Kalendar</i> for
+1455 (preserved in the Hof-Bibliothek at Munich); (3) the <i>Cisianus</i>
+(preserved in the Cambridge Univ. Libr.), and perhaps others now
+lost.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3s" id="ft3s" href="#fa3s"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Ulric Zell states, in the Cologne Chronicle of 1499, that Gutenberg
+and Fust printed a Bible in large type like that used in missals. It
+has been said that this description applies to the 42-line Bible, as its
+type is as large as that of most missals printed before 1500, and that
+the size now called missal type (double pica) was not used in missals
+until late in the 16th century. This is no doubt true of the smaller
+missals printed before 1500, some of which are in even smaller type
+than the 42-line Bible. But many of the large folio missals, as that
+printed at Mainz by Peter Schöffer in 1483, the Carthusian missal
+printed at Spires by Peter Drach about 1490, and the Dominican
+missal printed by Andrea de Torresanis at Venice in 1496, are in as
+large type as the 36-line Bible. Peter Schöffer (1425-1502) of
+Gernsheim, between Mainz and Mannheim, who was a copyist in
+Paris in 1449, and whom Fust called his servant (<i>famulus</i>), is said by
+Trithemius to have discovered an easier way of founding characters,
+whence Lambinet and others concluded that Schöffer invented the
+punch. Schöffer himself, in the colophon of the Psalter of 1457, a
+work which some suppose to have been planned and partly printed
+by Gutenberg, claims only the mode of printing rubrics and coloured
+capitals.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4s" id="ft4s" href="#fa4s"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The Leipzig copy of this Bible (which formerly belonged to Herr
+Klemm of Dresden) has at the end the MS. year 1453 in old Arabic
+numerals. But certain circumstances connected with this date make
+it look very suspicious.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GÜTERSLOH,<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Westphalia, 11 m. S.W. from Bielefeld by the railway to Dortmund.
+Pop. (1905), 7375. It is a seat of silk and cotton industries,
+and has a large trade in Westphalian hams and sausages.
+Printing, brewing and distilling are also carried on, and the
+town is famous for its rye-bread (<i>Pumpernickel</i>). Gütersloh has
+two Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, a synagogue,
+a school and other educational establishments.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Eickhoff, <i>Geschichte der Stadt und Gemeinde Gütersloh</i>
+(Gütersloh, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUTHRIE, SIR JAMES<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> (1859-&emsp;&emsp;), Scottish painter, and one
+of the leaders of the so-called Glasgow school of painters, was
+born at Greenock. Though in his youth he was influenced by
+John Pettie in London, and subsequently studied in Paris, his
+style, which is remarkable for grasp of character, breadth and
+spontaneity, is due to the lessons taught him by observation of
+nature, and to the example of Crawhall, by which he benefited in
+Lincolnshire in the early &rsquo;eighties of the last century. In his
+early works, such as &ldquo;The Gipsy Fires are Burning, for Daylight
+is Past and Gone&rdquo; (1882), and the &ldquo;Funeral Service in the
+Highlands,&rdquo; he favoured a thick impasto, but with growing
+experience he used his colour with greater economy and reticence.
+Subsequently he devoted himself almost exclusively to
+portraiture. Sir James Guthrie, like so many of the Glasgow
+artists, achieved his first successes on the Continent, but soon
+found recognition in his native country. He was elected
+associate of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1888, and full
+member in 1892, succeeded Sir George Reid as president of the
+Royal Scottish Academy in 1902, and was knighted in 1903.
+His painting &ldquo;Schoolmates&rdquo; is at the Ghent Gallery. Among
+his most successful portraits are those of his mother, Mr R.
+Garroway, Major Hotchkiss, Mrs Fergus, Professor Jack, and
+Mrs Watson.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUTHRIE, THOMAS<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> (1803-1873), Scottish divine, was born
+at Brechin, Forfarshire, on the 12th of July 1803. He entered
+the university of Edinburgh at the early age of twelve, and
+continued to attend classes there for more than ten years. On
+the 2nd of February 1825 the presbytery of Brechin licensed him
+as a preacher in connexion with the Church of Scotland, and in
+1826 he was in Paris studying natural philosophy, chemistry, and
+comparative anatomy. For two years he acted as manager of
+his father&rsquo;s bank, and in 1830 was inducted to his first charge,
+Arbirlot, in Forfarshire, where he adopted a vivid dramatic style
+of preaching adapted to his congregation of peasants, farmers
+and weavers. In 1837 he became the colleague of John Sym in
+the pastorate of Old Greyfriars, Edinburgh, and at once
+attracted notice as a great pulpit orator. Towards the close of
+1840 he became minister of St John&rsquo;s church, Victoria Street,
+Edinburgh. He declined invitations both from London and
+from India. He was an enthusiastic supporter of the movement
+which led to the Disruption of 1843; and his name is
+thenceforth associated with the Free Church, for which he
+collected £116,000 from July 1845 to June 1846 to provide
+manses for the seceding ministers. In 1844 he became a
+teetotaller. In 1847 he began the greatest work of his life by the
+publication of his first &ldquo;Plea for Ragged Schools.&rdquo; This
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page742" id="page742"></a>742</span>
+pamphlet elicited a beautiful and sympathetic letter from Lord
+Jeffrey. A Ragged School was opened on the Castle Hill, which
+has been the parent of many similar institutions elsewhere,
+though Guthrie&rsquo;s relation to the movement is best described as
+that of an apostle rather than a founder. He insisted on bringing
+up all the children in his school as Protestants; and he thus
+made his schools proselytizing as well as educational institutions.
+This interference with religious liberty led to some controversy;
+and ultimately those who differed from Guthrie founded the
+United Industrial School, giving combined secular and separate
+religious instruction. In April 1847 the degree of D.D. was
+conferred on Guthrie by the university of Edinburgh; and in
+1850 William Hanna (1808-1882), the biographer and son-in-law
+of Thomas Chalmers, was inducted as his colleague in Free St
+John&rsquo;s Church.</p>
+
+<p>In 1850 Guthrie published <i>A Plea on behalf of Drunkards and
+against Drunkenness</i>, which was followed by <i>The Gospel in
+Ezekiel</i> (1855); <i>The City: its Sins and Sorrows</i> (1857); <i>Christ
+and the Inheritance of the Saints</i> (1858); <i>Seedtime and Harvest of
+Ragged Schools</i> (1860), consisting of his three <i>Pleas for Ragged
+Schools</i>. These works had an enormous sale, and portions of
+them were translated into French and Dutch. His advocacy of
+temperance had much to do with securing the passing of the
+Forbes Mackenzie Act, which secured Sunday closing and
+shortened hours of sale for Scotland. Mr Gladstone specially
+quoted him in support of the Light Wines Bill (1860). In 1862
+he was moderator of the Free Church General Assembly; but he
+seldom took a prominent part in the business of the church
+courts. His remarkable oratorical talents, rich humour, genuine
+pathos and inimitable power of story-telling, enabled him to do
+good service to the total abstinence movement. He was one of
+the vice-presidents of the Evangelical Alliance. In 1864, his
+health being seriously impaired, he resigned public work as
+pastor of Free St John&rsquo;s (May 17), although his nominal
+connexion with the congregation ceased only with his death.
+Guthrie had occasionally contributed papers to <i>Good Words</i>,
+and, about the time of his retirement from the ministry, he
+became first editor of the <i>Sunday Magazine</i>, himself contributing
+several series of papers which were afterwards published
+separately. In 1865 he was presented with £5000 as a mark of
+appreciation from the public. His closing years were spent
+mostly in retirement; and after an illness of several months&rsquo; duration
+he died at St Leonards-on-Sea on the 24th of February 1873.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In addition to the books mentioned above he published a number
+of books which had a remarkable circulation in England and America,
+such as <i>Speaking to the Heart</i> (1862); <i>The Way to Life</i> (1862); <i>Man
+and the Gospel</i> (1865); <i>The Angel&rsquo;s Song</i> (1865); <i>The Parables</i> (1866);
+<i>Our Father&rsquo;s Business</i> (1867); <i>Out of Harness</i> (1867); <i>Early Piety</i>
+(1868); <i>Studies of Character from the Old Testament</i> (1868-1870);
+<i>Sundays Abroad</i> (1871).</p>
+
+<p>See <i>Autobiography of Thomas Guthrie, D.D., and Memoir</i>, by his
+sons (2 vols., London, 1874-1875).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUTHRIE, THOMAS ANSTEY<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> (1856-&emsp;&emsp;), known by the
+pseudonym of F. Anstey, English novelist, was born in Kensington,
+London, on the 8th of August 1856. He was educated at
+King&rsquo;s College, London, and at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, and was
+called to the bar in 1880. But the popular success of his story
+<i>Vice-Versa</i> (1882) with its topsy-turvy substitution of a father
+for his schoolboy son, at once made his reputation as a humorist
+of an original type. He published in 1883 a serious novel, <i>The
+Giant&rsquo;s Robe</i>; but, in spite of its excellence, he discovered (and
+again in 1889 with <i>The Pariah</i>) that it was not as a serious novelist
+but as a humorist that the public insisted on regarding him. As
+such his reputation was further confirmed by <i>The Black Poodle</i>
+(1884), <i>The Tinted Venus</i> (1885), <i>A Fallen Idol</i> (1886), and other
+works. He became an important member of the staff of <i>Punch</i>,
+in which his &ldquo;Voces populi&rdquo; and his humorous parodies of a
+reciter&rsquo;s stock-piece (&ldquo;Burglar Bill,&rdquo; &amp;c.) represent his best
+work. In 1901 his successful farce <i>The Man from Blankley&rsquo;s</i>,
+based on a story which originally appeared in <i>Punch</i>, was first
+produced at the Prince of Wales&rsquo;s Theatre, in London.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUTHRIE,<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> the capital of Oklahoma, U.S.A., and the county-seat
+of Logan county, extending on both sides of Cottonwood
+creek, and lying one mile south of the Cimarron river. Pop.
+(1890) 5333, (1900) 10,006, (1907) 11,652 (2871 negroes); (1910)
+11,654. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka &amp; Santa Fé,
+the Chicago, Rock Island &amp; Pacific, the Missouri, Kansas &amp;
+Texas, the Fort Smith &amp; Western, and the St Louis, El Reno
+&amp; Western railways. The city is situated about 940 ft. above
+the sea, in a prairie region devoted largely to stock-raising and
+the cultivation of Indian corn, wheat, cotton and various fruits,
+particularly peaches. Guthrie is one of the headquarters of the
+Federal courts in the state, the other being Muskogee. The
+principal public buildings at Guthrie are the state Capitol,
+the Federal building, the City hall, the Carnegie library, the
+Methodist hospital and a large Masonic temple. Among the
+schools are St Joseph&rsquo;s Academy and a state school for the deaf
+and dumb. Guthrie has a considerable trade with the surrounding
+country and has cotton gins, a cotton compress, and foundries
+and machine shops; among its manufactures are cotton-seed
+oil, cotton goods, flour, cereals, lumber, cigars, brooms and
+furniture. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was
+$1,200,662. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks.
+The city was founded in 1889, when Oklahoma was
+opened for settlement; in 1890 it was made the capital of the
+Territory, and in 1907 when Oklahoma was made a state, it
+became the state capital.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUTHRUM<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Godrum</span>) (d. 890), king of East Anglia, first
+appears in the <i>English Annals</i> in the year 875, when he is
+mentioned as one of three Danish kings who went with the host
+to Cambridge. He was probably engaged in the campaigns of
+the next three years, and after Alfred&rsquo;s victory at Edington in
+878, Guthrum met the king at Aller in Somersetshire and was
+baptized there under the name of Æthelstan. He stayed there
+for twelve days and was greatly honoured by his godfather
+Alfred. In 890 Guthrum-Æthelstan died: he is then spoken
+of as &ldquo;se nor&part;erna cyning&rdquo; (probably) &ldquo;the Norwegian king,&rdquo;
+referring to the ultimate origin of his family, and we are told
+that he was the first (Scandinavian) to settle East Anglia.
+Guthrum is perhaps to be identified with Gormr (= Guthrum)
+hinn heimski or hinn riki of the Scandinavian sagas, the foster-father
+of Hör&part;aknutr, the father of Gorm the old. There is a
+treaty known as the peace of Alfred and Guthrum.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUTSCHMID, ALFRED,<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron von</span> (1835-1887), German
+historian and Orientalist, was born on the 1st of July at Loschwitz
+(Dresden). After holding chairs at Kiel (1866), Königsberg
+(1873), and Jena (1876), he was finally appointed professor
+of history at Tübingen, where he died on the 2nd of March 1887.
+He devoted himself to the study of Eastern language and history
+in its pre-Greek and Hellenistic periods and contributed largely
+to the literature of the subject.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Works</span>.&mdash;<i>Über die Fragmente des Pompeius Trogus</i> (supplementary
+vol. of <i>Jahrbücher für klass. Phil.</i>, 1857); <i>Die makedonische
+Anagraphe</i> (1864); <i>Beiträge zur Gesch. des alten Orients</i> (Leipzig,
+1858); <i>Neue Beiträge zur Gesch. des alt. Or.</i>, vol. i., <i>Die Assyriologie
+in Deutschland</i> (Leipzig, 1876); <i>Die Glaubwürdigkeit der armenischen
+Gesch. des Moses von Khoren</i> (1877); <i>Untersuchungen über die
+syrische Epitome des eusebischen Canones</i> (1886); <i>Untersuch. über
+die Gesch. des Königreichs Osraëne</i> (1887); <i>Gesch. Irans</i> (Alexander
+the Great to the fall of the Arsacidae) (Tübingen, 1887). He wrote
+on Persia and Phoenicia in the 9th edition of the Ency. Brit. A
+collection of minor works entitled <i>Kleine Schriften</i> was published by
+F. Rühl at Leipzig (1889-1894, 5 vols.), with complete list of his
+writings. See article by Rühl in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>,
+xlix. (1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUTS-MUTHS, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> (1759-1839),
+German teacher and the principal founder of the German
+school system of gymnastics, was born at Quedlinburg on the 9th
+of August 1759. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native
+town and at Halle University; and in 1785 he went to Schnepfenthal,
+where he taught geography and gymnastics. His method
+of teaching gymnastics was expounded by him in various
+handbooks; and it was chiefly through them that gymnastics
+very soon came to occupy such an important position in the
+school system of Germany. He also did much to introduce a
+better method of instruction in geography. He died on the
+21st of May 1839.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page743" id="page743"></a>743</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His principal works are <i>Gymnastik für die Jugend</i> (1793); <i>Spiele
+zur Übung und Erholung des Körpers und Geistes für die Jugend</i>
+(1796); <i>Turnbuch</i> (1817); <i>Handbuch der Geographie</i> (1810); and a
+number of books constituting a <i>Bibliothek für Pädagogik, Schulwesen,
+und die gesammte pädagogische Literatur Deutschlands</i>. He also
+contributed to the <i>Vollständiges Handbuch der neuesten Erdbeschreibung</i>,
+and along with Jacobi published <i>Deutsches Land und deutsches Volk</i>,
+the first part, <i>Deutsches Land</i>, being written by him.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUTTA<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> (Latin for &ldquo;drop&rdquo;), an architectural term given to
+the small frusta of conical or cylindrical form carved below
+the triglyph and under the regula of the entablature of the Doric
+Order. They are sometimes known as &ldquo;trunnels,&rdquo; a corruption of
+&ldquo;tree-nail,&rdquo; and resemble the wooden pins which in framed timber
+work or in joinery are employed to fasten together the pieces
+of wood; these are supposed to be derived from the original
+timber construction of the Doric temple, in which the pins,
+driven through the regula, secured the latter to the taenia, and,
+according to C. Chipiez and F. A. Choisy, passed through the
+taenia to hold the triglyphs in place. In the earliest examples
+of the Doric Order at Corinth and Selinus, the guttae are completely
+isolated from the architrave, and in Temple C. at Selinus
+the guttae are 3 or 4 in. in front of it, as if to enable the pin to
+be driven in more easily. In later examples they are partly
+attached to the architrave. Similar guttae are carved under the
+mutules of the Doric cornice, representing the pins driven
+through the mutules to secure the rafters. In the temples at
+Bassae, Paestum and Selinus, instances have been found where
+the guttae had been carved separately and sunk into holes cut
+in the soffit of the mutules and the regula. Their constant
+employment in the Doric temples suggests that, although
+originally of constructive origin, they were subsequently
+employed as decorative features.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUTTA PERCHA,<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> the name applied to the evaporated milky
+fluid or latex furnished by several trees chiefly found in the
+islands of the Malay Archipelago. The name is derived from
+two Malay words, <i>getah</i> meaning gum, and <i>pertja</i> being the name
+of the tree&mdash;probably a Bassia&mdash;from which the gum was (erroneously)
+supposed to be obtained.</p>
+
+<p><i>Botanical Origin and Distribution.</i>&mdash;The actual tree is known
+to the Malays as taban, and the product as <i>getah taban</i>. The best
+gutta percha of Malaya is chiefly derived from two trees, and is
+known as <i>getah taban merah</i> (red) or <i>getah taban sutra</i> (silky). The
+trees in question, which belong to the natural order Sapotaceae,
+have now been definitely identified, the first as <i>Dichopsis gutta</i>
+(Bentham and Hooker), otherwise <i>Isonandra gutta</i> (Hooker) or
+<i>Palaquium gutta</i> (Burck), and the second as <i>Dichopsis oblongifolia</i>
+(Burck). Allied trees of the same genus and of the same natural
+order yield similar but usually inferior products. Among them
+may be mentioned species of <i>Payena</i> (<i>getah soondie</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Gutta percha trees often attain a height of 70 to 100 ft. and
+the trunk has a diameter of from 2 to 3 ft. They are stated to
+be mature when about thirty years old. The leaves of <i>Dichopsis</i>,
+which are obovate-lanceolate, with a distinct pointed apex,
+occur in clusters at the end of the branches, and are bright green
+and smooth on the upper surface but on the lower surface are
+yellowish-brown and covered with silky hairs. The leaves are
+usually about 6 in. long and about 2 in. wide at the centre. The
+flowers are white, and the seeds are contained in an ovoid berry
+about 1 in. long.</p>
+
+<p>The geographical distribution of the gutta percha tree is
+almost entirely confined to the Malay Peninsula and its immediate
+neighbourhood. It includes a region within 6 degrees north and
+south of the equator and 93°-119° longitude, where the temperature
+ranges from 66° to 90° F. and the atmosphere is exceedingly
+moist. The trees may be grown from seeds or from cuttings.
+Some planting has taken place in Malaya, but little has so far
+been done to acclimatize the plant in other regions. Recent
+information seems to point to the possibility of growing the tree
+in Ceylon and on the west coast of Africa.</p>
+
+<p><i>Preparation of Gutta Percha.</i>&mdash;The gutta is furnished by the
+greyish milky fluid known as the latex, which is chiefly secreted
+in cylindrical vessels or cells situated in the cortex, that is,
+between the bark and the wood (or cambium). Latex also
+occurs in the leaves of the tree to the extent of about 9% of the
+dried leaves, and this may be removed from the powdered leaves
+by the use of appropriate solvents, but the process is not practicable
+commercially. The latex flows slowly where an incision is
+made through the bark, but not nearly so freely, even in the
+rainy season, as the india-rubber latex. On this account the
+Malays usually fell the tree in order to collect the latex, which
+is done by chopping off the branches and removing circles of the
+bark, forming cylindrical channels about an inch wide at various
+points about a foot apart down the trunk. The latex exudes and
+fills these channels, from which it is removed and converted into
+gutta by boiling in open vessels over wood fires. The work is
+usually carried on in the wet season when the latex is more
+fluid and more abundant. Sometimes when the latex is thick
+water is added to it before boiling.</p>
+
+<p>The best results are said to be obtained from mature trees
+about thirty years old, which furnish about 2 to 3 &#8468; of gutta.
+Older trees do not appear to yield larger amounts of gutta,
+whilst younger trees are said to furnish less and of inferior
+quality. The trees have been so extensively felled for the gutta
+that there has been a great diminution in the total number
+during recent years, which has not been compensated for by the
+new plantations which have been established.</p>
+
+<p><i>Uses of Gutta Percha.</i>&mdash;The Chinese and Malays appear to have
+been acquainted with the characteristic property of gutta percha
+of softening in warm water and of regaining its hardness when
+cold, but this plastic property seems to have been only utilized
+for ornamental purposes, the construction of walking-sticks and
+of knife handles and whips, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The brothers Tradescant brought samples of the curious
+material to Europe about the middle of the 17th century. It
+was then regarded as a form of wood, to which the name of
+&ldquo;mazer&rdquo; wood was given on account of its employment in
+making mazers or goblets. A description of it is given in a book
+published by John Tradescant in 1656 entitled <i>Musaeum Tradescantianum
+or a Collection of Rarities preserved at South Lambeth
+near London</i>. Many of the curiosities collected from all parts of
+the world by the Tradescants subsequently formed the nucleus of
+the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford which was opened in 1683,
+but the specimen of &ldquo;mazer wood&rdquo; no longer exists.</p>
+
+<p>In 1843 samples of the material were sent to London by Dr
+William Montgomerie of Singapore, and were exhibited at the
+Society of Arts, and in the same year Dr José d&rsquo;Almeida sent
+samples to the Royal Asiatic Society. Gutta percha was also
+exhibited at the Great Exhibition of 1851.</p>
+
+<p>Dr Montgomerie&rsquo;s communication to the Society of Arts led
+to many experiments being made with the material. Casts of
+medals were successfully produced, and Sir William Siemens, in
+conjunction with Werner von Siemens, then made the first
+experiments with the material as an insulating covering for cable
+and telegraph wires, which led to the discovery of its important
+applications in this connexion and to a considerable commercial
+demand for the substance.</p>
+
+<p>The value of gutta percha depends chiefly on its quality, that
+is its richness in true gutta and freedom from resin and other
+impurities which interfere with its physical characters, and
+especially its insulating power or inability to conduct electricity.</p>
+
+<p>The chief use of gutta percha is now for electrical purposes.
+Other minor uses are in dentistry and as a means of taking
+impressions of medals, &amp;c. It has also found application in
+the preparation of belting for machinery, as well as for the
+construction of the handles of knives and surgical instruments,
+whilst the inferior qualities are used for waterproofing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commercial Production.</i>&mdash;The amount of gutta percha exported
+through Singapore from British and Dutch possessions in the
+East is subject to considerable fluctuation, depending chiefly on
+the demand for cable and telegraph construction. In 1886 the
+total export from Singapore was 40,411 cwt., of which Great
+Britain took 31,666 cwt.; in 1896 the export was 51,982 cwt.
+of which 29,722 cwt. came to Great Britain; while in 1905,
+42,088 cwt. were exported (19,517 cwt. to Great Britain). It
+has to be remembered that the official returns include not only
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page744" id="page744"></a>744</span>
+gutta percha of various grades of quality but also other inferior
+products sold under the name of gutta percha, some of which are
+referred to below under the head of substitutes. The value of
+gutta percha cannot therefore be correctly gauged from the
+value of the imports. In the ten years 1896-1906 the best
+qualities of gutta percha fetched from 4s. to about 7s. per &#8468;.
+Gutta percha, however, is used for few and special purposes,
+and there is no free market, the price being chiefly a matter
+of arrangement between the chief producers and consumers.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Characters and Properties.</i>&mdash;Gutta percha appears in commerce in
+the form of blocks or cakes of a dirty greyish appearance, often
+exhibiting a reddish tinge, and just soft enough to be indented by the
+nail. It is subject to considerable adulteration, various materials,
+such as coco-nut oil, being added by the Malays to improve its appearance.
+The solid, which is fibrous in texture, hard and inelastic but
+not brittle at ordinary temperature, becomes plastic when immersed
+in hot water or if otherwise raised to a temperature of about 65°-66° C.
+in the case of gutta of the first quality, the temperature of softening
+being dependent on the quality of the gutta employed. In this
+condition it can be drawn out into threads, but is still inelastic. On
+cooling again the gutta resumes its hardness without becoming brittle.
+In this respect gutta percha differs from india-rubber or caoutchouc,
+which does not become plastic and unlike gutta percha is elastic.
+This property of softening on heating and solidifying when cooled
+again, without change in its original properties, enables gutta percha
+to be worked into various forms, rolled into sheets or drawn into
+ropes. The specific gravity of the best gutta percha lies between
+0.96 and 1. Gutta percha is not dissolved by most liquids, although
+some remove resinous constituents; the best solvents are oil of
+turpentine, coal-tar oil, carbon bisulphide and chloroform, and light
+petroleum when hot. Gutta percha is not affected by alkaline
+solutions or by dilute acids. Strong sulphuric acid chars it when
+warm, and nitric acid effects complete oxidation.</p>
+
+<p>When exposed to air and light, gutta percha rapidly deteriorates,
+oxygen being absorbed, producing a brittle resinous material.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chemical Composition.</i>&mdash;Chemically, gutta percha is not a single
+substance but a mixture of several constituents. As the proportions
+of these constituents in the crude material are not constant, the
+properties of gutta percha are subject to variation. For electrical
+purposes it should have a high insulating power and dielectric strength
+and a low inductive capacity; the possession of these properties is
+influenced by the resinous constituents present.</p>
+
+<p>The principal constituent of the crude material is the pure gutta,
+a hydrocarbon of the empirical formula C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">16</span>. It is therefore
+isomeric with the hydrocarbon of caoutchouc and with that of oil of
+turpentine. Accompanying this are at least two oxygenated resinous
+constituents&mdash;albane C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">16</span>O and fluavil C<span class="su">20</span>H<span class="su">32</span>O&mdash;which can be
+separated from the pure gutta by the use of solvents. Pure gutta is
+not dissolved by ether and light petroleum in the cold, whereas the
+resinous constituents are removed by these liquids. The true gutta
+exhibits in an enhanced degree the valuable properties of gutta
+percha, and the commercial value of the raw material is frequently
+determined by ascertaining the proportion of true gutta present, the
+higher the proportion of this the more valuable is the gutta percha.
+The following are the results of analyses of gutta percha from trees
+of the genus <i>Dichopsis</i> or <i>Palaquium</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Gutta<br />per cent.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Resin<br />per cent.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">Dichopsis (or Palaquium)</td> <td class="tcl rb">oblongifolia</td> <td class="tcc rb">88.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">&ensp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl rb">gutta</td> <td class="tcc rb">82.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">&ensp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl rb">polyantha</td> <td class="tcc rb">49.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">50.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb">&ensp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl rb">pustulata</td> <td class="tcc rb">47.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">52.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb bb">&ensp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Maingayi</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">24.4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">75.6</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The hydrocarbon of gutta percha, gutta, is closely related in
+chemical constitution to caoutchouc. When distilled at a high
+temperature both are resolved into a mixture of two simpler hydrocarbons,
+isoprene (C<span class="su">5</span>H<span class="su">8</span>) and caoutchoucine or dipentene (C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">16</span>),
+and the latter by further heating can be resolved into isoprene, a
+hydrocarbon of known constitution which has been produced
+synthetically and spontaneously reverts to caoutchouc. The precise
+relationship of isoprene to gutta has not been ascertained, but
+recently Harries has further elucidated the connexion between gutta
+and caoutchouc by showing that under the action of ozone both
+break up into laevulinic aldehyde and hydrogen peroxide, but differ
+in the proportions of these products they furnish. The two materials
+must therefore be regarded as very closely related in chemical
+constitution. Like caoutchouc, gutta percha is able to combine with
+sulphur, and this vulcanized product has found some commercial
+applications.</p>
+
+<p><i>Manufacture of Gutta Percha.</i>&mdash;Among the earliest patents taken
+out for the manufacture of gutta percha were those of Charles
+Hancock, the first of which is dated 1843.</p>
+
+<p>Before being used for technical purposes the raw gutta percha is
+cleaned by machinery whilst in the plastic state. The chopped or
+sliced material is washed by mechanical means in hot water and
+forced through a sieve or strainer of fine wire gauze to remove dirt.
+It is then kneaded or &ldquo;masticated&rdquo; by machinery to remove the
+enclosed water, and is finally transferred whilst still hot and plastic
+to the rolling-machine, from which it emerges in sheets of different
+thickness. Sometimes chemical treatment of the crude gutta percha
+is resorted to for the purpose of removing the resinous constituents
+by the action of alkaline solutions or of light petroleum.</p>
+
+<p><i>Substitutes for Gutta Percha.</i>&mdash;For some purposes natural and
+artificial substitutes for gutta percha have been employed. The
+similar products furnished by other plants than those which yield
+gutta percha are among the more important of the natural substitutes,
+of which the material known as &ldquo;balata&rdquo; or &ldquo;Surinam gutta
+percha,&rdquo; is the most valuable. This is derived from a tree, <i>Mimusops
+balata</i> (bullet tree), belonging to the same natural order as gutta
+percha trees, viz. Sapotaceae. It is a large tree, growing to a height
+of 80 to 100 ft. or more, which occurs in the West Indies, in South
+America, and is especially abundant in Dutch and British Guiana.
+The latex which furnishes balata is secreted in the cortex between the
+bark and wood of the tree. As the latex flows freely the trees are
+tapped by making incisions in the same fashion as in india-rubber
+trees, and the balata is obtained by evaporating the milky fluid.
+Crude balata varies in composition. It usually contains nearly equal
+proportions of resin and true gutta. The latter appears to be
+identical with the chief constituent of gutta percha. The properties
+of balata correspond with its composition, and it may therefore be
+classed as an inferior gutta percha. Balata fetches from 1s. 6d. to
+2s. 8d. per &#8468;.</p>
+
+<p>Among the inferior substitutes for gutta percha may be mentioned
+the evaporated latices derived from <i>Butyrospermum Parkii</i> (shea-butter
+tree of West Africa or karite of the Sudan), <i>Calotropis gigantea</i>
+(Madar tree of India), and <i>Dyera costulata</i> of Malaya and Borneo,
+which furnishes the material known as &ldquo;Pontianac.&rdquo; All these
+contain a small amount of gutta-like material associated with large
+quantities of resinous and other constituents. They fetch only a
+few pence per &#8468;, and are utilized for waterproofing purposes.</p>
+
+<p>Various artificial substitutes for gutta percha have been invented
+chiefly for use as insulating materials. These often consist of
+mixtures of bitumen with linseed and other oils, resins, &amp;c., in some
+cases incorporated with inferior grades of gutta percha.</p>
+
+<p>For further information respecting gutta percha, and for figures of
+the trees, the following works may be consulted: Jumelle, <i>Les
+Plantes à caoutchouc et à gutta</i> (Paris, Challamel, 1903); Obach,
+&ldquo;Cantor Lectures on Gutta Percha,&rdquo; <i>Journal of the Society of Arts</i>,
+1898.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. R. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUTTER<a name="ar229" id="ar229"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>goutiere</i>, mod. <i>gouttière</i>, from Lat. <i>gutta</i>,
+drop), in architecture, a horizontal channel or trough contrived
+to carry away the water from a flat or sloping roof to its discharge
+down a vertical pipe or through a spout or gargoyle; more
+specifically, but loosely, the similar channel at the side of a
+street, below the pavement. In Greek and Roman temples the
+cymatium of the cornice was the gutter, and the water was
+discharged through the mouths of lions, whose heads were
+carved on the same. Sometimes the cymatium was not carried
+along the flanks of a temple, in which case the rain fell off the
+lower edge of the roof tiles. In medieval work the gutter rested
+partly on the top of the wall and partly on corbel tables, and the
+water was discharged through gargoyles. Sometimes, however,
+a parapet or pierced balustrade was carried on the corbel table
+enclosing the gutter. In buildings of a more ordinary class the
+parapet is only a continuation of the wall below, and the gutter
+is set back and carried in a trough resting on the lower end of the
+roof timbers. The safest course is to have an eaves gutter
+which projects more or less in front of the wall and is secured to
+and carried by the rafters of the roof. In Renaissance architecture
+generally the pierced balustrade of the Gothic and transition
+work was replaced by a balustrade with vertical balusters.
+In France a compromise was effected, whereby instead of the
+horizontal coping of the ordinary balustrade a richly carved
+cresting was employed, of which the earliest example is in
+the first court of the Louvre by Pierre Lescot. This exists
+throughout the French Renaissance, and it is one of its chief
+characteristic features.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUTZKOW, KARL FERDINAND<a name="ar230" id="ar230"></a></span> (1811-1878), German novelist
+and dramatist, was born on the 17th of March 1811 at Berlin,
+where his father held a clerkship in the war office. After leaving
+school he studied theology and philosophy at the university of
+his native town, and while still a student, began his literary
+career by the publication in 1831 of a periodical entitled <i>Forum
+der Journalliteratur</i>. This brought him to the notice of Wolfgang
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page745" id="page745"></a>745</span>
+Menzel, who invited him to Stuttgart to assist in the editorship
+of the <i>Literaturblatt</i>. At the same time he continued his university
+studies at Jena, Heidelberg and Munich. In 1832 he
+published anonymously at Hamburg <i>Briefe eines Narren an
+eine Närrin</i>, and in 1833 appeared at Stuttgart <i>Maha-Guru,
+Geschichte eines Gottes</i>, a fantastic and satirical romance. In
+1835 he went to Frankfort, where he founded the <i>Deutsche
+Revue</i>. In the same year appeared <i>Wally, die Zweiflerin</i>, from
+the publication of which may be said to date the school of writers
+who, from their opposition to the literary, social and religious
+traditions of romanticism, received the name of &ldquo;Young
+Germany.&rdquo; The work was directed specially against the
+institution of marriage and the belief in revelation; and whatever
+interest it might have attracted from its own merits was
+enhanced by the action of the German federal diet, which
+condemned Gutzkow to three months&rsquo; imprisonment, decreed
+the suppression of all he had written or might yet write, and
+prohibited him from exercising the functions of editor within
+the German confederation. During his term of imprisonment
+at Mannheim, Gutzkow employed himself in the composition
+of his treatise <i>Zur Philosophie der Geschichte</i> (1836). On
+obtaining his freedom he returned to Frankfort, whence he
+went in 1837 to Hamburg. Here he inaugurated a new epoch
+of his literary activity by bringing out his tragedy <i>Richard
+Savage</i> (1839), which immediately made the round of all the
+German theatres. Of his numerous other plays the majority
+are now neglected; but a few have obtained an established
+place in the repertory of the German theatre&mdash;especially the
+comedies <i>Zopf und Schwert</i> (1844), <i>Das Urbild des Tartüffe</i> (1847),
+<i>Der Königsleutnant</i> (1849) and the blank verse tragedy, <i>Uriel
+Acosta</i> (1847). In 1847 Gutzkow went to Dresden, where he
+succeeded Tieck as literary adviser to the court theatre. Meanwhile
+he had not neglected the novel. <i>Seraphine</i> (1838) was
+followed by <i>Blasedow und seine Söhne</i>, a satire on the educational
+theories of the time. Between 1850 and 1852 appeared <i>Die
+Ritter vom Geiste</i>, which may be regarded as the starting-point
+for the modern German social novel. <i>Der Zauberer von Rom</i> is
+a powerful study of Roman Catholic life in southern Germany.
+The success of <i>Die Ritter vom Geiste</i> suggested to Gutzkow the
+establishment of a journal on the model of <span class="correction" title="amended from Dicken's">Dickens&rsquo;</span> <i>Household
+Words</i>, entitled <i>Unterhaltungen am häuslichen Herd</i>, which first
+appeared in 1852 and was continued till 1862. In 1864 he had an
+epileptic fit, and his productions show henceforth decided traces
+of failing powers. To this period belong the historical novels
+<i>Hohenschwangau</i> (1868) and <i>Fritz Ellrodt</i> (1872), <i>Lebensbilder</i>
+(1870-1872), consisting of autobiographic sketches, and <i>Die
+Söhne Pestalozzis</i> (1870), the plot of which is founded on the
+story of Kaspar Hauser. On account of a return of his nervous
+malady, Gutzkow in 1873 made a journey to Italy, and on his
+return took up his residence in the country near Heidelberg,
+whence he removed to Frankfort-on-Main, dying there on the
+16th of December 1878. With the exception of one or two of his
+comedies, Gutzkow&rsquo;s writings have fallen into neglect. But he
+exerted a powerful influence on the opinions of modern Germany;
+and his works will always be of interest as the mirror in which
+the intellectual and social struggles of his time are best reflected.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An edition of Gutzkow&rsquo;s collected works appeared at Jena (1873-1876,
+new ed., 1879). E. Wolff has published critical editions of
+Gutzkow&rsquo;s <i>Meisterdramen</i> (1892) and <i>Wally die Zweiflerin</i> (1905).
+His more important novels have been frequently reprinted. For
+Gutzkow&rsquo;s life see his various autobiographical writings such as
+<i>Aus der Knabenzeit</i> (1852), <i>Rückblicke auf mein Leben</i> (1876), &amp;c.
+For an estimate of his life and work see J. Proelss, <i>Das junge Deutschland</i>
+(1892); also H. H. Houben, <i>Studien über die Dramen Gutzkows</i>
+(1898) and <i>Gutzkow-Funde</i> (1901).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GÜTZLAFF, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST<a name="ar231" id="ar231"></a></span> (1803-1851),
+German missionary to China, was born at Pyritz in Pomerania
+on the 8th of July 1803. When still apprenticed to a saddler
+in Stettin, he made known his missionary inclinations to the
+king of Prussia, through whom he went to the Pädagogium at
+Halle, and afterwards to the mission institute of Jänike in Berlin.
+In 1826, under the auspices of the Netherlands Missionary
+Society, he went to Java, where he was able to learn Chinese.
+Leaving the society in 1828, he went to Singapore, and in August
+of the same year removed to Bangkok, where he translated the
+Bible into Siamese. In 1829 he married an English lady, who
+aided him in the preparation of a dictionary of Cochin Chinese,
+but she died in August 1831 before its completion. Shortly
+after her death he sailed to Macao in China, where, and subsequently
+at Hong Kong, he worked at a translation of the Bible
+into Chinese, published a Chinese monthly magazine, and wrote
+in Chinese various books on subjects of useful knowledge. In
+1834 he published at London a <i>Journal of Three Voyages along
+the Coast of China in 1831, 1832 and 1833</i>. He was appointed
+in 1835 joint Chinese secretary to the English commission, and
+during the opium war of 1840-42 and the negotiations connected
+with the peace that followed he rendered valuable service by
+his knowledge of the country and people. The Chinese authorities
+refusing to permit foreigners to penetrate into the interior,
+Gützlaff in 1844 founded an institute for training native missionaries,
+which was so successful that during the first four years
+as many as forty-eight Chinese were sent out from it to work
+among their fellow-countrymen. He died at Hong Kong on
+the 9th of August 1851.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Gützlaff also wrote <i>A Sketch of Chinese History, Ancient and
+Modern</i> (London, 1834), and a similar work published in German at
+Stuttgart in 1847; China Opened (1838); and the <i>Life of Taow-Kwang</i>
+(1851; German edition published at Leipzig in 1852). A
+complete collection of his Chinese writings is contained in the library
+at Munich.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUY OF WARWICK,<a name="ar232" id="ar232"></a></span> English hero of romance. Guy, son of
+Siward or Seguard of Wallingford, by his prowess in foreign
+wars wins in marriage Félice (the Phyllis of the well-known
+ballad), daughter and heiress of Roalt, earl of Warwick. Soon
+after his marriage he is seized with remorse for the violence of
+his past life, and, by way of penance, leaves his wife and fortune
+to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. After years of absence
+he returns in time to deliver Winchester for King Æthelstan
+from the invading northern kings, Anelaph (Anlaf or Olaf) and
+Gonelaph, by slaying in single fight their champion the giant
+Colbrand. Local tradition fixes the duel at Hyde Mead near
+Winchester. Making his way to Warwick he becomes one of his
+wife&rsquo;s bedesmen, and presently retires to a hermitage in Arden,
+only revealing his identity at the approach of death. The
+versions of the Middle English romance of Guy which we possess
+are adaptations from the French, and are cast in the form of a
+<i>roman d&rsquo;aventures</i>, opening with a long recital of Guy&rsquo;s wars in
+Lombardy, Germany and Constantinople, and embellished with
+fights with dragons and surprising feats of arms. The kernel
+of the tradition evidently lies in the fight with Colbrand, which
+represents, or at least is symbolic<a name="fa1t" id="fa1t" href="#ft1t"><span class="sp">1</span></a> of an historical fact. The
+religious side of the legend finds parallels in the stories of St
+Eustachius and St Alexius,<a name="fa2t" id="fa2t" href="#ft2t"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and makes it probable that the
+Guy-legend, as we have it, has passed through monastic hands.
+Tradition seems to be at fault in putting Guy&rsquo;s adventures
+under Æthelstan. The Anlaf of the story is probably Olaf
+Tryggvason, who, with Sweyn of Denmark, harried the southern
+counties of England in 993 and pitched his winter quarters in
+Southampton. Winchester was saved, however, not by the
+valour of an English champion, but by the payment of money.
+This Olaf was not unnaturally confused with Anlaf Cuaran or
+Havelok (<i>i.e.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The name Guy (perhaps a Norman form of A. S. <i>wig</i> = war)
+may be fairly connected with the family of Wigod, lord of
+Wallingford under Edward the Confessor, and a Filicia, who
+belongs to the 12th century and was perhaps the Norman poet&rsquo;s
+patroness, occurs in the pedigree of the Ardens, descended from
+Thurkill of Warwick and his son Siward. Guy&rsquo;s Cliffe, near
+Warwick, where in the 14th century Richard de Beauchamp, earl
+of Warwick, erected a chantry, with a statue of the hero, does not
+correspond with the site of the hermitage as described in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page746" id="page746"></a>746</span>
+romance. The bulk of the legend is obviously fiction, even
+though it may be vaguely connected with the family history of
+the Ardens and the Wallingford family, but it was accepted as
+authentic fact in the chronicle of Pierre de Langtoft (Peter of
+Langtoft) written at the end of the 13th century. The adventures
+of Reynbrun, son of Guy, and his tutor Heraud of Arden, who
+had also educated Guy, have much in common with his father&rsquo;s
+history, and form an interpolation sometimes treated as a separate
+romance. There is a certain connexion between Guy and Count
+Guido of Tours (fl. 800), and Alcuin&rsquo;s advice to the count is
+transferred to the English hero in the <i>Speculum Gy of Warewyke</i>
+(<i>c</i>. 1327), edited for the Early English Text Society by G. L.
+Morrill, 1898.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The French romance (Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 3775) has not been
+printed, but is described by Émile Littré in <i>Hist. litt. de la France</i>
+(xxii., 841-851, 1852). A French prose version was printed in
+Paris, 1525, and subsequently (see G. Brunet, <i>Manuel du libraire</i>,
+<i>s.v.</i> &ldquo;Guy de Warvich&rdquo;); the English metrical romance exists in
+four versions, dating from the early 14th century; the text was
+edited by J. Zupitza (1875-1876) for the E.E.T.S. from Cambridge
+University Lib. Paper MS. Ff. 2, 38, and again (3 pts. 1883-1891,
+extra series, Nos. 42, 49, 59), from the Auchinleck and Caius College
+MSS. The popularity of the legend is shown by the numerous
+versions in English: <i>Guy of Warwick</i>, translated from the Latin of
+Girardus Cornubiensis (fl. 1350) into English verse by John Lydgate
+between 1442 and 1468; <i>Guy of Warwick</i>, a poem (written in 1617
+and licensed, but not printed) by John Lane, the MS. of which (Brit.
+Mus.) contains a sonnet by John Milton, father of the poet; <i>The
+Famous Historie of Guy, Earl of Warwick</i> (<i>c.</i> 1607), by Samuel Rowlands;
+<i>The Booke of the Moste Victoryous Prince Guy of Warwicke</i> (William
+Copland, no date); other editions by J. Cawood and C. Bates; chapbooks
+and ballads of the 17th and 18th centuries: <i>The Tragical
+History, Admirable <span class="correction" title="amended from Atchievements">Achievements</span> and Curious Events of Guy, Earl of
+Warwick</i>, a tragedy (1661) which may possibly be identical with a
+play on the subject Written by John Day and Thomas Dekker, and
+entered at Stationers&rsquo; Hall on the 15th of January 1618/19;
+three verse fragments are printed by Hales and Furnivall in their
+edition of the Percy Folio MS. vol. ii.; an early French MS. is
+described by J. A. Herbert (<i>An Early MS. of Gui de Warwick</i>,
+London, 1905).</p>
+
+<p>See also M. Weyrauch <i>Die mittelengl. Fassungen der Sage von Guy</i>
+(2 pts., Breslau, 1899 and 1901); J. Zupitza in <i>Silzungsber. d. phil.-hist.
+Kl. d. kgl. Akad. d. Wiss.</i> (vol. lxxiv., Vienna, 1874), and <i>Zur
+Literaturgeschichte des Guy von Warwick</i> (Vienna, 1873); a learned
+discussion of the whole subject by H. L. Ward, <i>Catalogue of
+Romances</i> (i. 471-501, 1883); and an article by S. L. Lee in the
+<i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1t" id="ft1t" href="#fa1t"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Some writers have supposed that the fight with Colbrand
+symbolizes the victory of Brunanburh. Anelaph and Gonelaph
+would then represent the cousins Anlaf Sihtricson and Anlaf
+Godfreyson (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Havelok</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2t" id="ft2t" href="#fa2t"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See the English legends in C. Horstmann, <i>Altenglische Legenden</i>,
+Neue Folge (Heilbronn, 1881).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUY, THOMAS<a name="ar233" id="ar233"></a></span> (1644-1724), founder of Guy&rsquo;s Hospital,
+London, was the son of a lighterman and coal-dealer at Southwark.
+After serving an apprenticeship of eight years with a
+bookseller, he in 1668 began business on his own account. He
+dealt largely in Bibles, which had for many years been poorly
+and incorrectly printed in England. These he at first imported
+from Holland, but subsequently obtained from the university
+of Oxford the privilege of printing. Thus, and by an extremely
+thrifty mode of life, and more particularly by investment in
+government securities, the subscription of these into the South
+Sea Company, and the subsequent sale of his stock in 1720,
+he became master of an immense fortune. He died unmarried
+on the 17th of December 1724. In 1707 he built three wards
+of St Thomas&rsquo;s Hospital, which institution he otherwise subsequently
+benefited; and at a cost of £18,793, 16s. he erected
+Guy&rsquo;s Hospital, leaving for its endowment £219,499; he also
+endowed Christ&rsquo;s Hospital with £400 a year, and in 1678 endowed
+almshouses at Tamworth, his mother&rsquo;s birthplace, which was
+represented by him in parliament from 1695 to 1707. The
+residue of his estate, which went to distant relatives, amounted
+to about £80,000.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>A True Copy of the Last Will and Testament of Thomas Guy, Esq.</i>
+(London, 1725); J. Noorthouck, <i>A New Hist. of London</i>, bk. iii.
+ch. i. p. 684 (1773); Nichols, <i>Literary Anecdotes</i>, iii. 599 (1812);
+Charles Knight, <i>Shadows of the Old Booksellers</i>, pp. 3-23 (1865);
+and <i>A Biographical History of Guy&rsquo;s Hospital</i>, by S. Wilkes and G.
+T. Bettany (1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUYON, JEANNE MARIE BOUVIER DE LA MOTHE<a name="ar234" id="ar234"></a></span>
+(1648-1717), French quietist writer, was born at Montargis,
+where her family were persons of consequence, on the 13th of
+April 1648. If her somewhat hysterical autobiography may be
+trusted she was much neglected in her youth; most of her time
+was spent as a boarder in various convent schools. Here she
+went through all the religious experiences common to neurotic
+young women; these were turned in a definitely mystical
+direction by the duchesse de Béthune, daughter of the disgraced
+minister, Fouquet, who spent some years at Montargis after her
+father&rsquo;s fall. In 1664 Jeanne Marie was married to a rich invalid
+of the name of Guyon, many years her senior. Twelve years
+later he died, leaving his widow with three small children and
+a considerable fortune. All through her unhappy married life
+the mystical attraction had grown steadily in violence; it
+now attached itself to a certain Father Lacombe, a Barnabite
+monk of weak character and unstable intellect. In 1681 she
+left her family and joined him; for five years the two rambled
+about together in Savoy and the south-east of France, spreading
+their mystical ideas. At last they excited the suspicion of the
+authorities; in 1686 Lacombe was recalled to Paris, put under
+surveillance, and finally sent to the Bastille in the autumn of
+1687. He was presently transferred to the castle of Lourdes,
+where he developed softening of the brain and died in 1715.
+Meanwhile Madame Guyon had been arrested in January 1688,
+and been shut up in a convent as a suspected heretic. Thence
+she was delivered in the following year by her old friend, the
+duchesse de Béthune, who had returned from exile to become a
+power in the devout court-circle presided over by Madame de
+Maintenon. Before long Madame Guyon herself was introduced
+into this pious assemblage. Its members were far from critical;
+they were intensely interested in religion; and even Madame
+Guyon&rsquo;s bitterest critics bear witness to her charm of manner,
+her imposing appearance, and the force and eloquence with
+which she explained her mystical ideas. So much was Madame
+de Maintenon impressed, that she often invited Madame Guyon
+to give lectures at her girls&rsquo; school of St Cyr. But by far the
+greatest of her conquests was Fénelon, now a rising young
+director of consciences, much in favour with aristocratic ladies.
+Dissatisfied with the formalism of average Catholic piety, he
+was already thinking out a mystical theory of his own; and
+between 1689 and 1693 they corresponded regularly. But as
+soon as ugly reports about Lacombe began to spread, he broke
+off all connexion with her. Meanwhile the reports had reached
+the prudent ears of Madame de Maintenon. In May 1693 she
+asked Madame Guyon to go no more to St Cyr. In the hope of
+clearing her orthodoxy, Madame Guyon appealed to Bossuet,
+who decided that her books contained &ldquo;much that was intolerable,
+alike in form and matter.&rdquo; To this judgment Madame
+Guyon submitted, promised to &ldquo;dogmatize no more,&rdquo; and
+disappeared into the country (1693). In the next year she again
+petitioned for an inquiry, and was eventually sent, half as a
+prisoner, half as a penitent, to Bossuet&rsquo;s cathedral town of
+Meaux. Here she spent the first half of 1695; but in the summer
+she escaped without his leave, bearing with her a certificate of
+orthodoxy signed by him. Bossuet regarded this flight as a
+gross act of disobedience; in the winter Madame Guyon was
+arrested and shut up in the Bastille. There she remained till
+1703. In that year she was liberated, on condition she went to
+live on her son&rsquo;s estate near Blois, under the eye of a stern bishop.
+Here the rest of her life was spent in charitable and pious
+exercises; she died on the 9th of June 1717. During these
+latter years her retreat at Blois became a regular place of
+pilgrimage for admirers, foreign quite as often as French.
+Indeed, she is one of the many prophetesses whose fame has
+stood highest out of their own country. French critics of all
+schools of thought have generally reckoned her an hysterical
+degenerate; in England and Germany she has as often roused
+enthusiastic admiration.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;<i>Vie de Madame Guyon, écrite par elle-même</i>
+(really a compilation made from various fragments) (3 vols., Paris,
+1791). There is a life in English by T. C. Upham (New York, 1854);
+and an elaborate study by L. Guerrier (Paris, 1881). For a remarkable
+review of this latter work see Brunetière, <i>Nouvelles Études
+critiques</i>, vol. ii. The complete edition of Madame Guyon&rsquo;s works,
+including the autobiography and five volumes of letters, runs to
+forty volumes (1767-1791); the most important works are published
+separately, <i>Opuscules spirituels</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1790). They have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page747" id="page747"></a>747</span>
+been several times translated into English. See also the literature
+of the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Quietism</a></span>; and H. Delacroix, <i>Études sur le
+mysticisme</i> (Paris, 1908).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(St C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUYON, RICHARD DEBAUFRE<a name="ar235" id="ar235"></a></span> (1803-1856), British soldier,
+general in the Hungarian revolutionary army and Turkish pasha,
+was born at Walcot, near Bath, in 1803. After receiving a
+military education in England and in Austria he entered the
+Hungarian hussars in 1823, in which he served until after his
+marriage with a daughter of Baron Spleny, a general officer in
+the imperial service. At the outbreak of the Hungarian War in
+1848, he re-entered active service as an officer of the Hungarian
+Honvéds, and he won great distinction in the action of Sukoro
+(September 29, 1848) and the battle of Schwechat (October
+30). He added to his reputation as a leader in various actions
+in the winter of 1848-1849, and after the battle of Kapolna was
+made a general officer. He served in important and sometimes
+independent commands to the end of the war, after which he
+escaped to Turkey. In 1852 he entered the service of the sultan.
+He was made a pasha and lieutenant-general without being
+required to change his faith, and rendered distinguished service
+in the campaign against the Russians in Asia Minor (1854-55).
+General Guyon died of cholera at Scutari on the 12th of
+October 1856.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. W. Kinglake, <i>The Patriot and the Hero General Guyon</i> (1856).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUYOT, ARNOLD HENRY<a name="ar236" id="ar236"></a></span> (1807-1884), Swiss-American
+geologist and geographer, was born at Boudevilliers, near
+Neuchâtel, Switzerland, on the 28th of September 1807. He
+studied at the college of Neuchâtel and in Germany, where
+he began a lifelong friendship with Louis Agassiz. He was
+professor of history and physical geography at the short-lived
+Neuchâtel &ldquo;Academy&rdquo; from 1839 to 1848, when he removed,
+at Agassiz&rsquo;s instance, to the United States, settling in Cambridge,
+Massachusetts. For several years he was a lecturer for the
+Massachusetts State Board of Education, and he was professor
+of geology and physical geography at Princeton from 1854 until
+his death there on the 8th of February 1884. He ranked high
+as a geologist and meteorologist. As early as 1838, he undertook,
+at Agassiz&rsquo;s suggestion, the study of glaciers, and was the first
+to announce, in a paper submitted to the Geological Society of
+France, certain important observations relating to glacial motion
+and structure. Among other things he noted the more rapid
+flow of the centre than of the sides, and the more rapid flow of
+the top than of the bottom of glaciers; described the laminated
+or &ldquo;ribboned&rdquo; structure of the glacial ice, and ascribed the
+movement of glaciers to a gradual molecular displacement
+rather than to a sliding of the ice mass as held by de Saussure.
+He subsequently collected important data concerning erratic
+boulders. His extensive meteorological observations in America
+led to the establishment of the United States Weather Bureau,
+and his <i>Meteorological and Physical Tables</i> (1852, revised ed.
+1884) were long standard. His graded series of text-books and
+wall-maps were important aids in the extension and popularization
+of geological study in America. In addition to text-books,
+his principal publications were: <i>Earth and Man, Lectures on
+Comparative Physical Geography in its Relation to the History
+of Mankind</i> (translated by Professor C. C. Felton, 1849); <i>A
+Memoir of Louis Agassiz</i> (1883); and <i>Creation, or the Biblical
+Cosmogony in the Light of Modern Science</i> (1884).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See James D. Dana&rsquo;s &ldquo;Memoir&rdquo; in the <i>Biographical Memoirs of
+the National Academy of Science</i>, vol. ii. (Washington, 1886).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUYOT, YVES<a name="ar237" id="ar237"></a></span> (1843-&emsp;&emsp;), French politician and economist,
+was born at Dinan on the 6th of September 1843. Educated at
+Rennes, he took up the profession of journalism, coming to
+Paris in 1867. He was for a short period editor-in-chief of
+<i>L&rsquo;Indépendant du midi</i> of Nîmes, but joined the staff of <i>La
+Rappel</i> on its foundation, and worked subsequently on other
+journals. He took an active part in municipal life, and waged a
+keen campaign against the prefecture of police, for which he
+suffered six months&rsquo; imprisonment. He entered the chamber of
+deputies in 1885 as representative of the first arrondissement of
+Paris and was <i>rapporteur général</i> of the budget of 1888. He
+became minister of public works under the premiership of P. E.
+Tirard in 1889, retaining his portfolio in the cabinet of C. L. de
+Freycinet until 1892. Although of strong liberal views, he lost
+his seat in the election of 1893 owing to his militant attitude
+against socialism. An uncompromising free-trader, he published
+<i>La Comédie protectionniste</i> (1905; Eng. trans. <i>The Comedy of
+Protection</i>); <i>La Science économique</i> (1st ed. 1881; 3rd ed. 1907);
+<i>La Prostitution</i> (1882); <i>La Tyrannie socialiste</i> (1893), all three
+translated into English; <i>Les Conflits du travail et leur solution</i>
+(1903); <i>La Démocratie individualiste</i> (1907).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUYTON DE MORVEAU, LOUIS BERNARD,<a name="ar238" id="ar238"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1737-1816),
+French chemist, was born on the 4th of January 1737, at
+Dijon, where his father was professor of civil law at the university.
+As a boy he showed remarkable aptitude for practical
+mechanics, but on leaving school he studied law in the university
+of Dijon, and in his twenty-fourth year became advocate-general
+in the parlement of Dijon. This office he held till 1782. Devoting
+his leisure to the study of chemistry, he published in 1772 his
+<i>Digressions académiques</i>, in which he set forth his views on
+phlogiston, crystallization, &amp;c., and two years later he established
+in his native town courses of lectures on materia medica,
+mineralogy and chemistry. An essay on chemical nomenclature,
+which he published in the <i>Journal de physique</i> for May 1782, was
+ultimately developed with the aid of A. L. Lavoisier, C. L.
+Berthollet and A. F. Fourcroy, into the <i>Méthode d&rsquo;une nomenclature
+chimique</i>, published in 1787, the principles of which were
+speedily adopted by chemists throughout Europe. Constantly in
+communication with the leaders of the Lavoisierian school, he
+soon became a convert to the anti-phlogistic doctrine; and he
+published his reasons in the first volume of the section &ldquo;Chymie,
+Pharmacie et Metallurgie&rdquo; of the <i>Encyclopédie méthodique</i>
+(1786), the chemical articles in which were written by him, as
+well as some of those in the second volume (1792). In 1794 he
+was appointed to superintend the construction of balloons for
+military purposes, being known as the author of some aeronautical
+experiments carried out at Dijon some ten years previously.
+In 1791 he became a member of the Legislative Assembly, and in
+the following year of the National Convention, to which he was
+re-elected in 1795, but he retired from political life in 1797. In
+1798 he acted as provisional director of the Polytechnic School,
+in the foundation of which he took an active part, and from 1800
+to 1814 he held the appointment of master of the mint. In 1811
+he was made a baron of the French Empire. He died in Paris on
+the 2nd of January 1816.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides being a diligent contributor to the scientific periodicals
+of the day, Guyton wrote <i>Mémoire sur l&rsquo;éducation publique</i> (1762);
+a satirical poem entitled <i>Le Rat iconoclaste, ou le Jésuite croqué</i>
+(1763); <i>Discours publics et éloges</i> (1775-1782); <i>Plaidoyers sur
+plusieurs questions de droit</i> (1785); and <i>Traité des moyens de désinfecter
+l&rsquo;air</i> (1801), describing the disinfecting powers of chlorine,
+and of hydrochloric acid gas which he had successfully used at Dijon
+in 1773. With Hugues Maret (1726-1785) and Jean François
+Durande (d. 1794) he also published the <i>Élémens de chymie théorique
+et pratique</i> (1776-1777).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GUZMICS, IZIDÓR<a name="ar239" id="ar239"></a></span> (1786-1839). Hungarian theologian, was
+born on the 7th of April 1786 at Vámos-Család, in the county of
+Sopron. At Sopron (Oedenburg) he was instructed in the art
+of poetry by Paul Horváth. In October 1805 he entered the
+Benedictine order, but left it in August of the following year,
+only again to assume the monastic garb on the 10th of November
+1806. At the monastery of Pannonhegy he applied himself to the
+study of Greek under Farkas Tóth and in 1812 he was sent to
+Pesth to study theology. Here he read the best German and
+Hungarian authors, and took part in the editorship of the
+<i>Nemzeti</i> (National) <i>Plutarkus</i>, and in the translation of Johann
+Hübner&rsquo;s <i>Lexicon</i>. On obtaining the degree of doctor of divinity
+in 1816, he returned to Pannonhegy, where he devoted himself to
+dogmatic theology and literature, and contributed largely to
+Hungarian periodicals. The most important of his theological
+works are: <i>A kath. anyaszentegyháznak hitbeli tanitása</i> (The
+Doctrinal Teaching of the Holy Catholic Church), and <i>A keresztényeknek
+vallásbeli egyesülésökröl</i> (On Religious Unity among
+Christians), both published at Pesth in 1822; also a Latin
+treatise entitled <i>Theologia Christiana fundamentalis et theologia
+dogmatica</i> (4 vols., Györ, 1828-1829). His translation of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page748" id="page748"></a>748</span>
+Theocritus in hexameters was published in 1824. His versions of
+the <i>Oedipus</i> of Sophocles and of the <i>Iphigenia</i> of Euripides
+were rewarded by the Hungarian Academy, of which in 1838 he
+was elected honorary member. In 1832 he was appointed abbot
+of the wealthy Benedictine house at Bakonybél, a village in the
+county of Veszprém. There he built an asylum for 150 children,
+and founded a school of harmony and singing. He died on the
+1st of September 1839.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GWADAR,<a name="ar240" id="ar240"></a></span> a port on the Makran coast of Baluchistan, about
+290 m. W. of Karachi. Pop. (1903), 4350. In the last half of the
+18th century it was handed over by the khan of Kalat to the
+sultan of Muscat, who still exercises sovereignty over the port,
+together with about 300 sq. m. of the adjoining country. It is
+a place of call for the steamers of the British India Navigation
+Company.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GWALIOR,<a name="ar241" id="ar241"></a></span> a native state of India, in the Central India
+agency, by far the largest of the numerous principalities comprised
+in that area. It is the dominion of the Sindhia family.
+The state consists of two well-defined parts which may roughly
+be called the northern and the southern. The former is a compact
+mass of territory, bounded N. and N.W. by the Chambal river,
+which separates it from the British districts of Agra and
+Etawah, and the native states of Dholpur, Karauli and Jaipur
+of Rajputana; E. by the British districts of Jalaun, Jhansi,
+Lalitpur and Saugor; S. by the states of Bhopal, Tonk, Khilchipur
+and Rajgarh; and W. by those of Jhalawar, Tonk and
+Kotah of Rajputana. The southern, or Malwa, portion is made
+up of detached or semi-detached districts, between which are
+interposed parts of other states, which again are mixed up with
+each other in bewildering intricacy. The two portions together
+have a total area of 25,041 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 2,933,001, showing
+a decrease of 13% in the decade.</p>
+
+<p>The state may be naturally divided into plain, plateau and
+hilly country. The plain country extends from the Chambal
+river in the extreme southwards for about 80 m., with a maximum
+width from east to west of about 120 m. This plain, though
+broken in its southern portion by low hills, has generally an
+elevation of only a few hundred feet above sea-level. In the
+summer season the climate is very hot, the shade temperature
+rising frequently to 112° F., but in the winter months (from
+November to February inclusive) it is usually temperate and
+for short periods extremely cold. The average rainfall is 30 in.,
+but the period 1891-1901 was a decade of low rainfall, and
+distress was caused by famine. South of this tract there is a
+gradual ascent to the Central India plateau, and at Sipri the
+general level is 1500 ft. above the sea. On this plateau lies the
+remainder of the state, with the exception of the small district
+of Amjhera in the extreme south. The elevation of this region
+gives it a moderate climate during the summer as compared
+with the plain country, while the winter is warmer and more
+equable. The average rainfall is 28 in. The remaining portion
+of the state, classed as hilly, comprises only the small district
+of Amjhera. This is known as the Bhil country, and lies among
+the Vindhya mountains with a mean elevation of about 1800 ft.
+The rainfall averages 23 in. In the two years 1899 and 1900 the
+monsoon was very weak, the result being a severe famine which
+caused great mortality among the Bhil population. Of these
+three natural divisions the plateau possesses the most fertile
+soil, generally of the kind known as &ldquo;black cotton,&rdquo; but the
+low-lying plain has the densest population. The state is watered
+by numerous rivers. The Nerbudda, flowing west, forms the
+southern boundary. The greater part of the drainage is discharged
+into the Chambal, which forms the north-western and
+northern and eastern boundary. The Sind, with its tributaries
+the Kuwari, Asar and Sankh, flows through the northern division.
+The chief products are wheat, millets, pulses of various kinds,
+maize, rice, linseed and other oil-seeds; poppy, yielding the
+Malwa opium; sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, indigo, garlic, turmeric
+and ginger. About 60% of the population are employed
+in agricultural and only 15% in industrial occupations, the
+great majority of the latter being home workers. There is a
+leather-factory at Morar; cotton-presses at Morena, Baghana
+and Ujjain; ginning factories at Agar, Nalkhera, Shajapur and
+Sonkach; and a cotton-mill at Ujjain. The cotton industry
+alone shows possibilities of considerable development, there being
+55,000 persons engaged in it at the time of the census of 1901.</p>
+
+<p>The population is composed of many elements, among which
+Brahmans and Rajputs are specially numerous. The prevailing
+religion is Hinduism, 84% of the people being Hindus and only
+6% Mahommedans. The revenue of the state is about one
+million sterling; and large reserves have been accumulated,
+from which two millions were lent to the government of India
+in 1887, and later on another million for the construction of the
+Gwalior-Agra and Indore-Neemuch railways. The railways
+undertaken by the state are: (1) from Bina on the Indian
+Midland to Goona; (2) an extension of this line to Baran,
+opened in 1899; (3) from Bhopal to Ujjain; (4) two light
+railways, from Gwalior to Sipri and Gwalior to Bhind, which
+were opened by the viceroy in November 1899. On the same
+occasion the viceroy opened the Victoria College, founded to
+commemorate the Diamond Jubilee; and the Memorial Hospital,
+built in memory of the maharaja&rsquo;s father. British currency
+has been introduced instead of Chandori rupees, which were
+much depreciated. The state maintains three regiments of
+Imperial Service cavalry, two battalions of infantry and a
+transport corps.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The Sindhia family, the rulers of the Gwalior state,
+belong to the Mahratta nation and originally came from the
+neighbourhood of Poona. Their first appearance in Central
+India was early in the 18th century in the person of Ranoji
+(d. 1745), a scion of an impoverished branch of the family, who
+began his career as the peshwa&rsquo;s slipper-carrier and rose by his
+military abilities to be commander of his bodyguard. In 1726,
+together with Malhar Rao Holkar, the founder of the house of
+Indore, he was authorized by the peshwa to collect tribute
+(<i>chauth</i>) in the Malwa districts. He established his headquarters
+at Ujjain, which thus became the first capital of Sindhia&rsquo;s
+dominions.</p>
+
+<p>Ranoji&rsquo;s son and successor, Jayapa Sindhia, was killed at
+Nagaur in 1759, and was in his turn succeeded by his son Jankoji
+Sindhia. But the real founder of the state of Gwalior was
+Mahadji Sindhia, a natural son of Ranoji, who, after narrowly
+escaping with his life from the terrible slaughter of Panipat in
+1761 (when Jankoji was killed), obtained with some difficulty
+from the peshwa a re-grant of his father&rsquo;s possessions in Central
+India (1769). During the struggle which followed the death
+of Madhu Rao Peshwa in 1772 Mahadji seized every occasion
+for extending his power and possessions. In 1775, however,
+when Raghuba Peshwa threw himself on the protection of the
+British, the reverses which Mahadji encountered at their hands&mdash;Gwalior
+being taken by Major Popham in 1780&mdash;opened his
+eyes to their power. By the treaty of Salbai (1782) it was
+agreed that Mahadji should withdraw to Ujjain, and the British
+retire north of the Jumna. Mahadji, who undertook to open
+negotiations with the other belligerents, was recognized as an
+independent ruler, and a British resident was established at his
+court. Mahadji, aided by the British policy of neutrality, now
+set to work to establish his supremacy over Hindustan proper.
+Realizing the superiority of European methods of warfare, he
+availed himself of the services of a Savoyard soldier of fortune,
+Benoît de Boigne, whose genius for military organization and
+command in the field was mainly instrumental in establishing
+the Mahratta power. Mahadji&rsquo;s disciplined troops made him
+invincible. In 1785 he re-established Shah Alam on the imperial
+throne at Delhi, and as his reward obtained for the peshwa the
+title of <i>vakil-ul-mutlak</i> or vicegerent of the empire, contenting
+himself with that of his deputy. In 1788 he took advantage of
+the cruelties practised by Ghulam Kadir on Shah Alam, to
+occupy Delhi, where he established himself as the protector of
+the aged emperor. Though nominally a deputy of the peshwa he
+was now ruler of a vast territory, including the greater part of
+Central India and Hindustan proper, while his lieutenants
+exacted tribute from the chiefs of Rajputana. There can be no
+doubt that he looked with apprehension on the growing power of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page749" id="page749"></a>749</span>
+the British; but he wisely avoided any serious collision with
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Mahadji died in 1794, and was succeeded by his adopted son,
+Daulat Rao Sindhia, a grandson of his brother Tukoji. When,
+during the period of unrest that followed the deaths of the
+peshwa, Madhu Rao II., in 1795 and of Tukoji Holkar in 1797,
+the Mahratta leaders fought over the question of supremacy,
+the peshwa, Baji Rao II., the titular head of the Mahratta
+confederation, fled from his capital and placed himself under
+British protection by the treaty of Bassein (December 31, 1802).
+This interposition of the British government was resented by
+the confederacy, and it brought on the Mahratta War of 1803.
+In the campaign that followed a combined Mahratta army, in
+which Daulat Rao&rsquo;s troops furnished the largest contingent, was
+defeated by General Arthur Wellesley at Assaye and Argaum
+in Central India; and Lord Lake routed Daulat Rao&rsquo;s European-trained
+battalions in Northern India at Agra, Aligarh and
+Laswari. Daulat Rao was then compelled to sign the treaty
+of Sarji Anjangaon (December 30, 1803), which stripped him of
+his territories between the Jumna and Ganges, the district of
+Broach in Gujarat and other lands in the south. By the same
+treaty he was deprived of the forts of Gwalior and Gohad; but
+these were restored by Lord Cornwallis in 1805, when the
+Chambal river was made the northern boundary of the state.
+By a treaty signed at Burhanpur in 1803 Daulat Rao further
+agreed to maintain a subsidiary force, to be paid out of the
+revenues of the territories ceded under the treaty of Sarji
+Anjangaon. When, however, in 1816 he was called upon to
+assist in the suppression of the Pindaris, though by the treaty of
+Gwalior (1817) he promised his co-operation, his conduct was so
+equivocal that in 1818 he was forced to sign a fresh treaty by
+which he ceded Ajmere and other lands.</p>
+
+<p>Daulat Rao died without issue in 1827, and his widow, Baiza Bai
+(d. 1862), adopted Mukut Rao, a boy of eleven belonging to a distant
+branch of the family, who succeeded as Jankoji Rao Sindhia.
+His rule was weak; the state was distracted by interminable
+palace intrigues and military mutinies, and affairs went from
+bad to worse when, in 1843, Jankoji Rao, who left no heir,
+was succeeded by another boy, adopted by his widow, Tara Bai,
+under the name of Jayaji Rao Sindhia. The growth of turbulence
+and misrule now induced Lord Ellenborough to interpose, and
+a British force under Sir Hugh Gough advanced upon Gwalior
+(December 1843). The Mahratta troops were defeated simultaneously
+at Maharajpur and Punniar (December 29), with the
+result that the Gwalior government signed a treaty ceding
+territory with revenue sufficient for the maintenance of a contingent
+force to be stationed at the capital, and limiting the
+future strength of the Gwalior army, while a council of regency
+was appointed during the minority to act under the resident&rsquo;s
+advice. In 1857 the Gwalior contingent joined the mutineers;
+but the maharaja himself remained loyal to the British, and fled
+from his capital until the place was retaken and his authority
+restored by Sir Hugh Rose (Lord Strathnairn) on the 19th of
+June 1858. He was rewarded with the districts of Neemuch
+and Amjhera, but Gwalior fort was occupied by British troops
+and was only restored to his son in 1886 by Lord Dufferin.
+Jayaji Rao, who died in 1886, did much for the development of
+his state. He was created a G.C.S.I in 1861, and subsequently
+became a counsellor of the empress, a G.C.B. and C.I.E.</p>
+
+<p>His son, the maharaja, Madhava Rao Sindhia, G.C.S.I., was
+born in 1877. During his minority the state was administered
+for eight years by a council of regency. He was entrusted with
+ruling powers in 1894, and in all respects continued the reforming
+policy of the council, while paying personal attention to every
+department, being a keen soldier, an energetic administrator, and
+fully alive to the responsibilities attaching to his position. He
+was created an honorary aide-de-camp to the king-emperor and
+an honorary colonel in the British army. He went to China as
+orderly officer to General Gaselee in 1901, and provided the
+expedition with a hospital ship at his own expense, while his
+Imperial Service Transport Corps proved a useful auxiliary to the
+British army in the Chitral and Tirah expeditions.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">City of Gwalior</span> is 76 m. by rail S. of Agra, and had a
+population in 1901 of 119,433. This total includes the new town
+of Lashkar or &ldquo;the Camp&rdquo; which is the modern capital of the
+state and old Gwalior. The old town has a threefold interest:
+first as a very ancient seat of Jain worship; secondly for its
+example of palace architecture of the best Hindu period (1486-1516);
+and thirdly as an historic fortress. There are several
+remarkable Hindu temples within the fort. One, known as the
+<i>Sas Bahu</i>, is beautifully adorned with bas-reliefs. It was
+finished in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1093, and, though much dilapidated, still forms a
+most picturesque fragment. An older Jain temple has been used
+as a mosque. Another temple in the fortress of Gwalior is called
+the <i>Teli-Mandir</i>, or &ldquo;Oilman&rsquo;s Temple.&rdquo; This building was
+originally dedicated to Vishnu, but afterwards converted to the
+worship of Siva. The most striking part of the Jain remains at
+Gwalior is a series of caves or rock-cut sculptures, excavated in
+the rock on all sides, and numbering nearly a hundred, great and
+small. Most of them are mere niches to contain statues, though
+some are cells that may have been originally intended for
+residences. One curious fact regarding them is that, according to
+inscriptions, they were all excavated within the short period of
+about thirty-three years, between 1441 and 1474. Some of the
+figures are of colossal size; one, for instance, is 57 ft. high, which
+is taller than any other in northern India.</p>
+
+<p>The palace built by Man Singh (1486-1516) forms the most
+interesting example of early Hindu work of its class in India.
+Another palace of even greater extent was added to this in 1516;
+both Jehangír and Shah Jahan added palaces to these two&mdash;the
+whole making a group of edifices unequalled for picturesqueness
+and interest by anything of their class in Central India. Among
+the apartments in the palace was the celebrated chamber, named
+the <i>Baradari</i>, supported on 12 columns, and 45 ft. square, with a
+stone roof, forming one of the most beautiful palace-halls in the
+world. It was, besides, singularly interesting from the expedients
+to which the Hindu architect was forced to resort to imitate the
+vaults of the Moslems. Of the buildings, however, which so
+excited the admiration of the emperor Baber, probably little now
+remains. The fort of Gwalior, within which the above buildings
+are situated, stands on an isolated rock. The face is perpendicular
+and where the rock is naturally less precipitous it has been
+scarped. Its greatest length from north-east to south-west is a
+mile and a half, and the greatest breadth 900 yds. The rock
+attains its maximum height of 342 ft. at the northern end. A
+rampart, accessible by a steep road, and farther up by huge steps
+cut out of the rock, surrounds the fort. The citadel stands at the
+north-eastern corner of the enclosure, and presents a very
+picturesque appearance. The old town of Gwalior, which is of
+considerable size, but irregularly built, and extremely dirty, lies
+at the eastern base of the rock. It contains the tomb of Mahommed
+Ghaus, erected during the early part of Akbar&rsquo;s reign. The
+fort of Gwalior was traditionally built by one Surya Sen, the raja
+of the neighbouring country. In 1196 Gwalior was captured by
+Mahommed Ghori; it then passed into the hands of several
+chiefs until in 1559 Akbar gained possession of it, and made it a
+state prison for captives of rank. On the dismemberment of the
+Delhi empire, Gwalior was seized by the Jat rana of Gohad.
+Subsequently it was garrisoned by Sindhia, from whom it was
+wrested in 1780 by the forces of the East India Company, and to
+whom it was finally restored by the British in 1886. The modern
+town contains the palace of the chief, a college, a high school, a
+girls&rsquo; school, a service school to train officials, a law school,
+hospitals for men and for women, a museum, paper-mills, and a
+printing-press issuing a state gazette.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Gwalior Residency</span>, an administrative unit in the Central
+India agency, comprises Gwalior state and eleven smaller states
+and estates. Its total area is 17,825 sq. m., and its population
+in 1901 was 2,187,612. Of the area, 17,020 sq. m. belong to
+Gwalior State, and the agency also includes the small states of
+Raghugarh, Khaniadhana, Paron, Garha, Umri and Bhadaura,
+with the Chhabra <i>pargana</i> of Tonk.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GWEEDORE,<a name="ar242" id="ar242"></a></span> a hamlet and tourist resort of Co. Donegal,
+Ireland, on the Londonderry &amp; Lough Swilly &amp; Letterkenny
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page750" id="page750"></a>750</span>
+railway. The river Clady, running past the village from the
+Nacung Loughs, affords salmon and trout fishing. The fine
+surrounding scenery culminates to the east in the wild mountain
+Errigal (2466 ft.) at the upper end of the loughs. The place owes
+its popularity as a resort to Lord George Hill (d. 1879), who also
+laboured for the amelioration of the conditions of the peasantry
+on his estate, and combated the Rundale system of minute
+repartition of property. In 1889, during the troubles which
+arose out of evictions, Gweedore was the headquarters of the
+Irish constabulary, when District Inspector Martin was openly
+murdered on attempting to arrest a priest on his way to Mass.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GWILT, JOSEPH<a name="ar243" id="ar243"></a></span> (1784-1863), English architect and writer,
+was the younger son of George Gwilt, architect surveyor to the
+county of Surrey, and was born at Southwark on the 11th of
+January 1784. He was educated at St Paul&rsquo;s school, and after a
+short course of instruction in his father&rsquo;s office was in 1801
+admitted a student of the Royal Academy, where in the same
+year he gained the silver medal for his drawing of the tower and
+steeple of St Dunstan-in-the-East. In 1811 he published a
+<i>Treatise on the Equilibrium of Arches</i>, and in 1815 he was elected
+F.S.A. After a visit to Italy in 1816, he published in 1818
+<i>Notitia architectonica italiana, or Concise Notices of the Buildings
+and Architects of Italy</i>. In 1825 he published an edition of Sir
+William Chambers&rsquo;s <i>Treatise on Civil Architecture</i>; and among
+his other principal contributions to the literature of his profession
+are a translation of the <i>Architecture of Vitruvius</i> (1826), a <i>Treatise
+on the Rudiments of Architecture, Practical and Theoretical</i> (1826),
+and his valuable <i>Encyclopaedia of Architecture</i> (1842), which was
+published with additions by Wyatt Papworth in 1867. In
+recognition of Gwilt&rsquo;s advocacy of the importance to architects of
+a knowledge of mathematics, he was in 1833 elected a member of
+the Royal Astronomical Society. He took a special interest in
+philology and music, and was the author of <i>Rudiments of the
+Anglo-Saxon Tongue</i> (1829), and of the article &ldquo;Music&rdquo; in the
+<i>Encyclopaedia metropolitana</i>. His principal works as a practical
+architect were Markree Castle near Sligo in Ireland, and St
+Thomas&rsquo;s church at Charlton in Kent. He died on the 14th of
+September 1863.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GWYN, NELL<a name="ar244" id="ar244"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Eleanor</span>] (1650-1687), English actress, and
+mistress of Charles II., was born on the 2nd of February
+1650/1, probably in an alley off Drury Lane, London, although
+Hereford also claims to have been her birthplace. Her father,
+Thomas Gwyn, appears to have been a broken-down soldier of a
+family of Welsh origin. Of her mother little is known save that
+she lived for some time with her daughter, and that in 1679 she
+was drowned, apparently when intoxicated, in a pond at Chelsea.
+Nell Gwyn, who sold oranges in the precincts of Drury Lane
+Theatre, passed, at the age of fifteen, to the boards, through the
+influence of the actor Charles Hart and of Robert Duncan or
+Dungan, an officer of the guards who had interest with the
+management. Her first recorded appearance on the stage was in
+1665 as Cydaria, Montezuma&rsquo;s daughter, in Dryden&rsquo;s <i>Indian
+Emperor</i>, a serious part ill-suited to her. In the following year
+she was Lady Wealthy in the Hon. James Howard&rsquo;s comedy <i>The
+English Monsieur</i>. Pepys was delighted with the playing of
+&ldquo;pretty, witty Nell,&rdquo; but when he saw her as Florimel in Dryden&rsquo;s
+<i>Secret Love, or the Maiden Queen</i>, he wrote &ldquo;so great a performance
+of a comical part was never, I believe, in the world
+before&rdquo; and, &ldquo;so done by Nell her merry part as cannot be
+better done in nature&rdquo; (<i>Diary</i>, March 25, 1667). Her success
+brought her other leading rôles&mdash;Bellario, in Beaumont and
+Fletcher&rsquo;s <i>Philaster</i>; Flora, in Rhodes&rsquo;s <i>Flora&rsquo;s Vagaries</i>;
+Samira, in Sir Robert Howard&rsquo;s <i>Surprisal</i>; and she remained
+a member of the Drury Lane company until 1669, playing continuously
+save for a brief absence in the summer of 1667 when she
+lived at Epsom as the mistress of Lord Buckhurst, afterwards
+6th earl of Dorset (<i>q.v.</i>). Her last appearance was as Almahide
+to the Almanzor of Hart, in Dryden&rsquo;s <i>The Conquest of Granada</i>
+(1670), the production of which had been postponed some
+months for her return to the stage after the birth of her first
+son by the king.</p>
+
+<p>As an actress Nell Gwyn was largely indebted to Dryden, who
+seems to have made a special study of her airy, irresponsible
+personality, and who kept her supplied with parts which suited
+her. She excelled in the delivery of the risky prologues and
+epilogues which were the fashion, and the poet wrote for her
+some specially daring examples. It was, however, as the
+mistress of Charles II. that she endeared herself to the public.
+Partly, no doubt, her popularity was due to the disgust inspired
+by her rival, Louise de Kéroualle, duchess of Portsmouth, and to
+the fact that, while the Frenchwoman was a Catholic, she was a
+Protestant. But very largely it was the result of exactly those
+personal qualities that appealed to the monarch himself. She
+was <i>piquante</i> rather than pretty, short of stature, and her chief
+beauty was her reddish-brown hair. She was illiterate, and with
+difficulty scrawled an awkward E. G. at the bottom of her letters,
+written for her by others. But her frank recklessness, her
+generosity, her invariable good temper, her ready wit, her
+infectious high spirits and amazing indiscretions appealed
+irresistibly to a generation which welcomed in her the living
+antithesis of Puritanism. &ldquo;A true child of the London streets,&rdquo;
+she never pretended to be superior to what she was, nor to interfere
+in matters outside the special sphere assigned her; she
+made no ministers, she appointed to no bishoprics, and for the
+high issues of international politics she had no concern. She
+never forgot her old friends, and, as far as is known, remained
+faithful to her royal lover from the beginning of their intimacy
+to his death, and, after his death, to his memory.</p>
+
+<p>Of her two sons by the king, the elder was created Baron
+Hedington and earl of Burford and subsequently duke of St
+Albans; the younger, James, Lord Beauclerk, died in 1680,
+while still a boy. The king&rsquo;s death-bed request to his brother,
+&ldquo;Let not poor Nelly starve,&rdquo; was faithfully carried out by
+James II., who paid her debts from the Secret Service fund,
+provided her with other moneys, and settled on her an estate
+with reversion to the duke of St Albans. But she did not long
+survive her lover&rsquo;s death. She died in November 1687, and was
+buried on the 17th, according to her own request, in the church
+of St Martin-in-the-Fields, her funeral sermon being preached by
+the vicar, Thomas Tenison, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury,
+who said &ldquo;much to her praise.&rdquo; Tradition credits the foundation
+of Chelsea Hospital to her influence over the king.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Peter Cunningham, <i>The Story of Nell Gwyn</i>, edited by Gordon
+Goodwin (1903); Waldron&rsquo;s edition of John Downes&rsquo;s <i>Roscius
+Anglicanus</i> (1789); Osmund Airy, <i>Charles II.</i> (1904); Pepys, <i>Diary</i>;
+Evelyn, <i>Diary and Correspondence</i>; <i>Origin and Early History of the
+Royal Hospital at Chelsea</i>, edited by Major-General G. Hutt (1872);
+<i>Memoirs of the Life of Eleanor Gwinn</i> (1752); Burnet, <i>History of
+My Own Time</i>, part i., edited by Osmund Airy (Oxford, 1897);
+<i>Louise de Kéroualle, Duchess of Portsmouth</i>, by H. Forneron, translated
+by Mrs Crawford (1887).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GWYNIAD,<a name="ar245" id="ar245"></a></span> the name given to a fish of the genus <i>Coregonus</i> or
+White fish (<i>C. clupeoides</i>), inhabiting the large lakes of North
+Wales and the north of England. At Ullswater it is known by the
+name of &ldquo;schelly,&rdquo; at Loch Lomond by that of &ldquo;powen.&rdquo; It is
+tolerably abundant in Lake Bala, keeping to the deepest portion
+of the lake for the greater part of the year, but appearing in
+shoals near the shores at certain seasons. It is well flavoured,
+like all the species of <i>Coregonus</i>, but scarcely attains to the
+weight of a pound. The name gwyniad is a Welsh word, and
+signifies &ldquo;shining&rdquo;; and it is singular that a similar fish in
+British Columbia, also belonging to the family of Salmonoids, is
+called by the natives &ldquo;quinnat,&rdquo; from the silvery lustre of its
+scales, the word having in their language the same meaning as
+the Welsh &ldquo;gwyniad.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 12, Slice 6, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
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+</body>
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+
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@@ -0,0 +1,19512 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 12, Slice 6, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 6
+       "Groups, Theory of" to "Gwyniad"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: December 14, 2011 [EBook #38304]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters and [Pd] for partial differential symbol.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE GUADALQUIVIR: "Here it forms two subsidiary channels, the
+      western 31 m., the eastern 12 m. long, which rejoin the main stream
+      on the borders of the province of Cadiz." 'm.' amended from 'M.'.
+
+    ARTICLE GUANAJUATO: "... W. of Guanajuato in a rich mining
+      district; and Acambaro (8345), a prosperous town of the plain, 76
+      m. S.S.E. of Guanajuato." 'Guanajuato' amended from 'Guanaiuato'.
+
+    ARTICLE GUARANTEE: "The Egyptian codes sanction guarantees
+      expressly entered into 'in view of debtor's want of legal capacity'
+      to contract a valid principal obligation (Egyptian Codes, Mixed
+      Suits, 605; Native Tribunals, 496)." 'Egyptian' amended from
+      'Egyptain'.
+
+    ARTICLE GUINEA FOWL: "Allied to the genus Numida, but readily
+      distinguished form among other characters by the possession of
+      spurs and the absence of a helmet, are two very rare forms ..."
+      'form' amended from 'thereform'.
+
+    ARTICLE GUIPUZCOA: "The principal industrial centres are Irun,
+      Renteria, Villabona, Vergara and Azpeitia for cotton and linen
+      stuffs; Zumarraga for osiers; Eibar, Plasencia and Elgoibar for
+      arms and cannon and gold incrustations; ..." 'osiers' amended from
+      'osies'.
+
+    ARTICLE GUTZKOW, KARL FERDINAND: "The success of Die Ritter vom
+      Geiste suggested to Gutzkow the establishment of a journal on the
+      model of Dickens' Household Words, entitled Unterhaltungen am
+      hauslichen Herd, which first appeared in 1852 and was continued
+      till 1862." "Dickens'" amended from "Dicken's".
+
+    ARTICLE GUY OF WARWICK: "... The Tragical History, Admirable
+      Achievements and Curious Events of Guy, Earl of Warwick ..."
+      'Achievements' amended from 'Atchievements'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME XII, SLICE VI
+
+        Groups, Theory of to Gwyniad
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  GROUPS, THEORY OF                GUIDICCIONI, GIOVANNI
+  GROUSE                           GUIDO OF AREZZO
+  GROVE, SIR GEORGE                GUIDO OF SIENA
+  GROVE, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT        GUIDO RENI
+  GROVE                            GUIENNE
+  GROZNYI                          GUIGNES, JOSEPH DE
+  GRUB                             GUILBERT, YVETTE
+  GRUBER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED         GUILDFORD
+  GRUMBACH, WILHELM VON            GUILDHALL
+  GRUMENTUM                        GUILFORD, BARONS AND EARLS OF
+  GRUN                             GUILFORD
+  GRUNBERG                         GUILLAUME, JEAN BAPTISTE CLAUDE EUGENE
+  GRUNDTVIG, NIKOLAI SEVERIN       GUILLAUME DE LORRIS
+  GRUNDY, SYDNEY                   GUILLAUME DE PALERME
+  GRUNDY, MRS                      GUILLAUME D'ORANGE
+  GRUNER, GOTTLIEB SIGMUND         GUILLEMOT
+  GRUNEWALD, MATHIAS               GUILLOCHE
+  GRUTER, JAN                      GUILLON, MARIE NICOLAS SYLVESTRE
+  GRUYERE                          GUILLOTINE
+  GRYNAEUS, JOHANN JAKOB           GUILT
+  GRYNAEUS, SIMON                  GUIMARAES
+  GRYPHIUS, ANDREAS                GUIMARD, MARIE MADELEINE
+  GUACHARO                         GUIMET, JEAN BAPTISTE
+  GUACO                            GUINEA (Africa)
+  GUADALAJARA (city of Mexico)     GUINEA (gold coin)
+  GUADALAJARA (province of Spain)  GUINEA FOWL
+  GUADALAJARA (city of Spain)      GUINEA-WORM
+  GUADALQUIVIR                     GUINES
+  GUADELOUPE                       GUINGAMP
+  GUADET, MARGUERITE ELIE          GUINNESS
+  GUADIANA                         GUINOBATAN
+  GUADIX                           GUIPUZCOA
+  GUADUAS                          GUIRAUD, ERNEST
+  GUAIACUM                         GUISBOROUGH
+  GUALDO TADINO                    GUISE
+  GUALEGUAY                        GUISE, HOUSE OF
+  GUALEGUAYCHU                     GUITAR
+  GUALO, CARDINAL                  GUITAR FIDDLE
+  GUAM                             GUITRY, LUCIEN GERMAIN
+  GUAN                             GUIZOT, FRANCOIS PIERRE GUILLAUME
+  GUANABACOA                       GUJARAT
+  GUANACO                          GUJARATI and RAJASTHANI
+  GUANAJAY                         GUJRANWALA
+  GUANAJUATO (state of Mexico)     GUJRAT
+  GUANAJUATO (city of Mexico)      GULA
+  GUANCHES                         GULBARGA
+  GUANIDINE                        GULF STREAM
+  GUANO                            GULFWEED
+  GUANTA                           GULL, SIR WILLIAM WITHEY
+  GUANTANAMO                       GULL
+  GUARANA                          GULLY, JOHN
+  GUARANIS                         GULPAIGAN
+  GUARANTEE                        GUM
+  GUARATINGUETA                    GUMBEL, KARL WILHELM VON
+  GUARDA                           GUMBINNEN
+  GUARDI, FRANCESCO                GUMBO
+  GUARDIAN                         GUMTI
+  GUARDS, and HOUSEHOLD TROOPS     GUMULJINA
+  GUARD-SHIP                       GUMUS
+  GUARICO                          GUMUSH-KHANEH
+  GUARIENTO                        GUN
+  GUARINI, CAMILLO-GUARINO         GUNA
+  GUARINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA       GUNCOTTON
+  GUARINO                          GUNDULICH, IVAN
+  GUARINO [GUARINUS] DA VERONA     GUNG'L, JOSEF
+  GUARNIERI                        GUNNER
+  GUASTALLA                        GUNNING, PETER
+  GUATEMALA (republic)             GUNNY
+  GUATEMALA (city of Guatemala)    GUNPOWDER
+  GUATOS                           GUNPOWDER PLOT
+  GUATUSOS                         GUN-ROOM
+  GUAVA                            GUNTER, EDMUND
+  GUAYAMA                          GUNTHER, JOHANN CHRISTIAN
+  GUAYAQUIL                        GUNTHER OF SCHWARZBURG
+  GUAYAS                           GUNTRAM
+  GUAYCURUS                        GUNTUR
+  GUAYMAS                          GUPTA
+  GUBBIO                           GURA, EUGEN
+  GUBEN                            GURDASPUR
+  GUBERNATIS, ANGELO DE            GURGAON
+  GUDBRANDSDAL                     GURKHA
+  GUDE, MARQUARD                   GURNALL, WILLIAM
+  GUDEMAN, ALFRED                  GURNARD
+  GUDGEON                          GURNEY
+  GUDRUN                           GURNEY, EDMUND
+  GUEBRIANT, JEAN BAPTISTE BUDES   GURWOOD, JOHN
+  GUELDER ROSE                     GUSLA
+  GUELPH                           GUSTAVUS I. ERIKSSON
+  GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES          GUSTAVUS II. ADOLPHUS
+  GUENEVERE                        GUSTAVUS III.
+  GUENON                           GUSTAVUS IV.
+  GUERET                           GUSTAVUS V.
+  GUEREZA                          GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS UNION
+  GUERICKE, HEINRICH FERDINAND     GUSTROW
+  GUERICKE, OTTO VON               GUTENBERG, JOHANN
+  GUERIDON                         GUTERSLOH
+  GUERIN, JEAN BAPTISTE PAULIN     GUTHRIE, SIR JAMES
+  GUERIN, PIERRE NARCISSE          GUTHRIE, THOMAS
+  GUERIN DU CAYLA, MAURICE DE      GUTHRIE, THOMAS ANSTEY
+  GUERNIERI                        GUTHRIE
+  GUERNSEY                         GUTHRUM
+  GUERRAZZI, FRANCESCO DOMENICO    GUTSCHMID, ALFRED
+  GUERRERO                         GUTS-MUTHS, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH
+  GUERRILLA                        GUTTA
+  GUERRINI, OLINDO                 GUTTA PERCHA
+  GUESDE, JULES BASILE             GUTTER
+  GUEST, EDWIN                     GUTZKOW, KARL FERDINAND
+  GUEST                            GUTZLAFF, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST
+  GUETTARD, JEAN ETIENNE           GUY OF WARWICK
+  GUEUX, LES                       GUY, THOMAS
+  GUEVARA, ANTONIO DE              GUYON, JEANNE BOUVIER DE LA MOTHE
+  GUEVARA, LUIS VELEZ DE           GUYON, RICHARD DEBAUFRE
+  GUGLIELMI, PIETRO                GUYOT, ARNOLD HENRY
+  GUIANA                           GUYOT, YVES
+  GUIART, GUILLAUME                GUYTON DE MORVEAU, LOUIS BERNARD
+  GUIBERT (of Ravenna)             GUZMICS, IZIDOR
+  GUIBERT (of Nogent)              GWADAR
+  GUIBERT, JACQUES HIPPOLYTE       GWALIOR
+  GUICCIARDINI, FRANCESCO          GWEEDORE
+  GUICHARD, KARL GOTTLIEB          GWILT, JOSEPH
+  GUICHEN, LUC URBAIN DE BOUEXIC   GWYN, NELL
+  GUIDE                            GWYNIAD
+  GUIDI, CARLO ALESSANDRO
+
+
+
+
+GROUPS,[1] THEORY OF. The conception of an operation to be carried out
+on some object or set of objects underlies all mathematical science.
+Thus in elementary arithmetic there are the fundamental operations of
+the addition and the multiplication of integers; in algebra a linear
+transformation is an operation which may be carried out on any set of
+variables; while in geometry a translation, a rotation, or a projective
+transformation are operations which may be carried out on any figure.
+
+In speaking of an operation, an object or a set of objects to which it
+may be applied is postulated; and the operation may, and generally will,
+have no meaning except in regard to such a set of objects. If two
+operations, which can be performed on the same set of objects, are such
+that, when carried out in succession on any possible object, the result,
+whichever operation is performed first, is to produce no change in the
+object, then each of the operations is spoken of as a _definite_
+operation, and each of them is called the _inverse_ of the other. Thus
+the operations which consist in replacing x by nx and by x/n
+respectively, in any rational function of x, are definite inverse
+operations, if n is any assigned number except zero. On the contrary,
+the operation of replacing x by an assigned number in any rational
+function of x is not, in the present sense, although it leads to a
+unique result, a definite operation; there is in fact no unique inverse
+operation corresponding to it. It is to be noticed that the question
+whether an operation is a definite operation or no may depend on the
+range of the objects on which it operates. For example, the operations
+of squaring and extracting the square root are definite inverse
+operations if the objects are restricted to be real positive numbers,
+but not otherwise.
+
+  If O, O', O", ... is the totality of the objects on which a definite
+  operation S and its inverse S' may be carried out, and if the result
+  of carrying out S on O is represented by O.S, then O.S.S', O.S'.S, and
+  O are the same object whatever object of the set O may be. This will
+  be represented by the equations SS' = S'S = 1. Now O.S.S' has a
+  meaning only if O.S is an object on which S' may be performed. Hence
+  whatever object of the set O may be, both O.S and O.S' belong to the
+  set. Similarly O.S.S, O.S.S.S, ... are objects of the set. These will
+  be represented by O.S^2, O.S^3, ... Suppose now that T is another
+  definite operation with the same set of objects as S, and that T' is
+  its inverse operation. Then O.S.T is a definite operation of the set,
+  and therefore the result of carrying out S and then T on the set of
+  objects is some operation U with a unique result. Represent by U' the
+  result of carrying out T' and then S'. Then O.UU' = O.S.T.T'.S' =
+  O.SS' = O, and O.U'U = O.T'.S'.S.T = O.T'T = O, whatever object O may
+  be. Hence UU' = U'U = 1; and U, U' are definite inverse operations.
+
+  If S, U, V are definite operations, and if S' is the inverse of S,
+  then
+
+               SU = SV
+
+  implies    S'SU = S'SV,
+
+  or            U = V.
+
+  Similarly    US = VS
+
+  implies       U = V.
+
+
+    Definition of a group.
+
+  Let S, T, U, ... be a set of definite operations, capable of being
+  carried out on a common object or set of objects, and let the set
+  contain--
+
+  (i.) the operation ST, S and T being any two operations of the set;
+
+  (ii.) the inverse operation of S, S being any operation of the set;
+  the set of operations is then called a group.
+
+  The number of operations in a group may be either finite or infinite.
+  When it is finite, the number is called the _order_ of the group, and
+  the group is spoken of as a _group of finite order_. If the number of
+  operations is infinite, there are three possible cases. When the group
+  is represented by a set of geometrical operations, for the
+  specification of an individual operation a number of measurements will
+  be necessary. In more analytical language, each operation will be
+  specified by the values of a set of parameters. If no one of these
+  parameters is capable of continuous variation, the group is called a
+  _discontinuous group_. If all the parameters are capable of continuous
+  variation, the group is called a _continuous group_. If some of the
+  parameters are capable of continuous variation and some are not, the
+  group is called a _mixed group_.
+
+  If S' is the inverse operation of S, a group which contains S must
+  contain SS', which produces no change on any possible object. This is
+  called the _identical operation_, and will always be represented by I.
+  Since S^pS^q = S^(p+q) when p and q are positive integers, and S^pS' =
+  S^(p-1) while no meaning at present has been attached to S^q when q is
+  negative, S' may be consistently represented by S^(-1). The set of
+  operations ..., S^(-2), S(-1), 1, S, S^2, ... obviously constitute a
+  group. Such a group is called a _cyclical_ group.
+
+
+    Subgroups, conjugate operations, isomorphism, &c.
+
+  It will be convenient, before giving some illustrations of the general
+  group idea, to add a number of further definitions and explanations
+  which apply to all groups alike. If from among the set of operations
+  S, T, U, ... which constitute a group G, a smaller set S', T', U', ...
+  can be chosen which themselves constitute a group H, the group H is
+  called a _subgroup_ of G. Thus, in particular, if S is an operation of
+  G, the cyclical group constituted by ..., S^(-2), S^(-1), 1, S, S^2,
+  ... is a subgroup of G, except in the special case when it coincides
+  with G itself.
+
+  If S and T are any two operations of G, the two operations S and
+  T^(-1)ST are called _conjugate_ operations, and T^(-1)ST is spoken of
+  as the result of _transforming_ S by T. It is to be noted that since
+  ST = T^(-1), TS, T, ST and TS are always conjugate operations in any
+  group containing both S and T. If T transforms S into itself, that is,
+  if S = T^(-1)ST or TS = ST, S and T are called _permutable_
+  operations. A group whose operations are all permutable with each
+  other is called an _Abelian_ group. If S is transformed into itself by
+  every operation of G, or, in other words, if it is permutable with
+  every operation of G, it is called a _self-conjugate_ operation of G.
+
+  The conception of operations being conjugate to each other is extended
+  to subgroups. If S', T', U', ... are the operations of a subgroup H,
+  and if R is any operation of G, then the operations R^(-1)S'R,
+  R^(-1)T'R, R^(-1)U'R, ... belong to G, and constitute a subgroup of G.
+  For if S'T' = U', then R^(-1)S'R.R^(-1)T'R = R^(-1)S'T'R = R^(-1)U'R.
+  This subgroup may be identical with H. In particular, it is
+  necessarily the same as H if R belongs to H. If it is not identical
+  with H, it is said to be _conjugate_ to H; and it is in any case
+  represented by the symbol R^(-1)HR. If H = R^(-1)HR, the operation R
+  is said to be permutable with the subgroup H. (It is to be noticed
+  that this does not imply that R is permutable with each operation of
+  H.)
+
+  If H = R^(-1)HR, when for R is taken in turn each of the operations of
+  G, then H is called a _self-conjugate_ subgroup of G.
+
+  A group is spoken of as _simple_ when it has no self-conjugate
+  subgroup other than that constituted by the identical operation alone.
+  A group which has a self-conjugate subgroup is called _composite_.
+
+  Let G be a group constituted of the operations S, T, U, ..., and g a
+  second group constituted of s, t, u, ..., and suppose that to each
+  operation of G there corresponds a single operation of g in such a way
+  that if ST = U, then _st_ = u, where s, t, u are the operations
+  corresponding to S, T, U respectively. The groups are then said to be
+  _isomorphic_, and the correspondence between their operations is
+  spoken of as an _isomorphism_ between the groups. It is clear that
+  there may be two distinct cases of such isomorphism. To a single
+  operation of g there may correspond either a single operation of G or
+  more than one. In the first case the isomorphism is spoken of as
+  _simple_, in the second as _multiple_.
+
+  Two simply isomorphic groups considered abstractly--that is to say, in
+  regard only to the way in which their operations combine among
+  themselves, and apart from any concrete representation of the
+  operations--are clearly indistinguishable.
+
+  If G is multiply isomorphic with g, let A, B, C, ... be the operations
+  of G which correspond to the identical operation of g. Then to the
+  operations A^(-1) and AB of G there corresponds the identical
+  operation of g; so that A, B, C, ... constitute a subgroup H of G.
+  Moreover, if R is any operation of G, the identical operation of g
+  corresponds to every operation of R^(-1)HR, and therefore H is a
+  self-conjugate subgroup of G. Since S corresponds to s, and every
+  operation of H to the identical operation of g, therefore every
+  operation of the set SA, SB, SC, ..., which is represented by SH,
+  corresponds to s. Also these are the only operations that correspond
+  to s. The operations of G may therefore be divided into sets, no two
+  of which contain a common operation, such that the correspondence
+  between the operations of G and g connects each of the sets H, SH, TH,
+  UH, ... with the single operations 1, s, t, u, ... written below them.
+  The sets into which the operations of G are thus divided combine among
+  themselves by exactly the same laws as the operations of g. For if
+  st = u, then SH.TH = UH, in the sense that any operation of the set
+  SH followed by any operation of the set TH gives an operation of the
+  set UH.
+
+  The group g, abstractly considered, is therefore completely defined by
+  the division of the operations of G into sets in respect of the
+  self-conjugate subgroup H. From this point of view it is spoken of as
+  the _factor-group_ of G in respect of H, and is represented by the
+  symbol G/H. Any composite group in a similar way defines abstractly a
+  factor-group in respect of each of its self-conjugate subgroups.
+
+  It follows from the definition of a group that it must always be
+  possible to choose from its operations a set such that every operation
+  of the group can be obtained by combining the operations of the set
+  and their inverses. If the set is such that no one of the operations
+  belonging to it can be represented in terms of the others, it is
+  called a set of _independent generating_ operations. Such a set of
+  generating operations may be either finite or infinite in number. If
+  A, B, ..., E are the generating operations of a group, the group
+  generated by them is represented by the symbol {A, B, ..., E}. An
+  obvious extension of this symbol is used such that {A, H} represents
+  the group generated by combining an operation A with every operation
+  of a group H; {H1, H2} represents the group obtained by combining in
+  all possible ways the operations of the groups H1 and H2; and so on.
+  The independent generating operations of a group may be subject to
+  certain relations connecting them, but these must be such that it is
+  impossible by combining them to obtain a relation expressing one
+  operation in terms of the others. For instance, AB = BA is a relation
+  conditioning the group {A, B}; it does not, however, enable A to be
+  expressed in terms of B, so that A and B are independent generating
+  operations.
+
+
+    Transitivity and primitivity.
+
+  Let O, O', O", ... be a set of objects which are interchanged among
+  themselves by the operations of a group G, so that if S is any
+  operation of the group, and O any one of the objects, then O.S is an
+  object occurring in the set. If it is possible to find an operation S
+  of the group such that O.S is any assigned one of the set of objects,
+  the group is called _transitive_ in respect of this set of objects.
+  When this is not possible the group is called _intransitive_ in
+  respect of the set. If it is possible to find S so that any
+  arbitrarily chosen n objects of the set, O1, O2, ..., O_n are changed
+  by S into O'1, O'2, ..., O'n respectively, the latter being also
+  arbitrarily chosen, the group is said to be n-ply transitive.
+
+  If O, O', O", ... is a set of objects in respect of which a group G
+  is transitive, it may be possible to divide the set into a number of
+  subsets, no two of which contain a common object, such that every
+  operation of the group either interchanges the objects of a subset
+  among themselves, or changes them all into the objects of some other
+  subset. When this is the case the group is called _imprimitive_ in
+  respect of the set; otherwise the group is called _primitive_. A group
+  which is doubly-transitive, in respect of a set of objects, obviously
+  cannot be imprimitive.
+
+
+    Illustrations of the group idea.
+
+  The foregoing general definitions and explanations will now be
+  illustrated by a consideration of certain particular groups. To begin
+  with, as the operations involved are of the most familiar nature, the
+  group of rational arithmetic may be considered. The fundamental
+  operations of elementary arithmetic consist in the addition and
+  subtraction of integers, and multiplication and division by integers,
+  division by zero alone omitted. Multiplication by zero is not a
+  definite operation, and it must therefore be omitted in dealing with
+  those operations of elementary arithmetic which form a group. The
+  operation that results from carrying out additions, subtractions,
+  multiplications and divisions, of and by integers a finite number of
+  times, is represented by the relation x' = ax + b, where a and b are
+  rational numbers of which a is not zero, x is the object of the
+  operation, and x' is the result. The totality of operations of this
+  form obviously constitutes a group.
+
+  If S and T represent respectively the operations x' = ax + b and x' =
+  cx + d, then T^(-1)ST represents x' = ax + d - ad + bc. When a and b
+  are given rational numbers, c and d may be chosen in an infinite
+  number of ways as rational numbers, so that d - ad + bc shall be any
+  assigned rational number. Hence the operations given by x' = ax + b,
+  where a is an assigned rational number and b is any rational number,
+  are all conjugate; and no two such operations for which the a's are
+  different can be conjugate. If a is unity and b zero, S is the
+  identical operation which is necessarily self-conjugate. If a is unity
+  and b different from zero, the operation x' = x + b is an addition.
+  The totality of additions forms, therefore, a single conjugate set of
+  operations. Moreover, the totality of additions with the identical
+  operation, i.e. the totality of operations of the form x' = x + b,
+  where b may be any rational number or zero, obviously constitutes a
+  group. The operations of this group are interchanged among themselves
+  when transformed by any operation of the original group. It is
+  therefore a self-conjugate subgroup of the original group.
+
+  The totality of multiplications, with the identical operation, i.e.
+  all operations of the form x' = ax, where a is any rational number
+  other than zero, again obviously constitutes a group. This, however,
+  is not a self-conjugate subgroup of the original group. In fact, if
+  the operations x' = ax are all transformed by x' = cx + d, they give
+  rise to the set x' = ax + d(1 - a). When d is a given rational number,
+  the set constitutes a subgroup which is conjugate to the group of
+  multiplications. It is to be noticed that the operations of this
+  latter subgroup may be written in the form x' - d = a(x - d).
+
+  The totality of rational numbers, including zero, forms a set of
+  objects which are interchanged among themselves by all operations of
+  the group.
+
+  If x1 and x2 are any pair of distinct rational numbers, and y1 and y2
+  any other pair, there is just one operation of the group which changes
+  x1 and x2 into y1 and y2 respectively. For the equations y1 = ax1 + b,
+  y1 = ax2 + b determine a and b uniquely. The group is therefore doubly
+  transitive in respect of the set of rational numbers. If H is the
+  subgroup that leaves unchanged a given rational number x1, and S an
+  operation changing x1 into x2, then every operation of S^(-1)HS leaves
+  x2 unchanged. The subgroups, each of which leaves a single rational
+  number unchanged, therefore form a single conjugate set. The group of
+  multiplications leaves zero unchanged; and, as has been seen, this is
+  conjugate with the subgroup formed of all operations x' - d = a(x -
+  d), where d is a given rational number. This subgroup leaves d
+  unchanged.
+
+  The group of multiplications is clearly generated by the operations x'
+  = px, where for p negative unity and each prime is taken in turn.
+  Every addition is obtained on transforming x' = x + 1 by the different
+  operations of the group of multiplications. Hence x' = x + 1, and x' =
+  px, (p = -1, 3, 5, 7, ...), form a set of independent generating
+  operations of the group. It is a discontinuous group.
+
+  As a second example the group of motions in three-dimensional space
+  will be considered. The totality of motions, i.e. of space
+  displacements which leave the distance of every pair of points
+  unaltered, obviously constitutes a set of operations which satisfies
+  the group definition. From the elements of kinematics it is known that
+  every motion is either (i.) a translation which leaves no point
+  unaltered, but changes each of a set of parallel lines into itself; or
+  (ii.) a rotation which leaves every point of one line unaltered and
+  changes every other point and line; or (iii.) a twist which leaves no
+  point and only one line (its axis) unaltered, and may be regarded as a
+  translation along, combined with a rotation round, the axis. Let S be
+  any motion consisting of a translation l along and a rotation a round
+  a line AB, and let T be any other motion. There is some line CD into
+  which T changes AB; and therefore T^(-1)ST leaves CD unchanged.
+  Moreover, T^(-1)ST clearly effects the same translation along and
+  rotation round CD that S effects for AB. Two motions, therefore, are
+  conjugate if and only if the amplitudes of their translation and
+  rotation components are respectively equal. In particular, all
+  translations of equal amplitude are conjugate, as also are all
+  rotations of equal amplitude. Any two translations are permutable with
+  each other, and give when combined another translation. The totality
+  of translations constitutes, therefore, a subgroup of the general
+  group of motions; and this subgroup is a self-conjugate subgroup,
+  since a translation is always conjugate to a translation.
+
+  All the points of space constitute a set of objects which are
+  interchanged among themselves by all operations of the group of
+  motions. So also do all the lines of space and all the planes. In
+  respect of each of these sets the group is simply transitive. In fact,
+  there is an infinite number of motions which change a point A to A',
+  but no motion can change A and B to A' and B' respectively unless the
+  distance AB is equal to the distance A'B'.
+
+  The totality of motions which leave a point A unchanged forms a
+  subgroup. It is clearly constituted of all possible rotations about
+  all possible axes through A, and is known as the group of rotations
+  about a point. Every motion can be represented as a rotation about
+  some axis through A followed by a translation. Hence if G is the group
+  of motions and H the group of translations, G/H is simply isomorphic
+  with the group of rotations about a point.
+
+  The totality of the motions which bring a given solid to congruence
+  with itself again constitutes a subgroup of the group of motions. This
+  will in general be the trivial subgroup formed of the identical
+  operation above, but may in the case of a symmetrical body be more
+  extensive. For a sphere or a right circular cylinder the subgroups are
+  those that leave the centre and the axis respectively unaltered. For a
+  solid bounded by plane faces the subgroup is clearly one of finite
+  order. In particular, to each of the regular solids there corresponds
+  such a group. That for the tetrahedron has 12 for its order, for the
+  cube (or octahedron) 24, and for the icosahedron (or dodecahedron) 60.
+
+  The determination of a particular operation of the group of motions
+  involves six distinct measurements; namely, four to give the axis of
+  the twist, one for the magnitude of the translation along the axis,
+  and one for the magnitude of the rotation about it. Each of the six
+  quantities involved may have any value whatever, and the group of
+  motions is therefore a continuous group. On the other hand, a subgroup
+  of the group of motions which leaves a line or a plane unaltered is a
+  mixed group.
+
+We shall now discuss (i.) continuous groups, (ii.) discontinuous groups
+whose order is not finite, and (iii.) groups of finite order. For proofs
+of the statements, and the general theorems, the reader is referred to
+the bibliography.
+
+
+_Continuous Groups._
+
+The determination of a particular operation of a given continuous group
+depends on assigning special values to each one of a set of parameters
+which are capable of continuous variation. The first distinction regards
+the number of these parameters. If this number is finite, the group is
+called a _finite_ continuous group; if infinite, it is called an
+_infinite_ continuous group. In the latter case arbitrary functions must
+appear in the equations defining the operations of the group when these
+are reduced to an analytical form. The theory of infinite continuous
+groups is not yet so completely developed as that of finite continuous
+groups. The latter theory will mainly occupy us here.
+
+Sophus Lie, to whom the foundation and a great part of the development
+of the theory of continuous groups are due, undoubtedly approached the
+subject from a geometrical standpoint. His conception of an operation is
+to regard it as a geometrical transformation, by means of which each
+point of (n-dimensional) space is changed into some other definite
+point.
+
+  The representation of such a transformation in analytical form
+  involves a system of equations,
+
+    x'_s = [f]_s(x1, x2, ..., x_n), (s = 1, 2, ..., n),
+
+  expressing x'1, x'2, ..., x'_n, the co-ordinates of the transformed
+  point in terms of x1, x2, ..., x_n, the co-ordinates of the original
+  point. In these equations the functions [f]_s are analytical functions
+  of their arguments. Within a properly limited region they must be
+  one-valued, and the equations must admit a unique solution with
+  respect to x1, x2, ..., x_n, since the operation would not otherwise
+  be a definite one.
+
+  From this point of view the operations of a continuous group, which
+  depends on a set of r parameters, will be defined analytically by a
+  system of equations of the form
+
+    x'_s = [f]_s(x1, x2, ..., x_n; a1, a2, ..., a_r), (s = 1, 2, ..., n),
+      (i.)
+
+  where a1, a2, ..., a_r represent the parameters. If this operation be
+  represented by A, and that in which b1, b2, ..., b_r are the
+  parameters by B, then the operation AB is represented by the
+  elimination (assumed to be possible) of x'1, x'2, ..., x'_n between
+  the equations (i.) and the equations
+
+    x"_s = [f]_s(x'1, x'2, ..., x'_n; b1, b2, ..., b_r),
+      (s = 1, 2, ..., n).
+
+  Since AB belongs to the group, the result of the elimination must be
+
+    x"_s = [f]_s(x1, x2, ..., x_n; c1, c2, ..., c_r),
+
+  where c1, c2, ..., c_r represent another definite set of values of the
+  parameters. Moreover, since A^(-1) belongs to the group, the result of
+  solving equations (i.) with respect to x1, x2, ..., x_n must be
+
+    x_s = [f]_s(x'1, x'2, ..., x'_n; d1, d2, ..., d_r),
+      (s = 1, 2, ..., n).
+
+  Conversely, if equations (i.) are such that these two conditions are
+  satisfied, they do in fact define a finite continuous group.
+
+
+    Infinitesimal operation of a continuous group.
+
+  It will be assumed that the r parameters which enter in equations (i.)
+  are independent, i.e. that it is impossible to choose r' (< r)
+  quantities in terms of which a1, a2, ..., a_r can be expressed. Where
+  this is the case the group will be spoken of as a "group of order r."
+  Lie uses the term "_r-gliedrige Gruppe_." It is to be noticed that the
+  word order is used in quite a different sense from that given to it in
+  connexion with groups of finite order.
+
+  In regard to equations (i.), which define the general operation of the
+  group, it is to be noticed that, since the group contains the
+  identical operation, these equations must for some definite set of
+  values of the parameters reduce to x'1 = x1, x'2 = x2, ..., x'_n =
+  x_n. This set of values may, without loss of generality, be assumed to
+  be simultaneous zero values. For if i1, i2, ..., i_r be the values of
+  the parameters which give the identical operation, and if we write
+
+    a_s = i_s + a, (s = 1, 2, ..., r),
+
+  then zero values of the new parameters a1, a2, ..., a_r give the
+  identical operation.
+
+  To infinitesimal values of the parameters, thus chosen, will
+  correspond operations which cause an infinitesimal change in each of
+  the variables. These are called infinitesimal operations. The most
+  general infinitesimal operation of the group is that given by the
+  system
+
+                              [Pd][f]_s             [Pd][f]_s                   [Pd][f]_s
+    x'_s - x_s = [delta]x_s = --------- [delta]a1 + --------- [delta]a2 + ... + --------- [delta]a_r, (s = 1, 2, ..., n),
+                               [Pd]a1                 [Pd]a2                     [Pd]a_r
+
+  where, in [Pd][f]_s/[Pd]a_i, zero values of the parameters are to be
+  taken. Since a1, a2, ..., a_r are independent, the ratios of
+  [delta]a1, [delta]a2, ..., [delta]a_r are arbitrary. Hence the most
+  general infinitesimal operation of the group may be written in the
+  form
+
+                  /  [Pd][f]_s     [Pd][f]_s            [Pd][f]_s\
+    [delta]x_s = ( e1--------- + e2--------- + ... + e_r--------- ) [delta]t, (s = 1, 2, ..., n),
+                  \   [Pd]a1         [Pd]a2              [Pd]a_r /
+
+  where e1, e2, ..., e_r are arbitrary constants, and [delta]t is an
+  infinitesimal.
+
+  If F(x1, x2, ..., x_n) is any function of the variables, and if an
+  infinitesimal operation of the group be carried out on the variables
+  in F, the resulting increment of F will be
+
+    [Pd]F             [Pd]F                    [Pd]F
+    ------[delta]x1 + ------[delta]x2 + ... + -------[delta]x_n.
+    [Pd]x1            [Pd]x2                  [Pd]x_n
+
+  If the differential operator
+
+    [Pd][f]1  [Pd]    [Pd][f]2  [Pd]          [Pd][f]_n   [Pd]
+    -------- ------ + -------- ------ + ... + ---------  -------
+    [Pd]a_i  [Pd]x1   [Pd]a_i  [Pd]x2          [Pd]a_i   [Pd]x_n
+
+  be represented by X_i, (i = 1, 2, ..., r), then the increment of F is
+  given by
+
+    (e1X1 + e2X2 + ... + e_rX_r)F[delta]t.
+
+  When the equations (i.) defining the general operation of the group
+  are given, the coefficients [Pd][f]_s/[Pd]a_i, which enter in these
+  differential operators are functions of the variables which can be
+  directly calculated.
+
+  The differential operator e1X1 + e2X2 + ... + e_rX_r may then be
+  regarded as defining the most general infinitesimal operation of the
+  group. In fact, if it be for a moment represented by X, then (1 +
+  [delta]tX)F is the result of carrying out the infinitesimal operation
+  on F; and by putting x1, x2, ..., x_n in turn for F, the actual
+  infinitesimal operation is reproduced. By a very convenient, though
+  perhaps hardly justifiable, phraseology this differential operator is
+  itself spoken of as the general infinitesimal operation of the group.
+  The sense in which this phraseology is to be understood will be made
+  clear by the foregoing explanations.
+
+  We suppose now that the constants e1, e2, ..., e_r have assigned
+  values. Then the result of repeating the particular infinitesimal
+  operation e1X1 + e2X2 + ... + e_rX_r or X an infinite number of times
+  is some finite operation of the group. The effect of this finite
+  operation on F may be directly calculated. In fact, if [delta]t is the
+  infinitesimal already introduced, then
+
+    dF        d^2F
+    -- = X.F, ---- = X.X.F, ...
+    dt        dt^2
+
+  Hence
+
+              dF   t^2 d^2F
+    F' = F + t-- + --- ---- + ...
+              dt   1.2 dt^2
+
+                   t^2
+      = F + tX.F + --- X.X.F + ...
+                   1.2
+
+  It must, of course, be understood that in this analytical
+  representation of the effect of the finite operation on F it is
+  implied that t is taken sufficiently small to ensure the convergence
+  of the (in general) infinite series.
+
+  When x1, x2, ... are written in turn for F, the system of equations
+
+                     t^2
+    x'_s = (1 + tX + --- X.X + ...)x_s, (s = 1, 2, ..., n) (ii.)
+                     1.2
+
+  represent the finite operation completely. If t is here regarded as a
+  parameter, this set of operations must in themselves constitute a
+  group, since they arise by the repetition of a single infinitesimal
+  operation. That this is really the case results immediately from
+  noticing that the result of eliminating F' between
+
+                    t^2
+    F' = F + tX.F + --- X.X.F + ...
+                    1.2
+
+  and
+
+                       t'^2
+    F" = F' + t'X.F' + ---- X.X.F' + ...
+                       1.2
+
+  is
+
+                            (t + t')^2
+    F" = F + (t + t') X.F + ---------- X.X.F + ...
+                                1.2
+
+  The group thus generated by the repetition of an infinitesimal
+  operation is called a _cyclical_ group; so that a continuous group
+  contains a cyclical subgroup corresponding to each of its
+  infinitesimal operations.
+
+  The system of equations (ii.) represents an operation of the group
+  whatever the constants e1, e2, ..., e_r may be. Hence if e1t, e2t,
+  ..., e_rt be replaced by a1, a2, ..., a_r the equations (ii.)
+  represent a set of operations, depending on r parameters and belonging
+  to the group. They must therefore be a form of the general equations
+  for any operation of the group, and are equivalent to the equations
+  (i.). The determination of the finite equations of a cyclical group,
+  when the infinitesimal operation which generates it is given, will
+  always depend on the integration of a set of simultaneous ordinary
+  differential equations. As a very simple example we may consider the
+  case in which the infinitesimal operation is given by X =
+  x^2[Pd]/[Pd]x, so that there is only a single variable. The relation
+  between x' and t is given by dx'/dt = x'^2, with the condition that x'
+  = x when t = 0. This gives at once x' = x/(1 - tx), which might also
+  be obtained by the direct use of (ii.).
+
+
+    Relations between the infinitesimal operations of a finite continuous
+      group.
+
+  When the finite equations (i.) of a continuous group of order r are
+  known, it has now been seen that the differential operator which
+  defines the most general infinitesimal operation of the group can be
+  directly constructed, and that it contains r arbitrary constants. This
+  is equivalent to saying that the group contains r linearly independent
+  infinitesimal operations; and that the most general infinitesimal
+  operation is obtained by combining these linearly with constant
+  coefficients. Moreover, when any r independent infinitesimal
+  operations of the group are known, it has been seen how the general
+  finite operation of the group may be calculated. This obviously
+  suggests that it must be possible to define the group by means of its
+  infinitesimal operations alone; and it is clear that such a definition
+  would lend itself more readily to some applications (for instance, to
+  the theory of differential equations) than the definition by means of
+  the finite equations.
+
+  On the other hand, r arbitrarily given linear differential operators
+  will not, in general, give rise to a finite continuous group of order
+  r; and the question arises as to what conditions such a set of
+  operators must satisfy in order that they may, in fact, be the
+  independent infinitesimal operations of such a group.
+
+  If X, Y are two linear differential operators, XY - YX is also a
+  linear differential operator. It is called the "combinant" of X and Y
+  (Lie uses the expression _Klammerausdruck_) and is denoted by (XY). If
+  X, Y, Z are any three linear differential operators the identity
+  (known as Jacobi's)
+
+    (X(YZ)) + (Y(ZX)) + (Z(XY)) = 0
+
+  holds between them. Now it may be shown that any continuous group of
+  which X, Y are infinitesimal operations contains also (XY) among its
+  infinitesimal operations. Hence if r linearly independent operations
+  X1, X2, ..., X_r give rise to a finite continuous group of order r,
+  the combinant of each pair must be expressible linearly in terms of
+  the r operations themselves: that is, there must be a system of
+  relations
+
+                __k=r
+    (X_iX_j) = \      c_(ijk)X_k,
+               /__k=1
+
+  where the c's are constants. Moreover, from Jacobi's identity and the
+  identity (XY) + (YX) = 0 it follows that the c's are subject to the
+  relations
+
+    c_(ijt) + c_(jit) = 0,                                           \
+                                                                     |
+  and                                                                 >
+                                                                     |
+    [Sigma][s](c_(jks)c_(ist) + c_(kis)c_(jst) + c_(ijs)c_(kst)) = 0 /
+      (iii.)
+
+  for all values of i, j, k and t.
+
+
+    Determination of the distinct types of continuous groups of a given
+      order.
+
+  The fundamental theorem of the theory of finite continuous groups is
+  now that these conditions, which are necessary in order that X1, X2,
+  ..., X_r may generate, as infinitesimal operations, a continuous group
+  of order r, are also sufficient.
+
+  For the proof of this fundamental theorem see Lie's works (cf.
+  Lie-Engel, i. chap. 9; iii. chap. 25).
+
+  If two continuous groups of order r are such that, for each, a set of
+  linearly independent infinitesimal operations X1, X2, ..., X_r and Y1,
+  Y2, ..., Y_r can be chosen, so that in the relations
+
+    (X_iX_j) = [Sigma]c_(ijs)X_s, (Y_iY_j) = [Sigma]d_(ijs)Y_s,
+
+  the constants c_(ijs) and d_(ijs) are the same for all values of i, j
+  and s, the two groups are simply isomorphic, X_s and Y_s being
+  corresponding infinitesimal operations.
+
+  Two continuous groups of order r, whose infinitesimal operations obey
+  the same system of equations (iii.), may be of very different _form_;
+  for instance, the number of variables for the one may be different
+  from that for the other. They are, however, said to be of the same
+  _type_, in the sense that the laws according to which their operations
+  combine are the same for both.
+
+  The problem of determining all distinct types of groups of order r is
+  then contained in the purely algebraical problem of finding all the
+  systems of r^3 quantities c_(ijs) which satisfy the relations
+
+    c_(ijt) + c_(ijt) = 0,
+
+    [Sigma] [c_(ijs)c_(skt) + c_(jks)c_(sit) + c_(kis)c_(sjt)] = 0.
+         s
+
+  for all values of i, j, k and t. To two distinct solutions of the
+  algebraical problem, however, two distinct types of group will not
+  necessarily correspond. In fact, X1, X2, ..., X_r may be replaced by
+  any r independent linear functions of themselves, and the c's will
+  then be transformed by a linear substitution containing r^2
+  independent parameters. This, however, does not alter the type of
+  group considered.
+
+  For a single parameter there is, of course, only one type of group,
+  which has been called cyclical.
+
+  For a group of order two there is a single relation
+
+    (X1X2) = [alpha]X1 + [beta]X2.
+
+  If [alpha] and [beta] are not both zero, let [alpha] be finite. The
+  relation may then be written ([alpha]X1 + [beta]X2, [alpha]^(-1)X2) =
+  [alpha]X1 + [beta]X2. Hence if [alpha]X1 + [beta]X2 = X'1, and
+  [alpha]^(-1)X2 = X'2, then (X'1X'2) = X'1. There are, therefore, just
+  two types of group of order two, the one given by the relation last
+  written, and the other by (X1X2) = 0.
+
+  Lie has determined all distinct types of continuous groups of orders
+  three or four; and all types of non-integrable groups (a term which
+  will be explained immediately) of orders five and six (cf. Lie-Engel,
+  iii. 713-744).
+
+
+    Self-conjugate subgroups. Integrable groups.
+
+  A problem of fundamental importance in connexion with any given
+  continuous group is the determination of the self-conjugate subgroups
+  which it contains. If X is an infinitesimal operation of a group, and
+  Y any other, the general form of the infinitesimal operations which
+  are conjugate to X is
+
+                t^2
+    X + t(XY) + --- ((XY)Y) + ....
+                1.2
+
+  Any subgroup which contains all the operations conjugate to X must
+  therefore contain all infinitesimal operations (XY), ((XY)Y), ...,
+  where for Y each infinitesimal operation of the group is taken in
+  turn. Hence if X'1, X'2, ..., X'_s are s linearly independent
+  operations of the group which generate a self-conjugate subgroup of
+  order s, then for _every_ infinitesimal operation Y of the group
+  relations of the form
+
+               __e=1
+    (X'_iY) = \      a_(ie)X'_e, (i = 1, 2, ..., s)
+              /__e=s
+
+  must be satisfied. Conversely, if such a set of relations is
+  satisfied, X'1, X'2, ..., X'_s generate a subgroup of order s, which
+  contains every operation conjugate to each of the infinitesimal
+  generating operations, and is therefore a self-conjugate subgroup.
+
+  A specially important self-conjugate subgroup is that generated by the
+  combinants of the r infinitesimal generating operations. That these
+  generate a self-conjugate subgroup follows from the relations (iii.).
+  In fact,
+
+    ((X_iX_j)X_k) = [Sigma] c_(ijs)(X_sX_k).
+                         s
+
+  Of the 1/2r(r - 1) combinants not more than r can be linearly
+  independent. When exactly r of them are linearly independent, the
+  self-conjugate group generated by them coincides with the original
+  group. If the number that are linearly independent is less than r, the
+  self-conjugate subgroup generated by them is actually a subgroup; i.e.
+  its order is less than that of the original group. This subgroup is
+  known as the derived group, and Lie has called a group _perfect_ when
+  it coincides with its derived group. A simple group, since it contains
+  no self-conjugate subgroup distinct from itself, is necessarily a
+  perfect group.
+
+  If G is a given continuous group, G1 the derived group of G, G2 that
+  of G1, and so on, the series of groups G, G1, G2, ... will terminate
+  either with the identical operation or with a perfect group; for the
+  order of G_(s+1) is less than that of G_s unless G_s is a perfect
+  group. When the series terminates with the identical operation, G is
+  said to be an _integrable_ group; in the contrary case G is called
+  _non-integrable_.
+
+  If G is an integrable group of order r, the infinitesimal operations
+  X1, X2, ..., X_r which generate the group may be chosen so that X1,
+  X2, ..., X_(r1), (r1 < r) generate the first derived group, X1, X2,
+  ..., X_(r2), (r2 < r1) the second derived group, and so on. When they
+  are so chosen the constants c_(ijs) are clearly such that if r_p < i
+  <= r_(p+1), r_q < j <= r_(q+1), p >= q, then c_(ijs) vanishes unless
+  s <= r_(p+1).
+
+  In particular the generating operations may be chosen so that c_(ijs)
+  vanishes unless s is equal to or less than the smaller of the two
+  numbers i, j; and conversely, if the c's satisfy these relations, the
+  group is integrable.
+
+
+    Simple groups.
+
+  A simple group, as already defined, is one which has no self-conjugate
+  subgroup. It is a remarkable fact that the determination of all
+  distinct types of simple continuous groups has been made, for in the
+  case of discontinuous groups and groups of finite order this is far
+  from being the case. Lie has demonstrated the existence of four great
+  classes of simple groups:--
+
+  (i.) The groups simply isomorphic with the general projective group in
+  space of n dimensions. Such a group is defined analytically as the
+  totality of the transformations of the form
+
+           a_s, _1x1 + a_s, _2x2 + ... + a_s, _nx_n + a_(s, n + 1)
+    x'_s = --------------------------------------------------------, (s = 1, 2, ..., n),
+           a_(n+1), _1x1 + a_(n+1), _2x2 + ... + a_(n+1), _nx_n + 1
+
+  where the a's are parameters. The order of this group is clearly n(n +
+  2).
+
+  (ii.) The groups simply isomorphic with the totality of the projective
+  transformations which transform a non-special linear complex in space
+  of 2n - 1 dimensions with itself. The order of this group is n(2n +
+  1).
+
+  (iii.) and (iv.) The groups simply isomorphic with the totality of the
+  projective transformations which change a quadric of non-vanishing
+  discriminant into itself. These fall into two distinct classes of
+  types according as n is even or odd. In either case the order is
+  1/2n(n + 1). The case n = 3 forms an exception in which the
+  corresponding group is not simple. It is also to be noticed that a
+  cyclical group is a simple group, since it has no continuous
+  self-conjugate subgroup distinct from itself.
+
+  W. K. J. Killing and E. J. Cartan have separately proved that outside
+  these four great classes there exist only five distinct types of
+  simple groups, whose orders are 14, 52, 78, 133 and 248; thus
+  completing the enumeration of all possible types.
+
+  To prevent any misapprehension as to the bearing of these very general
+  results, it is well to point out explicitly that there are no
+  limitations on the parameters of a continuous group as it has been
+  defined above. They are to be regarded as taking in general complex
+  values. If in the finite equations of a continuous group the imaginary
+  symbol does not explicitly occur, the finite equations will usually
+  define a group (in the general sense of the original definition) when
+  both parameters and variables are limited to real values. Such a group
+  is, in a certain sense, a continuous group; and such groups have been
+  considered shortly by Lie (cf. Lie-Engel, iii. 360-392), who calls
+  them _real_ continuous groups. To these real continuous groups the
+  above statement as to the totality of simple groups does not apply;
+  and indeed, in all probability, the number of types of _real_ simple
+  continuous groups admits of no such complete enumeration. The effect
+  of limitation to real transformations may be illustrated by
+  considering the groups of projective transformations which change
+
+    x^2 + y^2 + z^2 - 1 = 0 and x^2 + y^2 - z^2 - 1 = 0
+
+  respectively into themselves. Since one of these quadrics is changed
+  into the other by the imaginary transformation
+
+    x' = x, y' = y, z' = z[root](-1),
+
+  the general continuous groups which transform the two quadrics
+  respectively into themselves are simply isomorphic. This is not,
+  however, the case for the _real_ continuous groups. In fact, the
+  second quadric has two real sets of generators; and therefore the real
+  group which transforms it into itself has two self-conjugate
+  subgroups, either of which leaves unchanged each of one set of
+  generators. The first quadric having imaginary generators, no such
+  self-conjugate subgroups can exist for the real group which transforms
+  it into itself; and this real group is in fact simple.
+
+
+    The adjunct group.
+
+  Among the groups isomorphic with a given continuous group there is one
+  of special importance which is known as the _adjunct_ group. This is a
+  homogeneous linear group in a number of variables equal to the order
+  of the group, whose infinitesimal operations are defined by the
+  relations
+
+                            [Pd]
+    X_i=[Sigma] c_(ijs)x_i -------, (j = 1, 2, ..., r),
+           i, s            [Pd]x_s
+
+  where c_(ijs) are the often-used constants, which give the combinants
+  of the infinitesimal operations in terms of the infinitesimal
+  operations themselves.
+
+  That the r infinitesimal operations thus defined actually generate a
+  group isomorphic with the given group is verified by forming their
+  combinants. It is thus found that (X_pX_q) = [Sigma][s]c_(pqs)X_s. The
+  X's, however, are not necessarily linearly independent. In fact, the
+  sufficient condition that [Sigma][j]a_jX_j should be identically zero
+  is that [Sigma][j]a_jc_(ijs) should vanish for all values of i and s.
+  Hence if the equations [Sigma][j]a_jc_(ijs) = 0 for all values of i
+  and s have r' linearly independent solutions, only r - r' of the X's
+  are linearly independent, and the isomorphism of the two groups is
+  multiple. If Y1, Y2, ..., Y_r are the infinitesimal operations of the
+  given group, the equations
+
+    [Sigma] a_jc_(ijs) = 0, (s, i = 1, 2, ..., r)
+          j
+
+  express the condition that the operations of the cyclical group
+  generated by [Sigma][j]a_jY_i should be permutable with every
+  operation of the group; in other words, that they should be
+  self-conjugate operations. In the case supposed, therefore, the given
+  group contains a subgroup of order r' each of whose operations is
+  self-conjugate. The adjunct group of a given group will therefore be
+  simply isomorphic with the group, unless the latter contains
+  self-conjugate operations; and when this is the case the order of the
+  adjunct will be less than that of the given group by the order of the
+  subgroup formed of the self-conjugate operations.
+
+
+    Continuous groups of the line of the plane, and of three-dimensional
+      space.
+
+  We have been thus far mainly concerned with the abstract theory of
+  continuous groups, in which no distinction is made between two simply
+  isomorphic groups. We proceed to discuss the classification and theory
+  of groups when their form is regarded as essential; and this is a
+  return to a more geometrical point of view.
+
+  It is natural to begin with the projective groups, which are the
+  simplest in form and at the same time are of supreme importance in
+  geometry. The general projective group of the straight line is the
+  group of order three given by
+
+         ax + b
+    x' = -------
+         cx + d'
+
+  where the parameters are the ratios of a, b, c, d. Since
+
+    x'3 - x'2   x' - x'1   x3 - x2   x - x1
+    --------- . -------- = ------- . ------
+    x'3 - x'1   x' - x'2   x3 - x1   x - x2
+
+  is an operation of the above form, the group is triply transitive.
+  Every subgroup of order two leaves one point unchanged, and all such
+  subgroups are conjugate. A cyclical subgroup leaves either two
+  distinct points or two coincident points unchanged. A subgroup which
+  either leaves two points unchanged or interchanges them is an example
+  of a "mixed" group.
+
+  The analysis of the general projective group must obviously increase
+  very rapidly in complexity, as the dimensions of the space to which it
+  applies increase. This analysis has been completely carried out for
+  the projective group of the plane, with the result of showing that
+  there are thirty distinct types of subgroup. Excluding the general
+  group itself, every one of these leaves either a point, a line, or a
+  conic section unaltered. For space of three dimensions Lie has also
+  carried out a similar investigation, but the results are extremely
+  complicated. One general result of great importance at which Lie
+  arrives in this connexion is that every projective group in space of
+  three dimensions, other than the general group, leaves either a point,
+  a curve, a surface or a linear complex unaltered.
+
+  Returning now to the case of a single variable, it can be shown that
+  any finite continuous group in one variable is either cyclical or of
+  order two or three, and that by a suitable transformation any such
+  group may be changed into a projective group.
+
+  The genesis of an infinite as distinguished from a finite continuous
+  group may be well illustrated by considering it in the case of a
+  single variable. The infinitesimal operations of the projective group
+  in one variable are d/dx, x(d/dx), x^2(d/dx). If these combined with
+  x^3(d/dx) be taken as infinitesimal operations from which to generate
+  a continuous group among the infinitesimal operations of the group,
+  there must occur the combinant of x^2(d/dx) and x^3(d/dx). This is
+  x^4(d/dx). The combinant of this and x^2(d/dx) is 2x^5(d/dx) and so
+  on. Hence x^_r(d/dx), where r is any positive integer, is an
+  infinitesimal operation of the group. The general infinitesimal
+  operation of the group is therefore [f](x)(d/dx), where [f](x) is an
+  arbitrary integral function of x.
+
+  In the classification of the groups, projective or non-projective of
+  two or more variables, the distinction between primitive and
+  imprimitive groups immediately presents itself. For groups of the
+  plane the following question arises. Is there or is there not a
+  singly-infinite family of curves [f](x, y) = C, where C is an
+  arbitrary constant such that every operation of the group interchanges
+  the curves of the family among themselves? In accordance with the
+  previously given definition of imprimitivity, the group is called
+  imprimitive or primitive according as such a set exists or not. In
+  space of three dimensions there are two possibilities; namely, there
+  may either be a singly infinite system of surfaces F(x, y, z) = C,
+  which are interchanged among themselves by the operations of the
+  group; or there may be a doubly-infinite system of curves G(x, y, z) =
+  a, H(x, y, z) = b, which are so interchanged.
+
+  In regard to primitive groups Lie has shown that any primitive group
+  of the plane can, by a suitably chosen transformation, be transformed
+  into one of three definite types of projective groups; and that any
+  primitive group of space of three dimensions can be transformed into
+  one of eight definite types, which, however, cannot all be represented
+  as projective groups in three dimensions.
+
+  The results which have been arrived at for imprimitive groups in two
+  and three variables do not admit of any such simple statement.
+
+
+    Contact transformations.
+
+  We shall now explain the conception of contact-transformations and
+  groups of contact-transformations. This conception, like that of
+  continuous groups, owes its origin to Lie.
+
+  From a purely analytical point of view a contact-transformation may be
+  defined as a point-transformation in 2n + 1 variables, z, x1, x2, ...,
+  x_n, p1, p2, ..., p_n which leaves unaltered the equation dz - p1dx1 -
+  p2dx2 - ... - p_ndx_n = 0. Such a definition as this, however, gives
+  no direct clue to the geometrical properties of the transformation,
+  nor does it explain the name given.
+
+  In dealing with contact-transformations we shall restrict ourselves to
+  space of two or of three dimensions; and it will be necessary to begin
+  with some purely geometrical considerations. An infinitesimal
+  surface-element in space of three dimensions is completely specified,
+  apart from its size, by its position and orientation. If x, y, z are
+  the co-ordinates of some one point of the element, and if p, q, -1
+  give the ratios of the direction-cosines of its normal, x, y, z, p, q
+  are five quantities which completely specify the element. There are,
+  therefore, [oo]^5 surface elements in three-dimensional space. The
+  surface-elements of a surface form a system of [oo]^2 elements, for
+  there are [oo]^2 points on the surface, and at each a definite
+  surface-element. The surface-elements of a curve form, again, a system
+  of [oo]^2 elements, for there are [oo]^1 points on the curve, and at
+  each [oo]^1 surface-elements containing the tangent to the curve at
+  the point. Similarly the surface-elements which contain a given point
+  clearly form a system of [oo]^2 elements. Now each of these systems of
+  [oo]^2 surface-elements has the property that if (x, y, z, p, q) and
+  (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz, p + dp, q + dq) are consecutive elements from
+  any one of them, then dz - pdx - qdy = 0. In fact, for a system of the
+  first kind dx, dy, dz are proportional to the direction-cosines of a
+  tangent line at a point of the surface, and p, q, -1 are proportional
+  to the direction-cosines of the normal. For a system of the second
+  kind dx, dy, dz are proportional to the direction-cosines of a tangent
+  to the curve, and p, q, -1 give the direction-cosines of the normal to
+  a plane touching the curve; and for a system of the third kind dx, dy,
+  dz are zero. Now the most general way in which a system of [oo]^2
+  surface-elements can be given is by three independent equations
+  between x, y, z, p and q. If these equations do not contain p, q, they
+  determine one or more (a finite number in any case) points in space,
+  and the system of surface-elements consists of the elements containing
+  these points; i.e. it consists of one or more systems of the third
+  kind.
+
+  If the equations are such that two distinct equations independent of p
+  and q can be derived from them, the points of the system of
+  surface-elements lie on a curve. For such a system the equation dz -
+  pdx - qdy = 0 will hold for each two consecutive elements only when
+  the plane of each element touches the curve at its own point.
+
+  If the equations are such that only one equation independent of p and
+  q can be derived from them, the points of the system of
+  surface-elements lie on a surface. Again, for such a system the
+  equation dz - pdx - qdy = 0 will hold for each two consecutive
+  elements only when each element touches the surface at its own point.
+  Hence, when all possible systems of [oo]^2 surface-elements in space
+  are considered, the equation dz - pdx - qdy = 0 is characteristic of
+  the three special types in which the elements belong, in the sense
+  explained above, to a point or a curve or a surface.
+
+  Let us consider now the geometrical bearing of any transformation x' =
+  [f]1(x, y, z, p, q), ..., q' = [f]5(x, y, z, p, q), of the five
+  variables. It will interchange the surface-elements of space among
+  themselves, and will change any system of [oo]^2 elements into another
+  system of [oo]^2 elements. A special system, i.e. a system which
+  belongs to a point, curve or surface, will not, however, in general be
+  changed into another special system. The necessary and sufficient
+  condition that a special system should always be changed into a
+  special system is that the equation dz' - p'dx' - q'dy' = 0 should be
+  a consequence of the equation dz - pdx - qdy = 0; or, in other words,
+  that this latter equation should be invariant for the transformation.
+
+  When this condition is satisfied the transformation is such as to
+  change the surface-elements of a surface in general into
+  surface-elements of a surface, though in particular cases they may
+  become the surface-elements of a curve or point; and similar
+  statements may be made with respect to a curve or point. The
+  transformation is therefore a veritable geometrical transformation in
+  space of three dimensions. Moreover, two special systems of
+  surface-elements which have an element in common are transformed into
+  two new special systems with an element in common. Hence two curves or
+  surfaces which touch each other are transformed into two new curves or
+  surfaces which touch each other. It is this property which leads to
+  the transformations in question being called contact-transformations.
+  It will be noticed that an ordinary point-transformation is always a
+  contact-transformation, but that a contact-transformation (in space of
+  n dimensions) is not in general a point-transformation (in space of n
+  dimensions), though it may always be regarded as a
+  point-transformation in space of 2n + 1 dimensions. In the analogous
+  theory for space of two dimensions a line-element, defined by (x, y,
+  p), where 1 : p gives the direction-cosines of the line, takes the
+  place of the surface-element; and a transformation of x, y and p which
+  leaves the equation dy - pdx = 0 unchanged transforms the [oo]^1
+  line-elements, which belong to a curve, into [oo]^1 line-elements which
+  again belong to a curve; while two curves which touch are transformed
+  into two other curves which touch.
+
+  One of the simplest instances of a contact-transformation that can be
+  given is the transformation by reciprocal polars. By this
+  transformation a point P and a plane p passing through it are changed
+  into a plane p' and a point P' upon it; i.e. the surface-element
+  defined by P, p is changed into a definite surface-element defined by
+  P', p'. The totality of surface-elements which belong to a
+  (non-developable) surface is known from geometrical considerations to
+  be changed into the totality which belongs to another
+  (non-developable) surface. On the other hand, the totality of the
+  surface-elements which belong to a curve is changed into another set
+  which belong to a developable. The analytical formulae for this
+  transformation, when the reciprocation is effected with respect to the
+  paraboloid x^2 + y^2 - 2z = 0, are x' = p, y' = q, z' = px + qy - z,
+  p' = x, q' = y. That this is, in fact, a contact-transformation is
+  verified directly by noticing that dz' - p'dx' - q'dy' = -d(z - px -
+  qy) - xdp - ydq = -(dz - pdx - qdy). A second simple example is that
+  in which every surface-element is displaced, without change of
+  orientation, normal to itself through a constant distance t. The
+  analytical equations in this case are easily found in the form
+
+                     pt                               qt
+    x' = x + ---------------------, y' = y + --------------------,
+             [root](1 + p^2 + q^2)           [root](1 + p^2 + q^2)
+
+                         t
+      z' = z - ---------------------,
+               [root](1 + p^2 + q^2)
+
+    p' = q, q' = q.
+
+  That this is a contact-transformation is seen geometrically by
+  noticing that it changes a surface into a parallel surface. Every
+  point is changed by it into a sphere of radius t, and when t is
+  regarded as a parameter the equations define a cyclical group of
+  contact-transformations.
+
+  The formal theory of continuous groups of contact-transformations is,
+  of course, in no way distinct from the formal theory of continuous
+  groups in general. On what may be called the geometrical side, the
+  theory of groups of contact-transformations has been developed with
+  very considerable detail in the second volume of Lie-Engel.
+
+
+    Applications of the theory of continuous groups.
+
+  To the manifold applications of the theory of continuous groups in
+  various branches of pure and applied mathematics it is impossible here
+  to refer in any detail. It must suffice to indicate a few of them very
+  briefly. In some of the older theories a new point of view is obtained
+  which presents the results in a fresh light, and suggests the natural
+  generalization. As an example, the theory of the invariants of a
+  binary form may be considered.
+
+  If in the form [f] = a0x^_n + na1x^(n-1)y + ... + a_ny^n, the
+  variables be subjected to a homogeneous substitution
+
+    x' = [alpha]x + [beta]y, y' = [gamma]x + [delta]y,   (i.)
+
+  and if the coefficients in the new form be represented by accenting
+  the old coefficients, then
+
+    a'0 = a0[alpha]^n + a1n[alpha]^(n-1)[gamma] + ... + a_n[gamma]^n,\
+                                                                     |
+    a'1 = a0[alpha]^(n-1)[beta] + a1_(n-1)[alpha]^(n-2)[beta][gamma] |
+      + [alpha]^(n-1)[delta]} + ... + a_n[gamma]^(n-1)[delta],        > (ii.)
+                                                                     |
+    a'_n = a0[beta]^n + a1n[beta]^(n-1)[delta] + ... + a_n[delta]^n; /
+
+  and this is a homogeneous linear substitution performed on the
+  coefficients. The totality of the substitutions, (i.), for which
+  [alpha][delta] - [beta][gamma] = 1, constitutes a continuous group of
+  order 3, which is generated by the two infinitesimal transformations
+  y([Pd]/[Pd]x) and x([Pd]/[Pd]y). Hence with the same limitations on
+  [alpha], [beta], [gamma], [delta] the totality of the substitutions
+  (ii.) forms a simply isomorphic continuous group of order 3, which is
+  generated by the two infinitesimal transformations
+
+        [Pd]         [Pd]         [Pd]                    [Pd]
+    a0 ------ + 2a1 ------ + 3a1 ------ + ... + na_(n-1) -------,
+       [Pd]a1       [Pd]a2       [Pd]a3                  [Pd]a_n
+
+  and
+
+         [Pd]               [Pd]               [Pd]                 [Pd]
+    na1 ------ + (n - 1)a2 ------ + (n - 2)a3 ------ + ... + a_u ----------.
+        [Pd]a0             [Pd]a1             [Pd]a2             [Pd]a_(u-1)
+
+  The invariants of the binary form, i.e. those functions of the
+  coefficients which are unaltered by all homogeneous substitutions on
+  x, y of determinant unity, are therefore identical with the functions
+  of the coefficients which are invariant for the continuous group
+  generated by the two infinitesimal operations last written. In other
+  words, they are given by the common solutions of the differential
+  equations
+
+       [Pd][f]       [Pd][f]       [Pd][f]
+    a0 ------- + 2a1 ------- + 3a2 ------- + ... = 0,
+       [Pd]a1        [Pd]a2        [Pd]a3
+
+        [Pd][f]             [Pd][f]             [Pd][f]
+    na1 ------- + (n - 1)a2 ------- + (n - 2)a3 ------- + ... = 0.
+        [Pd]a0              [Pd]a1              [Pd]a2
+
+  Both this result and the method by which it is arrived at are well
+  known, but the point of view by which we pass from the transformation
+  group of the variables to the isomorphic transformation group of the
+  coefficients, and regard the invariants as invariants rather of the
+  group than of the forms, is a new and a fruitful one.
+
+  The general theory of curvature of curves and surfaces may in a
+  similar way be regarded as a theory of their invariants for the group
+  of motions. That something more than a mere change of phraseology is
+  here implied will be evident in dealing with minimum curves, i.e. with
+  curves such that at every point of them dx^2 + dy^2 + dz^2 = 0. For
+  such curves the ordinary theory of curvature has no meaning, but they
+  nevertheless have invariant properties in regard to the group of
+  motions.
+
+  The curvature and torsion of a curve, which are invariant for all
+  transformations by the group of motions, are special instances of what
+  are known as _differential invariants_. If [xi]([Pd]/[Pd]x) +
+  [eta]([Pd]/[Pd]y) is the general infinitesimal transformation of a
+  group of point-transformations in the plane, and if y1, y2, ...
+  represent the successive differential coefficients of y, the
+  infinitesimal transformation may be written in the extended form
+
+         [Pd]          [Pd]            [Pd]            [Pd]
+    [xi] ----- + [eta] ----- + [eta]1 ------ + [eta]2 ------ + ...
+         [Pd]x         [Pd]y          [Pd]y1          [Pd]y2
+
+  where [eta]1[delta]t, [eta]2[delta]t, ... are the increments of y1,
+  y2, .... By including a sufficient number of these variables the group
+  must be intransitive in them, and must therefore have one or more
+  invariants. Such invariants are known as differential invariants of
+  the original group, being necessarily functions of the differential
+  coefficients of the original variables. For groups of the plane it may
+  be shown that not more than two of these differential invariants are
+  independent, all others being formed from these by algebraical
+  processes and differentiation. For groups of point-transformations in
+  more than two variables there will be more than one set of
+  differential invariants. For instance, with three variables, one may
+  be regarded as independent and the other two as functions of it, or
+  two as independent and the remaining one as a function. Corresponding
+  to these two points of view, the differential invariants for a curve
+  or for a surface will arise.
+
+  If a differential invariant of a continuous group of the plane be
+  equated to zero, the resulting differential equation remains unaltered
+  when the variables undergo any transformation of the group.
+  Conversely, if an ordinary, differential equation [f](x, y, y1, y2,
+  ...) = 0 admits the transformations of a continuous group, i.e. if the
+  equation is unaltered when x and y undergo any transformation of the
+  group, then [f](x, y, y1, y2, ...) or some multiple of it must be a
+  differential invariant of the group. Hence it must be possible to find
+  two independent differential invariants [alpha], [beta] of the group,
+  such that when these are taken as variables the differential equation
+  takes the form F([alpha], [beta], d[beta]/d[alpha],
+  d^2[beta]/d[alpha]^2, ...) = 0. This equation in [alpha], [beta] will
+  be of lower order than the original equation, and in general simpler
+  to deal with. Supposing it solved in the form [beta] = [phi]([alpha]),
+  where for [alpha], [beta] their values in terms of x, y, y1, y2, ...
+  are written, this new equation, containing arbitrary constants, is
+  necessarily again of lower order than the original equation. The
+  integration of the original equation is thus divided into two steps.
+  This will show how, in the case of an ordinary differential equation,
+  the fact that the equation admits a continuous group of
+  transformations may be taken advantage of for its integration.
+
+  The most important of the applications of continuous groups are to the
+  theory of systems of differential equations, both ordinary and
+  partial; in fact, Lie states that it was with a view to systematizing
+  and advancing the general theory of differential equations that he was
+  led to the development of the theory of continuous groups. It is quite
+  impossible here to give any account of all that Lie and his followers
+  have done in this direction. An entirely new mode of regarding the
+  problem of the integration of a differential equation has been opened
+  up, and in the classification that arises from it all those apparently
+  isolated types of equations which in the older sense are said to be
+  integrable take their proper place. It may, for instance, be mentioned
+  that the question as to whether Monge's method will apply to the
+  integration of a partial differential equation of the second order is
+  shown to depend on whether or not a contact-transformation can be
+  found which will reduce the equation to either [Pd]^2z/[Pd]x^2 = 0 or
+  [Pd]^2z/[Pd]x[Pd]y = 0. It is in this direction that further advance
+  in the theory of partial differential equations must be looked for.
+  Lastly, it may be remarked that one of the most thorough discussions
+  of the axioms of geometry hitherto undertaken is founded entirely upon
+  the theory of continuous groups.
+
+
+_Discontinuous Groups._
+
+We go on now to the consideration of discontinuous groups. Although
+groups of finite order are necessarily contained under this general
+head, it is convenient for many reasons to deal with them separately,
+and it will therefore be assumed in the present section that the number
+of operations in the group is not finite. Many large classes of
+discontinuous groups have formed the subject of detailed investigation,
+but a general formal theory of discontinuous groups can hardly be said
+to exist as yet. It will thus be obvious that in considering
+discontinuous groups it is necessary to proceed on different lines from
+those followed with continuous groups, and in fact to deal with the
+subject almost entirely by way of example.
+
+
+    Generating operations.
+
+  The consideration of a discontinuous group as arising from a set of
+  independent generating operations suggests a purely abstract point of
+  view in which any two simply isomorphic groups are indistinguishable.
+  The number of generating operations may be either finite or infinite,
+  but the former case alone will be here considered. Suppose then that
+  S1, S2, ..., S_n is a set of independent operations from which a group
+  G is generated. The general operation of the group will be represented
+  by the symbol S_a^[alpha]S_b^[beta] ... S_d^[delta], or [Sigma], where
+  a, b, ..., d are chosen from 1, 2, ..., n, and [alpha], [beta], ...,
+  [delta] are any positive or negative integers. It may be assumed that
+  no two successive suffixes in [Sigma] are the same, for if b = a, then
+  S_a^[alpha]S_b^[beta] may be replaced by S_a^([alpha] +[beta]). If
+  there are no relations connecting the generating operations and the
+  identical operation, every distinct symbol [Sigma] represents a
+  distinct operation of the group. For if [Sigma] = [Sigma]1, or
+  S_a^[alpha] S_b^[beta] ... S_d^[delta] = S_(a1)^([alpha]1)
+  S_(b1)^([beta]1) ... S_(d1)^([delta]1), then S_(d1)^(-[delta]1) ...
+  S_(b1)^(-[beta]1) S_(a1)^(-[alpha]1) S_a^[alpha] S_b^[beta] ...
+  S_d^[delta] = 1; and unless a = a1, b = b1, ..., [alpha] = [alpha]1,
+  [beta] = [beta]1, ..., this is a relation connecting the generating
+  operations.
+
+  Suppose now that T1, T2, ... are operations of G, and that H is that
+  self-conjugate subgroup of G which is generated by T1, T2, ... and the
+  operations conjugate to them. Then, of the operations that can be
+  formed from S1, S2, ..., S_n, the set [Sigma]H, and no others, reduce
+  to the same operation [Sigma] when the conditions T1 = 1, T2 = 1, ...
+  are satisfied by the generating operations. Hence the group which is
+  generated by the given operations, when subjected to the conditions
+  just written, is simply isomorphic with the factor-group G/H.
+  Moreover, this is obviously true even when the conditions are such
+  that the generating operations are no longer independent. Hence any
+  discontinuous group may be defined abstractly, that is, in regard to
+  the laws of combination of its operations apart from their actual
+  form, by a set of generating operations and a system of relations
+  connecting them. Conversely, when such a set of operations and system
+  of relations are given arbitrarily they define in abstract form a
+  single discontinuous group. It may, of course, happen that the group
+  so defined is a group of finite order, or that it reduces to the
+  identical operation only; but in regard to the general statement these
+  will be particular and exceptional cases.
+
+
+    Properly and improperly discontinuous groups.
+
+  An operation of a discontinuous group must necessarily be specified
+  analytically by a system of equations of the form
+
+    x'_s = [f]_s(x1, x2, ..., x_n; a1, a2, ..., a_r), (s = 1, 2, ..., n),
+
+  and the different operations of the group will be given by different
+  sets of values of the parameters a1, a2, ..., a_r. No one of these
+  parameters is susceptible of continuous variations, but at least one
+  must be capable of taking a number of values which is not finite, if
+  the group is not one of finite order. Among the sets of values of the
+  parameters there must be one which gives the identical transformation.
+  No other transformation makes each of the differences x'1 - x1, x'2 -
+  x2, ..., x'_n - x_n vanish. Let d be an arbitrary assigned positive
+  quantity. Then if a transformation of the group can be found such that
+  the modulus of each of these differences is less than d when the
+  variables have arbitrary values within an assigned range of variation,
+  however small d may be chosen, the group is said to be _improperly_
+  discontinuous. In the contrary case the group is called _properly_
+  discontinuous. The range within which the variables are allowed to
+  vary may clearly affect the question whether a given group is properly
+  or improperly discontinuous. For instance, the group defined by the
+  equation x' = ax + b, where a and b are any rational numbers, is
+  improperly discontinuous; and the group defined by x' = x + a, where a
+  is an integer, is properly discontinuous, whatever the range of the
+  variable. On the other hand, the group, to be later considered,
+  defined by the equation x' = (ax + b)/(cx + d), where a, b, c, d are
+  integers satisfying the relation ad - bc = 1, is properly
+  discontinuous when x may take any complex value, and improperly
+  discontinuous when the range of x is limited to real values.
+
+
+    Linear discontinuous groups.
+
+  Among the discontinuous groups that occur in analysis, a large number
+  may be regarded as arising by imposing limitations on the range of
+  variation of the parameters of continuous groups. If
+
+    x'_s = [f]_s(x1, x2, ..., x_n; a1, a2, ..., a_r), (s = 1, 2, ..., n),
+
+  are the finite equations of a continuous group, and if C with
+  parameters c1, c2, ..., c_r is the operation which results from
+  carrying out A and B with corresponding parameters in succession, then
+  the c's are determined uniquely by the a's and the b's. If the c's are
+  rational functions of the a's and b's, and if the a's and b's are
+  arbitrary rational numbers of a given corpus (see NUMBER), the c's
+  will be rational numbers of the same corpus. If the c's are rational
+  integral functions of the a's and b's, and the latter are arbitrarily
+  chosen integers of a corpus, then the c's are integers of the same
+  corpus. Hence in the first case the above equations, when the a's are
+  limited to be rational numbers of a given corpus, will define a
+  discontinuous group; and in the second case they will define such a
+  group when the a's are further limited to be integers of the corpus. A
+  most important class of discontinuous groups are those that arise in
+  this way from the general linear continuous group in a given set of
+  variables. For n variables the finite equations of this continuous
+  group are
+
+    x'_s = a_(s1)x1 + a_(s2)x2 + ... + a_(sn)x_n, (s = 1, 2, ..., n),
+
+  where the determinant of the a's must not be zero. In this case the
+  c's are clearly integral lineo-linear functions of the a's and b's.
+  Moreover, the determinant of the c's is the product of the determinant
+  of the a's and the determinant of the b's. Hence equations (ii.),
+  where the parameters are restricted to be integers of a given corpus,
+  define a discontinuous group; and if the determinant of the
+  coefficients is limited to the value unity, they define a
+  discontinuous group which is a (self-conjugate) subgroup of the
+  previous one.
+
+  The simplest case which thus presents itself is that in which there
+  are two variables while the coefficients are rational integers. This
+  is the group defined by the equations
+
+    x' = ax + by, \
+                   >
+    y' = cx + dy, /
+
+  where a, b, c, d are integers such that ad - bc = 1. To every
+  operation of this group there corresponds an operation of the set
+  defined by
+
+         az + b
+    z' = ------,
+         cz + d
+
+  in such a way that to the product of two operations of the group there
+  corresponds the product of the two analogous operations of the set.
+  The operations of the set (iv.), where ad - bc = 1, therefore
+  constitute a group which is isomorphic with the previous group. The
+  isomorphism is multiple, since to a single operation of the second set
+  there correspond the two operations of the first for which a, b, c, d
+  and -a, -b, -c, -d are parameters. These two groups, which are of
+  fundamental importance in the theory of quadratic forms and in the
+  theory of modular functions, have been the object of very many
+  investigations.
+
+
+    Discontinuous groups arising from geometrical operations.
+
+  Another large class of discontinuous groups, which have far-reaching
+  applications in analysis, are those which arise in the first instance
+  from purely geometrical considerations. By the combination and
+  repetition of a finite number of geometrical operations such as
+  displacements, projective transformations, inversions, &c., a
+  discontinuous group of such operations will arise. Such a group, as
+  regards the points of the plane (or of space), will in general be
+  improperly discontinuous; but when the generating operations are
+  suitably chosen, the group may be properly discontinuous. In the
+  latter case the group may be represented in a graphical form by the
+  division of the plane (or space) into regions such that no point of
+  one region can be transformed into another point of the same region by
+  any operation of the group, while any given region can be transformed
+  into any other by a suitable transformation. Thus, let ABC be a
+  triangle bounded by three circular arcs BC, CA, AB; and consider the
+  figure produced from ABC by inversions in the three circles of which
+  BC, CA, AB are part. By inversion at BC, ABC becomes an equiangular
+  triangle A'BC. An inversion in AB changes ABC and A'BC into
+  equiangular triangles ABC' and A"BC'. Successive inversions at AB and
+  BC then will change ABC into a series of equiangular triangles with B
+  for a common vertex. These will not overlap and will just fill in the
+  space round B if the angle ABC is a submultiple of two right angles.
+  If then the angles of ABC are submultiples of two right angles (or
+  zero), the triangles formed by any number of inversions will never
+  overlap, and to each operation consisting of a definite series of
+  inversions at BC, CA and AB will correspond a distinct triangle into
+  which ABC is changed by the operation. The network of triangles so
+  formed gives a graphical representation of the group that arises from
+  the three inversions in BC, CA, AB. The triangles may be divided into
+  two sets, those, namely, like A"BC', which are derived from ABC by an
+  even number of inversions, and those like A'BC or ABC' produced by an
+  odd number. Each set are interchanged among themselves by any even
+  number of inversions. Hence the operations consisting of an even
+  number of inversions form a group by themselves. For this group the
+  quadrilateral formed by ABC and A'BC constitutes a region, which is
+  changed by every operation of the group into a distinct region (formed
+  of two adjacent triangles), and these regions clearly do not overlap.
+  Their distribution presents in a graphical form the group that arises
+  by pairs of inversions at BC, CA, AB; and this group is generated by
+  the operation which consists of successive inversions at AB, BC and
+  that which consists of successive inversions at BC, CA. The group
+  defined thus geometrically may be presented in many analytical forms.
+  If x, y and x', y' are the rectangular co-ordinates of two points
+  which are inverse to each other with respect to a given circle, x' and
+  y' are rational functions of x and y, and conversely. Thus the group
+  may be presented in a form in which each operation gives a birational
+  transformation of two variables. If x + iy = z, x' + iy' = z', and if
+  x', y' is the point to which x, y is transformed by any even number of
+  inversions, then z' and z are connected by a linear relation z' =
+  ([alpha]z + [beta])/([gamma]z + [delta]), where [alpha], [beta],
+  [gamma], [delta] are constants (in general complex) depending on the
+  circles at which the inversions are taken. Hence the group may be
+  presented in the form of a group of linear transformations of a single
+  variable generated by the two linear transformations z' = ([alpha]1z +
+  [beta]1)/([gamma]1z + [delta]1), z' = ([alpha]2z + [beta]2)/([gamma]2z
+  + [delta]2), which correspond to pairs of inversions at AB, BC and BC,
+  CA respectively. In particular, if the sides of the triangle are taken
+  to be x = 0, x^2 + y^2 -1 = 0, x^2 + y^2 + 2x = 0, the generating
+  operations are found to be z' = z + 1, z' = -z^(-1); and the group is
+  that consisting of all transformations of the form z' = (az + b)/(cz +
+  d), where ad - bc = 1, a, b, c, d being integers. This is the group
+  already mentioned which underlies the theory of the elliptic modular
+  functions; a modular function being a function of z which is invariant
+  for some subgroup of finite index of the group in question.
+
+  The triangle ABC from which the above geometrical construction started
+  may be replaced by a polygon whose sides are circles. If each angle is
+  a submultiple of two right angles or zero, the construction is still
+  effective to give a set of non-overlapping regions, which represent
+  graphically the group which arises from pairs of inversions in the
+  sides of the polygon. In their analytical form, as groups of linear
+  transformations of a single variable, the groups are those on which
+  the theory of automorphic functions depends. A similar construction in
+  space, the polygons bounded by circular arcs being replaced by
+  polyhedra bounded by spherical faces, has been used by F. Klein and
+  Fricke to give a geometrical representation for groups which are
+  improperly discontinuous when represented as groups of the plane.
+
+
+    Group of a linear differential equation.
+
+  The special classes of discontinuous groups that have been dealt with
+  in the previous paragraphs arise directly from geometrical
+  considerations. As a final example we shall refer briefly to a class
+  of groups whose origin is essentially analytical. Let
+
+    d^_ny      d^(n-1)y                 dy
+    ----- + P1 -------- + ... + P_(n-1) -- + P_ny = 0
+    dx^_n      dx^(n-1)                 dx
+
+  be a linear differential equation, the coefficients in which are
+  rational functions of x, and let y1, y2, ..., y_n be a linearly
+  independent set of integrals of the equation. In the neighbourhood of
+  a finite value x0 of x, which is not a singularity of any of the
+  coefficients in the equation, these integrals are ordinary
+  power-series in x - x0. If the analytical continuations of y1, y2,
+  ..., y_n be formed for any closed path starting from and returning to
+  x0, the final values arrived at when x0 is again reached will be
+  another set of linearly independent integrals. When the closed path
+  contains no singular point of the coefficients of the differential
+  equation, the new set of integrals is identical with the original set.
+  If, however, the closed path encloses one or more singular points,
+  this will not in general be the case. Let y'1, y'2, ..., y'_n be the
+  new integrals arrived at. Since in the neighbourhood of x0 every
+  integral can be represented linearly in terms of y1, y2, ..., y_n,
+  there must be a system of equations
+
+    y'1 = a11y1 + a12y2 + ... + a_(1n)y_n,
+
+    y'2 = a21y1 + a22y2 + ... + a_(2n)y_n,
+
+     .       .       .       .       .
+
+    y'_n = a_(n1)y1 + a_(n2)y2 + ... + a_(nn)y_n,
+
+  where the a's are constants, expressing the new integrals in terms of
+  the original ones. To each closed path described by x0 there therefore
+  corresponds a definite linear substitution performed on the y's.
+  Further, if S1 and S2 are the substitutions that correspond to two
+  closed paths L1 and L2, then to any closed path which can be
+  continuously deformed, without crossing a singular point, into L1
+  followed by L2, there corresponds the substitution S1S2. Let L1, L2,
+  ..., L_r be arbitrarily chosen closed paths starting from and
+  returning to the same point, and each of them enclosing a single one
+  of the (r) finite singular points of the equation. Every closed path
+  in the plane can be formed by combinations of these r paths taken
+  either in the positive or in the negative direction. Also a closed
+  path which does not cut itself, and encloses all the r singular points
+  within it, is equivalent to a path enclosing the point at infinity and
+  no finite singular point. If S1, S2, S3, ..., S_r are the linear
+  substitutions that correspond to these r paths, then the substitution
+  corresponding to every possible path can be obtained by combination
+  and repetition of these r substitutions, and they therefore generate a
+  discontinuous group each of whose operations corresponds to a definite
+  closed path. The group thus arrived at is called the group of the
+  equation. For a given equation it is unique in type. In fact, the only
+  effect of starting from another set of independent integrals is to
+  transform every operation of the group by an arbitrary substitution,
+  while choosing a different set of paths is equivalent to taking a new
+  set of generating operations. The great importance of the group of the
+  equation in connexion with the nature of its integrals cannot here be
+  dealt with, but it may be pointed out that if all the integrals of the
+  equation are algebraic functions, the group must be a group of finite
+  order, since the set of quantities y1, y2 ..., y_n can then only take
+  a finite number of distinct values.
+
+
+_Groups of Finite Order._
+
+We shall now pass on to groups of finite order. It is clear that here we
+must have to do with many properties which have no direct analogues in
+the theory of continuous groups or in that of discontinuous groups in
+general; those properties, namely, which depend on the fact that the
+number of distinct operations in the group is finite.
+
+  Let S1, S2, S3, ..., S_N denote the operations of a group G of finite
+  order N, S1 being the identical operation. The tableau
+
+    S1,    S2,    S3,    ..., S_N,
+    S1S2,  S2S2,  S3S3,  ..., S_NS2,
+    S1S3,  S2S3,  S3S3,  ..., S_NS3,
+    .      .      .      .      .
+    S1S_N, S2S_N, S3S_N, ..., S_NS_N,
+
+  when in it each compound symbol S_pS_q is replaced by the single
+  symbol S_r that is equivalent to it, is called the multiplication
+  table of the group. It indicates directly the result of multiplying
+  together in an assigned sequence any number of operations of the
+  group. In each line (and in each column) of the tableau every
+  operation of the group occurs just once. If the letters in the tableau
+  are regarded as mere symbols, the operation of replacing each symbol
+  in the first line by the symbol which stands under it in the pth line
+  is a permutation performed on the set of N symbols. Thus to the N
+  lines of the tableau there corresponds a set of N permutations
+  performed on the N symbols, which includes the identical permutation
+  that leaves each unchanged. Moreover, if S_pS_q = S_r, then the result
+  of carrying out in succession the permutations which correspond to the
+  pth and qth lines gives the permutation which corresponds to the rth
+  line. Hence the set of permutations constitutes a group which is
+  simply isomorphic with the given group.
+
+  Every group of finite order N can therefore be represented in concrete
+  form as a transitive group of permutations on N symbols.
+
+
+    Properties of a group which depend on the order.
+
+  The order of any subgroup or operation of G is necessarily finite. If
+  T1(= S1), T2, ..., T_n are the operations of a subgroup H of G, and if
+  [Sigma] is any operation of G which is not contained in H, the set of
+  operations [Sigma]T1, [Sigma]T2, ..., [Sigma]T_n, or [Sigma]H, are all
+  distinct from each other and from the operations of H. If the sets H
+  and [Sigma]H do not exhaust the operations of G, and if [Sigma]' is an
+  operation not belonging to them, then the operations of the set
+  [Sigma]'H are distinct from each other and from those of H and
+  [Sigma]H. This process may be continued till the operations of G are
+  exhausted. The order n of H must therefore be a factor of the order N
+  of G. The ratio N/n is called the index of the subgroup H. By taking
+  for H the cyclical subgroup generated by any operation S of G, it
+  follows that the order of S must be a factor of the order of G.
+
+  Every operation S is permutable with its own powers. Hence there must
+  be some subgroup H of G of greatest possible order, such that every
+  operation of H is permutable with S. Every operation of H transforms S
+  into itself, and every operation of the set H[Sigma] transforms S into
+  the same operation. Hence, when S is transformed by every operation of
+  G, just N/n distinct operations arise if n is the order of H. These
+  operations, and no others, are conjugate to S within G; they are said
+  to form a set of conjugate operations. The number of operations in
+  every conjugate set is therefore a factor of the order of G. In the
+  same way it may be shown that the number of subgroups which are
+  conjugate to a given subgroup is a factor of the order of G. An
+  operation which is permutable with every operation of the group is
+  called a _self-conjugate_ operation. The totality of the
+  self-conjugate operations of a group forms a self-conjugate Abelian
+  subgroup, each of whose operations is permutable with every operation
+  of the group.
+
+
+    Sylow's theorem.
+
+  An Abelian group contains subgroups whose orders are any given factors
+  of the order of the group. In fact, since every subgroup H of an
+  Abelian group G and the corresponding factor groups G/H are Abelian,
+  this result follows immediately by an induction from the case in which
+  the order contains n prime factors to that in which it contains n + 1.
+  For a group which is not Abelian no general law can be stated as to
+  the existence or non-existence of a subgroup whose order is an
+  arbitrarily assigned factor of the order of the group. In this
+  connexion the most important general result, which is independent of
+  any supposition as to the order of the group, is known as Sylow's
+  theorem, which states that if p^a is the highest power of a prime p
+  which divides the order of a group G, then G contains a single
+  conjugate set of subgroups of order p^a, the number in the set being
+  of the form 1 + kp. Sylow's theorem may be extended to show that if
+  p^a' is a factor of the order of a group, the number of subgroups of
+  order p^a' is of the form 1 + kp. If, however, p^a' is not the highest
+  power of p which divides the order, these groups do not in general
+  form a single conjugate set.
+
+  The importance of Sylow's theorem in discussing the structure of a
+  group of given order need hardly be insisted on. Thus, as a very
+  simple instance, a group whose order is the product p1p2 of two primes
+  (p1 < p2) must have a self-conjugate subgroup of order p2, since the
+  order of the group contains no factor, other than unity, of the form 1
+  + kp2. The same again is true for a group of order p1^2p2, unless p1 =
+  2, and p2 = 3.
+
+  There is one other numerical property of a group connected with its
+  order which is quite general. If N is the order of G, and n a factor
+  of N, the number of operations of G, whose orders are equal to or are
+  factors of n, is a multiple of n.
+
+
+    Composition-series of a group.
+
+  As already defined, a composite group is a group which contains one or
+  more self-conjugate subgroups, whose orders are greater than unity. If
+  H is a self-conjugate subgroup of G, the factor-group G/H may be
+  either simple or composite. In the former case G can contain no
+  self-conjugate subgroup K, which itself contains H; for if it did K/H
+  would be a self-conjugate subgroup of G/H. When G/H is simple, H is
+  said to be a maximum self-conjugate subgroup of G. Suppose now that G
+  being a given composite group, G, G1, G2, ..., G_n, 1 is a series of
+  subgroups of G, such that each is a maximum self-conjugate subgroup of
+  the preceding; the last term of the series consisting of the identical
+  operation only. Such a series is called a _composition-series_ of G.
+  In general it is not unique, since a group may have two or more
+  maximum self-conjugate subgroups. A composition-series of a group,
+  however it may be chosen, has the property that the number of terms of
+  which it consists is always the same, while the factor-groups G/G1,
+  G1/G2, ..., G_n differ only in the sequence in which they occur. It
+  should be noticed that though a group defines uniquely the set of
+  factor-groups that occur in its composition-series, the set of
+  factor-groups do not conversely in general define a single type of
+  group. When the orders of all the factor-groups are primes the group
+  is said to be _soluble_.
+
+  If the series of subgroups G, H, K, ..., L, 1 is chosen so that each
+  is the greatest self-conjugate subgroup of G contained in the previous
+  one, the series is called a chief composition-series of G. All such
+  series derived from a given group may be shown to consist of the same
+  number of terms, and to give rise to the same set of factor-groups,
+  except as regards sequence. The factor-groups of such a series will
+  not, however, necessarily be simple groups. From any chief
+  composition-series a composition-series may be formed by interpolating
+  between any two terms H and K of the series for which H/K is not a
+  simple group, a number of terms h1, h2, ..., h_r; and it may be shown
+  that the factor-groups H/h1, h1/h2, ..., h_r/K are all simply
+  isomorphic with each other.
+
+
+    Isomorphism of a group with itself.
+
+  A group may be represented as isomorphic with itself by transforming
+  all its operations by any one of them. In fact, if S_pS_q = S_r, then
+  S^(-1)S_pS . S^(-1)S_qS = S^(-1)S_rS. An isomorphism of the group with
+  itself, established in this way, is called an inner isomorphism. It
+  may be regarded as an operation carried out on the symbols of the
+  operations, being indeed a permutation performed on these symbols. The
+  totality of these operations clearly constitutes a group isomorphic
+  with the given group, and this group is called the group of inner
+  isomorphisms. A group is simply or multiply isomorphic with its group
+  of inner isomorphisms according as it does not or does contain
+  self-conjugate operations other than identity. It may be possible to
+  establish a correspondence between the operations of a group other
+  than those given by the inner isomorphisms, such that if S' is the
+  operation corresponding to S, then S'_pS'_q = S'_r is a consequence of
+  S_pS_q = S_r. The substitution on the symbols of the operations of a
+  group resulting from such a correspondence is called an outer
+  isomorphism. The totality of the isomorphisms of both kinds
+  constitutes the group of isomorphisms of the given group, and within
+  this the group of inner isomorphisms is a self-conjugate subgroup.
+  Every set of conjugate operations of a group is necessarily
+  transformed into itself by an inner isomorphism, but two or more sets
+  may be interchanged by an outer isomorphism.
+
+  A subgroup of a group G, which is transformed into itself by every
+  isomorphism of G, is called a _characteristic_ subgroup. A series of
+  groups G, G1, G2, ..., 1, such that each is a maximum characteristic
+  subgroup of G contained in the preceding, may be shown to have the
+  same invariant properties as the subgroups of a composition series. A
+  group which has no characteristic subgroup must be either a simple
+  group or the direct product of a number of simply isomorphic simple
+  groups.
+
+
+    Permutation-groups.
+
+  It has been seen that every group of finite order can be represented
+  as a group of permutations performed on a set of symbols whose number
+  is equal to the order of the group. In general such a representation
+  is possible with a smaller number of symbols. Let H be a subgroup of
+  G, and let the operations of G be divided, in respect of H, into the
+  sets H, S2H, S3H, ..., S_mH. If S is any operation of G, the sets SH,
+  SS2H, SS3H, ..., SS_mH differ from the previous sets only in the
+  sequence in which they occur. In fact, if SS_p belong to the set S_qH,
+  then since H is a group, the set SS_pH is identical with the set S_qH.
+  Hence, to each operation S of the group will correspond a permutation
+  performed on the symbols of the m sets, and to the product of two
+  operations corresponds the product of the two analogous permutations.
+  The set of permutations, therefore, forms a group isomorphic with the
+  given group. Moreover, the isomorphism is simple unless for one or
+  more operations, other than identity, the sets all remain unaltered.
+  This can only be the case for S, when every operation conjugate to S
+  belongs to H. In this case H would contain a self-conjugate subgroup,
+  and the isomorphism is multiple.
+
+  The fact that every group of finite order can be represented,
+  generally in several ways, as a group of permutations, gives special
+  importance to such groups. The number of symbols involved in such a
+  representation is called the _degree_ of the group. In accordance with
+  the general definitions already given, a permutation-group is called
+  transitive or intransitive according as it does or does not contain
+  permutations changing any one of the symbols into any other. It is
+  called imprimitive or primitive according as the symbols can or cannot
+  be arranged in sets, such that every permutation of the group changes
+  the symbols of any one set either among themselves or into the symbols
+  of another set. When a group is imprimitive the number of symbols in
+  each set must clearly be the same.
+
+  The total number of permutations that can be performed on n symbols is
+  n!, and these necessarily constitute a group. It is known as the
+  _symmetric_ group of degree n, the only rational functions of the
+  symbols which are unaltered by all possible permutations being the
+  symmetric functions. When any permutation is carried out on the
+  product of the n(n - 1)/2, differences of the n symbols, it must
+  either remain unaltered or its sign must be changed. Those
+  permutations which leave the product unaltered constitute a group of
+  order n!/2, which is called the _alternating_ group of degree n; it is
+  a self-conjugate subgroup of the symmetric group. Except when n = 4
+  the alternating group is a simple group. A group of degree n, which is
+  not contained in the alternating group, must necessarily have a
+  self-conjugate subgroup of index 2, consisting of those of its
+  permutations which belong to the alternating group.
+
+
+    Groups of linear substitutions.
+
+  Among the various concrete forms in which a group of finite order can
+  be presented the most important is that of a group of linear
+  substitutions. Such groups have already been referred to in connexion
+  with discontinuous groups. Here the number of distinct substitutions
+  is necessarily finite; and to each operation S of a group G of finite
+  order there will correspond a linear substitution s, viz.
+
+           __j=m
+    x_i = \      s_(ij)x_j(i, j = 1, 2, ..., m),
+          /__j=1
+
+  on a set of m variables, such that if ST = U, then st = u. The linear
+  substitutions s, t, u, ... then constitute a group g with which G is
+  isomorphic; and whether the isomorphism is simple or multiple g is
+  said to give a "representation" of G as a group of linear
+  substitutions. If all the substitutions of g are transformed by the
+  same substitution on the m variables, the (in general) new group of
+  linear substitutions so constituted is said to be "equivalent" with g
+  as a representation of G; and two representations are called
+  "non-equivalent," or "distinct," when one is not capable of being
+  transformed into the other.
+
+  A group of linear substitutions on m variables is said to be
+  "reducible" when it is possible to choose m'(< m) linear functions of
+  the variables which are transformed among themselves by every
+  substitution of the group. When this cannot be done the group is
+  called "irreducible." It can be shown that a group of linear
+  substitutions, of finite order, is always either irreducible, or such
+  that the variables, when suitably chosen, may be divided into sets,
+  each set being irreducibly transformed among themselves. This being
+  so, it is clear that when the irreducible representations of a group
+  of finite order are known, all representations may be built up.
+
+  It has been seen at the beginning of this section that every group of
+  finite order N can be presented as a group of permutations (i.e.
+  linear substitutions in a limited sense) on N symbols. This group is
+  obviously reducible; in fact, the sum of the symbols remain unaltered
+  by every substitution of the group. The fundamental theorem in
+  connexion with the representations, as an irreducible group of linear
+  substitutions, of a group of finite order N is the following.
+
+  If r is the number of different sets of conjugate operations in the
+  group, then, when the group of N permutations is completely reduced,
+
+  (i.) just r distinct irreducible representations occur:
+
+  (ii.) each of these occurs a number of times equal to the number of
+  symbols on which it operates:
+
+  (iii.) these irreducible representations exhaust all the distinct
+  irreducible representations of the group.
+
+  Among these representations what is called the "identical"
+  representation necessarily occurs, i.e. that in which each operation
+  of the group corresponds to leaving a single symbol unchanged. If
+  these representations are denoted by [Gamma]1, [Gamma]2, ...,
+  [Gamma]_r, then any representation of the group as a group of linear
+  substitutions, or in particular as a group of permutations, may be
+  uniquely represented by a symbol [Sigma][alpha]_i[Gamma]_i, in the
+  sense that the representation when completely reduced will contain the
+  representation [Gamma]_i just [alpha]_i times for each suffix i.
+
+
+    Group characteristics.
+
+  A representation of a group of finite order as an irreducible group of
+  linear substitutions may be presented in an infinite number of
+  equivalent forms. If
+
+    x'_i = [Sigma] s_(ij)x_j (i, j = 1, 2, ..., m),
+
+  is the linear substitution which, in a given irreducible
+  representation of a group of finite order G, corresponds to the
+  operation S, the determinant
+
+    | s11 - [lambda] s12          ... s_(1m)            |
+    | s21            s22-[lambda] ... s_(2m)            |
+    |   .             .           ...   .               |
+    |   .             .           ...   .               |
+    |   .             .           ...   .               |
+    | s_m1           s_2m         ... s_(mm) - [lambda] |
+
+  is invariant for all equivalent representations, when written as a
+  polynomial in [lambda]. Moreover, it has the same value for S and S',
+  if these are two conjugate operations in G. Of the various invariants
+  that thus arise the most important is s11 + s22 + ... + s_(mm), which
+  is called the "characteristic" of S. If S is an operation of order p,
+  its characteristic is the sum of m pth roots of unity; and in
+  particular, if S is the identical operation its characteristic is m.
+  If r is the number of sets of conjugate operations in G, there is, for
+  each representation of G as an irreducible group, a set of r
+  characteristics: X1, X2, ... X_r, one corresponding to each conjugate
+  set; so that for the r irreducible representations just r such sets of
+  characteristics arise. These are distinct, in the sense that if
+  [Psi]1, [Psi]2, ..., [Psi]_r are the characteristics for a distinct
+  representation from the above, then X_i and [Psi]_i are not equal for
+  all values of the suffix i. It may be the case that the r
+  characteristics for a given representation are all real. If this is so
+  the representation is said to be self-inverse. In the contrary case
+  there is always another representation, called the "inverse"
+  representation, for which each characteristic is the conjugate
+  imaginary of the corresponding one in the original representation. The
+  characteristics are subject to certain remarkable relations. If h_p
+  denotes the number of operations in the pth conjugate set, while
+  X^_i{p}, and X^j{p} are the characteristics of the pth conjugate set
+  in [Gamma]_i and [Gamma]_j, then
+
+     __p=r
+    \      h_p X_p^i X^_p^j = 0 or n,
+    /__p=1
+
+  according to [Gamma]_i and [Gamma]_j are not or are inverse
+  representations, n being the order of G.
+
+  Again
+
+     __i=r
+    \      X_p^i X^_q^i = 0 or n/h_p
+    /__i=1
+
+  according as the pth and qth conjugate sets are not or are inverse;
+  the qth set being called the inverse of the pth if it consists of the
+  inverses of the operations constituting the pth.
+
+
+    Linear homogeneous groups.
+
+  Another form in which every group of finite order can be represented
+  is that known as a linear homogeneous group. If in the equations
+
+    x'_r = a_(r1)x1 + a_(r2)x2 + ... +a_(rm)x_m, (r = 1, 2, ..., m),
+
+  which define a linear homogeneous substitution, the coefficients are
+  integers, and if the equations are replaced by congruences to a finite
+  modulus n, the system of congruences will give a definite operation,
+  provided that the determinant of the coefficients is relatively prime
+  to n. The product of two such operations is another operation of the
+  same kind; and the total number of distinct operations is finite,
+  since there is only a limited number of choices for the coefficients.
+  The totality of these operations, therefore, constitutes a group of
+  finite order; and such a group is known as a _linear homogeneous_
+  group. If n is a prime the order of the group is
+
+    (n^m - 1)(n^m - n) ... (n^m - n^(m-1)).
+
+  The totality of the operations of the linear homogeneous group for
+  which the determinant of the coefficients is congruent to unity forms
+  a subgroup. Other subgroups arise by considering those operations
+  which leave a function of the variables unchanged (mod. n). All such
+  subgroups are known as linear homogeneous groups.
+
+  When the ratios only of the variables are considered, there arises a
+  _linear fractional_ group, with which the corresponding linear
+  homogeneous group is isomorphic. Thus, if p is a prime the totality of
+  the congruences
+
+               az + b
+    z' [equiv] ------, ad - bc [/=] 0, (mod. p)
+               cz + d
+
+  constitutes a group of order p(p^2 - 1). This class of groups for
+  various values of p is almost the only one which has been as yet
+  exhaustively analysed. For all values of p except 3 it contains a
+  simple self-conjugate subgroup of index 2.
+
+  A great extension of the theory of linear homogeneous groups has been
+  made in recent years by considering systems of congruences of the form
+
+    x'_r [equiv] a_(r1)x1 + a_(r2)x2 + ... + a_(rm)x_m,
+      (r = 1, 2, ..., m),
+
+  in which the coefficients a_(rs), are integral functions with real
+  integral coefficients of a root of an irreducible congruence to a
+  prime modulus. Such a system of congruences is obviously limited in
+  numbers and defines a group which contains as a subgroup the group
+  defined by the same congruences with ordinary integral coefficients.
+
+
+    Applications.
+
+  The chief application of the theory of groups of finite order is to
+  the theory of algebraic equations. The analogy of equations of the
+  second, third and fourth degrees would give rise to the expectation
+  that a root of an equation of any finite degree could be expressed in
+  terms of the coefficients by a finite number of the operations of
+  addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and the extraction of
+  roots; in other words, that the equation could be solved by radicals.
+  This, however, as proved by Abel and Galois, is not the case: an
+  equation of a higher degree than the fourth in general defines an
+  algebraic irrationality which cannot be expressed by means of
+  radicals, and the cases in which such an equation can be solved by
+  radicals must be regarded as exceptional. The theory of groups gives
+  the means of determining whether an equation comes under this
+  exceptional case, and of solving the equation when it does. When it
+  does not, the theory provides the means of reducing the problem
+  presented by the equation to a normal form. From this point of view
+  the theory of equations of the fifth degree has been exhaustively
+  treated, and the problems presented by certain equations of the sixth
+  and seventh degrees have actually been reduced to normal form.
+
+  Galois (see EQUATION) showed that, corresponding to every irreducible
+  equation of the nth degree, there exists a transitive
+  substitution-group of degree n, such that every function of the roots,
+  the numerical value of which is unaltered by all the substitutions of
+  the group can be expressed rationally in terms of the coefficients,
+  while conversely every function of the roots which is expressible
+  rationally in terms of the coefficients is unaltered by the
+  substitutions of the group. This group is called the group of the
+  equation. In general, if the equation is given arbitrarily, the group
+  will be the symmetric group. The necessary and sufficient condition
+  that the equation may be soluble by radicals is that its group should
+  be a soluble group. When the coefficients in an equation are rational
+  integers, the determination of its group may be made by a finite
+  number of processes each of which involves only rational arithmetical
+  operations. These processes consist in forming resolvents of the
+  equation corresponding to each distinct type of subgroup of the
+  symmetric group whose degree is that of the equation. Each of the
+  resolvents so formed is then examined to find whether it has rational
+  roots. The group corresponding to any resolvent which has a rational
+  root contains the group of the equation; and the least of the groups
+  so found is the group of the equation. Thus, for an equation of the
+  fifth degree the various transitive subgroups of the symmetric group
+  of degree five have to be considered. These are (i.) the alternating
+  group; (ii.) a soluble group of order 20; (iii.) a group of order 10,
+  self-conjugate in the preceding; (iv.) a cyclical group of order 5,
+  self-conjugate in both the preceding. If x0, x1, x2, x3, x4 are the
+  roots of the equation, the corresponding resolvents may be taken to be
+  those which have for roots (i.) the square root of the discriminant;
+  (ii.) the function (x0x1 + x1x2 + x2x3 + x3x4 + x4x0)(x0x2 + x2x4 +
+  x4x1 + x1x3 + x3x0); (iii.) the function x0x1 + x1x2+ x2x3 + x3x4 +
+  x4x0; and (iv.) the function x0^2x1 + x1^2x2 + x2^2x3 + x3^2x4 +
+  x4^2x0. Since the groups for which (iii.) and (iv.) are invariant are
+  contained in that for which (ii.) is invariant, and since these are
+  the only soluble groups of the set, the equation will be soluble by
+  radicals only when the function (ii.) can be expressed rationally in
+  terms of the coefficients. If
+
+    (x0x1 + x1x2 + x2x3 + x3x4 + x4x0)(x0x2 + x2x4 + x4x1 + x1x3 + x3x0)
+
+  is known, then clearly x0x1 + x1x2 + x2x3 + x3x4 + x4x0 can be
+  determined by the solution of a quadratic equation. Moreover, the sum
+  and product (x0 + [epsilon]x1 + [epsilon]^2x2 + [epsilon]^3x3 +
+  [epsilon]^4x4)^5 and (x0 + [epsilon]^4x1+[epsilon]^3x2 + [epsilon]^2x3
+  + [epsilon]x4)^5 can be expressed rationally in terms of x0x1 + x1x2 +
+  x2x3 + x3x4 + x4x0, [epsilon], and the symmetric functions; [epsilon]
+  being a fifth root of unity. Hence (x0 + [epsilon]x1 + [epsilon]^2x2 +
+  [epsilon]^3x3 + [epsilon]^4X4)^5 can be determined by the solution of
+  a quadratic equation. The roots of the original equation are then
+  finally determined by the extraction of a fifth root. The problem of
+  reducing an equation of the fifth degree, when not soluble by
+  radicals, to a normal form, forms the subject of Klein's _Vorlesungen
+  uber das Ikosaeder_. Another application of groups of finite order is
+  to the theory of linear differential equations whose integrals are
+  algebraic functions. It has been already seen, in the discussion of
+  discontinuous groups in general, that the groups of such equations
+  must be groups of finite order. To every group of finite order which
+  can be represented as an irreducible group of linear substitutions on
+  n variables will correspond a class of irreducible linear differential
+  equations of the nth order whose integrals are algebraic. The complete
+  determination of the class of linear differential equations of the
+  second order with all their integrals algebraic, whose group has the
+  greatest possible order, viz. 120, has been carried out by Klein.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Continuous groups: Lie and Engel, _Theorie der
+  Transformationsgruppen_ (Leipzig, vol. i., 1888; vol. ii., 1890; vol.
+  iii., 1893); Lie and Scheffers, _Vorlesungen uber gewohnliche
+  Differentialgleichungen mit bekannten infinitesimalen
+  Transformationen_ (Leipzig, 1891); _Idem, Vorlesungen uber
+  continuierliche Gruppen_ (Leipzig, 1893); _Idem, Geometrie der
+  Beruhrungstransformationen_ (Leipzig, 1896); Klein and Schilling,
+  _Hohere Geometrie_, vol. ii. (lithographed) (Gottingen, 1893, for both
+  continuous and discontinuous groups). Campbell, _Introductory Treatise
+  on Lie's Theory of Finite Continuous Transformation Groups_ (Oxford,
+  1903). Discontinuous groups: Klein and Fricke, _Vorlesungen uber die
+  Theorie der elliptischen Modulfunktionen_ (vol. i., Leipzig, 1890)
+  (for a full discussion of the modular group); _Idem, Vorlesungen uber
+  die Theorie der automorphen Funktionen_ (vol. i., Leipzig, 1897; vol.
+  ii. pt. i., 1901) (for the general theory of discontinuous groups);
+  Schoenflies, _Krystallsysteme und Krystallstruktur_ (Leipzig, 1891)
+  (for discontinuous groups of motions); Groups of finite order: Galois,
+  _[OE]uvres mathematiques_ (Paris, 1897, reprint); Jordan, _Traite des
+  substitutions et des equations algebriques_ (Paris, 1870); Netto,
+  _Substitutionentheorie und ihre Anwendung auf die Algebra_ (Leipzig,
+  1882; Eng. trans. by Cole, Ann Arbor, U.S.A., 1892); Klein,
+  _Vorlesungen uber das Ikosaeder_ (Leipzig, 1884; Eng. trans. by
+  Morrice, London, 1888); H. Vogt, _Lecons sur la resolution algebrique
+  des equations_ (Paris, 1895); Weber, _Lehrbuch der Algebra_
+  (Braunschweig, vol. i., 1895; vol. ii., 1896; a second edition
+  appeared in 1898); Burnside, _Theory of Groups of Finite Order_
+  (Cambridge, 1897); Bianchi, _Teoria dei gruppi di sostituzioni e delle
+  equazioni algebriche_ (Pisa, 1899); Dickson, _Linear Groups with an
+  Exposition of the Galois Field Theory_ (Leipzig, 1901); De Seguier,
+  _Elements de la theorie des groupes abstraits_ (Paris, 1904), A
+  summary with many references will be found in the _Encyklopadie der
+  mathematischen Wissenschaften_ (Leipzig, vol. i., 1898, 1899).
+       (W. Bu.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The word "group," which appears first in English in the sense of
+    an assemblage of figures in an artistic design, picture, &c., is
+    adapted from the Fr. _groupe_, which is to be referred to the
+    Teutonic word meaning "knot," "mass," "bunch," represented in English
+    by "crop" (q.v.). The technical mathematical sense is not older than
+    1870.
+
+
+
+
+GROUSE, a word of uncertain origin,[1] now used generally by
+ornithologists to include all the "rough-footed" Gallinaceous birds, but
+in common speech applied almost exclusively, when used alone, to the
+_Tetrao scoticus_ of Linnaeus, the _Lagopus scoticus_ of modern
+systematists--more particularly called in English the red grouse, but
+till the end of the 18th century almost invariably spoken of as the
+Moor-fowl or Moor-game. The effect which this species is supposed to
+have had on the British legislature, and therefore on history, is well
+known, for it was the common belief that parliament always rose when the
+season for grouse-shooting began (August 12th); while according to the
+_Orkneyinga Saga_ (ed. Jonaeus, p. 356; ed. Anderson, p. 168) events of
+some importance in the annals of North Britain followed from its pursuit
+in Caithness in the year 1157.
+
+The red grouse is found on moors from Monmouthshire and Derbyshire
+northward to the Orkneys, as well as in most of the Hebrides. It
+inhabits similar situations throughout Wales and Ireland, but it does
+not naturally occur beyond the limits of the British Islands,[2] and is
+the only species among birds peculiar to them. The word "species" may in
+this case be used advisedly (since the red grouse invariably "breeds
+true," it admits of an easy diagnosis, and it has a definite
+geographical range); but scarcely any zoologist can doubt of its common
+origin with the willow-grouse, _Lagopus albus_ (_L. subalpinus_ or _L.
+saliceti_ of some authors), that inhabits a subarctic zone from Norway
+across the continents of Europe and Asia, as well as North America from
+the Aleutian Islands to Newfoundland. The red grouse indeed is rarely or
+never found away from the heather on which chiefly it subsists; while
+the willow-grouse in many parts of the Old World seems to prefer the
+shrubby growth of berry-bearing plants (_Vaccinium_ and others) that,
+often thickly interspersed with willows and birches, clothes the higher
+levels or the lower mountain-slopes, and it flourishes in the New World
+where heather scarcely exists, and a "heath" in its strict sense is
+unknown. It is true that the willow-grouse always becomes white in
+winter, which the red grouse never does; but in summer there is a
+considerable resemblance between the two species, the cock willow-grouse
+having his head, neck and breast of nearly the same rich chestnut-brown
+as his British representative, and, though his back be lighter in
+colour, as is also the whole plumage of his mate, than is found in the
+red grouse, in other respects the two species are precisely alike. No
+distinction can be discovered in their voice, their eggs, their build,
+nor in their anatomical details, so far as these have been investigated
+and compared.[3] Moreover, the red grouse, restricted as is its range,
+varies in colour not inconsiderably according to locality.
+
+[Illustration: Red Grouse.]
+
+Though the red grouse does not, after the manner of other members of the
+genus _Lagopus_, become white in winter, Scotland possesses a species of
+the genus which does. This is the ptarmigan, _L. mutus_ or _L. alpinus_,
+which differs far more in structure, station and habits from the red
+grouse than that does from the willow-grouse, and in Scotland is far
+less abundant, haunting only the highest and most barren mountains. It
+is said to have formerly inhabited both Wales and England, but there is
+no evidence of its appearance in Ireland. On the continent of Europe it
+is found most numerously in Norway, but at an elevation far above the
+growth of trees, and it occurs on the Pyrenees and on the Alps. It also
+inhabits northern Russia. In North America, Greenland and Iceland it is
+represented by a very nearly allied form--so much so indeed that it is
+only at certain seasons that the slight difference between them can be
+detected. This form is the _L. rupestris_ of authors, and it would
+appear to be found also in Siberia (_Ibis_, 1879, p. 148). Spitzbergen
+is inhabited by a large form which has received recognition as _L.
+hemileucurus_, and the northern end of the chain of the Rocky Mountains
+is tenanted by a very distinct species, the smallest and perhaps the
+most beautiful of the genus, _L. leucurus_, which has all the feathers
+of the tail white.
+
+[Illustration: Ptarmigan.]
+
+[Illustration: Blackcock.]
+
+The bird, however, to which the name of grouse in all strictness belongs
+is probably the _Tetrao tetrix_ of Linnaeus--the blackcock and greyhen,
+as the sexes are respectively called. It is distributed over most of the
+heath-country of England, except in East Anglia, where attempts to
+introduce it have been only partially successful. It also occurs in
+North Wales and very generally throughout Scotland, though not in
+Orkney, Shetland or the Outer Hebrides, nor in Ireland. On the continent
+of Europe it has a very wide range, and it extends into Siberia. In
+Georgia its place is taken by a distinct species, on which a Polish
+naturalist (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1875, p. 267) has conferred the name
+of _T. mlokosiewiczi_. Both these birds have much in common with their
+larger congener the capercally and its eastern representative.
+
+The species of the genus _Bonasa_, of which the European _B. sylvestris_
+is the type, does not inhabit the British Islands. It is perhaps the
+most delicate game-bird that comes to table. It is the _gelinotte_ of
+the French, the _Haselhuhn_ of Germans, and _Hjerpe_ of Scandinavians.
+Like its transatlantic congener _B. umbellus_, the ruffed grouse or
+birch-partridge (of which there are two other local forms, _B.
+umbelloides_ and _B. sabinii_), it is purely a forest-bird. The same may
+be said of the species of _Canace_, of which two forms are found in
+America, _C. canadensis_, the spruce-partridge, and _C. franklini_, and
+also of the Siberian _C. falcipennis_. Nearly allied to these birds is
+the group known as _Dendragapus_, containing three large and fine forms
+_D. obscurus_, _D. fuliginosus_, and _D. richardsoni_--all peculiar to
+North America. Then there are _Centrocercus urophasianus_, the sage-cock
+of the plains of Columbia and California, and _Pedioecetes_, the
+sharp-tailed grouse, with its two forms, _P. phasianellus_ and _P.
+columbianus_, while finally _Cupidonia_, the prairie-hen, also with two
+local forms, _C. cupido_ and _C. pallidicincta_, is a bird that in the
+United States of America possesses considerable economic value, enormous
+numbers being consumed there, and also exported to Europe.
+
+  The various sorts of grouse are nearly all figured in Elliot's
+  _Monograph of the Tetraoninae_, and an excellent account of the
+  American species is given in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway's _North
+  American Birds_ (iii. 414-465). See also SHOOTING.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] It seems first to occur (O. Salusbury Brereton, _Archaeologia_,
+    iii. 157) as "grows" in an ordinance for the regulation of the royal
+    household dated "apud Eltham, mens. Jan. 22 Hen. VIII.," i.e. 1531,
+    and considering the locality must refer to black game. It is found in
+    an Act of Parliament 1 Jac. I. cap. 27, S 2, i.e. 1603, and, as
+    reprinted in the _Statutes at Large_, stands as now commonly spelt,
+    but by many writers or printers the final e was omitted in the 17th
+    and 18th centuries. In 1611 Cotgrave had "Poule griesche. A
+    Moore-henne; the henne of the Grice [in ed. 1673 "Griece"] or
+    Mooregame" (_Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues, s.v.
+    Poule_). The most likely derivation seems to be from the old French
+    word _griesche_, _greoche_ or _griais_ (meaning speckled, and cognate
+    with _griseus_, grisly or grey), which was applied to some kind of
+    partridge, or according to Brunetto Latini (_Tres._ p. 211) to a
+    quail, "porce que ele fu premiers trovee en Grece." The Oxford
+    Dictionary repudiates the possibility of "grouse" being a spurious
+    singular of an alleged plural "grice," and, with regard to the
+    possibility of "grows" being a plural of "grow," refers to Giraldus
+    Cambrensis (c. 1210), _Topogr. Hib. opera_ (Rolls) v. 47: "gallinae
+    campestres, quas vulgariter _grutas_ vocant."
+
+  [2] It was successfully, though with much trouble, introduced by Mr
+    Oscar Dickson on a tract of land near Gottenburg in Sweden (_Svenska
+    Jagarforbundets Nya Tidskrift_, 1868, p. 64 _et alibi_).
+
+  [3] A very interesting subject for discussion would be whether
+    _Lagopus scoticus_ or _L. albus_ has varied most from the common
+    stock of both. Looking to the fact that the former is the only
+    species of the genus which does not assume white clothing in winter,
+    an evolutionist might at first deem the variation greatest in its
+    case; but then it must be borne in mind that the species of _Lagopus_
+    which turn white differ in that respect from all other groups of the
+    family _Tetraonidae_. Furthermore every species of _Lagopus_ (even
+    _L. leucurus_, the whitest of all) has its first set of _remiges_
+    coloured brown. These are dropped when the bird is about half-grown,
+    and in all the species but _L. scoticus_ white _remiges_ are then
+    produced. If therefore the successive phases assumed by any animal in
+    the course of its progress to maturity indicate the phases through
+    which the species has passed, there may have been a time when all the
+    species of _Lagopus_ wore a brown livery even when adult, and the
+    white dress donned in winter has been imposed upon the wearers by
+    causes that can be easily suggested. The white plumage of the birds
+    of this group protects them from danger during the snows of a
+    protracted winter. But the red grouse, instead of perpetuating
+    directly the more ancient properties of an original _Lagopus_ that
+    underwent no great seasonal change of plumage, may derive its
+    ancestry from the widely-ranging willow-grouse, which in an epoch
+    comparatively recent (in the geological sense) may have stocked
+    Britain, and left descendants that, under conditions in which the
+    assumption of a white garb would be almost fatal to the preservation
+    of the species, have reverted (though doubtless with some
+    modifications) to a comparative immutability essentially the same as
+    that of the primal _Lagopus_.
+
+
+
+
+GROVE, SIR GEORGE (1820-1900), English writer on music, was born at
+Clapham on the 13th of August 1820. He was articled to a civil engineer,
+and worked for two years in a factory near Glasgow. In 1841 and 1845 he
+was employed in the West Indies, erecting lighthouses in Jamaica and
+Bermuda. In 1849 he became secretary to the Society of Arts, and in 1852
+to the Crystal Palace. In this capacity his natural love of music and
+enthusiasm for the art found a splendid opening, and he threw all the
+weight of his influence into the task of promoting the best music of all
+schools in connexion with the weekly and daily concerts at Sydenham,
+which had a long and honourable career under the direction of Mr
+(afterwards Sir) August Manns. Without Sir George Grove that eminent
+conductor would hardly have succeeded in doing what he did to encourage
+young composers and to educate the British public in music. Grove's
+analyses of the Beethoven symphonies, and the other works presented at
+the concerts, set the pattern of what such things should be; and it was
+as a result of these, and of the fact that he was editor of _Macmillan's
+Magazine_ from 1868 to 1883, that the scheme of his famous _Dictionary
+of Music and Musicians_, published from 1878 to 1889 (new edition,
+edited by J. A. Fuller Maitland, 1904-1907), was conceived and executed.
+His own articles in that work on Beethoven, Mendelssohn and Schubert are
+monuments of a special kind of learning, and that the rest of the book
+is a little thrown out of balance owing to their great length is hardly
+to be regretted. Long before this he had contributed to the _Dictionary
+of the Bible_, and had promoted the foundation of the Palestine
+Exploration Fund. On a journey to Vienna, undertaken in the company of
+his lifelong friend, Sir Arthur Sullivan, the important discovery of a
+large number of compositions by Schubert was made, including the music
+to _Rosamunde_. When the Royal College of Music was founded in 1882 he
+was appointed its first director, receiving the honour of knighthood. He
+brought the new institution into line with the most useful European
+conservatoriums. On the completion of the new buildings in 1894 he
+resigned the directorship, but retained an active interest in the
+institution to the end of his life. He died at Sydenham on the 28th of
+May 1900.
+
+  His life, a most interesting one, was written by Mr Charles Graves.
+      (J. A. F. M.)
+
+
+
+
+
+GROVE, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT (1811-1896), English judge and man of science,
+was born on the 11th of July 1811 at Swansea, South Wales. After being
+educated by private tutors, he went to Brasenose College, Oxford, where
+he took an ordinary degree in 1832. Three years later he was called to
+the bar at Lincoln's Inn. His health, however, did not allow him to
+devote himself strenuously to practice, and he occupied his leisure with
+scientific studies. About 1839 he constructed the platinum-zinc voltaic
+cell that bears his name, and with the aid of a number of these
+exhibited the electric arc light in the London Institution, Finsbury
+Circus. The result was that in 1840 the managers appointed him to the
+professorship of experimental philosophy, an office which he held for
+seven years. His researches dealt very largely with electro-chemistry
+and with the voltaic cell, of which he invented several varieties. One
+of these, the Grove gas-battery, which is of special interest both
+intrinsically and as the forerunner of the secondary batteries now in
+use for the "storage" of electricity, was based on his observation that
+a current is produced by a couple of platinum plates standing in
+acidulated water and immersed, the one in hydrogen, the other in oxygen.
+At one of his lectures at the Institution he anticipated the electric
+lighting of to-day by illuminating the theatre with incandescent
+electric lamps, the filaments being of platinum and the current supplied
+by a battery of his nitric acid cells. In 1846 he published his famous
+book on _The Correlation of Physical Forces_, the leading ideas of which
+he had already put forward in his lectures: its fundamental conception
+was that each of the forces of nature--light, heat, electricity, &c.--is
+definitely and equivalently convertible into any other, and that where
+experiment does not give the full equivalent, it is because the initial
+force has been dissipated, not lost, by conversion into other
+unrecognized forces. In the same year he received a Royal medal from the
+Royal Society for his Bakerian lecture on "Certain phenomena of voltaic
+ignition and the decomposition of water into its constituent gases." In
+1866 he presided over the British Association at its Nottingham meeting
+and delivered an address on the continuity of natural phenomena. But
+while he was thus engaged in scientific research, his legal work was not
+neglected, and his practice increased so greatly that in 1853 he became
+a Q.C. One of the best-known cases in which he appeared as an advocate
+was that of William Palmer, the Rugeley poisoner, whom he defended. In
+1871 he was made a judge of the Common Pleas in succession to Sir Robert
+Collier, and remained on the bench till 1887. He died in London on the
+1st of August 1896.
+
+  A selection of his scientific papers is given in the sixth edition of
+  _The Correlation of Physical Forces_, published in 1874.
+
+
+
+
+GROVE (O.E. _graf_, cf. O.E. _groefa_, brushwood, later "greave"; the
+word does not appear in any other Teutonic language, and the _New
+English Dictionary_ finds no Indo-European root to which it can be
+referred; Skeat considers it connected with "grave," to cut, and finds
+the original meaning to be a glade cut through a wood), a small group or
+cluster of trees, growing naturally and forming something smaller than a
+wood, or planted in particular shapes or for particular purposes, in a
+park, &c. Groves have been connected with religious worship from the
+earliest times, and in many parts of India every village has its sacred
+group of trees. For the connexion of religion with sacred groves see
+TREE-WORSHIP.
+
+  The word "grove" was used by the authors of the Authorized Version of
+  the Bible to translate two Hebrew words: (1) _'eshel_, as in Gen. xxi.
+  33, and 1 Sam. xxii. 6; this is rightly given in the Revised Version
+  as "tamarisk"; (2) _asherah_ in many places throughout the Old
+  Testament. Here the translators followed the Septuagint [Greek: alsos]
+  and the Vulgate _lucus_. The _'[)a]sherah_ was a wooden post erected
+  at the Canaanitish places of worship, and also by the altars of
+  Yahweh. It may have represented a tree.
+
+
+
+
+GROZNYI, a fortress and town of Russia, North Caucasia, in the province
+of Terek, on the Zunzha river, 82 m. by rail N.E. of Vladikavkaz, on the
+railway to Petrovsk. There are naphtha wells close by. The
+fortifications were constructed in 1819. Pop. (1897) 15,599.
+
+
+
+
+GRUB, the larva of an insect, a caterpillar, maggot. The word is formed
+from the verb "to grub," to dig, break up the surface of the ground,
+and clear of stumps, roots, weeds, &c. According to the _New English
+Dictionary_, "grub" may be referred to an ablaut variant of the Old
+Teutonic _grab_-, to dig, cf. "grave." Skeat (_Etym. Dict._ 1898) refers
+it rather to the root seen in "grope," "grab," &c., the original meaning
+"to search for." The earliest quotation of the slang use of the word in
+the sense of food in the _New English Dictionary_ is dated 1659 from
+_Ancient Poems, Ballads_, &c., Percy Society Publications.
+"Grub-street," as a collective term for needy hack-writers, dates from
+the 17th century and is due to the name of a street near Moorfields,
+London, now Milton Street, which was as Johnson says "much inhabited by
+writers of small histories, dictionaries and temporary poems."
+
+
+
+
+GRUBER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1774-1851), German critic and literary
+historian, was born at Naumburg on the Saale, on the 29th of November
+1774. He received his education at the town school of Naumburg and the
+university of Leipzig, after which he resided successively at Gottingen,
+Leipzig, Jena and Weimar, occupying himself partly in teaching and
+partly in various literary enterprises, and enjoying in Weimar the
+friendship of Herder, Wieland and Goethe. In 1811 he was appointed
+professor at the university of Wittenberg, and after the division of
+Saxony he was sent by the senate to Berlin to negotiate the union of the
+university of Wittenberg with that of Halle. After the union was
+effected he became in 1815 professor of philosophy at Halle. He was
+associated with Johann Samuel Ersch in the editorship of the great work
+_Allgemeine Encyklopadie der Wissenschaften und Kunste_; and after the
+death of Ersch he continued the first section from vol. xviii. to vol.
+liv. He also succeeded Ersch in the editorship of the _Allgemeine
+Literaturzeitung_. He died on the 7th of August 1851.
+
+  Gruber was the author of a large number of works, the principal of
+  which are _Charakteristik Herders_ (Leipzig, 1805), in conjunction
+  with Johann T. L. Danz (1769-1851), afterwards professor of theology
+  at Jena; _Geschichte des menschlichen Geschlechts_ (2 vols., Leipzig,
+  1806); _Worterbuch der altklassischen Mythologie_ (3 vols., Weimar,
+  1810-1815); _Wielands Leben_ (2 parts, Weimar, 1815-1816), and
+  _Klopstocks Leben_ (Weimar, 1832). He also edited Wieland's _Samtliche
+  Werke_ (Leipzig, 1818-1828).
+
+
+
+
+GRUMBACH, WILHELM VON (1503-1567), German adventurer, chiefly known
+through his connexion with the so-called "Grumbach feuds" (_Grumbachsche
+Handel_), the last attempt of the German knights to destroy the power of
+the territorial princes. A member of an old Franconian family, he was
+born on the 1st of June 1503, and having passed some time at the court
+of Casimir, prince of Bayreuth (d. 1527), fought against the peasants
+during the rising in 1524 and 1525. About 1540 Grumbach became
+associated with Albert Alcibiades, the turbulent prince of Bayreuth,
+whom he served both in peace and war. After the conclusion of the peace
+of Passau in 1552, Grumbach assisted Albert in his career of plunder in
+Franconia and was thus able to take some revenge upon his enemy,
+Melchior von Zobel, bishop of Wurzburg. As a landholder Grumbach was a
+vassal of the bishops of Wurzburg, and had held office at the court of
+Conrad of Bibra, who was bishop from 1540 to 1544. When, however, Zobel
+was chosen to succeed Conrad the harmonious relations between lord and
+vassal were quickly disturbed. Unable to free himself and his associates
+from the suzerainty of the bishop by appealing to the imperial courts he
+decided to adopt more violent measures, and his friendship with Albert
+was very serviceable in this connexion. Albert's career, however, was
+checked by his defeat at Sievershausen in July 1553 and his subsequent
+flight into France, and the bishop took advantage of this state of
+affairs to seize Grumbach's lands. The knight obtained an order of
+restitution from the imperial court of justice (_Reichskammergericht_),
+but he was unable to carry this into effect; and in April 1558 some of
+his partisans seized and killed the bishop. Grumbach declared he was
+innocent of this crime, but his story was not believed, and he fled to
+France. Returning to Germany he pleaded his cause in person before the
+diet at Augsburg in 1559, but without success. Meanwhile he had found a
+new patron in John Frederick, duke of Saxony, whose father, John
+Frederick, had been obliged to surrender the electoral dignity to the
+Albertine branch of his family. Chafing under this deprivation the duke
+listened readily to Grumbach's plans for recovering the lost dignity,
+including a general rising of the German knights and the deposition of
+Frederick II., king of Denmark. Magical charms were employed against the
+duke's enemies, and communications from angels were invented which
+helped to stir up the zeal of the people. In 1563 Grumbach attacked
+Wurzburg, seized and plundered the city and compelled the chapter and
+the bishop to restore his lands. He was consequently placed under the
+imperial ban, but John Frederick refused to obey the order of the
+emperor Maximilian II. to withdraw his protection from him. Meanwhile
+Grumbach sought to compass the assassination of the Saxon elector,
+Augustus; proclamations were issued calling for assistance; and
+alliances both without and within Germany were concluded. In November
+1566 John Frederick was placed under the ban, which had been renewed
+against Grumbach earlier in the year, and Augustus marched against
+Gotha. Assistance was not forthcoming, and a mutiny led to the
+capitulation of the town. Grumbach was delivered to his foes, and, after
+being tortured, was executed at Gotha on the 18th of April 1567.
+
+  See F. Ortloff, _Geschichte der Grumbachschen Handel_ (Jena,
+  1868-1870), and J. Voigt, _Wilhelm von Grumbach und seine Handel_
+  (Leipzig, 1846-1847).
+
+
+
+
+GRUMENTUM, an ancient town in the centre of Lucania, 33 m. S. of
+Potentia by the direct road through Anxia, and 52 m. by the Via
+Herculia, at the point of divergence of a road eastward to Heraclea. It
+seems to have been a native Lucanian town, not a Greek settlement. In
+215 B.C. the Carthaginian general Hanno was defeated under its walls,
+and in 207 B.C. Hannibal made it his headquarters. In the Social War it
+appears as a strong fortress, and seems to have been held by both sides
+at different times. It became a colony, perhaps in the time of Sulla, at
+latest under Augustus, and seems to have been of some importance. Its
+site, identified by Holste from the description of the martyrdom of St
+Laverius, is a ridge on the right bank of the Aciris (Agri) about 1960
+ft. above sea-level, 1/2 m. below the modern Saponara, which lies much
+higher (2533 ft.). Its ruins (all of the Roman period) include those of
+a large amphitheatre (arena 205 by 197 ft.), the only one in Lucania,
+except that at Paestum. There are also remains of a theatre.
+Inscriptions record the repair of its town walls and the construction of
+_thermae_ (of which remains were found) in 57-51 B.C., the construction
+in 43 B.C., of a portico, remains of which may be seen along an ancient
+road, at right angles to the main road, which traversed Grumentum from
+S. to N.
+
+  See F. P. Caputi in _Notizie degli scavi_ (1877), 129, and G. Patroni,
+  ibid. (1897) 180.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+GRUN. HANS BALDUNG (c. 1470-1545), commonly called Grun, a German
+painter of the age of Durer, was born at Gmund in Swabia, and spent the
+greater part of his life at Strassburg and Freiburg in Breisgau. The
+earliest pictures assigned to him are altarpieces with the monogram H.
+B. interlaced, and the date of 1496, in the monastery chapel of
+Lichtenthal near Baden. Another early work is a portrait of the emperor
+Maximilian, drawn in 1501 on a leaf of a sketch-book now in the
+print-room at Carlsruhe. The "Martyrdom of St Sebastian" and the
+"Epiphany" (Berlin Museum), fruits of his labour in 1507, were painted
+for the market-church of Halle in Saxony. In 1509 Grun purchased the
+freedom of the city of Strassburg, and resided there till 1513, when he
+moved to Freiburg in Breisgau. There he began a series of large
+compositions, which he finished in 1516, and placed on the high altar of
+the Freiburg cathedral. He purchased anew the freedom of Strassburg in
+1517, resided in that city as his domicile, and died a member of its
+great town council 1545.
+
+Though nothing is known of Grun's youth and education, it may be
+inferred from his style that he was no stranger to the school of which
+Durer was the chief. Gmund is but 50 m. distant on either side from
+Augsburg and Nuremberg. Grun prints were often mistaken for those of
+Durer; and Durer himself was well acquainted with Grun's woodcuts and
+copper-plates in which he traded during his trip to the Netherlands
+(1520). But Grun's prints, though Dureresque, are far below Durer, and
+his paintings are below his prints. Without absolute correctness as a
+draughtsman, his conception of human form is often very unpleasant,
+whilst a questionable taste is shown in ornament equally profuse and
+"baroque." Nothing is more remarkable in his pictures than the pug-like
+shape of the faces, unless we except the coarseness of the extremities.
+No trace is apparent of any feeling for atmosphere or light and shade.
+Though Grun has been commonly called the Correggio of the north, his
+compositions are a curious medley of glaring and heterogeneous colours,
+in which pure black is contrasted with pale yellow, dirty grey, impure
+red and glowing green. Flesh is a mere glaze under which the features
+are indicated by lines. His works are mainly interesting because of the
+wild and fantastic strength which some of them display. We may pass
+lightly over the "Epiphany" of 1507, the "Crucifixion" of 1512, or the
+"Stoning of Stephen" of 1522, in the Berlin Museum. There is some force
+in the "Dance of Death" of 1517, in the museum of Basel, or the
+"Madonna" of 1530, in the Liechtenstein Gallery at Vienna. Grun's best
+effort is the altarpiece of Freiburg, where the "Coronation of the
+Virgin," and the "Twelve Apostles," the "Annunciation, Visitation,
+Nativity and Flight into Egypt," and the "Crucifixion," with portraits
+of donors, are executed with some of that fanciful power which Martin
+Schon bequeathed to the Swabian school. As a portrait painter he is well
+known. He drew the likeness of Charles V., as well as that of
+Maximilian; and his bust of Margrave Philip in the Munich Gallery tells
+us that he was connected with the reigning family of Baden as early as
+1514. At a later period he had sittings from Margrave Christopher of
+Baden, Ottilia his wife, and all their children, and the picture
+containing these portraits is still in the grand-ducal gallery at
+Carlsruhe. Like Durer and Cranach, Grun became a hearty supporter of the
+Reformation. He was present at the diet of Augsburg in 1518, and one of
+his woodcuts represents Luther under the protection of the Holy Ghost,
+which hovers over him in the shape of a dove.
+
+
+
+
+GRUNBERG, a town of Germany, in Prussian Silesia, beautifully situated
+between two hills on an affluent of the Oder, and on the railway from
+Breslau to Stettin via Kustrin, 36 m. N.N.W. of Glogau. Pop. (1905)
+20,987. It has a Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches, a modern
+school and a technical (textiles) school. There are manufactures of
+cloth, paper, machinery, straw hats, leather and tobacco. The prosperity
+of the town depends chiefly on the vine culture in the neighbourhood,
+from which, besides the exportation of a large quantity of grapes, about
+700,000 gallons of wine are manufactured annually.
+
+
+
+
+GRUNDTVIG, NIKOLAI FREDERIK SEVERIN (1783-1872), Danish poet, statesman
+and divine, was born at the parsonage of Udby in Zealand on the 8th of
+September 1783. In 1791 he was sent to live at the house of a priest in
+Jutland, and studied at the free school of Aarhuus until he went up to
+the university of Copenhagen in 1800. At the close of his university
+life he made Icelandic his special study, until in 1805 he took the
+position of tutor in a house on the island of Langeland. The next three
+years were spent in the study of Shakespeare, Schiller and Fichte. His
+cousin, the philosopher Henrik Steffens, had returned to Copenhagen in
+1802 full of the teaching of Schelling and his lectures and the early
+poetry of Ohlenschlager opened the eyes of Grundtvig to the new era in
+literature. His first work, _On the Songs in the Edda_, attracted no
+attention. Returning to Copenhagen in 1808 he achieved greater success
+with his _Northern Mythology_, and again in 1809-1811 with a long epic
+poem, the _Decline of the Heroic Life in the North_. The boldness of the
+theological views expressed in his first sermon in 1810 offended the
+ecclesiastical authorities, and he retired to a country parish as his
+father's assistant for a while. From 1812 to 1817 he published five or
+six works, of which the _Rhyme of Roskilde_ is the most remarkable. From
+1816 to 1819 he was editor of a polemical journal entitled _Dannevirke_,
+and in 1818 to 1822 appeared his Danish paraphrases (6 vols.) of Saxo
+Grammaticus and Snorri. During these years he was preaching against
+rationalism to an enthusiastic congregation in Copenhagen, but he
+accepted in 1821 the country living of Praesto, only to return to the
+metropolis the year after. In 1825 he published a pamphlet, _The
+Church's Reply_, against H. N. Clausen, who was professor of theology in
+the university of Copenhagen. Grundtvig was publicly prosecuted and
+fined, and for seven years he was forbidden to preach, years which he
+spent in publishing a collection of his theological works, in paying two
+visits to England, and in studying Anglo-Saxon. In 1832 he obtained
+permission to preach again, and in 1839 he became priest of the
+workhouse church of Vartov hospital, Copenhagen, a post he continued to
+hold until his death. In 1837-1841 he published _Songs for the Danish
+Church_, a rich collection of sacred poetry; in 1838 he brought out a
+selection of early Scandinavian verse; in 1840 he edited the Anglo-Saxon
+poem of the _Phoenix_, with a Danish translation. He visited England a
+third time in 1843. From 1844 until after the first German war Grundtvig
+took a very prominent part in politics. In 1861 he received the titular
+rank of bishop, but without a see. He went on writing occasional poems
+till 1866, and preached in the Vartov every Sunday until a month before
+his death. His preaching attracted large congregations, and he soon had
+a following. His hymn-book effected a great change in Danish church
+services, substituting the hymns of the national poets for the slow
+measures of the orthodox Lutherans. The chief characteristic of his
+theology was the substitution of the authority of the "living word" for
+the apostolic commentaries, and he desired to see each congregation a
+practically independent community. His patriotism was almost a part of
+his religion, and he established popular schools where the national
+poetry and history should form an essential part of the instruction. His
+followers are known as Grundtvigians. He was married three times, the
+last time in his seventy-sixth year. He died on the 2nd of September
+1872. Grundtvig holds a unique position in the literature of his
+country; he has been styled the Danish Carlyle. He was above all things
+a man of action, not an artist; and the formless vehemence of his
+writings, which have had a great influence over his own countrymen, is
+hardly agreeable or intelligible to a foreigner. The best of his
+poetical works were published in a selection (7 vols., 1880-1889) by his
+eldest son, Svend Hersleb Grundtvig (1824-1883), who was an authority on
+Scandinavian antiquities, and made an admirable collection of old Danish
+poetry (_Danmarks gamle Folkeviser_, 1853-1883, 5 vols.; completed in
+1891 by A. Olrik).
+
+  His correspondence with Ingemann was edited by S. Grundtvig (1882);
+  his correspondence with Christian Molbech by L. Schroder (1888); see
+  also F. Winkel Horn, _Grundtvigs Liv og Gjerning_ (1883); and an
+  article by F. Nielsen in Bricka's _Dansk Biografisk Lexikon_.
+
+
+
+
+GRUNDY, SYDNEY (1848-   ), English dramatist, was born at Manchester on
+the 23rd of March 1848, son of Alderman Charles Sydney Grundy. He was
+educated at Owens College, Manchester, and was called to the bar in
+1869, practising in Manchester until 1876. His farce, _A Little Change_,
+was produced at the Haymarket Theatre in 1872. He became well known as
+an adapter of plays, among his early successes in this direction being
+_The Snowball_ (Strand Theatre, 1879) from _Oscar, ou le mari qui trompe
+sa femme_ by MM. Scribe and Duvergne, and _In Honour Bound_ (1880) from
+Scribe's _Une Chaine_. In 1887 he made a popular success with _The Bells
+of Haslemere_, written with Mr H. Pettitt and produced at the Adelphi.
+In 1889-1890 he produced two ingenious original comedies, _A White Lie_
+(Court Theatre) and _A Fool's Paradise_ (Gaiety Theatre), which had been
+played two years earlier at Greenwich as _The Mouse-Trap_. These were
+followed by _Sowing the Wind_ (Comedy, 1893), _An Old Jew_ (Garrick,
+1894), and by an adaptation of Octave Feuillet's _Montjoye as A Bunch of
+Violets_ (Haymarket, 1894). In 1894 he produced _The New Woman_ and _The
+Slaves of the Ring_; in 1895, _The Greatest of These_, played by Mr and
+Mrs Kendal at the Garrick Theatre; _The Degenerates_ (Haymarket, 1899),
+and _A Debt of Honour_ (St James's 1900). Among Mr Grundy's most
+successful adaptations were the charming _Pair of Spectacles_ (Garrick,
+1890) from _Les Petits Oiseaux_ of MM. Labiche and Delacour. Others
+were _A Village Priest_ (Haymarket, 1890) from _Le Secret de la
+terreuse_, a melodrama by MM. Busnach and Cauvin; _A Marriage of
+Convenience_ (Haymarket, 1897) from _Un Mariage de Louis XV_, by Alex.
+Dumas, pere, _The Silver Key_ (Her Majesty's, 1897) from his _Mlle de
+Belle-isle_, and _The Musqueteers_ (1899) from the same author's novel;
+_Frocks and Frills_ (Haymarket, 1902) from the _Doigts de fees_ of MM.
+Scribe and Legouve; _The Garden of Lies_ (St James's Theatre, 1904) from
+Mr Justus Miles Forman's novel; _Business is Business_ (His Majesty's
+Theatre, 1905), a rather free adaptation from Octave Mirbeau's _Les
+Affaires sont les affaires_; and _The Diplomatists_ (Royalty Theatre,
+1905) from _La Poudre aux yeux_, by Labiche.
+
+
+
+
+GRUNDY, MRS, the name of an imaginary English character, who typifies
+the disciplinary control of the conventional "proprieties" of society
+over conduct, the tyrannical pressure of the opinion of neighbours on
+the acts of others. The name appears in a play of Thomas Morton, _Speed
+the Plough_ (1798), in which one of the characters, Dame Ashfield,
+continually refers to what her neighbour Mrs Grundy will say as the
+criterion of respectability. Mrs Grundy is not a character in the play,
+but is a kind of "Mrs Harris" to Dame Ashfield.
+
+
+
+
+GRUNER, GOTTLIEB SIGMUND (1717-1778), the author of the first connected
+attempt to describe in detail the snowy mountains of Switzerland. His
+father, Johann Rudolf Gruner (1680-1761), was pastor of Trachselwald, in
+the Bernese Emmenthal (1705), and later (1725) of Burgdorf, and a great
+collector of information relating to historical and scientific matters;
+his great _Thesaurus topographico-historicus totius ditionis Bernensis_
+(4 vols. folio, 1729-1730) still remains in MS., but in 1732 he
+published a small work entitled _Deliciae urbis Bernae_, while he
+possessed an extensive cabinet of natural history objects. Naturally
+such tastes had a great influence on the mind of his son, who was born
+at Trachselwald, and educated by his father and at the Latin school at
+Burgdorf, not going to Berne much before 1736, when he published a
+dissertation on the use of fire by the heathen. In 1739 he qualified as
+a notary, in 1741 became the archivist of Hesse-Homburg, and in 1743
+accompanied Prince Christian of Anhalt-Schaumburg to Silesia and the
+university of Halle. He returned to his native land before 1749, when he
+obtained a post at Thorberg, being transferred in 1764 to Landshut and
+Fraubrunnen. It was in 1760 that he published in 3 vols. at Berne his
+chief work, _Die Eisgebirge des Schweizerlandes_ (bad French translation
+by M. de Keralio, Paris, 1770). The first two volumes are filled by a
+detailed description of the snowy Swiss mountains, based not so much on
+personal experience as on older works, and a very large number of
+communications received by Gruner from numerous friends; the third
+volume deals with glaciers in general, and their various properties.
+Though in many respects imperfect, Gruner's book sums up all that was
+known on the subject in his day, and forms the starting-point for later
+writers. The illustrations are very curious and interesting. In 1778 he
+republished (nominally in London, really at Berne) much of the
+information contained in his larger work, but thrown into the form of
+letters, supposed to be written in 1776 from various spots, under the
+title of _Reisen durch die merkwurdigsten Gegenden Helvetiens_ (2
+vols.).     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GRUNEWALD, MATHIAS. The accounts which are given of this German painter,
+a native of Aschaffenburg, are curiously contradictory. Between 1518 and
+1530, according to statements adopted by Waagen and Passavant, he was
+commissioned by Albert of Brandenburg, elector and archbishop of Mainz,
+to produce an altarpiece for the collegiate church of St Maurice and
+Mary Magdalen at Halle on the Saale; and he acquitted himself of this
+duty with such cleverness that the prelate in after years caused the
+picture to be rescued from the Reformers and brought back to
+Aschaffenburg. From one of the churches of that city it was taken to the
+Pinakothek of Munich in 1836. It represents St Maurice and Mary Magdalen
+between four saints, and displays a style so markedly characteristic,
+and so like that of Lucas Cranach, that Waagen was induced to call
+Grunewald Cranach's master. He also traced the same hand and technical
+execution in the great altarpieces of Annaberg and Heilbronn, and in
+various panels exhibited in the museums of Mainz, Darmstadt,
+Aschaffenburg, Vienna and Berlin. A later race of critics, declining to
+accept the statements of Waagen and Passavant, affirm that there is no
+documentary evidence to connect Grunewald with the pictures of Halle and
+Annaberg, and they quote Sandrart and Bernhard Jobin of Strassburg to
+show that Grunewald is the painter of pictures of a different class.
+They prove that he finished before 1516 the large altarpiece of
+Issenheim, at present in the museum of Colmar, and starting from these
+premises they connect the artist with Altdorfer and Durer to the
+exclusion of Cranach. That a native of the Palatinate should have been
+asked to execute pictures for a church in Saxony can scarcely be
+accounted strange, since we observe that Hans Baldung (Grun) was
+entrusted with a commission of this kind. But that a painter of
+Aschaffenburg should display the style of Cranach is strange and indeed
+incredible, unless vouched for by first-class evidence. In this case
+documents are altogether wanting, whilst on the other hand it is beyond
+the possibility of doubt, even according to Waagen, that the altarpiece
+of Issenheim is the creation of a man whose teaching was altogether
+different from that of the painter of the pictures of Halle and
+Annaberg. The altarpiece of Issenheim is a fine and powerful work,
+completed as local records show before 1516 by a Swabian, whose
+distinguishing mark is that he followed the traditions of Martin
+Schongauer, and came under the influence of Altdorfer and Durer. As a
+work of art the altarpiece is important, being a poliptych of eleven
+panels, a carved central shrine covered with a double set of wings, and
+two side pieces containing the Temptation of St Anthony, the hermits
+Anthony and Paul in converse, the Virgin adored by Angels, the
+Resurrection, the Annunciation, the Crucifixion, St Sebastian, St
+Anthony, and the Marys wailing over the dead body of Christ. The author
+of these compositions is also the painter of a series of monochromes
+described by Sandrart in the Dominican convent, and now in part in the
+Saalhof at Frankfort, and a Resurrection in the museum of Basel,
+registered in Amerbach's inventory as the work of Grunewald.
+
+
+
+
+GRUTER (or GRUYTERE), JAN (1560-1627), a critic and scholar of Dutch
+parentage by his father's side and English by his mother's, was born at
+Antwerp on the 3rd of December 1560. To avoid religious persecution his
+parents while he was still young came to England; and for some years he
+prosecuted his studies at Cambridge, after which he went to Leiden,
+where he graduated M. A. In 1586 he was appointed professor of history
+at Wittenberg, but as he refused to subscribe the _formula concordiae_
+he was unable to retain his office. From 1589 to 1592 he taught at
+Rostock, after which he went to Heidelberg, where in 1602 he was
+appointed librarian to the university. He died at Heidelberg on the 20th
+of September 1627.
+
+  Gruter's chief works were his _Inscriptiones antiquae totius orbis
+  Romani_ (2 vols., Heidelberg, 1603), and _Lampas, sive fax artium
+  liberalium_ (7 vols., Frankfort, 1602-1634).
+
+
+
+
+GRUYERE (Ger. _Greyerz_), a district in the south-eastern portion of the
+Swiss canton of Fribourg, famed for its cattle and its cheese, and the
+original home of the "Ranz des Vaches," the melody by which the herdsmen
+call their cows home at milking time. It is composed of the middle reach
+(from Montbovon to beyond Bulle) of the Sarine or Saane valley, with its
+tributary glens of the Hongrin (left), the Jogne (right) and the Treme
+(left), and is a delightful pastoral region (in 1901 it contained 17,364
+cattle). It forms an administrative district of the canton of Fribourg,
+its population in 1900 being 23,111, mainly French-speaking and
+Romanists. From Montbovon (11 m. by rail from Bulle) there are mountain
+railways leading S.W. past Les Avants to Montreux (14 m.), and E. up the
+Sarine valley past Chateau d'Oex to Saanen or Gessenay (14 m.), and by a
+tunnel below a low pass to the Simme valley and Spiez on the Lake of
+Thun. The modern capital of the district is the small town of Bulle
+[Ger. _Boll_], with a 13th-century castle and in 1900 3330 inhabitants,
+French-speaking and Romanists. But the historical capital is the very
+picturesque little town of _Gruyeres_ (which keeps its final "s" in
+order to distinguish it from the district), perched on a steep hill
+(S.E. of Bulle) above the left bank of the Sarine, and at a height of
+2713 ft. above the sea-level. It is only accessible by a rough carriage
+road, and boasts of a very fine old castle, at the foot of which is the
+solitary street of the town, which in 1900 had 1389 inhabitants.
+
+The castle was the seat of the counts of the Gruyere, who are first
+mentioned in 1073. The name is said to come from the word _gruyer_,
+meaning the officer of woods and forests, but the counts bore the
+canting arms of a crane (_grue_), which are seen all over the castle and
+the town. That valiant family ended (in the legitimate line) with Count
+Michel (d. 1575) whose extravagance and consequent indebtedness
+compelled him in 1555 to sell his domains to Bern and Fribourg. Bern
+took the upper Sarine valley (it still keeps Saanen at its head, but in
+1798 lost the Pays d'En-Haut to the canton du Leman, which in 1803
+became the canton of Vaud). Fribourg took the rest of the county, which
+it added to Bulle and Albeuve (taken in 1537 from the bishop of
+Lausanne), and to the lordship of Jaun in the Jaun or Jogne valley
+(bought in 1502-1504 from its lords), in order to form the present
+administrative district of Gruyere, which is not co-extensive with the
+historical county of that name.
+
+  See the materials collected by J. J. Hisely and published in
+  successive vols. of the _Memoires et documents de la suisse romande
+  ... introa. a l'hist._ (1851); Histoire (2 vols., 1855-1857); and
+  Monuments de l'histoire (2 vols., 1867-1869); K. V. von Bonstetten,
+  _Briefe uber ein schweiz. Hirtenland_ (1781) (Eng. trans., 1784); J.
+  Reichlen, _La Gruyere illustree_ (1890), seq.; H. Raemy, _La Gruyere_
+  (1867); and _Les Alpes fribourgeoises_, by many authors (Lausanne,
+  1908).     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GRYNAEUS (or GRYNER), JOHANN JAKOB (1540-1617), Swiss Protestant divine,
+was born on the 1st of October 1540 at Bern. His father, Thomas
+(1512-1564), was for a time professor of ancient languages at Basel and
+Bern, but afterwards became pastor of Roteln in Baden. He was nephew of
+the more eminent Simon Grynaeus (q.v.). Johann was educated at Basel,
+and in 1559 received an appointment as curate to his father. In 1563 he
+proceeded to Tubingen for the purpose of completing his theological
+studies, and in 1565 he returned to Roteln as successor to his father.
+Here he felt compelled to abjure the Lutheran doctrine of the Lord's
+Supper, and to renounce the _formula concordiae_. Called in 1575 to the
+chair of Old Testament exegesis at Basel, he became involved in
+unpleasant controversy with Simon Sulzer and other champions of Lutheran
+orthodoxy; and in 1584 he was glad to accept an invitation to assist in
+the restoration of the university of Heidelberg. Returning to Basel in
+1586, after Simon Sulzer's death, as _antistes_ or superintendent of the
+church there and as professor of the New Testament, he exerted for
+upwards of twenty-five years a considerable influence upon both the
+church and the state affairs of that community, and acquired a wide
+reputation as a skilful theologian of the school of Ulrich Zwingli.
+Amongst other labours he helped to reorganize the gymnasium in 1588.
+Five years before his death he became totally blind, but continued to
+preach and lecture till his death on the 13th of August 1617.
+
+  His many works include commentaries on various books of the Old and
+  New Testament, _Theologica theoremata el problemata_ (1588), and a
+  collection of patristic literature entitled _Monumenta S. patrum
+  orthodoxographa_ (2 vols., fol., 1569).
+
+
+
+
+GRYNAEUS, SIMON (1493-1541), German scholar and theologian of the
+Reformation, son of Jacob Gryner, a Swabian peasant, was born in 1493 at
+Vehringen, in Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. He adopted the name Grynaeus
+from the epithet of Apollo in Virgil. He was a schoolfellow with
+Melanchthon at Pforzheim, whence he went to the university of Vienna,
+distinguishing himself there as a Latinist and Grecian. His appointment
+as rector of a school at Buda was of no long continuance; his views
+excited the zeal of the Dominicans and he was thrown into prison.
+Gaining his freedom at the instance of Hungarian magnates, he visited
+Melanchthon at Wittenberg, and in 1524 became professor of Greek at the
+university of Heidelberg, being in addition professor of Latin from
+1526. His Zwinglian view of the Eucharist disturbed his relations with
+his Catholic colleagues. From 1526 he had corresponded with
+Oecolampadius, who in 1529 invited him to Basel, which Erasmus had just
+left. The university being disorganized, Grynaeus pursued his studies,
+and in 1531 visited England for research in libraries. A commendatory
+letter from Erasmus gained him the good offices of Sir Thomas More. He
+returned to Basel charged with the task of collecting the opinions of
+continental reformers on the subject of Henry VIII.'s divorce, and was
+present at the death of Oecolampadius (Nov. 24, 1531). He now, while
+holding the chair of Greek, was appointed extraordinary professor of
+theology, and gave exegetical lectures on the New Testament. In 1534
+Duke Ulrich called him to Wurttemberg in aid of the reformation there,
+as well as for the reconstitution of the university of Tubingen, which
+he carried out in concert with Ambrosius Blarer of Constanz. Two years
+later he had an active hand in the so-called First Helvetic Confession
+(the work of Swiss divines at Basel in January 1536); also in the
+conferences which urged the Swiss acceptance of the Wittenberg Concord
+(1536). At the Worms conference (1540) between Catholics and Protestants
+he was the sole representative of the Swiss churches, being deputed by
+the authorities of Basel. He was carried off suddenly in his prime by
+the plague at Basel on the 1st of August 1541. A brilliant scholar, a
+mediating theologian, and personally of lovable temperament, his
+influence was great and wisely exercised. Erasmus and Calvin were among
+his correspondents. His chief works were Latin versions of Plutarch,
+Aristotle and Chrysostom.
+
+His son SAMUEL (1539-1599) was professor of jurisprudence at Basel. His
+nephew THOMAS (1512?-1564) was professor at Basel and minister in Baden,
+and left four distinguished sons of whom JOHANN JAKOB (1540-1617) was a
+leader in the religious affairs of Basel. The last of the direct
+descendants of Simon Grynaeus was his namesake SIMON (1725-1799),
+translator into German of French and English anti-deistical works, and
+author of a version of the Bible in modern German (1776).
+
+  See Bayle's _Dictionnaire_; W. T. Streuber in Hauck's
+  _Realencyklopadie_ (1899); and for bibliography, Streuber's _S.
+  Grynaei epistolae_ (1847).     (A. Go.*)
+
+
+
+
+GRYPHIUS, ANDREAS (1616-1664), German lyric poet and dramatist, was born
+on the 11th of October 1616, at Grossglogau in Silesia, where his father
+was a clergyman. The family name was Greif, latinized, according to the
+prevailing fashion, as Gryphius. Left early an orphan and driven from
+his native town by the troubles of the Thirty Years' War, he received
+his schooling in various places, but notably at Fraustadt, where he
+enjoyed an excellent classical education. In 1634 he became tutor to the
+sons of the eminent jurist Georg von Schonborn (1579-1637), a man of
+wide culture and considerable wealth, who, after filling various
+administrative posts and writing many erudite volumes on law, had been
+rewarded by the emperor Ferdinand II. with the title and office of
+imperial count-palatine (_Pfalzgraf_). Schonborn, who recognized
+Gryphius's genius, crowned him _poeta laureatus_, gave him the diploma
+of master of philosophy, and bestowed on him a patent of nobility,
+though Gryphius never used the title. A month later, on the 23rd of
+December 1637, Schonborn died; and next year Gryphius went to continue
+his studies at Leiden, where he remained six years, both hearing and
+delivering lectures. Here he fell under the influence of the great Dutch
+dramatists, Pieter Cornelissen Hooft (1581-1647) and Joost van den
+Vondel (1587-1679), who largely determined the character of his later
+dramatic works. After travelling in France, Italy and South Germany,
+Gryphius settled in 1647 at Fraustadt, where he began his dramatic work,
+and in 1650 was appointed syndic of Glogau, a post he held until his
+death on the 16th of July 1664. A short time previously he had been
+admitted under the title of "The Immortal" into the _Fruchtbringende
+Gesellschaft_, a literary society, founded in 1617 by Ludwig, prince of
+Anhalt-Kothen on the model of the Italian academies.
+
+Gryphius was a man of morbid disposition, and his melancholy
+temperament, fostered by the misfortunes of his childhood, is largely
+reflected in his lyrics, of which the most famous are the
+_Kirchhofsgedanken_ (1656). His best works are his comedies, one of
+which, _Absurda Comica, oder Herr Peter Squentz_ (1663), is evidently
+based on the comic episode of Pyramus and Thisbe in _The Midsummer
+Night's Dream_. _Die geliebte Dornrose_ (1660), which is written in a
+Silesian dialect, contains many touches of natural simplicity and grace,
+and ranks high among the comparatively small number of German dramas of
+the 17th century. _Horribilicribrifax_ (1663), founded on the _Miles
+gloriosus_ of Plautus, is a rather laboured attack on pedantry. Besides
+these three comedies, Gryphius wrote five tragedies. In all of them his
+tendency is to become wild and bombastic, but he had the merit of at
+least attempting to work out artistically conceived plans, and there are
+occasional flashes both of passion and of imagination. His models seem
+to have been Seneca and Vondel. He had the courage, in _Carolus
+Stuardus_ (1649) to deal with events of his own day; his other tragedies
+are _Leo Armenius_ (1646); _Katharina von Georgien_ (1657), _Cardenio
+und Celinde_ (1657) and _Papinianus_ (1663). No German dramatic writer
+before him had risen to so high a level, nor had he worthy successors
+until about the middle of the 18th century.
+
+  A complete edition of Gryphius's dramas and lyric poetry has been
+  published by H. Palm in the series of the Stuttgart Literarische
+  Verein (3 vols., 1878, 1882, 1884). Volumes of selected works will be
+  found in W. Muller's _Bibliothek der deutschen Dichter des 17ten
+  Jahrhunderts_ (1822) and in J. Tittmann's _Deutsche Dichter des 17ten
+  Jahrhunderts_ (1870). There is also a good selection by H. Palm in
+  Kurschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_.
+
+  See O. Klopp, _Andreas Gryphius als Dramatiker_ (1851); J. Hermann,
+  _Uber Andreas Gryphius_ (1851); T. Wissowa, _Beitrage zur Kenntnis von
+  Andreas Gryphius' Leben und Schriften_ (1876); J. Wysocki, _Andreas
+  Gryphius et la tragedie allemande au XVII^e siecle_; and V.
+  Mannheimer, _Die Lyrik des Andreas Gryphius_ (1904).
+
+
+
+
+GUACHARO (said to be an obsolete Spanish word signifying one that cries,
+moans or laments loudly), the Spanish-American name of what English
+writers call the oil-bird, the _Steatornis caripensis_ of
+ornithologists, a very remarkable bird, first described by Alexander von
+Humboldt (_Voy. aux reg. equinoxiales_ i. 413, Eng. trans. iii. 119;
+_Obs. Zoologie_ ii. 141, pl. xliv.) from his own observation and from
+examples obtained by Aime J. A. Bonpland, on the visit of those two
+travellers, in September 1799, to a cave near Caripe (at that time a
+monastery of Aragonese Capuchins) some forty miles S.E. of Cumana on the
+northern coast of South America. A few years later it was discovered,
+says Latham (_Gen. Hist. Birds_, 1823, vii. 365), to inhabit Trinidad,
+where it appears to bear the name of _Diablotin_;[1] but by the receipt
+of specimens procured at Sarayacu in Peru, Cajamarca in the Peruvian
+Andes, and Antioquia in Colombia (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1878, pp. 139,
+140; 1879, p. 532), its range has been shown to be much greater than had
+been supposed. The singularity of its structure, its curious habits, and
+its peculiar economical value have naturally attracted no little
+attention from zoologists. First referring it to the genus
+_Caprimulgus_, its original describer soon saw that it was no true
+goatsucker. It was subsequently separated as forming a subfamily, and
+has at last been regarded as the type of a distinct family,
+_Steatornithidae_--a view which, though not put forth till 1870 (_Zool.
+Record_, vi. 67), seems now to be generally deemed correct. Its
+systematic position, however, can scarcely be considered settled, for
+though on the whole its predominating alliance may be with the
+_Caprimulgidae_, nearly as much affinity may be traced to the
+_Strigidae_, while it possesses some characters in which it differs from
+both (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1873, pp. 526-535). About as big as a crow,
+its plumage exhibits the blended tints of chocolate-colour and grey,
+barred and pencilled with dark-brown or black, and spotted in places
+with white, that prevail in the two families just named. The beak is
+hard, strong and deeply notched, the nostrils are prominent, and the
+gape is furnished with twelve long hairs on each side. The legs and toes
+are comparatively feeble, but the wings are large. In habits the
+guacharo is wholly nocturnal, slumbering by day in deep and dark caverns
+which it frequents in vast numbers. Towards evening it arouses itself,
+and, with croaking and clattering which has been likened to that of
+castanets, it approaches the exit of its retreat, whence at nightfall it
+issues in search of its food, which, so far as is known, consists
+entirely of oily nuts or fruits, belonging especially to the genera
+_Achras_, _Aiphanas_, _Laurus_ and _Psichotria_, some of them sought, it
+would seem, at a very great distance, for Funck (_Bull. Acad. Sc.
+Bruxelles_ xi. pt. 2, pp. 371-377) states that in the stomach of one he
+obtained at Caripe he found the seed of a tree which he believed did not
+grow nearer than 80 leagues. The hard, indigestible seed swallowed by
+the guacharo are found in quantities on the floor and the ledges of the
+caverns it frequents, where many of them for a time vegetate, the plants
+thus growing being etiolated from want of light, and, according to
+travellers, forming a singular feature of the gloomy scene which these
+places present. The guacharo is said to build a bowl-like nest of clay,
+in which it lays from two to four white eggs, with a smooth but
+lustreless surface, resembling those of some owls. The young soon after
+they are hatched become a perfect mass of fat, and while yet in the nest
+are sought by the Indians, who at Caripe, and perhaps elsewhere, make a
+special business of taking them and extracting the oil they contain.
+This is done about midsummer, when by the aid of torches and long poles
+many thousands of the young birds are slaughtered, while their parents
+in alarm and rage hover over the destroyers' heads, uttering harsh and
+deafening cries. The grease is melted over fires kindled at the cavern's
+mouth, run into earthen pots, and preserved for use in cooking as well
+as for the lighting of lamps. It is said to be pure and limpid, free
+from any disagreeable taste or smell, and capable of being kept for a
+year without turning rancid. In Trinidad the young are esteemed s great
+delicacy for the table by many, though some persons object to their
+peculiar scent, which resembles that of a cockroach (_Blatta_), and
+consequently refuse to eat them. The old birds also, according to E. C.
+Taylor (_Ibis_, 1864, p. 90), have a strong crow-like odour. But one
+species of the genus _Steatornis_ is known.
+
+  In addition to the works above quoted valuable information about this
+  curious bird may be found under the following references: L'Herminier,
+  _Ann. Sc. Nat._ (1836), p. 60, and _Nouv. Ann. Mus._ (1838), p. 321;
+  Hautessier, Rev. Zool. (1838), p. 164; J. Muller, _Monatsb. Berl.
+  Acad._ (1841), p. 172, and _Archiv fur Anat._ (1862), pp. 1-11; des
+  Murs, _Rev. zool._ (1843), p. 32, and _Ool. Orn._ pp. 260-263;
+  Blanchard, _Ann. Mus._ (1859), xi. pl. 4, fig. 30; Konig-Warthausen,
+  _Journ. fur Orn._ (1868), pp. 384-387; Goering, _Vargasia_ (1869), pp.
+  124-128; Murie, _Ibis_ (1873), pp. 81-86.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Not to be confounded with the bird so called in the French
+    Antilles, which is a petrel (_Oestrelata_).
+
+
+
+
+GUACO, HUACO or GUAO, also Vejuco and Bejuco, terms applied to various
+Central and South American and West Indian plants, in repute for
+curative virtues. The Indians and negroes of Colombia believe the plants
+known to them as guaco to have been so named after a species of kite,
+thus designated in imitation of its cry, which they say attracts to it
+the snakes that serve it principally for food; they further hold the
+tradition that their antidotal qualities were discovered through the
+observation that the bird eats of their leaves, and even spreads the
+juice of the same on its wings, during contests with its prey. The
+disputes that have arisen as to what is "the true guaco" are to be
+attributed mainly to the fact that the names of the American Indians for
+all natural objects are generic, and their genera not always in
+coincidence with those of naturalists. Thus any twining plant with a
+heart-shaped leaf, white and green above and purple beneath, is called
+by them guaco (R. Spruce, in Howard's _Neueva Quinologia_, "Cinchona
+succirubra," p. 22, note). What is most commonly recognized in Colombia
+as guaco, or _Vejuco del guaco_, would appear to be _Mikania Guaco_
+(Humboldt and Bonpland, _Pl. equinox_, ii. 84, pl. 105, 1809), a
+climbing Composite plant of the tribe _Eupatoriaceae_, affecting moist
+and shady situations, and having a much-branched and deep-growing root,
+variegated, serrate, opposite leaves and dull-white flowers, in axillary
+clusters. The whole plant emits a disagreeable odour. It is stated that
+the Indians of Central America, after having "guaconized" themselves,
+i.e. taken guaco, catch with impunity the most dangerous snakes, which
+writhe in their hands as though touched by a hot iron (B. Seemann,
+_Hooker's Journ. of Bot._ v. 76, 1853). The odour alone of guaco has
+been said to cause in snakes a state of stupor and torpidity; and
+Humboldt, who observed that the near approach of a rod steeped in
+guaco-juice was obnoxious to the venomous _Coluber corallinus_, was of
+opinion that inoculation with it imparts to the perspiration an odour
+which makes reptiles unwilling to bite. The drug is not used in modern
+therapeutics.
+
+
+
+
+GUADALAJARA, an inland city of Mexico and capital of the state of
+Jalisco, 275 m. (direct) W.N.W. of the Federal capital, in lat. 20 deg.
+41' 10" N., long. 103 deg. 21' 15" W. Pop. (1895) 83,934; (1900)
+101,208. Guadalajara is served by a short branch of the Mexican Central
+railway from Irapuato. The city is in the Antemarac valley near the Rio
+Grande de Santiago, 5092 ft. above sea-level. Its climate is dry, mild
+and healthy, though subject to sudden changes. The city is well built,
+with straight and well-paved streets, numerous plazas, public gardens
+and shady promenades. Its public services include tramways and electric
+lighting, the Juanacatlan falls of the Rio Grande near the city
+furnishing the electric power. Guadalajara is an episcopal see, and its
+cathedral, built between 1571 and 1618, is one of the largest and most
+elaborately decorated churches in Mexico. The government palace, which
+like the cathedral faces upon the _plaza mayor_, is generally considered
+one of the finest specimens of Spanish architecture in Mexico. Other
+important edifices and institutions are the university, with its schools
+of law and medicine, the mint, built in 1811, the modern national
+college and high schools, a public library of over 28,000 volumes, an
+episcopal seminary, an academy of fine arts, the Teatro Degollado, and
+the large modern granite building of the penitentiary. There are many
+interesting churches and eleven conventual establishments in the city.
+Charitable institutions of a high character are also prominent, among
+which are the Hospicio, which includes an asylum for the aged, infirm,
+blind, deaf and dumb, foundlings and orphans, a primary school for both
+sexes, and a girls' training school, and the Hospital de San Miguel de
+Belen, which is a hospital, an insane asylum, and a school for little
+children. One of the most popular public resorts of the city is the
+_Paseo_, a beautiful drive and promenade extending along both banks of
+the Rio San Juan de Dios for 1-1/4 m. and terminating in the _alameda_,
+or public garden. The city has a good water-supply, derived from springs
+and brought in through an aqueduct 8 m. long. Guadalajara is surrounded
+by a fertile agricultural district and is an important commercial town,
+but the city is chiefly distinguished as the centre of the iron, steel
+and glass industries of Mexico. It is also widely known for the artistic
+pottery manufactured by the Indians of the city and of its suburb, San
+Pedro. Among other prominent industries are the manufacture of cotton
+and woollen goods, leather, furniture, hats and sweetmeats. Guadalajara
+was founded in 1531 by Nuno de Guzman, and became the seat of a bishop
+in 1549. The Calderon bridge near the city was the scene of a serious
+defeat of the revolutionists under Hidalgo in January 1811. The severe
+earthquake of the 31st of May 1818 partially destroyed the two cathedral
+steeples; and that of the 11th of March 1875 damaged many of the larger
+buildings. The population includes large Indian and mestizo elements.
+
+
+
+
+GUADALAJARA, a province of central Spain, formed in 1833 of districts
+taken from New Castile; bounded on the N. by Segovia, Soria and
+Saragossa, E. by Saragossa and Teruel, S. by Cuenca and W. by Madrid.
+Pop. (1900) 200,186; area, 4676 sq. m. Along the northern frontier of
+Guadalajara rise the lofty Guadarrama mountains, culminating in the
+peaks of La Cebollera (6955 ft.) and Ocejon (6775 ft.); the rest of the
+province, apart from several lower ranges in the east, belongs to the
+elevated plateau of New Castile, and has a level or slightly undulating
+surface, which forms the upper basin of the river Tagus, and is watered
+by its tributaries the Tajuna, Henares, Jarama and Gallo. The climate of
+this region, as of Castile generally, is marked by the extreme severity
+of its winter cold and summer heat; the soil varies very much in
+quality, but is fertile enough in many districts, notably the cornlands
+of the Alcarria, towards the south. Few of the cork and oak forests
+which formerly covered the mountains have escaped destruction; and the
+higher tracts of land are mainly pasture for the sheep and goats which
+form the principal wealth of the peasantry. Grain, olive oil, wine,
+saffron, silk and flax are produced, but agriculture makes little
+progress, owing to defective communications and unscientific farming. In
+1903, the only minerals worked were common salt and silver, and the
+total output of the mines was valued at L25,000. Deposits of iron, lead
+and gold also exist and were worked by the Romans; but their
+exploitation proved unprofitable when renewed in the 19th century. Trade
+is stagnant and the local industries are those common to almost all
+Spanish towns and villages, such as the manufacture of coarse cloth and
+pottery. The Madrid-Saragossa railway traverses the province for 70 m.;
+the roads are ill-kept and insufficient. Guadalajara (11,144) is the
+capital, and the only town with more than 5000 inhabitants; Molina de
+Aragon, a fortified town built at the foot of the Parameras de Molina
+(2500-3500 ft.), and on the right bank of the Gallo, a tributary of the
+Tagus, is of some importance as an agricultural centre. Siguenza, on the
+railway, is an episcopal city, with a fine Romanesque cathedral dating
+from the 11th century. It is probably the ancient _Segontia_, founded in
+218 B.C. by refugees from Saguntum. The population of the province,
+which numbers only 42 per sq. m., decreased slightly between 1870 and
+1900, and extreme poverty compels many families to emigrate (see also
+CASTILE).
+
+
+
+
+GUADALAJARA, the capital of the Spanish province of Guadalajara, on the
+left bank of the river Henares, and on the Madrid-Saragossa railway, 35
+m. E.N.E. of Madrid. Pop. (1900) 11,144. Guadalajara is a picturesque
+town, occupying a somewhat sterile plain, 2100 ft. above the sea. A
+Roman aqueduct and the Roman foundations of the bridge built in 1758
+across the Henares bear witness to its antiquity. Under Roman and
+Visigothic rule it was known as _Arriaca_ or _Caraca_; its present name,
+which sometimes appears in medieval chronicles as _Godelfare_,
+represents the _Wad-al-hajarah_, or "Valley of Stones," of the Moors,
+who occupied the town from 714 until 1081, when it was captured by Alvar
+Yanez de Minaya, a comrade of the more famous Cid. The church of Santa
+Maria contains the image of the "Virgin of Battles," which accompanied
+Alphonso VI. of Castile (1072-1109) on his campaigns against the Moors;
+and there are several other ancient and interesting churches in
+Guadalajara, besides two palaces, dating from the 15th century, and
+built with that blend of Christian and Moorish architecture which
+Spaniards call the _Mudejar_ style. The more important of these is the
+palace of the ducal house del Infantado, formerly owned by the Mendoza
+family, whose _panteon_, or mausoleum, added between 1696 and 1720 to
+the 13th-century church of San Francisco, is remarkable for the rich
+sculpture of its tombs. The town and provincial halls date from 1585,
+and the college of engineers was originally built by Philip V., early in
+the 18th century, as a cloth factory. Manufactures of soap, leather,
+woollen fabrics and bricks have superseded the original cloth-weaving
+industry for which Guadalajara was long celebrated; there is also a
+considerable trade in agricultural produce.
+
+
+
+
+GUADALQUIVIR (ancient _Baetis_, Moorish _Wadi al Kebir_, "the Great
+River"), a river of southern Spain. What is regarded as the main stream
+rises 4475 ft. above sea-level between the Sierra de Cazorla and Sierra
+del Pozo, in the province of Jaen. It does not become a large river
+until it is joined by the Guadiana Menor (Guadianamenor) on the left,
+and the Guadalimar on the right. Lower down it receives many
+tributaries, the chief being the Genil or Jenil, from the left. The
+general direction of the river is west by south, but a few miles above
+Seville it changes to south by west. Below Coria it traverses the series
+of broad fens known as Las Marismas, the greatest area of swamp in the
+Iberian Peninsula. Here it forms two subsidiary channels, the western 31
+m., the eastern 12 m. long, which rejoin the main stream on the borders
+of the province of Cadiz. Below Sanlucar the river enters the Atlantic
+after a total course of 360 m. It drains an area of 21,865 sq. m. Though
+the shortest of the great rivers of the peninsula, it is the only one
+which flows at all seasons with a full stream, being fed in winter by
+the rains, in summer by the melted snows of the Sierra Nevada. In the
+time of the Moors it was navigable up to Cordova, but owing to the
+accumulation of silt in its lower reaches it is now only navigable up to
+Seville by vessels of 1200 to 1500 tons.
+
+
+
+
+GUADELOUPE, a French colony in the West Indies, lying between the
+British islands of Montserrat on the N., and Dominica on the S., between
+15 deg. 59' and 16 deg. 20' N. and 61 deg. 31' and 61 deg. 50' W. It
+consists of two entirely distinct islands, separated by a narrow arm of
+the sea, Riviere Salee (Salt river), varying from 100 ft. to 400 ft. in
+width and navigable for small vessels. The western island, a rugged mass
+of ridges, peaks and lofty uplands, is called Basse-Terre, while the
+eastern and smaller island, the real low-land, is known as Grande-Terre.
+A sinuous ridge runs through Basse-Terre from N. to S. In the north-west
+rises the peak of Grosse Montagne (2370 ft.), from which sharp spurs
+radiate in all directions; near the middle of the west coast are the
+twin heights of Les Mamelles (2536 ft. and 2368 ft.). Farther south the
+highest elevation is attained in La Soufriere (4900 ft.). In 1797 this
+volcano was active, and in 1843 its convulsions laid several towns in
+ruins; but a few thermal springs and solfataras emitting vapour are now
+its only signs of activity. The range terminates in the extreme south in
+the jagged peak of Caraibe (2300 ft.). Basse-Terre is supremely
+beautiful, its cloud-capped mountains being clothed with a mantle of
+luxuriant vegetation. On Grande-Terre the highest elevation is only 450
+ft., and this island is the seat of extensive sugar plantations. It
+consists of a plain composed mainly of limestone and a conglomerate of
+sand and broken shells known as _maconne de bon dieu_, much used for
+building. The bay between the two sections of Guadeloupe on the north is
+called Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin, that on the south being Petit Cul-de-Sac
+Marin. Basse-Terre (364 sq. m.) is 28 m. long by 12 m. to 15 m. wide;
+Grande-Terre (255 sq. m.) is 22 m. long from N. to S., of irregular
+shape, with a long peninsula, Chateaux Point, stretching from the
+south-eastern extremity. Basse-Terre is watered by a considerable number
+of streams, most of which in the rainy season are liable to sudden
+floods (locally called _galions_), but Grande-Terre is practically
+destitute of springs, and the water-supply is derived almost entirely
+from ponds and cisterns.
+
+The west half of the island consists of a foundation of old eruptive
+rocks upon which rest the recent accumulations of the great volcanic
+cones, together with mechanical deposits derived from the denudation of
+the older rocks. Grande-Terre on the other hand, consists chiefly of
+nearly horizontal limestones lying conformably upon a series of fine
+tuffs and ashes, the whole belonging to the early part of the Tertiary
+system (probably Eocene and Oligocene). Occasional deposits of marl and
+limestone of late Pliocene age rest unconformably upon these older beds;
+and near the coast there are raised coral reefs of modern date.
+
+The mean annual temperature is 78 deg. F., and the minimum 61 deg. F.,
+and the maximum 101 deg. F. From July to November heavy rains fall, the
+annual average on the coast being 86 in., while in the interior it is
+much greater. Guadeloupe is subject to terrible storms. In 1825 a
+hurricane destroyed the town of Basse-Terre, and Grand Bourg in Marie
+Galante suffered a like fate in 1865. The soil is rich and fruitful,
+sugar having long been its staple product. The other crops include
+cereals, cocoa, cotton, manioc, yams and rubber; tobacco, vanilla,
+coffee and bananas are grown, but in smaller quantities. Over 30% of the
+total area is under cultivation, and of this more than 50% is under
+sugar. The centres of this industry are St Anne, Pointe-a-Pitre and Le
+Moule, where there are well-equipped _usines_, and there is also a large
+_usine_ at Basse-Terre. The forests, confined to the island of
+Basse-Terre, are extensive and rich in valuable woods, but, being
+difficult of access, are not worked. Salt and sulphur are the only
+minerals extracted, and in addition to the sugar _usines_, there are
+factories for the making of rum, liqueurs, chocolate, besides
+fruit-canning works and tanneries. France takes most of the exports; and
+next to France, the United States, Great Britain and India are the
+countries most interested in the import trade.
+
+The inhabitants of Guadeloupe consist of a few white officials and
+planters, a few East Indian immigrants from the French possessions in
+India, and the rest negroes and mulattoes. These mulattoes are famous
+for their grace and beauty of both form and feature. The women greatly
+outnumber the men, and there is a very large percentage of illegitimate
+births. Pop. (1900) 182,112.
+
+The governor is assisted by a privy council, a director of the interior,
+a procurator-general and a paymaster, and there is also an elected
+legislative council of 30 members. The colony forms a department of
+France and is represented in the French parliament by a senator and two
+deputies. Political elections are very eagerly contested, the mulatto
+element always striving to gain the preponderance of power.
+
+The seat of government, of the Apostolic administration and of the court
+of appeal is at Basse-Terre (7762), which is situated on the south-west
+coast of the island of that name. It is a picturesque, healthy town
+standing on an open roadstead. Pointe-a-Pitre (17,242), the largest
+town, lies in Grande-Terre near the mouth of the Riviere Salee. Its
+excellent harbour has made it the chief port and commercial capital of
+the colony. Le Moule (10,378) on the east coast of Grande-Terre does a
+considerable export trade in sugar, despite its poor harbour. Of the
+other towns, St Anne (9497), Morne a l'Eau (8442), Petit Canal (6748),
+St Francois (5265), Petit Bourg (5110) and Trois Rivieres (5016), are
+the most important.
+
+Round Guadeloupe are grouped its dependencies, namely, La Desirade, 6 m.
+E., a narrow rugged island 10 sq. m. in area; Marie Galante 16 m. S.E.
+Les Saintes, a group of seven small islands, 7 m. S., one of the
+strategic points of the Antilles, with a magnificent and strongly
+fortified naval harbour; St Martin, 142 m. N.N.W.; and St Bartholomew,
+130 m. N.N.W.
+
+_History._--Guadeloupe was discovered by Columbus in 1493, and received
+its name in honour of the monastery of S. Maria de Guadalupe at
+Estremadura in Spain. In 1635 l'Olive and Duplessis took possession of
+it in the name of the French Company of the Islands of America, and
+l'Olive exterminated the Caribs with great cruelty. Four chartered
+companies were ruined in their attempts to colonize the island, and in
+1674 it passed into the possession of the French crown and long remained
+a dependency of Martinique. After unsuccessful attempts in 1666, 1691
+and 1703, the British captured the island in 1759, and held it for four
+years. Guadeloupe was finally separated from Martinique in 1775, but it
+remained under the governor of the French Windward Islands. In 1782
+Rodney defeated the French fleet near the island, and the British again
+obtained possession in April 1794, but in the following summer they were
+driven out by Victor Hugues with the assistance of the slaves whom he
+had liberated for the purpose. In 1802 Bonaparte, then first consul,
+sent an expedition to the island in order to re-establish slavery, but,
+after a heroic defence, many of the negroes preferred suicide to
+submission. During the Hundred Days in 1810, the British once more
+occupied the island, but, in spite of its cession to Sweden by the
+treaty of 1813 and a French invasion in 1814, they did not withdraw till
+1816. Between 1816 and 1825 the code of laws peculiar to the island was
+introduced. Municipal institutions were established in 1837; and slavery
+was finally abolished in 1848.
+
+
+
+
+GUADET, MARGUERITE ELIE (1758-1794), French Revolutionist, was born at
+St Emilion near Bordeaux on the 20th of July 1758. When the Revolution
+broke out he had already gained a reputation as a brilliant advocate at
+Bordeaux. In 1790 he was made administrator of the Gironde and in 1791
+president of the criminal tribunal. In this year he was elected to the
+Legislative Assembly as one of the brilliant group of deputies known
+subsequently as Girondins or Girondists. As a supporter of the
+constitution of 1791 he joined the Jacobin club, and here and in the
+Assembly became an eloquent advocate of all the measures directed
+against real or supposed traitors to the constitution. He bitterly
+attacked the ministers of Louis XVI., and was largely instrumental in
+forcing the king to accept the Girondist ministry of the 15th of March
+1792. He was an ardent advocate of the policy of forcing Louis XVI.
+into harmony with the Revolution; moved (May 3) for the dismissal of the
+king's non-juring confessor, for the banishment of all non-juring
+priests (May 16), for the disbandment of the royal guard (May 30), and
+the formation in Paris of a camp of _federes_ (June 4). He remained a
+royalist, however, and with Gensonne and Vergniaud even addressed a
+letter to the king soliciting a private interview. Whatever negotiations
+may have resulted, however, were cut short by the insurrection of the
+10th of August. Guadet, who presided over the Assembly during part of
+this fateful day, put himself into vigorous opposition to the
+insurrectionary Commune of Paris, and it was on his motion that on the
+30th of August the Assembly voted its dissolution--a decision reversed
+on the following day. In September Guadet was returned by a large
+majority as deputy to the Convention. At the trial of Louis XVI. he
+voted for an appeal to the people and for the death sentence, but with a
+respite pending appeal. In March 1793 he had several conferences with
+Danton, who was anxious to bring about a _rapprochement_ between the
+Girondists and the Mountain during the war in La Vendee, but he
+unconditionally refused to join hands with the man whom he held
+responsible for the massacres of September. Involved in the fall of the
+Girondists, and his arrest being decreed on the 2nd of June 1793, he
+fled to Caen, and afterwards hid in his father's house at St Emilion. He
+was discovered and taken to Bordeaux, where, after his identity had been
+established, he was guillotined on the 17th of June 1794.
+
+  See J. Guadet, _Les Girondins_ (Paris, 1889); and F. A. Aulard, _Les
+  Orateurs de la legislative et de la convention_ (Paris, 2nd ed.,
+  1906).
+
+
+
+
+GUADIANA (anc. _Anas_, Moorish _Wadi Ana_), a river of Spain and
+Portugal. The Guadiana was long believed to rise in the lowland known as
+the Campo de Montiel, where a chain of small lakes, the Lagunas de
+Ruidera (partly in Ciudad Real, partly in Albacete), are linked together
+by the Guadiana Alto or Upper Guadiana. This stream flows north-westward
+from the last lake and vanishes underground within 3 m. of the river
+Zancara or Giguela. About 22 m. S.W. of the point of disappearance, the
+Guadiana Alto was believed to re-emerge in the form of several large
+springs, which form numerous lakes near the Zancara and are known as the
+"eyes of the Guadiana" (_los ojos de Guadiana_). The stream which
+connects them with the Zancara is called the Guadiana Bajo or Lower
+Guadiana. It is now known that the Guadiana Alto has no such course, but
+flows underground to the Zancara itself, which is the true "Upper
+Guadiana." The Zancara rises near the source of the Jucar, in the east
+of the tableland of La Mancha; thence it flows westward, assuming the
+name of Guadiana near Ciudad Real, and reaching the Portuguese frontier
+6 m. S.W. of Badajoz. In piercing the Sierra Morena it forms a series of
+foaming rapids, and only begins to be navigable at Mertola, 42 m. from
+its mouth. From the neighbourhood of Badajoz it forms the boundary
+between Spain and Portugal as far as a point near Monsaraz, where it
+receives the small river Priega Munoz on the left, and passes into
+Portuguese territory, with a southerly direction. At Pomarao it again
+becomes a frontier stream and forms a broad estuary 25 m. long. It
+enters the Gulf of Cadiz between the Portuguese town of Villa Real de
+Santo Antonio and the Spanish Ayamonte, after a total course of 510 m.
+Its mouth is divided by sandbanks into many channels. The Guadiana
+drains an area of 31,940 sq. m. Its principal tributaries are the Zujar,
+Jabalon, Matachel and Ardila from the left; the Bullaque, Ruecas, Botoa,
+Degebe and Cobres from the right.
+
+The GUADIANA MENOR (or _Guadianamenor_, i.e. "Lesser Guadiana") rises in
+the Sierra Nevada, receives two large tributaries, the Fardes from the
+right and Barbata from the left, and enters the Guadalquivir near Ubeda,
+after a course of 95 m.
+
+
+
+
+GUADIX, a city of southern Spain, in the province of Granada; on the
+left bank of the river Guadix, a subtributary of the Guadiana Menor, and
+on the Madrid-Valdepenas-Almeria railway. Pop. (1900) 12,652. Guadix
+occupies part of an elevated plateau among the northern foothills of the
+Sierra Nevada. It is surrounded by ancient walls, and was formerly
+dominated by a Moorish castle, now in ruins. It is an episcopal see of
+great antiquity, but its cathedral, built in the 18th century on the
+site of a mosque, possesses little architectural merit. The city was
+once famous for its cutlery; but its modern manufactures (chiefly
+earthenware, hempen goods, and hats) are inconsiderable. It has some
+trade in wool, cotton, flax, corn and liqueurs. The warm mineral springs
+of Graena, much frequented during the summer, are 6 m. W. Guadix el
+Viejo, 5 m. N.W., was the Roman _Acci_, and, according to tradition, the
+seat of the first Iberian bishopric, in the 2nd century. After 711 it
+rose to some importance as a Moorish fortress and trading station, and
+was renamed _Wad Ash_, "Water of Life." It was surrendered without a
+siege to the Spaniards, under Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1489.
+
+
+
+
+GUADUAS, a town of the department of Cundinamarca, Colombia, 53 m. N.W.
+of Bogota on the old road between that city and the Magdalena river port
+of Honda. Pop. (1900, estimate) 9000, chiefly Indians or of mixed blood.
+It stands in a narrow and picturesque valley formed by spurs of the
+Eastern Cordillera, and on a small stream bearing the same name, which
+is that of the South American bamboo (_guaduas_), found in great
+abundance along its banks. Sugar-cane and coffee are cultivated in the
+vicinity, and fruits of various kinds are produced in great abundance.
+The elevation of the town is 3353 ft. above the sea, and it has a
+remarkably uniform temperature throughout the whole year. Guaduas has a
+pretty church facing upon its _plaza_, and an old monastery now used for
+secular purposes. The importance of the town sprang from its position on
+the old _camino real_ between Bogota and Honda, an importance that has
+passed away with the completion of the railway from Girardot to the
+Bogota plateau. Guaduas was founded in 1614.
+
+
+
+
+GUAIACUM, a genus of trees of the natural order _Zygophyllaceae_. The
+guaiacum or lignum-vitae tree (Ger. _Guajakbaum_, _Franzosenbaum_,
+_Pockenholzbaum_; Fr. _Gayac_, _Gaiac_), _G. officinale_, is a native of
+the West Indies and the north coast of South America, where it attains a
+height of 20 to 30 ft. Its branches are numerous, flexuous and knotted;
+the leaves opposite and pinnate, with caducous (falling early) stipules,
+and entire, glabrous, obovate or oval leaflets, arranged in 2 or, more
+rarely, 3 pairs; the flowers are in axillary clusters (cymes), and have
+5 oval pubescent sepals, 5 distinct pale-blue petals three times the
+length of the sepals, 10 stamens, and a 2-celled superior ovary. The
+fruit is about 3/4 in. long, with a leathery pericarp, and contains in
+each of its two cells a single seed (see fig.). _G. sanctum_ grows in
+the Bahamas and Cuba, and at Key West in Florida. It is distinguished
+from _G. officinale_ by its smaller and narrow leaflets, which are in 4
+to 5 pairs, by its shorter and glabrous sepals, and 5-celled and
+5-winged fruit. _G. arboreum_, the guaiacum tree of Colombia, is found
+in the valley of the Magdalena up to altitudes 800 metres (2625 ft.)
+above sea-level, and reaches considerable dimensions. Its wood is of a
+yellow colour merging into green, and has an almost pulverulent
+fracture; the flowers are yellow and conspicuous; and the fruit is dry
+and 4-winged.
+
+The lignum vitae of commerce, so named on account of its high repute as
+a medicinal agent in past times, when also it was known as _lignum
+sanctum_ and _lignum Indicum_, _lignum guaycanum_, or simply _guayacan_,
+is procured from _G. officinale_, and in smaller amount from _G.
+sanctum_. It is exported in large logs or blocks, generally divested of
+bark, and presents in transverse section very slightly marked concentric
+rings of growth, and scarcely any traces of pith; with the aid of a
+magnifying glass the medullary rays are seen to be equidistant and very
+numerous. The outer wood, the sapwood or alburnum, is of a pale yellow
+hue, and devoid of resin; the inner, the heartwood or duramen, which is
+by far the larger proportion, is of a dark greenish-brown, contains in
+its pores 26% of resin, and has a specific gravity of 1.333, and
+therefore sinks in water on which the alburnum floats. Owing to the
+diagonal and oblique arrangement of the successive layers of its fibres,
+the wood cannot be split; and on account of its hardness, density and
+durability it is much valued for the manufacture of ships' pulleys,
+rulers, skittle-balls, mallets and other articles.
+
+[Illustration: From Bentley & Trimen's _Medicinal Plants_, by permission
+of J. & A. Churchill.
+
+Guaiacum or Lignum Vitae, _Guaiacum officinale_ shoot-bearing leaves and
+flowers. 1, Fruit; 2, Vertical section of fruit, showing the solitary
+pendulous seed in each chamber. All about 1/2 natural size.]
+
+Chips or turnings of the heartwood of _G. officinale_ (_guaiaci lignum_)
+are employed in the preparation of the _liquor sarsae compositus
+concentratus_ of British pharmacy. They may be recognized by being
+either yellow of greenish-brown in colour, and by turning bluish-green
+when treated with nitric acid, or when heated with corrosive sublimate,
+and green with solution of chloride of lime. They are occasionally
+adulterated with boxwood shavings. Lignum vitae is imported chiefly from
+St Domingo, the Bahamas and Jamaica.
+
+  The bark was formerly used in medicine; it contains much calcium
+  oxalate, and yields on incineration 23% of ash. Guaiacum resin, the
+  _guaiaci resina_ of pharmacopoeias, is obtained from the wood as an
+  exudation from natural fissures or from incisions; by heating billets
+  about 3 ft. in length, bored to permit of the outflow of the resin; or
+  by boiling chips and raspings in water to which salt has been added to
+  raise the temperature of ebullition. It occurs in rounded or oval
+  tears, commonly coated with a greyish-green dust, and supposed to be
+  the produce of _G. sanctum_, or in large brownish or greenish-brown
+  masses, translucent at the edges; fuses at 85 deg. C.; is brittle, and
+  has a vitreous fracture, and a slightly balsamic odour, increased by
+  pulverization and by heat; and is at first tasteless when chewed, but
+  produces subsequently a sense of heat in the throat. It is readily
+  soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, creosote, oil of cloves and
+  solutions of caustic alkalies; and its solution gives a blue colour
+  with gluten, raw potato parings and the roots of horse-radish, carrot
+  and various other plants. The alcoholic tincture becomes green with
+  sodium hypochlorite, and with nitric acid turns in succession green,
+  blue and brown. With glycerin it gives a clear solution, and with
+  nitrous ether a bluish-green gelatinous mass. It is blued by various
+  oxidizing agents, e.g. ozone, and, as Schonbein discovered, by the
+  juice of certain fungi. The chief constituents are three distinct
+  resins, _guaiaconic acid_, C19H20O5 (70%), _guaiac acid_, which is
+  closely allied to benzoic acid, and _guaiaretic acid_. Like all
+  resins, these are insoluble in water, soluble in alkalies, but
+  precipitated on neutralization of the alkaline solution.
+
+  Guaiacum wood was first introduced into Europe by the Spaniards in
+  1508, and Nicolaus Poll, writing in 1517 (see Luisinus, _De morbo
+  gallico_, p. 210, Ven., 1566), states that some three thousand persons
+  in Spain had already been restored to health by it. The virtues of the
+  resin, however, were not known until a later period, and in Thomas
+  Paynel's translation (_Of the Wood called Guaiacum_, &c., p. 9, ed. of
+  1540) of Ulrich von Hutten's treatise _De morbi gallici curatione per
+  administrationem ligni guaiaci_ (1519) we read of the wood: "There
+  followeth fro it, whan it bourneth a gomme, which we yet knowe not,
+  for what pourpose it serueth." Fluckiger and Hanbury
+  (_Pharmacographia_, p. 95) state that the first edition of the _London
+  Pharmacopoeia_ in which they find the resin mentioned is that of 1677.
+  The decoction of the wood was administered in gout, the stone, palsy,
+  leprosy, dropsy, epilepsy, and other diseases, but principally in the
+  "morbus gallicus," or syphilis, for which it was reckoned a certain
+  specific, insomuch that at first "the physitions wolde not allowe it,
+  perceyuynge that theyr profite wolde decay therby" (Paynel, _op. cit._
+  p. 8). Minute instructions are given in old works as to the mode of
+  administering guaiacum. The patient was confined in a closed and
+  heated chamber, was placed on the lowest possible diet, and, after
+  liberal purgation, was made twice a day to drink a milk-warm decoction
+  of the wood. The use of salt was specially to be avoided. A decoction
+  of 1 lb. of guaiacum was held to be sufficient for the four first days
+  of the treatment. The earlier opinions as to the efficacy of guaiacum
+  came to be much modified in the course of time, and Dr Pearson
+  (_Observations on the Effects of Various Articles of the Mat. Med. in
+  the Cure of Lues Venerea_, c. i., 2nd ed., 1807) says:--"I never saw
+  one single instance in which the powers of this medicine eradicated
+  the venereal virus." He found its beneficial effects to be most marked
+  in cases of secondary symptoms. Guaiacum resin is given medicinally in
+  doses of 5-15 grains. Its important preparations in the British
+  Pharmacopoeia are the _mistura guiaci_ (dose 1/2-1 oz.), the
+  ammoniated tincture of guaiacum (dose 1/2-1 drachm), in which the
+  resin is dissolved by means of ammonia, and the trochiscus or lozenge,
+  containing 3 grains of the resin. This lozenge is undoubtedly of value
+  when given early in cases of sore throat, especially of rheumatic
+  origin. Powdered guaiacum is also used.
+
+  Guaiacum resin differs pharmacologically from other resins in being
+  less irritant, so that it is absorbed from the bowel and exerts remote
+  stimulant actions, notably upon the skin and kidneys. It affects the
+  bronchi but slightly, since it contains no volatile oil.
+
+  The drug is useful both in acute and chronic sore throat, the mixture,
+  according to Sir Lauder Brunton, being more effective than the
+  tincture. The aperient action, which it exerts less markedly than
+  other members of its class, renders it useful in the treatment of
+  chronic constipation. Sir Alfred Garrod has urged the claims of this
+  drug in the treatment of chronic gout. Both in this disease and in
+  other forms of chronic arthritis guaiacum may be given in combination
+  with iodides, which it often enables the patient to tolerate. Guaiacum
+  is not now used in the treatment of syphilis.
+
+  The tincture of guaiacum is universally used as a test for the
+  presence of blood, or rather of haemoglobin, the red colouring matter
+  of the blood, in urine or other secretions. This test was first
+  suggested by Dr John Day of Geelong, Australia. A _single drop_ of the
+  tincture should be added to, say, an inch of urine in a test-tube. The
+  resin is at once precipitated, yielding a milky fluid. If "ozonic
+  ether"--an ethereal solution of hydrogen peroxide--be now poured
+  gently into the test-tube, a deep blue coloration is produced along
+  the line of contact if haemoglobin be present. The reaction is due to
+  the oxidation of the resin by the peroxide of hydrogen--such oxidation
+  occurring only if haemoglobin be present to act as an oxygen-carrier.
+
+
+
+
+GUALDO TADINO (anc. _Tadinum_, 1 m. to the W.), a town and episcopal see
+of Umbria, Italy, 1755 ft. above sea-level, in the province of Perugia,
+22 m. N. of Foligno by rail. Pop. (1901), town, 4440; commune, 10,756.
+The suffix Tadino distinguishes it from Gualdo in the province of
+Macerata, and Gualdo Cattaneo, S.W. of Foligno. The cathedral has a good
+rose-window and possesses, like several of the other churches,
+15th-century paintings by Umbrian artists, especially works by Niccolo
+Alunno. The town is still surrounded by walls. The ancient Tadinum lay 1
+m. to the W. of the modern town. It is mentioned in the Eugubine tablets
+(see IGUVIUM) as a hostile city against which imprecations are directed.
+In its neighbourhood Narses defeated and slew Totila in 552. No ruins
+are now visible, though they seem to have been extant in the 17th
+century. The new town seems to have been founded in 1237. It was at
+first independent, but passed under Perugia in 1292, and later became
+dependent on the duchy of Spoleto.
+
+
+
+
+GUALEGUAY, a flourishing town and river port of the province of Entre
+Rios, Argentine Republic, on the Gualeguay river, 32 m. above its
+confluence with the Ibicuy branch of the Parana, and about 120 m. N.N.W.
+of Buenos Aires. Pop. (1895) 7810. The Gualeguay is the largest of the
+Entre Rios rivers, traversing almost the whole length of the province
+from N. to S., but it is of but slight service in the transportation of
+produce except the few miles below Gualeguay, whose port, known as
+Puerto Ruiz, is 7 m. lower down stream. A steam tramway connects the
+town and port, and a branch line connects with Entre Rios railways at
+the station of Tala. The principal industry in this region is that of
+stock-raising, and there is a large exportation of cattle, jerked beef,
+hides, tallow, mutton, wool and sheep-skins. Wood and charcoal are also
+exported to Buenos Aires. The town was founded in 1783.
+
+
+
+
+GUALEGUAYCHU, a prosperous commercial and industrial town and port of
+the province of Entre Rios, Argentine Republic, on the left bank of the
+Gualeguaychu river, 11 m. above its confluence with the Uruguay, and 120
+m. N. of Buenos Aires. Pop. (1892, est.) 14,000. It is the chief town of
+a department of the same name, the largest in the province. A bar at the
+mouth of the river prevents the entrance of larger vessels and compels
+the transfer of cargoes to and from lighters. The town is surrounded by
+a rich grazing country, and exports cattle, jerked beef, mutton, hides,
+pelts, tallow, wool and various by-products. A branch line running N.
+connects with the Entre Rios railways at Basavilbaso. The town was
+founded in 1783.
+
+
+
+
+GUALO, CARDINAL (fl. 1216), was sent to England by Pope Innocent III. in
+1216. He supported John with all the weight of papal authority. After
+John's death he crowned the infant Henry III. and played an active part
+in organizing resistance to the rebels led by Louis of France,
+afterwards king Louis VIII. As representing the pope, the suzerain of
+Henry, he claimed the regency and actually divided the chief power with
+William Marshal, earl of Pembroke. He proclaimed a crusade against Louis
+and the French, and, after the peace of Lambeth, he forced Louis to make
+a public and humiliating profession of penitence (1217). He punished the
+rebellious clergy severely, and ruled the church with an absolute hand
+till his departure from England in 1218. Gualo's character has been
+severely criticized by English writers; but his chief offence seems to
+have been that of representing unpopular papal claims.
+
+
+
+
+GUAM (Span. _Guajan_; _Guahan_, in the native Chamorro), the largest and
+most populous of the Ladrone or Mariana Islands, in the North Pacific,
+in 13 deg. 26' N. lat. and 144 deg. 39' E. long., about 1823 m. E. by S.
+of Hong Kong, and about 1450 m. E. of Manila. Pop. (1908) about 11,360,
+of whom 363 were foreigners, 140 being members of the U.S. naval force.
+Guam extends about 30 m. from N.N.E. to S.S.W., has an average width of
+about 6-1/2 m., and has an area of 207 sq. m. The N. portion is a
+plateau from 300 to 600 ft. above the sea, lowest in the interior and
+highest along the E. and W. coast, where it terminates abruptly in
+bluffs and headlands; Mt Santa Rosa, toward the N. extremity, has an
+elevation of 840 ft. A range of hills from 700 to nearly 1300 ft. in
+height traverses the S. portion from N. to S. a little W. of the
+middle--Mt Jumullong Mangloc, the highest peak, has an elevation of 1274
+ft. Between the foot of the steep W. slope of these hills and the sea is
+a belt of rolling lowlands and to the E. the surface is broken by the
+valleys of five rivers with a number of tributaries, has a general slope
+toward the sea, and terminates in a coast-line of bluffs. Apra (formerly
+San Luis d'Apra) on the middle W. coast is the only good harbour; it is
+about 3-1/2 m. across, has a depth of 4-27 fathoms, and is divided into
+an inner and an outer harbour by a peninsula and an island. It serves as
+a naval station and as a port of transit between America and the
+Philippines, at which army transports call monthly. Deer, wild hog,
+duck, curlew, snipe and pigeon are abundant game, and several varieties
+of fish are caught. Some of the highest points of the island are nearly
+bare of vegetation, and the more elevated plateau surface is covered
+with sword grass, but in the valleys and on the lower portions of the
+plateaus there is valuable timber. The lowlands have a rich soil; in
+lower parts of the highlands raised coralliferous limestone with a light
+covering of soil appears, and in the higher parts the soil is entirely
+of clay and silt. The climate is agreeable and healthy. From December to
+June the N.E. trade winds prevail and the rainfall is relatively light;
+during the other six months the monsoon blows and produces the rainy
+season. Destructive typhoons and earthquakes sometimes visit Guam. The
+island is thought to possess little if any mineral wealth, with the
+possible exception of coal. Only a small part of Guam is under
+cultivation, and most of this lies along the S.W. coast, its chief
+products being cocoanuts, rice, sugar, coffee and cacao. A United States
+Agricultural Experiment Station in Guam (at Agana) was provided for in
+1908.
+
+The inhabitants are of the Chamorro (Indonesian) stock, strongly
+intermixed with Philippine Tagals and Spaniards; their speech is a
+dialect of Malay, corrupted by Tagal and Spanish. There are very few
+full-blood Chamorros. The aboriginal native was of a very dark mahogany
+or chocolate colour. A majority of the total number of natives live in
+Agana. The natives are nearly all farmers, and most of them are poor,
+but their condition has been improved under American rule. Public
+schools have been established; in 1908 the enrolment was 1700. On the
+island there is a small colony of lepers, segregated only after American
+occupation. Gangrosa is a disease said to be peculiar to Guam and the
+neighbouring islands; it is due to a specific bacillus and usually
+destroys the nasal septum. The victims of this disease also are
+segregated. There is a good general hospital.
+
+Agana (or San Ignacio de Agana) is the capital and principal town; under
+the Spanish regime it was the capital of the Ladrones. It is about 5 m.
+N.E. of Piti, the landing-place of Apra harbour and port of entry, with
+which it is connected by an excellent road. Agana has paved streets and
+sewer and water systems. Other villages, all small, are Asan, Piti,
+Sumay, Umata, Merizo and Inarajan. Guam is governed by a "naval
+governor," an officer of the U.S. navy who is commandant of the naval
+station. The island is divided into four administrative districts, each
+with an executive head called a gobernadorcillo (commissioner), and
+there are a court of appeals, a court of first instance and courts of
+justices of the peace. Peonage was abolished in the island by the United
+States in February 1900. Telegraphic communication with the Caroline
+Islands was established in 1905; in 1908 there were four cables ending
+at the relay station at Sumay on the Shore of Apra harbour.
+
+Guam was discovered by Magellan in 1521, was occupied by Spain in 1688,
+was captured by the United States cruiser "Charleston" in June 1899, and
+was ceded to the United States by the Treaty of Paris on the 10th of
+December 1898.
+
+  See _A List of Books (with References to Periodicals) on Samoa and
+  Guam_ (1901; issued by the Library of Congress); L. M. Cox, "The
+  Island of Guam," in _Bulletin of the American Geographical Society_,
+  vol. 36 (New York, 1904); Gen. Joseph Wheeler, _Report on the Island
+  of Guam_, June 1900 (War Department, Document No. 123); F. W.
+  Christian, _The Caroline Islands_ (London, 1899); an account of the
+  flora of Guam by W. E. Safford in the publications of the National
+  Herbarium (Smithsonian Institution); and the reports of the naval
+  governor.
+
+
+
+
+GUAN, a word apparently first introduced into the ornithologist's
+vocabulary about 1743 by Edwards,[1] who said that a bird he figured
+(_Nat. Hist. Uncommon Birds_, pl. xiii.) was "so called in the West
+Indies," and the name has hence been generally applied to all the
+members of the subfamily _Penelopinae_, which are distinguished from the
+kindred subfamily _Cracinae_ or curassows by the broad postacetabular
+area of the pelvis as pointed out by Huxley (_Proc. Zool. Society_,
+1868, p. 297) as well as by their maxilla being wider than it is high,
+with its culmen depressed, the crown feathered, and the nostrils
+bare--the last two characters separating the _Penelopinae_ from the
+_Oreophasinae_, which form the third subfamily of the _Cracidae_,[2] a
+family belonging to that taxonomer's division _Peristeropodes_ of the
+order _Gallinae_.
+
+The _Penelopinae_ have been separated into seven genera, of which
+_Penelope_ and _Ortalis_, containing respectively about sixteen and
+nineteen species, are the largest, the others numbering from one to
+three only. Into their minute differences it would be useless to enter:
+nearly all have the throat bare of feathers, and from that of many of
+them hangs a wattle; but one form, _Chamaepetes_, has neither of these
+features, and _Stegnolaema_, though wattled, has the throat clothed.
+With few exceptions the guans are confined to the South-American
+continent; one species of _Penelope_ is however found in Mexico (e.g. at
+Mazatlan), _Pipile cumanensis_ inhabits Trinidad as well as the
+mainland, while three species of _Ortalis_ occur in Mexico or Texas, and
+one, which is also common to Venezuela, in Tobago. Like curassows, guans
+are in great measure of arboreal habit. They also readily become tame,
+but all attempts to domesticate them in the full sense of the word have
+wholly failed, and the cases in which they have even been induced to
+breed and the young have been reared in confinement are very few. Yet it
+would seem that guans and curassows will interbreed with poultry
+(_Ibis_, 1866, p. 24; _Bull. Soc. Imp. d'Acclimatation_, 1868, p. 559;
+1869, p. 357), and what is more extraordinary is that in Texas the
+hybrids between the chiacalacca (_Ortalis vetula_) and the domestic fowl
+are asserted to be far superior to ordinary game-cocks for fighting
+purposes.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Edwards also gives "quan" as an alternative spelling, and this
+    may be nearer the original form, since we find Dampier in 1676
+    writing (Voy. ii. pt. 2, p. 66) of what was doubtless an allied if
+    not the same bird as the "quam." The species represented by Edwards
+    does not seem to have been identified.
+
+  [2] See the excellent _Synopsis_ by Sclater and Salvin in the
+    _Proceedings of the Zoological Society_ for 1870 (pp. 504-544), while
+    further information on the Cracinae was given by Sclater in the
+    _Transactions_ of the same society (ix. pp. 273-288, pls. xl.-liii.).
+    Some additions have since been made to the knowledge of the family,
+    but none of very great importance.
+
+
+
+
+GUANABACOA (an Indian name meaning "site of the waters"), a town of
+Cuba, in Havana province, about 6 m. E. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 14,368.
+Guanabacoa is served by railway to Havana, with which it is connected by
+the Regla ferry across the bay. It is picturesquely situated amid woods,
+on high hills which furnish a fine view. There are medicinal springs in
+the town, and deposits of liquid bitumen in the neighbouring hills. The
+town is essentially a residence suburb of the capital, and has some
+rather pretty streets and squares and some old and interesting churches
+(including Nuestra Senora de la Asuncion, 1714-1721). Just outside the
+city is the church of Potosi with a famous "wonder-working" shrine and
+image. An Indian pueblo of the same name existed here before 1555, and a
+church was established in 1576. Already at the end of the 17th century
+Guanabacoa was the fashionable summer residence of Havana. It enjoyed
+its greatest popularity in this respect from the end of the 18th to the
+middle of the 19th century. It was created a _villa_ with an
+_ayuntamiento_ (city council) in 1743. In 1762 its fort, the Little
+Morro, on the N. shore near Cojimar (a bathing beach, where the Key West
+cable now lands), was taken by the English.
+
+
+
+
+GUANACO, sometimes spelt Huanaca, the larger of the two wild
+representatives in South America of the camel tribe; the other being the
+vicugna. The guanaco (_Lama huanacus_), which stands nearly 4 ft. at the
+shoulder, is an elegant creature, with gracefully curved neck and long
+slender legs, the hind-pair of the latter bearing two naked patches or
+callosities. The head and body are covered with long soft hair of a fawn
+colour above and almost pure white beneath. Guanaco are found throughout
+the southern half of South America, from Peru in the north to Cape Horn
+in the south, but occur in greatest abundance in Patagonia. They live in
+herds usually of from six to thirty, although these occasionally contain
+several hundreds, while solitary individuals are sometimes met. They are
+exceedingly timid, and therefore wary and difficult of approach; like
+many other ruminants, however, their curiosity sometimes overcomes their
+timidity, so as to bring them within range of the hunter's rifle. Their
+cry is peculiar, being something between the belling of a deer and the
+neigh of a horse. The chief enemies of the guanaco are the Patagonian
+Indians and the puma, as it forms the principal food of both. Its flesh
+is palatable although wanting in fat, while its skin forms the chief
+clothing material of the Patagonians. Guanaco are readily domesticated,
+and in this state become very bold and will attack man, striking him
+from behind with both knees. In the wild state they never defend
+themselves, and if approached from different points, according to the
+Indian fashion of hunting, get completely bewildered and fall an easy
+prey. They take readily to the water, and have been observed swimming
+from one island to another, while they have been seen drinking
+salt-water. They have a habit of depositing their droppings during
+successive days on the same spot--a habit appreciated by the Peruvian
+Indians, who use those deposits for fuel. Guanaco also have favourite
+localities in which to die, as appears from the great heaps of their
+bones found in particular spots.
+
+[Illustration: Head of Guanaco.]
+
+
+
+
+GUANAJAY, a town of western Cuba, in Pinar del Rio province, about 36 m.
+(by rail) S.W. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 6400. Guanajay is served by the W.
+branch of the United railways of Havana, of which it is the W. terminus.
+The town lies among hills, has an excellent climate, and in colonial
+times was (like Holguin) an acclimatization station for troops fresh
+from Spain; it now has considerable repute as a health resort. The
+surrounding country is a fertile sugar and tobacco region. Guanajay has
+always been important as a distributing point in the commerce of the
+western end of the island. It was an ancient pueblo, of considerable
+size and importance as early as the end of the 18th century.
+
+
+
+
+GUANAJUATO, or GUANAXUATO, an inland state of Mexico, bounded N. by
+Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi, E. by Queretaro, S. by Michoacan and W.
+by Jalisco. Area, 11,370 sq. m. It is one of the most densely populated
+states of the republic; pop. (1895) 1,047,817; (1900) 1,061,724. The
+state lies wholly within the limits of the great central plateau of
+Mexico, and has an average elevation of about 6000 ft. The surface of
+its northern half is broken by the Sierra Gorda and Sierra de
+Guanajuato, but its southern half is covered by fertile plains largely
+devoted to agriculture. It is drained by the Rio Grande de Lerma and its
+tributaries, which in places flow through deeply eroded valleys. The
+climate is semi-tropical and healthy, and the rainfall is sufficient to
+insure good results in agriculture and stock-raising. In the warm
+valleys sugar-cane is grown, and at higher elevations Indian corn,
+beans, barley and wheat. The southern plains are largely devoted to
+stock-raising. Guanajuato has suffered much from the destruction of its
+forests, but there remain some small areas on the higher elevations of
+the north. The principal industry of the state is mining, the mineral
+wealth of the mountain ranges of the north being enormous. Among its
+mineral products are silver, gold, tin, lead, mercury, copper and opals.
+Silver has been extracted since the early days of the Spanish conquest,
+over $800,000,000 having been taken from the mines during the subsequent
+three and a half centuries. Some of the more productive of these mines,
+or groups of mines, are the Veta Madre (mother lode), the San Bernabe
+lode, and the Rayas mines of Guanajuato, and the La Valenciana mine, the
+output of which is said to have been $226,000,000 between 1766 and 1826.
+The manufacturing establishments include flour mills, tanneries and
+manufactories of leather, cotton and woollen mills, distilleries,
+foundries and potteries. The Mexican Central and the Mexican National
+railway lines cross the state from N. to S., and the former operates a
+short branch from Silao to the state capital and another westward from
+Irapuato to Guadalajara. The capital is Guanajuato, and other important
+cities and towns are Leon, or Leon de las Aldamas; Celaya (pop. 25,565
+in 1900), an important railway junction 22 m. by rail W. from Queretaro,
+and known for its manufactures of broadcloth, saddlery, soap and
+sweetmeats; Irapuato (18,593 in 1900), a railway junction and commercial
+centre, 21 m. S. by W. of Guanajuato; Silao (15,355), a railway junction
+and manufacturing town (woollens and cottons), 14 m. S.W. of Guanajuato;
+Salamanca (13,583). on the Mexican Central railway and Lerma river, 25
+m. S. by E. of Guanajuato, with manufactures of cottons and porcelain;
+Allende (10,547), a commercial town 30 m. E. by S. of Guanajuato, with
+mineral springs; Valle de Santiago (12,660). 50 m. W. by S. of
+Queretaro; Salvatierra (10,393), 60 m. S.E. of Guanajuato; Cortazar
+(8633); La Luz (8318), in a rich mining district; Penjamo (8262); Santa
+Cruz (7239); San Francisco del Rincon (10,904), 39 m. W. of Guanajuato
+in a rich mining district; and Acambaro (8345), a prosperous town of the
+plain, 76 m. S.S.E. of Guanajuato.
+
+
+
+
+GUANAJUATO, or SANTA FE DE GUANAJUATO, a city of Mexico and capital of
+the above state, 155 m. (direct) N.W. of the Federal capital, on a small
+tributary of the Rio Grande de Lerma or Santiago. Pop. (1895) 39,404;
+(1900) 41,486. The city is built in the Canada de Marfil at the junction
+of three ravines about 6500 ft. above the sea, and its narrow, tortuous
+streets rise steeply as they follow the ravines upward to the mining
+villages clustered about the opening of the mines in the hillsides.
+Guanajuato is sometimes described as a collection of mining villages;
+but in addition there is the central city with its crowded winding
+streets, its substantial old Spanish buildings, its fifty ore-crushing
+mills and busy factories and its bustling commercial life. Enclosing the
+city are the steep, barren mountain sides honeycombed with mines. The
+climate is semi-tropical and is considered healthy. The noteworthy
+public buildings and institutions are an interesting old Jesuit church
+with arches of pink stone and delicate carving, eight monasteries, the
+government palace, a mint dating from 1812, a national college, the fine
+Teatro Juarez, and the Pantheon, or public cemetery, with catacombs
+below. The Alhondiga de Granaditas, originally a public granary, was
+used as a fort during the War of Independence, and is celebrated as the
+scene of the first battle (1810) in that long struggle. Among the
+manufactures are cottons, prints, soaps, chemicals, pottery and
+silverware, but mining is the principal interest and occupation of the
+population. The silver mines of the vicinity were long considered the
+richest in Mexico, the celebrated Veta Madre (mother lode) even being
+described as the richest in the world; and Guanajuato has the largest
+reduction works in Mexico. The railway outlet for the city consists of a
+short branch of the Mexican Central, which joins the trunk line at
+Silao. Guanajuato was founded in 1554. It attained the dignity of a city
+in 1741. It was celebrated for its vigorous resistance to the invaders
+at the time of the Spanish conquest, and was repeatedly sacked during
+that war.
+
+
+
+
+GUANCHES, GUANCHIS or GUANCHOS (native Guanchinet; _Guan_=person,
+_Chinet_ = Teneriffe,--"man of Teneriffe," corrupted, according to Nunez
+de la Pena, by Spaniards into Guanchos), the aboriginal inhabitants of
+the Canary Islands. Strictly the Guanches were the primitive inhabitants
+of Teneriffe, where they seem to have preserved racial purity to the
+time of the Spanish conquest, but the name came to be applied to the
+indigenous populations of all the islands. The Guanches, now extinct as
+a distinct people, appear, from the study of skulls and bones
+discovered, to have resembled the Cro-Magnon race of the Quaternary age,
+and no real doubt is now entertained that they were an offshoot of the
+great race of Berbers which from the dawn of history has occupied
+northern Africa from Egypt to the Atlantic. Pliny the Elder, deriving
+his knowledge from the accounts of Juba, king of Mauretania, states that
+when visited by the Carthaginians under Hanno the archipelago was found
+by them to be uninhabited, but that they saw ruins of great buildings.
+This would suggest that the Guanches were not the first inhabitants, and
+from the absence of any trace of Mahommedanism among the peoples found
+in the archipelago by the Spaniards it would seem that this extreme
+westerly migration of Berbers took place between the time of which Pliny
+wrote and the conquest of northern Africa by the Arabs. Many of the
+Guanches fell in resisting the Spaniards, many were sold as slaves, and
+many conformed to the Roman Catholic faith and married Spaniards.
+
+Such remains as there are of their language, a few expressions and the
+proper names of ancient chieftains still borne by certain families,
+connect it with the Berber dialects. In many of the islands signs are
+engraved on rocks. Domingo Vandewalle, a military governor of Las
+Palmas, was the first, in 1752, to investigate these; and it is due to
+the perseverance of D. Aquilino Padran, a priest of Las Palmas, that
+anything about the inscription on the island Hierro has been brought to
+light. In 1878 Dr R. Verneau discovered in the ravines of Las Balos some
+genuine Libyan inscriptions. Without exception the rock inscriptions
+have proved to be Numidic. In two of the islands (Teneriffe and Gomera)
+the Guanche type has been retained with more purity than in the others.
+No inscriptions have been found in these two islands, and therefore it
+would seem that the true Guanches did not know how to write. In the
+other islands numerous Semitic traces are found, and in all of them are
+the rock-signs. From these facts it would seem that the Numidians,
+travelling from the neighbourhood of Carthage and intermixing with the
+dominant Semitic race, landed in the Canary Islands, and that it is they
+who have written the inscriptions at Hierro and Grand Canary.
+
+The political and social institutions of the Guanches varied. In some
+islands hereditary autocracy prevailed; in others the government was
+elective. In Teneriffe all the land belonged to the chiefs who leased it
+to their subjects. In Grand Canary suicide was regarded as honourable,
+and on a chief inheriting, one of his subjects willingly honoured the
+occasion by throwing himself over a precipice. In some islands polyandry
+was practised; in others the natives were monogamous. But everywhere the
+women appear to have been respected, an insult offered any woman by an
+armed man being a capital offence. Almost all the Guanches used to wear
+garments of goat-skins, and others of vegetable fibres, which have been
+found in the tombs of Grand Canary. They had a taste for ornaments,
+necklaces of wood, bone and shells, worked in different designs. Beads
+of baked earth, cylindrical and of all shapes, with smooth or polished
+surfaces, mostly black and red in colour, were chiefly in use. They
+painted their bodies; the _pintaderas_, baked clay objects like seals in
+shape, have been explained by Dr Verneau as having been used solely for
+painting the body in various colours. They manufactured rough pottery,
+mostly without decorations, or ornamented by means of the finger-nail.
+The Guanches' weapons were those of the ancient races of south Europe.
+The polished battle-axe was more used in Grand Canary, while stone and
+obsidian, roughly cut, were commoner in Teneriffe. They had, besides,
+the lance, the club, sometimes studded with pebbles, and the javelin,
+and they seem to have known the shield. They lived in natural or
+artificial caves in their mountains. In districts where cave-dwellings
+were impossible, they built small round houses and, according to the
+Spaniards, they even practised rude fortification. In Palma the old
+people were at their own wish left to die alone. After bidding their
+family farewell they were carried to the sepulchral cave, nothing but a
+bowl of milk being left them. The Guanches embalmed their dead; many
+mummies have been found in an extreme state of desiccation, each
+weighing not more than 6 or 7 lb. Two almost inaccessible caves in a
+vertical rock by the shore 3 m. from Santa Cruz (Teneriffe) are said
+still to contain bones. The process of embalming seems to have varied.
+In Teneriffe and Grand Canary the corpse was simply wrapped up in goat
+and sheep skins, while in other islands a resinous substance was used to
+preserve the body, which was then placed in a cave difficult of access,
+or buried under a tumulus. The work of embalming was reserved for a
+special class, women for female corpses, men for male. Embalming seems
+not to have been universal, and bodies were often simply hidden in caves
+or buried.
+
+Little is known of the religion of the Guanches. They appear to have
+been a distinctly religious race. There was a general belief in a
+supreme being, called Acoran, in Grand Canary, Achihuran in Teneriffe,
+Eraoranhan in Hierro, and Abora in Palma. The women of Hierro worshipped
+a goddess called Moneiba. According to tradition the male and female
+gods lived in mountains whence they descended to hear the prayers of the
+people. In other islands the natives venerated the sun, moon, earth and
+stars. A belief in an evil spirit was general. The demon of Teneriffe
+was called Guayota and lived in the peak of Teyde, which was the hell
+called Echeyde. In times of drought the Guanches drove their flocks to
+consecrated grounds, where the lambs were separated from their mothers
+in the belief that their plaintive bleatings would melt the heart of the
+Great Spirit. During the religious feasts all war and even personal
+quarrels were stayed.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--S. Berthelot, _Antiquites canariennes_ (Paris, 1839);
+  Baker Webb and S. Berthelot, _Histoire naturelle des iles Canaries_
+  (Paris, 1839); Paul Broca, _Revue d'anthropologie_, iv. (1874);
+  General L. L. C. Faidherbe, _Quelque mots sur l'ethnologie de
+  l'archipel canarien_ (Paris, 1875); Chil y Naranjo, _Estudios
+  historicos, climatologicos y Patologicos de las Islas Canarias_ (Las
+  Palmas, 1876-1889); "De la pluralite des races humaines de l'archipel
+  canarien," _Bull. Soc. Anthrop. Paris_, 1878; "Habitations et
+  sepultures des anciens habitants des iles Canaries," _Revue
+  d'anthrop._, 1879; R. Verneau, "Sur les Semites aux iles Canaries,"
+  and "Sur les anciens habitants de la Isleta, Grande Canarie," _Bull.
+  Soc. Anthrop. Paris_, 1881; _Rapport sur une mission scientifique dans
+  l'archipel canarien_ (Paris, 1887); _Cinq annees de sejour aux iles
+  Canaries_ (Paris, 1891); H. Meyer, _Die Insel Tenerife_ (Leipzig,
+  1896), "Uber die Urbewohner der canarischen Inseln," in _Adolf Bastian
+  Festschrift_ (Berlin, 1896); F. von Luschan, _Anhang uber eine
+  Schadelsammlung von den canarischen Inseln_; R. Virchow, "Schadel mit
+  Carionecrosis der Sagittalgegend," _Verhandlungen der Berliner
+  Anthrop. Gesellschaft_ (1896); G. Sergi, _The Mediterranean Race_
+  (London, 1901); _The Guanches of Tenerife ..._, by Alonso de Espinosa,
+  translated by Sir Clements Markham, with bibliography (Hakluyt
+  Society, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+GUANIDINE, CN3H5 or HN:C(NH2)2, the amidine of amidocarbonic acid. It
+occurs in beet juice. It was first prepared in 1861 by A. Strecker, who
+oxidized guanine with hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate. It may
+be obtained synthetically by the action of ammonium iodide on cyanamide,
+CN.NH2 + NH4I=CN3H5.HI.; by heating ortho-carbonic esters with ammonia
+to 150 deg. C.; but best by heating ammonium thiocyanate to 180 deg.-190
+deg. C., when the thiourea first formed is converted into guanidine
+thiocyanate, 2CS(NH2)2=HN:C(NH2)2.HCNS+H2S. It is a colourless
+crystalline solid, readily soluble in water and alcohol; it deliquesces
+on exposure to air. It has strong basic properties, absorbs carbon
+dioxide readily, and forms well-defined crystalline salts. Baryta water
+hydrolyses it to urea. By direct union with glycocoll acid, it yields
+glycocyamine, NH2.(HN):C.NH.CH2.CO2H, whilst with methyl glycocoll
+(sarcosine) it forms creatine, NH2.(NH):C.N(CH3).CH2.CO2H.
+
+  Many derivatives of guanidine were obtained by J. Thiele (_Ann._,
+  1892, 270, p. 1; 1893, 273, p. 133; _Ber._, 1893, 26, pp. 2598, 2645).
+  By the action of nitric acid on guanidine in the presence of sulphuric
+  acid, nitroguanidine, HN:C(NH2).NH.NO2 (a substance possessing acid
+  properties) is obtained; from which, by reduction with zinc dust,
+  amidoguanidine, HN:C(NH2).NH.NH2, is formed. This amidoguanidine
+  decomposes on hydrolysis with the formation of semicarbazide,
+  NH2.CO.NH.NH2, which, in its turn, breaks down into carbon dioxide,
+  ammonia and hydrazine. Amidoguanidine is a body of hydrazine type, for
+  it reduces gold and silver salts and yields a benzylidine derivative.
+  On oxidation with potassium permanganate, it gives
+  azodicarbondiamidine nitrate, NH2.(HN):C.N:N.C:(NH).NH2.2HNO3, which,
+  when reduced by sulphuretted hydrogen, is converted into the
+  corresponding hydrazodicarbondiamidine, NH2.(HN):C.NH.NH.C:(NH).NH2.
+  By the action of nitrous acid on a nitric acid solution of
+  amidoguanidine, diazoguanidine nitrate, NH2.(HN):C.NH.N2.NO3, is
+  obtained. This diazo compound is decomposed by caustic alkalis with
+  the formation of cyanamide and hydrazoic acid,
+  CH4N5.NO3=N3H+CN.NH2+HNO3, whilst acetates and carbonates convert it
+  into amidotetrazotic acid,
+
+           N--N.
+         //
+    H2N.C    ||.
+         \\
+          NH--N
+
+  Amidotetrazotic acid yields addition compounds with amines, and by the
+  further action of nitrous acid yields a very explosive derivative,
+  diazotetrazol, CN6. By fusing guanidine with urea, dicyandiamidine
+  H2N.(HN):C.NH.CO.NH2, is formed.
+
+
+
+
+GUANO (a Spanish word from the Peruvian _huanu_, dung), the excrement of
+birds, found as large deposits on certain islands off the coast of Peru,
+and on others situated in the Southern ocean and off the west coast of
+Africa. The large proportions of phosphorus in the form of phosphates
+and of nitrogen as ammonium oxalate and urate renders it a valuable
+fertilizer. Bat's guano, composed of the excrement of bats, is found in
+certain caves in New Zealand and elsewhere; it is similar in composition
+to Peruvian guano. (See MANURES AND MANURING.)
+
+
+
+
+GUANTA, a port on the Caribbean coast of the state of Bermudez,
+Venezuela, 12 m. N.E. of Barcelona, with which it is connected by rail.
+It dates from the completion of the railway to the coal mines of
+Naricual and Capiricual nearly 12 m. beyond Barcelona, and was created
+for the shipment of coal. The harbour is horseshoe-shaped, with its
+entrance, 1998 ft. wide, protected by an island less than 1 m. off the
+shore. The entrance is easy and safe, and the harbour affords secure
+anchorage for large vessels, with deep water alongside the iron railway
+wharf. These advantages have made Guanta the best port on this part of
+the coast, and the trade of Barcelona and that of a large inland
+district have been transferred to it. A prominent feature in its trade
+is the shipment of live cattle. Among its exports are sugar, coffee,
+cacao, tobacco and fruit.
+
+
+
+
+GUANTANAMO, the easternmost important town of the S. coast of Cuba, in
+the province of Santiago, about 40 m. E. of Santiago. Pop. (1907)
+14,559. It is situated by the Guazo (or Guaso) river, on a little open
+plain between the mountains. The beautiful, land-locked harbour, 10 m.
+long from N. to S. and 4 m. wide in places, has an outer and an inner
+basin. The latter has a very narrow entrance, and 2 to 2.5 fathoms depth
+of water. From the port of Caimanera to the city of Guantanamo, 13 m.
+N., there is a railway, and the city has railway connexion with
+Santiago. Guantanamo is one of the two ports leased by Cuba to the
+United States for a naval station. It is the shipping-port and centre of
+a surrounding coffee-, sugar- and lime-growing district. In 1741 an
+English force under Admiral Edward Vernon and General Thomas Wentworth
+landed here to attack Santiago. They named the harbour Cumberland bay.
+After their retreat fortifications were begun. The history of the region
+practically dates, however, from the end of the 18th century, when it
+gained prosperity from the settlement of French refugees from Santo
+Domingo; the town, as such, dates only from 1822. Almost all the old
+families are of French descent, and French was the language locally most
+used as late as the last third of the 19th century. In recent years,
+especially since the Spanish-American War of 1898, the region has
+greatly changed socially and economically. Guantanamo was once a
+fashionable summer residence resort for wealthy Cubans.
+
+
+
+
+GUARANA (so called from the Guaranis, an aboriginal American tribe), the
+plant _Paullinia Cupana_ (or _P. sorbilis_) of the natural order
+_Sapindaceae_, indigenous to the north and west of Brazil. It has a
+smooth erect stem; large pinnate alternate leaves, composed of 5
+oblong-oval leaflets; narrow panicles of short-stalked flowers; and
+ovoid or pyriform fruit about as large as a grape, and containing
+usually one seed only, which is shaped like a minute horse-chestnut.
+What is commonly known as guarana, guarana bread or Brazilian cocoa, is
+prepared from the seeds as follows. In October and November, at which
+time they become ripe, the seeds are removed from their capsules and
+sun-dried, so as to admit of the ready removal by hand of the white
+aril; they are next ground in a stone mortar or deep dish of hard
+sandstone; the powder, moistened by the addition of a small quantity of
+water, or by exposure to the dews, is then made into a paste with a
+certain proportion of whole or broken seeds, and worked up sometimes
+into balls, but usually into rolls not unlike German sausages, 5 to 8
+in. in length, and 12 to 16 oz. in weight. After drying by artificial or
+solar heat, the guarana is packed between broad leaves in sacks or
+baskets. Thus prepared, it is of extreme hardness, and has a brown hue,
+a bitter astringent taste, and an odour faintly resembling that of
+roasted coffee. An inferior kind, softer and of a lighter colour, is
+manufactured by admixture of cocoa or cassava. Rasped or grated into
+sugar and water, guarana forms a beverage largely consumed in S.
+America. Its manufacture, originally confined to the Mauhes Indians, has
+spread into various parts of Brazil.
+
+  The properties of guarana as a nervous stimulant and restorative are
+  due to the presence of what was originally described as a new
+  principle and termed guaranine, but is now known to be identical with
+  caffeine or theine. Besides this substance, which is stated to exist
+  in it in the form of tannate, guarana yields on analysis the glucoside
+  saponin, with tannin, starch, gum, three volatile oils, and an acrid
+  green fixed oil (Fournier, _Journ. de Pharm._ vol. xxxix., 1861, p.
+  291).
+
+
+
+
+GUARANIS, a tribe and stock of South American Indians, having their home
+in Paraguay, Uruguay and on the Brazilian coast. The Guaranis had
+developed some civilization before the arrival of the Spaniards, and
+being a peaceable people quickly submitted. They form to-day the chief
+element in the populations of Paraguay and Uruguay. Owing to its
+patronage by the Jesuit missionaries the Guarani language became a
+widespread medium of communication, and in a corrupted form is still
+the common language in Paraguay.
+
+
+
+
+GUARANTEE (sometimes spelt "guarantie" or "guaranty"; an O. Fr. form of
+"warrant," from the Teutonic word which appears in German as _wahren_,
+to defend or make safe and binding), a term more comprehensive and of
+higher import than either "warrant" or "security," and designating
+either some international treaty whereby claims, rights or possessions
+are secured, or more commonly a mere private transaction, by means of
+which one person, to obtain some trust, confidence or credit for
+another, engages to be answerable for him.
+
+In English law, a guarantee is a contract to answer for the payment of
+some debt, or the performance of some duty, by a third person who is
+_primarily_ liable to such payment or performance. It is a _collateral_
+contract, which does not extinguish the original liability or obligation
+to which it is accessory, but on the contrary is itself rendered null
+and void should the latter fail, as without a principal there can be no
+accessory. The liabilities of a surety are in law dependent upon those
+of the principal debtor, and when the latter cease the former do so
+likewise (_per_ Collins, L.J., in _Stacey_ v. _Hill_, 1901, 1 K.B., at
+p. 666; see _per_ Willes, J., in _Bateson_ v. _Gosling_, 1871, L.R. 7
+C.P., at p. 14), except in certain cases where the discharge of the
+principal debtor is by operation of law (see _In re Fitzgeorge--ex parte
+Robson_, 1905, 1 K.B. p. 462). If, therefore, persons wrongly suppose
+that a third person is liable to one of them, and a guarantee is given
+on that erroneous supposition, it is invalid _ab initio_, by virtue of
+the _lex contractus_, because its foundation (which was that another was
+taken to be liable) has failed (_per_ Willes, J., in _Mountstephen_ v.
+_Lakeman_, L.R. 7 Q.B. p. 202). According to various existing codes
+civil, a suretyship, in respect of an obligation "non-valable," is null
+and void save where the invalidity is the result of personal incapacity
+of the principal debtor (Codes Civil, France and Belgium, 2012; Spain,
+1824; Portugal, 822; Italy, 1899; Holland, 1858; Lower Canada, 1932). In
+some countries, however, the mere personal incapacity of a son under age
+to borrow suffices to vitiate the guarantee of a loan made to him
+(Spain, 1824; Portugal, 822, s. 2, 1535, 1536). The Egyptian codes
+sanction guarantees expressly entered into "in view of debtor's want of
+legal capacity" to contract a valid principal obligation (Egyptian
+Codes, Mixed Suits, 605; Native Tribunals, 496). The Portuguese code
+(art. 822, s. 1) retains the surety's liability, in respect of an
+invalid principal obligation, until the latter has been legally
+rescinded.
+
+The giver of a guarantee is called "the surety," or "the guarantor"; the
+person to whom it is given "the creditor," or "the guarantee"; while the
+person whose payment or performance is secured thereby is termed "the
+principal debtor," or simply "the principal." In America, but not
+apparently elsewhere, there is a recognized distinction between "a
+surety" and "a guarantor"; the former being usually bound with the
+principal, at the same time and on the same consideration, while the
+contract of the latter is his own separate undertaking, in which the
+principal does not join, and in respect of which he is not to be held
+liable, until due diligence has been exerted to compel the principal
+debtor to make good his default. There is no privity of contract between
+the surety and the principal debtor, for the surety contracts with the
+creditor, and they do not constitute in law one person, and are not
+jointly liable to the creditor (_per_ Baron Parke in _Bain_ v. _Cooper_,
+1 Dowl. R. (N.S.) 11, 14).
+
+No special phraseology is necessary to the formation of a guarantee; and
+what really distinguishes such a contract from one of insurance is not
+any essential difference between the two forms of words _insurance_ and
+_guarantee_, but the substance of the contract entered into by the
+parties in each particular case (_per_ Romer, L.J., in _Seaton_ v.
+_Heath_--_Seaton_ v. _Burnand_, 1899, 1 Q.B. 782, 792, C.A.; _per_
+Vaughan Williams, L.J., in _In re Denton's Estate Licenses Insurance
+Corporation and Guarantee Fund Ltd._ v. _Denton_, 1904, 2 Ch., at p.
+188; and see _Dane_ v. _Mortgage Insurance Corporation_, 1894, 1 Q.B. 54
+C.A.) In this connexion it may be mentioned that the different kinds of
+suretyships have been classified as follows: (1) Those in which there is
+an agreement to constitute, for a particular purpose, the relation of
+principal and surety, to which agreement the creditor thereby secured is
+a party; (2) those in which there is a similar agreement between the
+principal and surety only, to which the creditor is a stranger; and (3)
+those in which, without any such contract of suretyship, there is a
+primary and a secondary liability of two persons for one and the same
+debt, the debt being, as between the two, that of one of those persons
+only, and not equally of both, so that the other, if he should be
+compelled to pay it, would be entitled to reimbursement from the person
+by whom (as between the two) it ought to have been paid (_per_ Earl of
+Selborne, L.C., _in Duncan Fox and Co._ v. _North and South Wales Bank_,
+6 App. Cas., at p. 11). According to several codes civil sureties are
+made divisible into conventional, legal and judicial (Fr. and Bel.,
+2015, 2040 et seq.; Spain, 1823; Lower Canada, 1930), while the Spanish
+code further divides them into gratuitous and for valuable consideration
+(art. 1, 823).
+
+In England the common-law requisites of a guarantee in no way differ
+from those essential to the formation of any other contract. That is to
+say, they comprise the mutual assent of two or more parties, competency
+to contract, and, unless the guarantee be under seal, valuable
+consideration. An offer to guarantee is not binding until it has been
+accepted, being revocable till then by the party making it. Unless,
+however, as sometimes happens, the offer contemplates an express
+acceptance, one may be implied, and it may be a question for a jury
+whether an offer of guarantee has in fact been accepted. Where the
+surety's assent to a guarantee has been procured by fraud of the person
+to whom it is given, there is no binding contract. Such fraud may
+consist of suppression or concealment or misrepresentation. There is
+some conflict of authorities as to what facts must be spontaneously
+disclosed to the surety by the creditor, but it may be taken that the
+rule on the subject is less stringent than that governing insurances
+upon marine, life and other risks (_The North British Insurance Co._ v.
+_Lloyd_, 10 Exch. 523), though formerly this was denied (_Owen_ v.
+_Homan_, 3 Mac. & G. 378, 397). Moreover, even where the contract relied
+upon is in the form of a policy guaranteeing the solvency of a surety
+for another's debt, and is therefore governed by the doctrine of
+_uberrima_ fides, only such facts as are really material to the risk
+undertaken need be spontaneously disclosed (_Seaton_ v.
+_Burnand_--_Burnand_ v. _Seaton_, 1900, A.C. 135). As regards the
+competency of the parties to enter into a contract of guarantee, this
+may be affected by insanity or intoxication of the surety, if known to
+the creditor, or by disability of any kind. The ordinary disabilities
+are those of infants and married women--now in England greatly mitigated
+as regards the latter by the Married Women's Property Acts, 1870 to
+1893, which enable a married woman to contract, as a _feme sole_, to the
+extent of her separate property. Every guarantee not under seal must
+according to English law have a consideration to support it, though the
+least spark of one suffices (_per_ Wilmot, J., in _Pillan_ v. _van
+Mierop and Hopkins_, 3 Burr., at p. 1666; _Haigh_ v. _Brooks_, 10 A. &
+E. 309; _Barrell_ v. _Trussell_, 4 Taunt. 117), which, as in other
+cases, may consist either of some right, interest, profit or benefit
+accruing to the one party, or some forbearance, detriment, loss or
+responsibility given, suffered or undertaken by the other. In some
+guarantees the consideration is entire--as where, in consideration of a
+lease being granted, the surety becomes answerable for the performance
+of the covenants; in other cases it is fragmentary, i.e. supplied from
+time to time--as where a guarantee is given to secure the balance of a
+running account at a banker's, or a balance of a running account for
+goods supplied (_per_ Lush, L.J., in _Lloyd's_ v. _Harper_, 16 Ch. Div.,
+at p. 319). In the former case, the moment the lease is granted there is
+nothing more for the lessor to do, and such a guarantee as that of
+necessity runs on throughout the duration of the lease and is
+irrevocable. In the latter case, however, unless the guarantee
+stipulates to the contrary, the surety may at any time terminate his
+liability under the guarantee as to _future_ advances, &c. The
+consideration for a guarantee must not be _past_ or _executed_, but on
+the other hand it need not comprise a direct benefit or advantage to
+either the surety or the creditor, but may solely consist of anything
+done, or any promise made, for the benefit of the principal debtor. It
+is more frequently _executory_ than _concurrent_, taking the form either
+of forbearance to sue the principal debtor, or of a future advance of
+money or supply of goods to him.
+
+By the Indian Contract Act 1872, sect. 127, it is provided that the
+consideration for a guarantee may consist of anything done or any
+promise made for the benefit of the principal debtor by the creditor.
+Total failure of the consideration stipulated for by the party giving a
+guarantee will prevent its being enforced, as will also the existence of
+an illegal consideration. Though in all countries the mutual assent of
+two or more parties is essential to the formation of any contract (see
+e.g. Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 1108; Port. 643, 647 et seq.; Spain,
+1258, 1261; Italy, 1104; Holl. 1356; Lower Canada, 984), a consideration
+is not everywhere regarded as a necessary element (see Pothier's _Law of
+Obligations_, Evans's edition, vol. ii. p. 19). Thus in Scotland a
+contract may be binding without a consideration to support it (Stair i.
+10. 7).
+
+The statutory requisites of a guarantee are, in England, prescribed by
+(1) the Statute of Frauds, which, with reference to guarantees, provides
+that "no action shall be brought whereby to charge the defendant upon
+any special promise to answer for the debt, default or miscarriages of
+another person, unless the agreement upon which such action shall be
+brought, or some memorandum or note thereof, shall be in writing and
+signed by the party to be charged therewith, or some other person
+thereunto by him lawfully authorized," and (2) Lord Tenterden's Act (9
+Geo. IV. c. 14), which by S 6 enacts that "no action shall be brought
+whereby to charge any person upon or by reason of any representation or
+assurance made or given concerning or relating to the character,
+conduct, credit, ability, trade or dealings of any other person, to the
+intent or purpose that such other person may obtain credit, money or
+goods upon" (i.e. "upon credit," see _per_ Parke, B., in _Lyde_ v.
+_Barnard_, 1 M. & W., at p. 104), "unless such representation or
+assurance be made in writing signed by the party to be charged
+therewith." This latter enactment, which applies to incorporated
+companies as well as to individual persons (_Hirst_ v. _West Riding
+Union Banking Co._, 1901, 2 K.B. 560 C.A.), was rendered necessary by an
+evasion of the 4th section of the Statute of Frauds, accomplished by
+treating the special promise to answer for another's debt, default or
+miscarriage, when not in writing, as required by that section, as a
+false and fraudulent representation concerning another's credit,
+solvency or honesty, in respect of which damages, as for a tort, were
+held to be recoverable (_Pasley_ v. _Freeman_, 3 T.R. 51). In Scotland,
+where, it should be stated, a guarantee is called a "cautionary
+obligation," similar enactments to those just specified are contained in
+S 6 of the Mercantile Law Amendment Act (Scotland) 1856, while in the
+Irish Statute of Frauds (7 Will. III. c. 12) there is a provision (S 2)
+identical with that found in the English Statute of Frauds. In India a
+guarantee may be either oral or written (Indian Contract Act, S 126),
+while in the Australian colonies, Jamaica and Ceylon it must be in
+writing. The German code civil requires the surety's promise to be
+verified by writing where he has not executed the principal obligation
+(art. 766), and the Portuguese code renders a guarantee provable by all
+the modes established by law for the proof of the principal contract
+(art. 826). According to most codes civil now in force a guarantee like
+any other contract can usually be made verbally in the presence of
+witnesses and in certain cases (where for instance considerable sums of
+money are involved) _sous signature privee_ or else by judicial or
+notarial instrument (see Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 1341; Spain, 1244;
+Port. 2506, 2513; Italy, 1341 et seq.; Pothier's _Law of Obligations_,
+Evans's ed. i. 257; Burge on _Suretyship_, p. 19; van der Linden's
+_Institutes of Holland_, p. 120); the French and Belgian Codes,
+moreover, provide that suretyship is not to be presumed but must always
+be expressed (art. 2015).
+
+The Statute of Frauds does not invalidate a verbal guarantee, but
+renders it unenforceable by action. It may therefore be available in
+support of a defence to an action, and money paid under it cannot be
+recovered. An indemnity is not a guarantee within the statute, unless it
+contemplates the primary liability of a third person. It need not,
+therefore, be in writing when it is a mere promise to become liable for
+a debt, whenever the person to whom the promise is made should become
+liable (_Wildes_ v. _Dudlow_, L.R. 19 Eq. 198; _per_ Vaughan Williams,
+L.J. in _Harburg India-Rubber Co._ v. _Martin_, 1902, 1 K.B. p. 786;
+_Guild_ v. _Conrad_, 1894, 2 Q.B. 885 C.A.). Neither does the statute
+apply to the promise of a _del credere_ agent, which binds him, in
+consideration of the higher commission he receives, to make no sales on
+behalf of his principal except to persons who are absolutely solvent,
+and renders him liable for any loss that may result from the
+non-fulfilment of his promise. A promise to _give_ a guarantee is,
+however, within the statute, though not one to _procure_ a guarantee.
+
+The general principles which determine what are guarantees within the
+Statute of Frauds, as deduced from a multitude of decided cases, are
+briefly as follows: (1) the primary liability of a third person must
+exist or be contemplated as the foundation of the contract (_Birkmyr_ v.
+_Darnell_, 1 Sm. L.C. 11th ed. p. 299; _Mountstephen_ v. _Lakeman_, L.R.
+7 Q.B. 196; L.R. 7 H.L. 17); (2) the promise must be made to the
+creditor; (3) there must be an absence of all liability on the part of
+the surety independently of his express promise of guarantee; (4) the
+main object of the transaction between the parties to the guarantee must
+be the fulfilment of a third party's obligation (see _Harburg
+India-rubber Comb Co._ v. _Martin_, 1902, 1 K.B. 778, 786); and (5) the
+contract entered into must not amount to a sale by the creditor to the
+promiser of a security for a debt or of the debt itself (see de Colyar's
+_Law of Guarantees and of Principal and Surety_, 3rd ed. pp. 65-161,
+where these principles are discussed in detail by the light of decided
+cases there cited).
+
+As regards the kind of note or memorandum of the guarantee that will
+satisfy the Statute of Frauds, it is now provided by S 3 of the
+Mercantile Law Amendment Act 1856, that "no special promise to be made,
+by any person after the passing of this act, to answer for the debt,
+default or miscarriage of another person, being in writing and signed by
+the party to be charged therewith, or some other person by him thereunto
+lawfully authorized, shall be deemed invalid to support an action, suit
+or other proceeding, to charge the person by whom such promise shall
+have been made, by reason only that the consideration for such promise
+does not appear in writing or by necessary inference from a written
+document." Prior to this enactment, which is not retrospective in its
+operation, it was held in many cases that as the Statute of Frauds
+requires "the agreement" to be in writing, all parts thereof were
+required so to be, including the consideration moving to, as well as the
+promise by, the party to be charged (_Wain_ v. _Walters_, 5 East, 10;
+_Sounders_ v. _Wakefield_, 4 B. & Ald. 595). These decisions, however,
+proved to be burdensome to the mercantile community, especially in
+Scotland and the north of England, and ultimately led to the alteration
+of the law, so far as guarantees are concerned, by means of the
+enactment already specified. Any writing embodying the terms of the
+agreement between the parties, and signed by the party to be charged, is
+sufficient; and the idea of agreement need not be present to the mind of
+the person signing (_per_ Lindley, L.J., in _In re_ Hoyle--_Hoyle_ v.
+_Hoyle_, 1893, 1 Ch., at p. 98). It is, however, necessary that the
+names of the contracting parties should appear somewhere in writing;
+that the party to be charged, or his agent, should sign the memorandum
+or note of agreement, or else should sign another paper referring
+thereto; and that, when the note or memorandum is made, a complete
+agreement shall exist. Moreover, the memorandum must have been made
+before action brought, though it need not be contemporaneous with the
+agreement itself. As regards the stamping of the memorandum or note of
+agreement, a guarantee cannot, in England, be given in evidence unless
+properly stamped (Stamp Act 1891). A guarantee for the payment of goods,
+however, requires no stamp, being within the exception contained in the
+first schedule of the act. Nor is it necessary to stamp a written
+representation or assurance as to character within 9 Geo. IV. c. 14,
+_supra_. If under seal, a guarantee requires sometimes an _ad valorem_
+stamp and sometimes a ten-shilling stamp; in other cases a sixpenny
+stamp generally suffices; and, on certain prescribed terms, the stamps
+can be affixed any time after execution (Stamp Act 1891, S 15, amended
+by S 15 of the Finance Act 1895).
+
+
+  Extent of surety's liability.
+
+The liability incurred by a surety under his guarantee depends upon its
+terms, and is not necessarily co-extensive with that of the principal
+debtor. It is, however, obvious that as the surety's obligation is
+merely accessory to that of the principal it cannot as such exceed it
+(de Colyar, _Law of Guarantees_, 3rd ed. p. 233; Burge, _Suretyship_, p.
+5). By the Roman law, if there were any such excess the surety's
+obligation was rendered _wholly_ void and not merely void _pro tanto_.
+By many existing codes civil, however, a guarantee which imposes on the
+surety a greater liability than that of the principal is not thereby
+invalidated, but the liability is merely reducible to that of the
+principal (Fr. and Bel. 2013; Port. 823; Spain, 1826; Italy, 1900;
+Holland, 1859; Lower Canada, 1933). By sec. 128 of the Indian Contract
+Act 1872 the liability of the surety is, unless otherwise provided by
+contract, coextensive with that of the principal. Where the liability of
+the surety is _less_ extensive in amount than that of the principal
+debtor, difficult questions have arisen in England and America as to
+whether the surety is liable only for _part_ of the debt equal to the
+limit of his liability, or, up to such limit, for the _whole_ debt
+(_Ellis_ v. _Emmanuel_, 1 Ex. Div. 157; _Hobson_ v. _Bass_, 6 Ch. App.
+792; Brandt, _Suretyship_, sec. 219). The surety cannot be made liable
+except for a loss sustained by reason of the default guaranteed against.
+Moreover, in the case of a joint and several guarantee by several
+sureties, unless all sign it none are liable thereunder (_National Pro.
+Bk. of England_ v. _Brackenbury_, 1906, 22 _Times_ L.R. 797). It was
+formerly considered in England to be the duty of the party taking a
+guarantee to see that it was couched in language enabling the party
+giving it to understand clearly to what extent he was binding himself
+(_Nicholson_ v. _Paget_, 1 C. & M. 48, 52). This view, however, can no
+longer be sustained, it being now recognized that a guarantee, like any
+other contract, must, in cases of ambiguity, be construed against the
+party bound thereby and in favour of the party receiving it (_Mayer_ v.
+_Isaac_, 6 M. & W. 605, 612; _Wood_ v. _Priestner_, L.R. 2 Exch. 66,
+71). The surety is not to be changed beyond the limits prescribed by his
+contract, which must be construed so as to give effect to what may
+fairly be inferred to have been the intention of the parties, from what
+they themselves have expressed in writing. In cases of doubtful import,
+recourse to parol evidence is permissible, to explain, but not to
+contradict, the written evidence of the guarantee. As a general rule,
+the surety is not liable if the principal debt cannot be enforced,
+because, as already explained, the obligation of the surety is merely
+accessory to that of the principal debtor. It has never been actually
+decided in England whether this rule holds good in cases where the
+principal debtor is an infant, and on that account is not liable to the
+creditor. Probably in such a case the surety might be held liable by
+estoppel (see _Kimball_ v. _Newell_, 7 Hill (N.Y.) 116). When directors
+guarantee the performance by their company of a contract which is ultra
+vires, and therefore not binding on the latter, the directors'
+suretyship liability is, nevertheless, enforceable against them
+(_Yorkshire Railway Waggon Co._ v. _Maclure_, 21 Ch. D. 309 C.A.).
+
+It is not always easy to determine for how long a time liability under a
+guarantee endures. Sometimes a guarantee is limited to a single
+transaction, and is obviously intended to be security against one
+specific default only. On the other hand, it as often happens that it is
+not exhausted by one transaction on the faith of it, but extends to a
+series of transactions, and remains a standing security until it is
+revoked, either by the act of the parties or else by the death of the
+surety. It is then termed a continuing guarantee. No fixed rules of
+interpretation determine whether a guarantee is a continuing one or
+not, but each case must be judged on its individual merits; and
+frequently, in order to achieve a correct construction, it becomes
+necessary to examine the surrounding circumstances, which often reveal
+what was the subject-matter which the parties contemplated when the
+guarantee was given, and likewise what was the scope and object of the
+transaction between them. Most continuing guarantees are either ordinary
+mercantile securities, in respect of advances made or goods supplied to
+the principal debtor or else bonds for the good behaviour of persons in
+public or private offices or employments. With regard to the latter
+class of continuing guarantees, the surety's liability is, generally
+speaking, revoked by any change in the constitution of the persons to or
+for whom the guarantee is given. On this subject it is now provided by
+section 18 of the Partnership Act 1890, which applies to Scotland as
+well as England, that "a continuing guarantee or cautionary obligation
+given either to a firm or to a third person in respect of the
+transactions of a firm, is, in the absence of agreement to the contrary,
+revoked as to future transactions by any change in the constitution of
+the firm to which, or of the firm in respect of the transactions of
+which the guaranty or obligation was given." This section, like the
+enactment it replaces, namely, sec. 4 of the Mercantile Law Amendment
+Act 1856, is mainly declaratory of the English common law, as embodied
+in decided cases, which indicate that the changes in the persons to or
+for whom a guarantee is given may consist either of an increase in their
+number, of a diminution thereof caused by death or retirement from
+business, or of the incorporation or consolidation of the persons to
+whom the guarantee is given. In this connexion it may be stated that the
+Government Offices (Security) Act 1875, which has been amended by the
+Statute Law Revision Act 1883, contains certain provisions with regard
+to the acceptance by the heads of public departments of guarantees given
+by companies for the due performance of the duties of an office or
+employment in the public service, and enables the Commissioners of His
+Majesty's Treasury to vary the character of any security, for good
+behaviour by public servants, given after the passing of the act.
+
+Before the surety can be rendered liable on his guarantee, the principal
+debtor must have made default. When, however, this has occurred, the
+creditor, in the absence of express agreement to the contrary, may sue
+the surety, without even informing him of such default having taken
+place, or requiring him to pay, and before proceeding against the
+principal debtor or resorting to securities for the debt received from
+the latter. In those countries where the municipal law is based on the
+Roman civil law, sureties usually possess the right (which may, however,
+be renounced by them) originally conferred by the Roman law, of
+compelling the creditor to insist on the goods, &c. (if any) of the
+principal debtor being first "discussed," i.e. appraised and sold, and
+appropriated to the liquidation of the debt guaranteed (see Codes Civil,
+Fr. and Bel. 2021 et seq.; Spain, 1830, 1831; Port. 830; Germany, 771,
+772, 773; Holland, 1868; Italy, 1907; Lower Canada, 1941-1942; Egypt
+[mixed suits] 612; _ibid._ [native tribunals] 502), before having
+recourse to the sureties. This right, according to a great American
+jurist (Chancellor Kent in _Hayes_ v. _Ward_, 4 Johns. New York, Ch.
+Cas. p. 132), "accords with a common sense of justice and the natural
+equity of mankind." In England this right has never been fully
+recognized. Neither does it prevail in America nor, since the passing of
+the Mercantile Law Amendment Act (Scotland) 1856, s. 8, is it any longer
+available in Scotland where, prior to the last-named enactment, the
+benefit of discussion, as it is termed, existed. In England, however,
+before any demand for payment has been made by the creditor on the
+surety, the latter can, as soon as the principal debtor has made
+default, compel the creditor, on giving him an indemnity against costs
+and expenses, to sue the principal debtor if the latter be solvent and
+able to pay (_per_ A. L. Smith, L.J., in _Rouse_ v. _Bradford Banking
+Company_, 1894, 2 Ch. 75; _per_ Lord Eldon in _Wright_ v. _Simpson_, 6
+Ves., at p. 733), and a similar remedy is also open to the surety in
+America (see Brandt on _Suretyship_, par. 205, p. 290) though in
+neither of these countries nor in Scotland can one of several sureties,
+when sued for the whole guaranteed debt by the creditor, compel the
+latter to divide his claim amongst all the solvent sureties, and reduce
+it to the share and proportion of each surety. However, this _beneficium
+divisionis_, as it is called in Roman law, is recognized by many
+existing codes (Fr. and Bel. 2025-2027; Spain, 1837; Portugal, 835-836;
+Germany, 426; Holland, 1873-1874; Italy, 1911-1912; Lower Canada, 1946;
+Egypt [mixed suits], 615, 616).
+
+The usual mode in England of enforcing liability under a guarantee is by
+action in the High Court or in the county court. It is also permissible
+for the creditor to obtain redress by means of a set-off or
+counter-claim, in an action brought against him by the surety. On the
+other hand, the surety may now, in any court in which the action on the
+guarantee is pending, avail himself of any set-off which may exist
+between the principal debtor and the creditor. Moreover, if one of
+several sureties for the same debt is sued by the creditor or his
+guarantee, he can, by means of a proceeding termed a third-party notice,
+claim contribution from his co-surety towards the common liability.
+Independent proof of the surety's liability under his guarantee must
+always be given at the trial; as the creditor cannot rely either on
+admissions made by the principal debtor, or on a judgment or award
+obtained against him (_Ex parte Young In re Kitchin_, 17 Ch. Div. 668).
+Should the surety become bankrupt either before or after default has
+been made by the principal debtor, the creditor will have to prove
+against his estate. This right of proof is now in England regulated by
+the 37th section of the Bankruptcy Act, 1883, which is most
+comprehensive in its terms.
+
+
+  Rights of sureties.
+
+A person liable as a surety for another under a guarantee possesses
+various rights against him, against the person to whom the guarantee is
+given, and also against those who may have become co-sureties in respect
+of the same debt, default or miscarriage. As regards the surety's rights
+against the principal debtor, the latter may, where the guarantee was
+made with his consent but not otherwise (see _Hodgson_ v. _Shaw_, 3 Myl.
+& K. at p. 190), after he has made default, be compelled by the surety
+to exonerate him from liability by payment of the guaranteed debt (_per_
+Sir W. Grant, M.R., in _Antrobus_ v. _Davidson_, 3 Meriv. 569, 579;
+_per_ Lindley, L.J., in _Johnston_ v. _Salvage Association_, 19 Q.B.D.
+460, 461; and see _Wolmershausen_ v. _Gullick_, 1893, 2 Ch. 514). The
+moment, moreover, the surety has himself paid any portion of the
+guaranteed debt, he is entitled to rank as a creditor for the amount so
+paid, and to compel repayment thereof. In the event of the principal
+debtor's bankruptcy, the surety can in England, if the creditor has not
+already proved in respect of the guaranteed debt, prove against the
+bankrupt's estate, not only in respect of payments made before the
+bankruptcy of the principal debtor, but also, it seems, in respect of
+the contingent liability to pay under the guarantee (see _Ex parte
+Delmar re Herepath_, 1889, 38 W.R. 752), while if the creditor has
+already proved, the surety who has paid the guaranteed debt has a right
+to all dividends received by the creditor from the bankrupt in respect
+thereof, and to stand in the creditor's place as to future dividends.
+This right is, however, often waived by the guarantee stipulating that,
+until the creditor has received full payment of all sums over and above
+the guaranteed debt, due to him from the principal debtor, the surety
+shall not participate in any dividends distributed from the bankrupt's
+estate amongst his creditors. As regards the rights of the surety
+against the creditor, they are in England exercisable even by one who in
+the first instance was a principal debtor, but has since become a
+surety, by arrangement with his creditor, duly notified to the creditor,
+though not even sanctioned by him. This was decided by the House of
+Lords in the case of _Rouse_ v. _The Bradford Banking Co._, 1894, A.C.
+586, removing a doubt created by the previous case of _Swire_ v.
+_Redman_, 1 Q.B.D. 536, which must now be treated as overruled. The
+surety's principal right against the creditor entitles him, after
+payment of the guaranteed debt, to the benefit of all securities,
+whether known to him (the surety) or not, which the creditor held
+against the principal debtor; and where, by default or _laches_ of the
+creditor, such securities have been lost, or rendered otherwise
+unavailable, the surety is discharged _pro tanto_. This right, which is
+_not_ in abeyance till the surety is called on to pay (_Dixon_ v.
+_Steel_, 1901, 2 Ch. 602), extends to all securities, whether satisfied
+or not, given before or after the contract of suretyship was entered
+into. On this subject the Mercantile Law Amendment Act, 1856, S 5,
+provides that "every person who being surety for the debt or duty of
+another, or being liable with another for any debt or duty, shall pay
+such debt or perform such duty, shall be entitled to have assigned to
+him, or to a trustee for him, every judgment, specialty, or other
+security, which shall be held by the creditor in respect of such debt or
+duty, whether such judgment, specialty, or other security shall or shall
+not be deemed at law to have been satisfied by the payment of the debt
+or performance of the duty, and such person shall be entitled to stand
+in the place of the creditor, and to use all the remedies, and, if need
+be, and upon a proper indemnity, to use the name of the creditor, in any
+action or other proceeding at law or in equity, in order to obtain from
+the principal debtor, or any co-surety, co-contractor, or co-debtor, as
+the case may be, indemnification for the advances made and loss
+sustained by the person who shall have so paid such debt or performed
+such duty; and such payment or performance so made by such surety shall
+not be pleadable in bar of any such action or other proceeding by him,
+provided always that no co-surety, co-contractor, or co-debtor shall be
+entitled to recover from any other co-surety, co-contractor, or
+co-debtor, by the means aforesaid, more than the just proportion to
+which, as between those parties themselves, such last-mentioned person
+shall be justly liable." This enactment is so far retrospective that it
+applies to a contract made before the act, where the breach thereof, and
+the payment by the surety, have taken place subsequently. The right of
+the surety to be subrogated, on payment by him of the guaranteed debt,
+to all the rights of the creditor against the principal debtor is
+recognized in America (_Tobin_ v. _Kirk_, 80 New York S.C.R. 229), and
+many other countries (Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 2029; Spain, 1839; Port.
+839; Germany, 774; Holland, 1877; Italy, 1916; Lower Canada, 2959; Egypt
+[mixed suits], 617; _ibid._ [native tribunals], 505).
+
+As regards the rights of the surety against a co-surety, he is entitled
+to contribution from him in respect of their common liability. This
+particular right is not the result of any contract, but is derived from
+a general equity, on the ground of equality of burden and benefit, and
+exists whether the sureties be bound jointly, or jointly and severally,
+and by the same, or different, instruments. There is, however, no right
+of contribution where each surety is severally bound for a given portion
+only of the guaranteed debt; nor in the case of a surety for a surety;
+(see _In re Denton's Estate_, 1904, 2 Ch. 178 C.A.); nor where a person
+becomes a surety jointly with another and at the latter's request.
+Contribution may be enforced, either before payment, or as soon as the
+surety has paid more than his share of the common debt (_Wolmershausen_
+v. _Gullick_, 1803, 2 Ch. 514); and the amount recoverable is now always
+regulated by the number of solvent sureties, though formerly this rule
+only prevailed in equity. In the event of the bankruptcy of a surety,
+proof can be made against his estate by a co-surety for any excess over
+the latter's contributive share. The right of contribution is not the
+only right possessed by co-sureties against each other, but they are
+also entitled to the benefit of all securities which have been taken by
+any one of them as an indemnity against the liability incurred for the
+principal debtor. The Roman law did not recognize the right of
+contribution amongst sureties. It is, however, sanctioned by many
+existing codes (Fr. and Bel. 2033; Germany, 426, 474; Italy, 1920;
+Holland, 1881; Spain, 1844; Port. 845; Lower Canada, 1955; Egypt [mixed
+suits], 618, _ibid._ [native tribunals], 506), and also by the Indian
+Contract Act 1872, ss. 146-147.
+
+The discharge of a surety from liability under his guarantee may be
+accomplished In various ways, he being regarded, especially in England
+and America, as a "favoured debtor" (_per_ Turner, L.J., in _Wheatley_
+v. _Bastow_, 7 De G. M. & G. 279, 280; _per_ Earl of Selborne, L.C., in
+_In re Sherry--London and County Banking Co._ v. _Terry_, 25 Ch. D., at
+p. 703; and see Brandt on _Suretyship_, secs. 79, 80). Thus, fraud
+subsequent to the execution of the guarantee (as where, for example, the
+creditor connives at the principal debtor's default) will certainly
+discharge the surety. Again, a material alteration made by the creditor
+in the instrument of guarantee after its execution may also have this
+effect. The most prolific ground of discharge, however, is usually
+traceable to causes originating in the creditor's laches or conduct, the
+governing principle being that if the creditor violates any rights which
+the surety possessed when he entered into the suretyship, even though
+the damage be nominal only, the guarantee cannot be enforced. On this
+subject it suffices to state that the surety's discharge may be
+accomplished (1) by a variation of the terms of the contract between the
+creditor and the principal debtor, or of that subsisting between the
+creditor and the surety (see _Rickaby_ v. _Lewis_, 22 T.L.R. 130); (2)
+by the creditor taking a new security from the principal debtor in lieu
+of the original one; (3) by the creditor discharging the principal
+debtor from liability; (4) by the creditor binding himself to give time
+to the principal debtor for payment of the guaranteed debt; or (5) by
+loss of securities received by the creditor in respect of the guaranteed
+debt.
+
+In this connexion It may be stated in general terms that whatever
+extinguishes the principal obligation necessarily determines that of the
+surety (which is accessory thereto), not only in England but elsewhere
+also (Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 2034, 2038; Spain, 1847; Port. 848;
+Lower Canada, 1956; 1960; Egypt [mixed suits], 622, _ibid._ [native
+tribunals], 509; Indian Contract Act 1872, sec. 134), and that, by most
+of the codes civil now in force, the surety is discharged by _laches_ or
+conduct of the creditor inconsistent with the surety's rights (see Fr.
+and Bel. 2037; Spain, 1852; Port. 853; Germany, 776; Italy, 1928; Egypt
+[mixed suits], 623), though it may be mentioned that the rule prevailing
+in England, Scotland, America and India which releases the surety from
+liability where the creditor, by binding contract with the principal,
+extends without the surety's consent the time for fulfilling the
+principal obligation, while recognized by two existing codes civil
+(Spain, 1851; Port. 852), is rejected by the majority of them (Fr. and
+Bel. 2039; Holland, 1887; Italy, 1930; Lower Canada, 1961; Egypt [mixed
+suits], 613; _ib._ [native tribunals], 503); (and see Morice, _English
+and Dutch Law_, p. 96; van der Linden, _Institutes of Holland_, pp.
+120-121). A revocation of the contract of suretyship by act of the
+parties, or in certain cases by the death of the surety, may also
+operate to discharge the surety. The death of a surety does not _per se_
+determine the guarantee, but, save where from its nature the guarantee
+is irrevocable by the surety himself, it can be revoked by express
+notice after his death, or, it would appear, by the creditor becoming
+affected with constructive notice thereof; except where, under the
+testator's will, the executor has the option of continuing the
+guarantee, in which case the executor should, it seems, specifically
+withdraw the guarantee in order to determine it. Where one of a number
+of joint and several sureties dies, the future liability of the
+survivors under the guarantee continues, at all events until it has been
+determined by express notice. Moreover, when three persons joined in a
+guarantee to a bank, and their liability thereunder was not expressed to
+be several, it was held that the death of one surety did not determine
+the liability of the survivors. In such a case, however, the estate of
+the deceased surety would be relieved from liability.
+
+The Statutes of Limitation bar the right of action on guarantees under
+seal after twenty years, and on other guarantees after six years, from
+the date when the creditor might have sued the surety.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--De Colyar, _Law of Guarantees and of Principal and
+  Surety_ (3rd ed., 1897); American edition, by J. A. Morgan (1875);
+  Throop, _Validity of Verbal Agreements_; Fell, _Guarantees_ (2nd
+  ed.); Theobald, _Law of Principal and Surety_; Brandt, _Law of
+  Suretyships and Guarantee_; article by de Colyar in _Journal of
+  Comparative Legislation_ (1905), on "Suretyship from the Standpoint of
+  Comparative Jurisprudence."     (H. A. de C.)
+
+
+
+
+GUARATINGUETA, a city of Brazil In the eastern part of the state of Sao
+Paulo, 124 m. N.E. of the city of Sao Paulo. Pop. (1890) of the
+municipality, which includes a large rural district and the villages of
+Apparecida and Roseira, 30,690. The city, which was founded in 1651,
+stands on a fertile plain 3 m. from the Parahyba river, and is the
+commercial centre of one of the oldest agricultural districts of the
+state. The district produces large quantities of coffee, and some sugar,
+Indian corn and beans. Cattle and pigs are raised. The city dwellings
+are for the most part constructed of rough wooden frames covered with
+mud, called _taipa_ by the natives, and roofed with curved tiles. The
+Sao Paulo branch of the Brazilian Central railway passes through the
+city, by which it is connected with Rio de Janeiro on one side and Sao
+Paulo and Santos on the other.
+
+
+
+
+GUARDA, an episcopal city and the capital of an administrative district
+bearing the same name, and formerly in the province of Beira, Portugal;
+on the Guarda-Abrantes and Lisbon-Villar Formoso railways. Pop. (1900)
+6124. Guarda is situated 3370 ft. above sea-level, at the north-eastern
+extremity of the Serra da Estrella, overlooking the fertile valley of
+the river Coa. It is surrounded by ancient walls, and contains a ruined
+castle, a fine 16th-century cathedral and a sanatorium for consumptives.
+Its industries comprise the manufacture of coarse cloth and the sale of
+grain, wine and live stock. In 1199 Guarda was founded, on the site of
+the Roman Lencia Oppidana, by Sancho I. of Portugal, who intended it, as
+its name implies, to be a "guard" against Moorish invasion. The
+administrative district of Guarda coincides with north-eastern Beira;
+pop. (1900), 261,630; area, 1065 sq. m.
+
+
+
+
+GUARDI, FRANCESCO (1712-1793), Venetian painter, was a pupil of
+Canaletto, and followed his style so closely that his pictures are very
+frequently attributed to his more celebrated master. Nevertheless, the
+diversity, when once perceived, is sufficiently marked--Canaletto being
+more firm, solid, distinct, well-grounded, and on the whole the higher
+master, while Guardi is noticeable for spirited touch, sparkling colour
+and picturesquely sketched figures--in these respects being fully equal
+to Canaletto. Guardi sometimes coloured Canaletto's designs. He had
+extraordinary facility, three or four days being enough for producing an
+entire work. The number of his performances is large in proportion to
+this facility and to the love of gain which characterized him. Many of
+his works are to be found in England and seven in the Louvre.
+
+
+
+
+GUARDIAN, one who guards or defends another, a protector. The O. Fr.
+_guarden_, _garden_, mod. _gardien_, from _guarder_, _garder_, is of
+Teutonic origin, from the base _war-_, to protect, cf. O.H. Ger.
+_warten_, and Eng. "ward"; thus "guardian" and "warden" are
+etymologically identical, as are "guard" and "ward"; cf. the use of the
+correlatives "guardian" and "ward," i.e. a minor, or person incapable of
+managing his affairs, under the protection or in the custody of a
+guardian. For the position of guardians of the poor see POOR LAW, and
+for the legal relations between a guardian and his ward see INFANT,
+MARRIAGE and ROMAN LAW.
+
+
+
+
+GUARDS, AND HOUSEHOLD TROOPS. The word _guard_ is an adaptation of the
+Fr. _guarde_, mod. _garde_, O. Ger. _ward_; see GUARDIAN. The practice
+of maintaining bodyguards is of great antiquity, and may indeed be
+considered the beginning of organized armies. Thus there is often no
+clear distinction between the inner ring of personal defenders and the
+select corps of trained combatants who are at the chief's entire
+disposal. Famous examples of corps that fell under one or both these
+headings are the "Immortals" of Xerxes, the Mamelukes, Janissaries, the
+_Huscarles_ of the Anglo-Saxon kings, and the Russian Strelitz
+(_Stryeltsi_). In modern times the distinction of function is better
+marked, and the fighting men who are more intimately connected with the
+sovereign than the bulk of the army can be classified as to duties into
+"Household Troops," who are in a sense personal retainers, and
+"Guards," who are a _corps d'elite_ of combatants. But the dividing line
+is not so clear as to any given body of troops. Thus the British
+Household Cavalry is part of the combatant army as well as the
+sovereign's escort.
+
+The oldest of the household or bodyguard corps in the United Kingdom is
+the King's Bodyguard of the _Yeomen of the Guard_ (q.v.), formed at his
+accession by Henry VII. The "nearest guard," the personal escort of the
+sovereign, is the "King's Bodyguard of the Honourable Corps of
+_Gentlemen-at-Arms_," created by Henry VIII. at his accession in 1509.
+Formed possibly on the pattern of the "Pensionnaires" of the French
+kings--retainers of noble birth who were the predecessors of the _Maison
+du Roi_ (see below)--the new corps was originally called "the
+Pensioners." The importance of such guards regiments in the general
+development of organized armies is illustrated by a declaration of the
+House of Commons, made in 1674, that the militia, the pensioners and the
+Yeomen of the Guard were the only lawful armed forces in the realm. But
+with the rise of the professional soldier and the corresponding disuse
+of arms by the nobles and gentry, the Gentlemen-at-Arms (a title which
+came into use in James II.'s time, though it did not become that of the
+corps until William IV.'s) retaining their noble character, became less
+and less military. Burke attempted without success in 1782 to restrict
+membership to officers of the army and navy, but the necessity of giving
+the corps an effective military character became obvious when, on the
+occasion of a threatened Chartist riot, it was called upon to do duty as
+an armed body at St James's Palace. The corps was reconstituted on a
+purely military basis in 1862, and from that date only military officers
+of the regular services who have received a war decoration are eligible
+for appointment. The office of captain, however, is political, the
+holder (who is always a peer) vacating it on the resignation of the
+government of which he is a member. The corps consists at present of
+captain, lieutenant, standard bearer, clerk of the cheque (adjutant),
+sub-officer and 39 gentlemen-at-arms. The uniform consists of a scarlet
+swallow-tailed coat and blue overalls, with gold epaulettes, brass
+dragoon helmet with drooping white plume and brass box-spurs, these last
+contrasting rather forcibly with the partizan, an essentially infantry
+weapon, that they carry.
+
+  _The Royal Company of Archers._--The king's bodyguard for Scotland was
+  constituted in its present form in the year 1670, by an act of the
+  privy council of Scotland. An earlier origin has been claimed for the
+  company, some connecting it with a supposed archer guard of the kings
+  of Scotland. In the above-mentioned year, 1676, the minutes of the
+  Royal Company begin by stating, that owing to "the noble and usefull
+  recreation of archery being for many years much neglected, several
+  noblemen and gentlemen did associate themselves in a company for
+  encouragement thereof ... and did apply to the privy council for their
+  approbation ... which was granted." For about twenty years at the end
+  of the 17th century, perhaps owing to the adhesion of the majority to
+  the Stuart cause, its existence seems to have been suspended. But in
+  1703 a new captain-general, Sir George Mackenzie, Viscount Tarbat,
+  afterwards earl of Cromarty (1630-1714), was elected, and he procured
+  for the company a new charter from Queen Anne. The rights and
+  privileges renewed or conferred by this charter were to be held of the
+  crown for the _reddendo_ of a pair of barbed arrows. This _reddendo_
+  was paid to George IV. at Holyrood in 1822, to Queen Victoria in 1842
+  and to King Edward VII. in 1903. The history of the Royal Company
+  since 1703 has been one of great prosperity. Large parades were
+  frequently held, and many distinguished men marched in the ranks.
+  Several of the leading insurgents in 1745 were members, but the
+  company was not at that time suspended in any way.
+
+  In 1822 when King George IV. visited Scotland, it was thought
+  appropriate that the Royal Company should act as his majesty's
+  bodyguard during his stay, especially as there was a tradition of a
+  former archer bodyguard. They therefore performed the duties usually
+  assigned to the gentlemen-at-arms. When Queen Victoria visited the
+  Scottish capital in 1842, the Royal Company again did duty; the last
+  time they were called out in her reign in their capacity of royal
+  bodyguard was in 1860 on the occasion of the great volunteer review in
+  the Queen's Park, Edinburgh. They acted in the same capacity when King
+  Edward VII. reviewed the Scottish Volunteers there on the 18th of
+  September 1905.
+
+  King George IV. authorized the company to take, in addition to their
+  former name, that of "The King's Body Guard for Scotland," and
+  presented to the captain-general a gold stick, thus constituting the
+  company part of the royal household. In virtue of this stick the
+  captain-general of the Royal Company takes his place at a coronation
+  or similar pageant immediately behind the gold stick of England. The
+  lieutenants-general of the company have silver sticks; and the
+  council, which is the executive body of the company, possess seven
+  ebony ones. George IV. further appointed a full dress uniform to be
+  worn by members of the company at court, when not on duty as guards,
+  in which latter case the ordinary field dress is used. The court dress
+  is green with green velvet facings, gold epaulettes and lace, crimson
+  silk sash, and cocked hat with green plume. The officers wear a gold
+  sash in place of a crimson one, and an _aiguillette_ on the left
+  shoulder. All ranks wear swords. The field dress at present consists
+  of a dark-green tunic, shoulder-wings and gauntleted cuffs and
+  trousers trimmed with black and crimson; a bow-case worn as a sash, of
+  the same colour as the coat, black waistbelt with sword, and Balmoral
+  bonnet with thistle ornament and eagle's feather. The officers of the
+  company are the captain-general, 4 captains, 4 lieutenants, 4 ensigns,
+  12 brigadiers and adjutant.
+
+Corps of the gentlemen-at-arms or yeoman type do not of course count as
+combatant troops--if for no other reason at least because they are armed
+with the weapons of bygone times. Colonel Clifford Walton states in his
+_History of the British Standing Army_ that neither the Yeomen of the
+Guard nor the Pensioners were ever subject to martial law. The British
+guards and household troops that are armed, trained and organized as
+part of the army are the _Household Cavalry_ and the _Foot Guards_.
+
+The Household Cavalry consists at the present day of three regiments,
+and has its origin, as have certain of the Foot guard regiments, in the
+ashes of the "New Model" army disbanded at the restoration of Charles
+II. in 1660. In that year the "1st or His Majesty's Own Troop of Guards"
+formed during the king's exile of his cavalier followers, was taken on
+the strength of the army. The 2nd troop was formerly in the Spanish
+service as the "Duke of York's Guards," and was also a cavalier unit. In
+1670, on Monk's death, the original 3rd troop (Monk's Life Guards,
+renamed in 1660 the "Lord General's Troop of Guards") became the 2nd
+(the queen's) troop, and the duke of York's troop the 3rd. In 1685 the
+1st and 2nd troops were styled Life Guards of Horse, and two years later
+the blue-uniformed "Royal Regiment of Horse," a New Model regiment that
+had been disbanded and at once re-raised in 1660, was made a household
+cavalry corps. Later under the colonelcy of the earl of Oxford it was
+popularly called "The Oxford Blues." There were also from time to time
+other troops (e.g. Scots troops 1700-1746) that have now disappeared. In
+1746 the 2nd troop was disbanded, but it was revived in 1788, when the
+two senior corps were given their present title of 1st and 2nd Life
+Guards. From 1750 to 1819 the Blues bore the name of "Royal Horse Guards
+Blue," which in 1819 was changed to "Royal Horse Guards (The Blues)."
+The general distinction between the uniforms of the red Life Guard and
+the blue Horse Guard still exists. The 1st and the 2nd regiments of Life
+Guards wear scarlet tunics with blue collars and cuffs, and the Royal
+Horse Guards blue tunics with scarlet collars and cuffs. All three wear
+steel cuirasses on state occasions and on guard duty. The head-dress is
+a steel helmet with drooping horse-hair plume (white for Life Guards,
+red for Horse Guards). In full dress white buckskin pantaloons and long
+knee boots are worn. Amongst the peculiarities of these _corps d'elite_
+is the survival of the old custom of calling non-commissioned officers
+"corporal of horse" instead of sergeant, and corporal-major instead of
+sergeant-major, the wearing by trumpeters and bandsmen in full dress of
+a black velvet cap, a richly laced coat with a full skirt extending to
+the wearer's knees and long white gaiters. There is little distinction
+between the two Life Guards regiments' uniforms, the most obvious point
+being that the cord running through the white leather pouch belt is red
+for the 1st and blue for the 2nd.
+
+The Foot Guards comprise the Grenadier Guards, the Coldstream Guards,
+the Scots Guards and the Irish Guards, each (except the last) of three
+battalions. The Grenadiers, originally the First Foot Guards, represent
+a royalist infantry regiment which served with the exiled princes in the
+Spanish army and returned at the Restoration in 1660. The Coldstream
+Guards are a New Model regiment, and were originally called the Lord
+General's (Monk's) regiment of Foot Guards. Their popular title, which
+became their official designation in 1670, is derived from the fact that
+the army with which Monk restored the monarchy crossed the Tweed into
+England at the village of Coldstream, and that his troops (which were
+afterwards, except the two units of horse and foot of which Monk himself
+was colonel, disbanded) were called the Coldstreamers. The two
+battalions of Scots Foot Guards, which regiment was separately raised
+and maintained in Scotland after the Restoration, marched to London in
+1686 and 1688 and were brought on to the English Establishment in 1707.
+In George III.'s reign they were known as the Third Guards, and from
+1831 to 1877 (when the present title was adopted) as the Scots Fusilier
+Guards.
+
+The Irish Guards (one battalion) were formed in 1902, after the South
+African War, as a mark of Queen Victoria's appreciation of the services
+rendered by the various Irish regiments of the line.[1] The dress of the
+Foot Guards is generally similar in all four regiments, scarlet tunic
+with blue collars, cuffs and shoulder-straps, blue trousers and high,
+rounded bearskin cap. The regimental distinctions most easily noticed
+are these. The Grenadiers wear a small white plume in the bearskin, the
+Coldstreams a similar red one, the Scots none, the Irish a blue-green
+one. The buttons on the tunic are spaced evenly for the Grenadiers, by
+twos for the Coldstreams, by threes for the Scots and by fours for the
+Irish. The band of the modern cap is red for the Grenadiers, white for
+the Coldstreams, "diced" red and white (chequers) for the Scots and
+green for the Irish. Former privileges of foot guard regiments, such as
+higher brevet rank in the army for their regimental officers, are now
+abolished, but Guards are still subject exclusively to the command of
+their own officers, and the officers of the Foot Guards, like those of
+the Household Cavalry, have special duties at court. Neither the cavalry
+nor the infantry guards serve abroad in peace time as a rule, but in
+1907 a battalion of the Guards, which it was at that time proposed to
+disband, was sent to Egypt. "Guards' Brigades" served in the Napoleonic
+Wars, in the Crimea, in Egypt at various times from 1887 to 1898 and in
+South Africa 1899-1902. The last employment of the Household Cavalry as
+a brigade in war was at Waterloo, but composite regiments made up from
+officers and men of the Life Guards and Blues were employed in Egypt and
+in S. Africa.
+
+  The sovereigns of France had guards in their service in Merovingian
+  times, and their household forces appear from time to time in the
+  history of medieval wars. Louis XI. was, however, the first to
+  regularize their somewhat loose organization, and he did so to such
+  good purpose that Francis I. had no less than 8000 guardsmen
+  organized, subdivided and permanently under arms. The senior unit of
+  the _Gardes du Corps_ was the famous company of Scottish archers
+  (_Compagnie ecossaise de la Garde du Corps du Roi_), which was
+  originally formed (1418) from the Scottish contingents that assisted
+  the French in the Hundred Years' War. Scott's _Quentin Durward_ gives
+  a picture of life in the corps as it was under Louis XI. In the
+  following century, however, its regimental history becomes somewhat
+  confused. Two French companies were added by Louis XI. and Francis I.
+  and the _Gardes du Corps_ came to consist exclusively of cavalry.
+  About 1634 nearly all the Scots then serving went into the "regiment
+  d'Hebron" and thence later into the British regular army (see HEPBURN,
+  SIR JOHN). Thereafter, though the titles, distinctions and privileges
+  of the original Archer Guard were continued, it was recruited from
+  native Frenchmen, preference being (at any rate at first) given to
+  those of Scottish descent. At its disbandment in 1791 along with the
+  rest of the _Gardes du Corps_, it contained few, if any, native Scots.
+  There was also, for a short time (1643-1660), an infantry regiment of
+  _Gardes ecossaises_.
+
+  In 1671 the title of _Maison Militaire du Roi_ was applied to that
+  portion of the household that was distinctively military. It came to
+  consist of 4 companies of the _Gardes du Corps_, 2 companies of
+  _Mousquetaires_ (cavalry) (formed 1622 and 1660), 1 company of
+  _Chevaux legers_ (1570), 1 of _Gendarmes de la Maison Rouge_, and 1 of
+  _Grenadiers a Cheval_ (1676), with 1 company of _Gardes de la Porte_
+  and one called the _Cent-Suisses_, the last two being semi-military.
+  This large establishment, which did not include all the guard
+  regiments, was considerably reduced by the Count of St Germain's
+  reforms in 1775, all except the _Gardes du Corps_ and the
+  _Cent-Suisses_ being disbanded. The whole of the _Maison du Roi_, with
+  the exception of the semi-military bodies referred to, was cavalry.
+
+  The _Gardes francaises_, formed in 1563, did not form part of the
+  _Maison_. They were an infantry regiment, as were the famous _Gardes
+  suisses_, originally a Swiss mercenary regiment in the Wars of
+  Religion, which was, for good conduct at the combat of Arques,
+  incorporated in the permanent establishment by Henry IV. in 1589 and
+  in the guards in 1615. At the Revolution, contrary to expectation, the
+  French Guards sided openly with the Constitutional movement and were
+  disbanded. The Swiss Guards, however, being foreigners, and therefore
+  unaffected by civil troubles, retained their exact discipline and
+  devotion to the court to the day on which they were sacrificed by
+  their master to the bullets of the Marseillais and the pikes of the
+  mob (August 10, 1792). Their tragic fate is commemorated by the
+  well-known monument called the "Lion of Lucerne," the work of
+  Thorvaldsen, erected near Lucerne in 1821. The "Constitutional,"
+  "Revolutionary" and other guards that were created after the abolition
+  of the _Maison_ and the slaughter of the Swiss are unimportant, but
+  through the "Directory Guards" they form a nominal link between the
+  household troops of the monarchy and the corps which is perhaps the
+  most famous "Guard" in history. The Imperial Guard of Napoleon had its
+  beginnings in an escort squadron called the Corps of Guides, which
+  accompanied him in the Italian campaign of 1796-1797 and in Egypt. On
+  becoming First Consul in 1799 he built up out of this and of the guard
+  of the Directory a small corps of horse and foot, called the Consular
+  Guard, and this, which was more of a fighting unit than a personal
+  bodyguard, took part in the battle of Marengo. The Imperial Guard,
+  into which it was converted on the establishment of the Empire, was at
+  first of about the strength of a division. As such it took part in the
+  Austerlitz and Jena campaigns, but after the conquest of Prussia
+  Napoleon augmented it, and divided it into the "Old Guard" and the
+  "Young Guard." Subsequently the "Middle Guard" was created, and by
+  successive augmentations the corps of the guard had grown to be 57,000
+  strong in 1811-1812 and 81,000 in 1813. It preserved its general
+  character as a _corps d'elite_ of veterans to the last, but from about
+  1813 the "Young Guard" was recruited directly from the best of the
+  annual conscript contingent. The officers held a higher rank in the
+  army than their regimental rank in the Guards. At the first
+  Restoration an attempt was made to revive the _Maison du Roi_, but in
+  the constitutional regime of the second Restoration this semi-medieval
+  form of bodyguard was given up and replaced by the _Garde Royale_, a
+  selected fighting corps. This took part in the short war with Spain
+  and a portion of it fought in Algeria, but it was disbanded at the
+  July Revolution. Louis Philippe had no real guard troops, but the
+  memories of the Imperial Guard were revived by Napoleon III., who
+  formed a large guard corps in 1853-1854. This, however, was open to an
+  even greater degree than Napoleon I.'s guard to the objection that it
+  took away the best soldiers from the line. Since the fall of the
+  Empire in 1870 there have been no guard troops in France. The duty of
+  watching over the safety of the president is taken in the ordinary
+  roster of duty by the troops stationed in the capital. The "Republican
+  Guard" is the Paris gendarmerie, recruited from old soldiers and armed
+  and trained as a military body.
+
+  In _Austria-Hungary_ there are only small bodies of household troops
+  (Archer Body Guard, Trabant Guard, Hungarian Crown Guards, &c.)
+  analogous to the British Gentlemen at Arms or Yeomen of the Guard.
+  Similar forces, the "Noble Guard" and the "Swiss Guard," are
+  maintained in the Vatican. The court troops of Spain are called
+  "halberdiers" and armed with the halbert.
+
+  In _Russia_ the Guard is organized as an army corps. It possesses
+  special privileges, particularly as regards officers' advancement.
+
+  In _Germany_ the distinction between armed retainers and "Guards" is
+  well marked. The army is for practical purposes a unit under imperial
+  control, while household troops ("castle-guards" as they are usually
+  called) belong individually to the various sovereigns within the
+  empire. The "Guards," as a combatant force in the army are those of
+  the king of _Prussia_ and constitute a strong army corps. This has
+  grown gradually from a bodyguard of archers, and, as in Great Britain,
+  the functions of the heavy cavalry regiments of the Guard preserve to
+  some extent the name and character of a body guard (_Gardes du
+  Corps_). The senior foot guard regiment is also personally connected
+  with the royal family. The conversion of a palace-guard to a combatant
+  force is due chiefly to Frederick William I., to whom drill was a
+  ruling passion, and who substituted effective regiments for the
+  ornamental "Trabant Guards" of his father. A further move was made by
+  Frederick the Great in substituting for Frederick William's expensive
+  "giant" regiment of guards a larger number of ordinary soldiers, whom
+  he subjected to the same rigorous training and made a _corps d'elite_.
+  Frederick the Great also formed the Body Guard alluded to above.
+  Nevertheless in 1806 the Guard still consisted only of two cavalry
+  regiments and four infantry regiments, and it was the example of
+  Napoleon's imperial guard which converted this force into a corps of
+  all arms. In 1813 its strength was that of a weak division, but in
+  1860 by slight but frequent augmentations it had come to consist of an
+  army corps, complete with all auxiliary services. A few guard
+  regiments belonging to the minor sovereigns are counted in the line
+  of the German army. In war the Guard is employed as a unit, like other
+  army corps. It is recruited by the assignment of selected young men of
+  each annual contingent, and is thus free from the reproach of the
+  French Imperial Guard, which took the best-trained soldiers from the
+  regiments of the line.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The "Irish Guards" of the Stuarts took the side of James II.,
+    fought against William III. in Ireland and lost their regimental
+    identity in the French service to which the officers and soldiers
+    transferred themselves on the abandonment of the struggle.
+
+
+
+
+GUARD-SHIP, a warship stationed at some port or harbour to act as a
+guard, and in former times in the British navy to receive the men
+impressed for service. She usually was the flagship of the admiral
+commanding on the coast. A guard-boat is a boat which goes the round of
+a fleet at anchor to see that due watch is kept at night.
+
+
+
+
+GUARICO, a large inland state of Venezuela created by the territorial
+redivision of 1904, bounded by Aragua and Miranda on the N., Bermudez on
+the E., Bolivar on the S., and Zamora on the W. Pop. (1905 estimate),
+78,117. It extends across the northern _llanos_ to the Orinoco and Apure
+rivers and is devoted almost wholly to pastoral pursuits, exporting
+cattle, horses and mules, hides and skins, cheese and some other
+products. The capital is Calabozo, and the other principal towns are
+Camaguan (pop. 3648) on the Portugueza river, Guayabal (pop. 3146), on a
+small tributary of the Guarico river, and Zaraza (pop. 14,546) on the
+Unare river, nearly 150 m. S.E. of Caracas.
+
+
+
+
+GUARIENTO, sometimes incorrectly named GUERRIERO, the first Paduan
+painter who distinguished himself. The only date distinctly known in his
+career is 1365, when, having already acquired high renown in his native
+city, he was invited by the Venetian authorities to paint a Paradise,
+and some incidents of the war of Spoleto, in the great council-hall of
+Venice. These works were greatly admired at the time, but have long ago
+disappeared under repaintings. His works in Padua have suffered much. In
+the church of the Eremitani are allegories of the Planets, and, in its
+choir, some small sacred histories in dead colour, such as an Ecce Homo;
+also, on the upper walls, the life of St Augustine, with some other
+subjects. A few fragments of other paintings by Guariento are still
+extant in Padua. In the gallery of Bassano is a Crucifixion, carefully
+executed, and somewhat superior to a merely traditional method of
+handling, although on the whole Guariento must rather be classed in that
+school of art which preceded Cimabue than as having advanced in his
+vestiges; likewise two other works in Bassano, ascribed to the same
+hand. The painter is buried in the church of S. Bernardino, Padua.
+
+
+
+
+GUARINI, CAMILLO-GUARINO (1624-1683), Italian monk, writer and
+architect, was born at Modena in 1624. He was at once a learned
+mathematician, professor of literature and philosophy at Messina, and,
+from the age of seventeen, was architect to Duke Philibert of Savoy. He
+designed a very large number of public and private buildings at Turin,
+including the palaces of the duke of Savoy and the prince of Cacignan,
+and many public buildings at Modena, Verona, Vienna, Prague, Lisbon and
+Paris. He died at Milan in 1683.
+
+
+
+
+GUARINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1537-1612), Italian poet, author of the
+_Pastor fido_, was born at Ferrara on the 10th of December 1537, just
+seven years before the birth of Tasso. He was descended from Guarino da
+Verona. The young Battista studied both at Pisa and Padua, whence he was
+called, when not yet twenty, to profess moral philosophy in the schools
+of his native city. He inherited considerable wealth, and was able early
+in life to marry Taddea de' Bendedei, a lady of good birth. In 1567 he
+entered the service of Alphonso II., duke of Ferrara, thus beginning the
+court career which was destined to prove a constant source of
+disappointment and annoyance to him. Though he cultivated poetry for
+pastime, Guarini aimed at state employment as the serious business of
+his life, and managed to be sent on various embassies and missions by
+his ducal master. There was, however, at the end of the 16th century no
+opportunity for a man of energy and intellectual ability to distinguish
+himself in the petty sphere of Italian diplomacy. The time too had
+passed when the profession of a courtier, painted in such glowing terms
+by Castiglione, could confer either profit or honour. It is true that
+the court of Alphonso presented a brilliant spectacle to Europe, with
+Tasso for titular poet, and an attractive circle of accomplished
+ladies. But the last duke of Ferrara was an illiberal patron, feeding
+his servants with promises, and ever ready to treat them with the
+brutality that condemned the author of the _Gerusalemme liberata_ to a
+madhouse. Guarini spent his time and money to little purpose, suffered
+from the spite and ill-will of two successive secretaries,--Pigna and
+Montecatini,--quarrelled with his old friend Tasso, and at the end of
+fourteen years of service found himself half-ruined, with a large family
+and no prospects. When Tasso was condemned to S. Anna, the duke promoted
+Guarini to the vacant post of court poet. There is an interesting letter
+extant from the latter to his friend Cornelio Bentivoglio, describing
+the efforts he made to fill this place appropriately. "I strove to
+transform myself into another person, and, like a player, reassumed the
+character, costume and feelings of my youth. Advanced in manhood, I
+forced myself to look young; I turned my natural melancholy into
+artificial gaiety, affected loves I did not feel, exchanged wisdom for
+folly, and, in a word, passed from a philosopher into a poet." How
+ill-adapted he felt himself to this masquerade life may be gathered from
+the following sentence: "I am already in my forty-fourth year, the
+father of eight children, two of whom are old enough to be my censors,
+while my daughters are of an age to marry." Abandoning so uncongenial a
+strain upon his faculties, Guarini retired in 1582 to his ancestral
+farm, the Villa Guarina, in the lovely country that lies between the
+Adige and Po, where he gave himself up to the cares of his family, the
+nursing of his dilapidated fortunes and the composition of the _Pastor
+fido_. He was not happy in his domestic lot; for he had lost his wife
+young, and quarrelled with his elder sons about the division of his
+estate. Litigation seems to have been an inveterate vice with Guarini;
+nor was he ever free from legal troubles. After studying his biography,
+the conclusion is forced upon our minds that he was originally a man of
+robust and virile intellect, ambitious of greatness, confident in his
+own powers, and well qualified for serious affairs, whose energies found
+no proper scope for their exercise. Literary work offered but a poor
+sphere for such a character, while the enforced inactivity of court life
+soured a naturally capricious and choleric temper. Of poetry he spoke
+with a certain tone of condescension, professing to practise it only in
+his leisure moments; nor are his miscellaneous verses of a quality to
+secure for their author a very lasting reputation. It is therefore not a
+little remarkable that the fruit of his retirement--a disappointed
+courtier past the prime of early manhood--should have been a dramatic
+masterpiece worthy to be ranked with the classics of Italian literature.
+Deferring a further account of the _Pastor fido_ for the present, the
+remaining incidents of Guarini's restless life may be briefly told. In
+1585 he was at Turin superintending the first public performance of his
+drama, whence Alphonso recalled him to Ferrara, and gave him the office
+of secretary of state. This reconciliation between the poet and his
+patron did not last long. Guarini moved to Florence, then to Rome, and
+back again to Florence, where he established himself as the courtier of
+Ferdinand de' Medici. A dishonourable marriage, pressed upon his son
+Guarino by the grand-duke, roused the natural resentment of Guarini,
+always scrupulous upon the point of honour. He abandoned the Medicean
+court, and took refuge with Francesco Maria of Urbino, the last scion of
+the Montefeltro-della-Rovere house. Yet he found no satisfaction at
+Urbino. "The old court is a dead institution," he writes to a friend;
+"one may see a shadow of it, but not the substance in Italy of to-day.
+Ours is an age of appearances, and one goes a-masquerading all the
+year." This was true enough. Those dwindling deadly-lively little
+residence towns of Italian ducal families, whose day of glory was over,
+and who were waiting to be slowly absorbed by the capacious appetite of
+Austria, were no fit places for a man of energy and independence.
+Guarini finally took refuge in his native Ferrara, which, since the
+death of Alphonso, had now devolved to the papal see. Here, and at the
+Villa Guarina, his last years were passed in study, law-suits, and
+polemical disputes with his contemporary critics, until 1612, when he
+died at Venice in his seventy-fifth year.
+
+The _Pastor fido_ (first published in 1590) is a pastoral drama composed
+not without reminiscences of Tasso's _Aminta_. The scene is laid in
+Arcadia, where Guarini supposes it to have been the custom to sacrifice
+a maiden yearly to Diana. But an oracle has declared that when two
+scions of divine lineage are united in marriage, and a faithful shepherd
+has atoned for the ancient error of a faithless woman, this inhuman rite
+shall cease. The plot turns upon the unexpected fulfilment of this
+prophecy, contrary to all the schemes which had been devised for
+bringing it to accomplishment, and in despite of apparent
+improbabilities of divers kinds. It is extremely elaborate, and,
+regarded as a piece of cunning mechanism, leaves nothing to be desired.
+Each motive has been carefully prepared, each situation amply developed.
+Yet, considered as a play, the _Pastor fido_ disappoints a reader
+trained in the school of Sophocles or Shakespeare. The action itself
+seems to take place off the stage, and only the results of action,
+stationary tableaux representing the movement of the drama, are put
+before us in the scenes. The art is lyrical, not merely in form but in
+spirit, and in adaptation to the requirements of music which demands
+stationary expressions of emotion for development. The characters have
+been well considered, and are exhibited with great truth and vividness;
+the cold and eager hunter Silvio contrasting with the tender and
+romantic Mirtillo, and Corisca's meretricious arts enhancing the pure
+affection of Amarilli. Dorinda presents another type of love so
+impulsive that it prevails over a maiden's sense of shame, while the
+courtier Carino brings the corruption of towns into comparison with the
+innocence of the country. In Carino the poet painted his own experience,
+and here his satire upon the court of Ferrara is none the less biting
+because it is gravely measured. In Corisca he delineated a woman
+vitiated by the same town life, and a very hideous portrait has he
+drawn. Though a satirical element was thus introduced into the _Pastor
+fido_ in order to relieve its ideal picture of Arcadia, the whole play
+is but a study of contemporary feeling in Italian society. There is no
+true rusticity whatever in the drama. This correspondence with the
+spirit of the age secured its success during Guarini's lifetime; this
+made it so dangerously seductive that Cardinal Bellarmine told the poet
+he had done more harm to Christendom by his blandishments than Luther by
+his heresy. Without anywhere transgressing the limits of decorum, the
+_Pastor fido_ is steeped in sensuousness; and the immodesty of its
+pictures is enhanced by rhetorical concealments more provocative than
+nudity. Moreover, the love described is effeminate and wanton, felt less
+as passion than as lust enveloped in a veil of sentiment. We divine the
+coming age of _cicisbei_ and _castrati_. Of Guarini's style it would be
+difficult to speak in terms of too high praise. The thought and
+experience of a lifetime have been condensed in these five acts, and
+have found expression in language brilliant, classical, chiselled to
+perfection. Here and there the taste of the 17th century makes itself
+felt in frigid conceits and forced antitheses; nor does Guarini abstain
+from sententious maxims which reveal the moralist rather than the poet.
+Yet these are but minor blemishes in a masterpiece of diction,
+glittering and faultless like a polished bas-relief of hard Corinthian
+bronze. That a single pastoral should occupy so prominent a place in the
+history of literature seems astonishing, until we reflect that Italy,
+upon the close of the 16th century, expressed itself in the _Pastor
+fido_, and that the influence of this drama was felt through all the art
+of Europe till the epoch of the Revolution. It is not a mere play. The
+sensual refinement proper to an age of social decadence found in it the
+most exact embodiment, and made it the code of gallantry for the next
+two centuries.
+
+  The best edition of the _Pastor fido_ is the 20th, published at Venice
+  (Ciotti) in 1602. The most convenient is that of Barbera (Florence,
+  1866). For Guarini's miscellaneous _Rime_, the Ferrara edition, in 4
+  vols., 1737, may be consulted. His polemical writings, _Verato primo_
+  and _secondo_, and his prose comedy called _Idropica_, were published
+  at Venice, Florence and Rome, between 1588 and 1614.     (J. A. S.)
+
+
+
+
+GUARINO, also known as VARINUS, and surnamed from his birthplace
+FAVORINUS, PHAVORINUS or CAMERS (c. 1450-1537), Italian lexicographer
+and scholar, was born at Favera near Camerino, studied Greek and Latin
+at Florence under Politian, and afterwards became for a time the pupil
+of Lascaris. Having entered the Benedictine order, he now gave himself
+with great zeal to Greek lexicography; and in 1496 published his
+_Thesaurus cornucopiae et horti Adonidis_, a collection of thirty-four
+grammatical tracts in Greek. He for some time acted as tutor to Giovanni
+dei Medici (afterwards Leo X.), and also held the appointment of keeper
+of the Medicean library at Florence. In 1514 Leo appointed him bishop of
+Nocera. In 1517 he published a translation of the _Apophthegmata_ of
+Joannes Stobaeus, and in 1523 appeared his _Etymologicum magnum, sive
+thesaurus universae linguae Graecae ex multis variisque autoribus
+collectus_, a compilation which has been frequently reprinted, and which
+has laid subsequent scholars under great though not always acknowledged
+obligations.
+
+
+
+
+GUARINO [GUARINUS] DA VERONA (1370-1460), one of the Italian restorers
+of classical learning, was born in 1370 at Verona, and studied Greek at
+Constantinople, where for five years he was the pupil of Manuel
+Chrysoloras. When he set out on his return to Italy he was the happy
+possessor of two cases of precious Greek MSS. which he had been at great
+pains to collect; it is said that the loss of one of these by shipwreck
+caused him such distress that his hair turned grey in a single night. He
+supported himself as a teacher of Greek, first at Verona and afterwards
+in Venice and Florence; in 1436 he became, through the patronage of
+Lionel, marquis of Este, professor of Greek at Ferrara; and in 1438 and
+following years he acted as interpreter for the Greeks at the councils
+of Ferrara and Florence. He died at Ferrara on the 14th of December
+1460.
+
+  His principal works are translations of Strabo and of some of the
+  _Lives_ of Plutarch, a compendium of the Greek grammar of Chrysoloras,
+  and a series of commentaries on Persius, Juvenal, Martial and on some
+  of the writings of Aristotle and Cicero. See Rosmini, _Vita e
+  disciplina di Guarino_ (1805-1806); Sabbadini, _Guarino Veronese_
+  (1885); Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ ii. (1908).
+
+
+
+
+GUARNIERI, or GUARNERIUS, a celebrated family of violin-makers of
+Cremona. The first was Andreas (c. 1626-1698), who worked with Antonio
+Stradivari in the workshop of Nicolo Amati (son of Geronimo). Violins of
+a model original to him are dated from the sign of "St Theresa" in
+Cremona. His son Joseph (1666-c. 1739) made instruments at first like
+his father's, but later in a style of his own with a narrow waist; his
+son, Peter of Venice (b. 1695), was also a fine maker. Another son of
+Andreas, Peter (Pietro Giovanni), commonly known as "Peter of Cremona"
+(b. 1655), moved from Cremona and settled at Mantua, where he too worked
+"sub signo Sanctae Teresae." Peter's violins again showed considerable
+variations from those of the other Guarnieri. Hart, in his work on the
+violin, says, "There is increased breadth between the sound-holes; the
+sound-hole is rounder and more perpendicular; the middle bouts are more
+contracted, and the model is more raised."
+
+The greatest of all the Guarnieri, however, was a nephew of Andreas,
+Joseph del Gesu (1687-1745), whose title originates in the I.H.S.
+inscribed on his tickets. His master was Gaspar di Salo. His conception
+follows that of the early Brescian makers in the boldness of outline and
+the massive construction which aim at the production of tone rather than
+visual perfection of form. The great variety of his work in size, model,
+&c., represents his various experiments in the direction of discovering
+this tone. A stain or sap-mark, parallel with the finger-board on both
+sides, appears on the bellies of most of his instruments. Since the
+middle of the 18th century a great many spurious instruments ascribed to
+this master have poured over Europe. It was not until Paganini played on
+a "Joseph" that the taste of amateurs turned from the sweetness of the
+Amati and the Stradivarius violins in favour of the robuster tone of the
+Joseph Guarnerius. See VIOLIN.
+
+
+
+
+GUASTALLA, a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, in the province of
+Reggio, from which it is 18 m. N. by road, on the S. bank of the Po, 79
+ft. above sea-level. It is also connected by rail with Parma and Mantua
+(via Suzzara). Pop. (1901), 2658 (town); 11,091 (commune). It has
+16th-century fortifications. The cathedral, dating from the 10th
+century, has been frequently restored. Guastalla was founded by the
+Lombards in the 7th century; in the church of the Pieve Pope Paschal II.
+held a council in 1106. In 1307 it was seized by Giberto da Correggio of
+Parma. In 1403 it passed to Guido Torello, cousin of Filippo Maria
+Visconti of Milan. In 1539 it was sold by the last female descendant of
+the Torelli to Ferrante Gonzaga. In 1621 it was made the seat of a
+duchy, but in 1748 it was added to those of Parma and Piacenza, whose
+history it subsequently followed.
+
+
+
+
+GUATEMALA (sometimes incorrectly written GUATIMALA), a name now
+restricted to the republic of Guatemala and to its chief city, but
+formerly given to a captaincy-general of Spanish America, which included
+the fifteen provinces of Chiapas, Suchitepeques, Escuintla, Sonsonate,
+San Salvador, Vera Paz and Peten, Chiquimula, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa
+Rica, Totonicapam, Quezaltenango, Solola, Chimaltenango and
+Sacatepeques,--or, in other words, the whole of Central America (except
+Panama) and part of Mexico. The name is probably of Aztec origin, and is
+said by some authorities to mean in its native form Quauhtematlan, "Land
+of the Eagle," or "Land of Forest"; others, writing it U-ha-tez-ma-la,
+connect it with the volcano of Agua (i.e. "water"), and interpret it as
+"mountain vomiting water."
+
+The republic of Guatemala is situated between 13 deg. 42' and 17 deg.
+49' N., and 88 deg. 10' and 92 deg. 30' W. (For map, see CENTRAL
+AMERICA.) Pop. (1903), 1,842,134; area about 48,250 sq. m. Guatemala is
+bounded on the W. and N. by Mexico, N.E. by British Honduras, E. by the
+Gulf of Honduras, and the republic of Honduras, S.E. by Salvador and S.
+by the Pacific Ocean. The frontier towards Mexico was determined by
+conventions of the 27th of September 1882, the 17th of October 1883, the
+1st of April 1895, and the 8th of May 1899. Starting from the Pacific,
+it ascends the river Suchiate, then follows an irregular line towards
+the north-east, till it reaches the parallel of 17 deg. 49[min] N.,
+along which it runs to the frontier of British Honduras. This frontier,
+by the convention of the 9th of July 1893, coincides with the meridian
+of 89 deg. 20[min] W., till it meets the river Sarstoon or Sarstun,
+which it follows eastwards to the Gulf of Honduras.
+
+  _Physical Description._--Guatemala is naturally divided into five
+  regions--the lowlands of the Pacific coast, the volcanic mountains of
+  the Sierra Madre, the so-called plateaus immediately north of these,
+  the mountains of the Atlantic versant and the plain of Peten. (1) The
+  coastal plains extend along the entire southern seaboard, with a mean
+  breadth of 50 m., and link together the belts of similar territory in
+  Salvador and the district of Soconusco in Chiapas. Owing to their
+  tropical heat, low elevation above sea-level, and marshy soil, they
+  are thinly peopled, and contain few important towns except the
+  seaports. (2) The precipitous barrier of the Sierra Madre, which
+  closes in the coastal plains on the north, is similarly prolonged into
+  Salvador and Mexico. It is known near Guatemala city as the Sierra de
+  las Nubes, and enters Mexico as the Sierra de Istatan. It forms the
+  main watershed between the Pacific and Atlantic river systems. Its
+  summit is not a well-defined crest, but is often rounded or flattened
+  into a table-land. The direction of the great volcanic cones, which
+  rise in an irregular line above it, is not identical with the main
+  axis of the Sierra itself, except near the Mexican frontier, but has a
+  more southerly trend, especially towards Salvador; here the base of
+  many of the igneous peaks rests among the southern foothills of the
+  range. It is, however, impossible to subdivide the Sierra Madre into a
+  northern and a volcanic chain; for the volcanoes are isolated by
+  stretches of comparatively low country; at least thirteen considerable
+  streams flow down between them, from the main watershed to the sea.
+  Viewed from the coast, the volcanic cones seem to rise directly from
+  the central heights of the Sierra Madre, above which they tower; but
+  in reality their bases are, as a rule, farther south. East of Tacana,
+  which marks the Mexican frontier, and is variously estimated at 13,976
+  ft. and 13,090 ft., and if the higher estimate be correct is the
+  loftiest peak in Central America, the principal volcanoes
+  are--Tajamulco or Tajumulco (13,517 ft.); Santa Maria (12,467 ft.),
+  which was in eruption during 1902, after centuries of quiescence, in
+  which its slopes had been overgrown by dense forests; Atitlan
+  (11,719), overlooking the lake of that name; Acatenango (13,615).
+  which shares the claim of Tacana to be the highest mountain of Central
+  America; Fuego (i.e. "fire," variously estimated at 12,795 ft. and
+  12,582 ft.), which received its name from its activity at the time of
+  the Spanish conquest; Agua (i.e. "water," 12,139 ft.), so named in
+  1541 because it destroyed the former capital of Guatemala with a
+  deluge of water from its flooded crater; and Pacaya (8390), a group of
+  igneous peaks which were in eruption in 1870. (3) The so-called
+  plateaus which extend north of the Sierra Madre are in fact high
+  valleys, rather than table-lands, enclosed by mountains. A better idea
+  of this region is conveyed by the native name Altos, or highlands,
+  although that term includes the northern declivity of the Sierra
+  Madre. The mean elevation is greatest in the west (Altos of
+  Quezaltenango) and least in the east (Altos of Guatemala). A few of
+  the streams of the Pacific slope actually rise in the Altos, and force
+  a way through the Sierra Madre at the bottom of deep ravines. One
+  large river, the Chixoy, escapes northwards towards the Atlantic. (4)
+  The relief of the mountainous country which lies north of the Altos
+  and drains into the Atlantic is varied by innumerable terraces, ridges
+  and underfalls; but its general configuration is admirably compared by
+  E. Reclus with the appearance of "a stormy sea breaking into parallel
+  billows" (_Universal Geography_, ed. E. G. Ravenstein, div. xxxiii.,
+  p. 212). The parallel ranges extend east and west with a slight
+  southerly curve towards their centres. A range called the Sierra de
+  Chama, which, however, changes its name frequently from place to
+  place, strikes eastward towards British Honduras, and is connected by
+  low hills with the Cockscomb Mountains; another similar range, the
+  Sierra de Santa Cruz, continues east to Cape Cocoli between the
+  Polochic and the Sarstoon; and a third, the Sierra de las Minas or, in
+  its eastern portion, Sierra del Mico, stretches between the Polochic
+  and the Motagua. Between Honduras and Guatemala the frontier is formed
+  by the Sierra de Merendon. (5) The great plain of Peten, which
+  comprises about one-third of the whole area of Guatemala, belongs
+  geographically to the Yucatan Peninsula, and consists of level or
+  undulating country, covered with grass or forest. Its population
+  numbers less than two per sq. m., although many districts have a
+  wonderfully fertile soil and abundance of water. The greater part of
+  this region is uncultivated, and only utilized as pasture by the
+  Indians, who form the majority of its inhabitants.
+
+  Guatemala is richly watered. On the western side of the sierras the
+  versant is short, and the streams, while very numerous, are
+  consequently small and rapid; but on the eastern side a number of the
+  rivers attain a very considerable development. The Motagua, whose
+  principal head stream is called the Rio Grande, has a course of about
+  250 m., and is navigable to within 90 m. of the capital, which is
+  situated on one of its confluents, the Rio de las Vacas. It forms a
+  delta on the south of the Gulf of Honduras. Of similar importance is
+  the Polochic, which is about 180 m. in length, and navigable about 20
+  m. above the river-port of Teleman. Before reaching the Golfo Amatique
+  it passes through the Golfo Dulce, or Izabal Lake, and the Golfete
+  Dulce. A vast number of streams, among which are the Chixoy, the
+  Guadalupe, and the Rio de la Pasion, unite to form the Usumacinta,
+  whose noble current passes along the Mexican frontier, and flowing on
+  through Chiapas and Tabasco, falls into the Bay of Campeche. The
+  Chiapas follows a similar course.
+
+  There are several extensive lakes in Guatemala. The Lake of Peten or
+  Laguna de Flores, in the centre of the department of Peten, is an
+  irregular basin about 27 m. long, with an extreme breadth of 13 m. In
+  an island in the western portion stands Flores, a town well known to
+  American antiquaries for the number of ancient idols which have been
+  recovered from its soil. On the shore of the lake is the stalactite
+  cave of Jobitsinal, of great local celebrity; and in its depths,
+  according to the popular legend, may still be discerned the stone
+  image of a horse that belonged to Cortes. The Golfo Dulce is, as its
+  name implies, a fresh-water lake, although so near the Atlantic. It is
+  about 36 m. long, and would be of considerable value as a harbour if
+  the bar at the mouth of the Rio Dulce did not prevent the upward
+  passage of seafaring vessels. As a contrast the Lake of Atitlan (q.v.)
+  is a land-locked basin encompassed with lofty mountains. About 9 m. S.
+  of the capital lies the Lake of Amatitlan (q.v.) with the town of the
+  same name. On the borders of Salvador and Guatemala there is the Lake
+  of Guija, about 20 m. long and 12 broad, at a height of 2100 ft. above
+  the sea. It is connected by the river Ostuma with the Lake of Ayarza
+  which lies about 1000 ft. higher at the foot of the Sierra Madre.
+
+  The geology, fauna and flora of Guatemala are discussed under CENTRAL
+  AMERICA. The bird-life of the country is remarkably rich; one bird of
+  magnificent plumage, the quetzal, quijal or quesal (_Trogon
+  resplendens_), has been chosen as the national emblem.
+
+  _Climate._--The climate is healthy, except on the coasts, where
+  malarial fever is prevalent. The rainy season in the interior lasts
+  from May to October, but on the coast sometimes continues till
+  December. The coldest month is January, and the warmest is May. The
+  average temperatures for these months at places of different
+  altitudes, as given by Dr Karl Sapper, are shown on the following
+  page.
+
+  The average rainfall is very heavy, especially on the Atlantic slope,
+  where the prevailing winds are charged with moisture from the Gulf of
+  Mexico or the Caribbean Sea; at Tual, a high station on the Atlantic
+  slope, it reaches 195 in.; in central Guatemala it is only 27 in.
+  Towards the Atlantic rain often occurs in the dry season, and there is
+  a local saying near the Golfo Dulce that "it rains thirteen months in
+  the year." Fogs are not rare. In Guatemala, as in other parts of
+  Central America (q.v.), each of the three climatic zones, cold,
+  temperate and hot (_tierra fria_, _tierra templada_, _tierra
+  caliente_) has its special characteristics, and it is not easy to
+  generalize about the climate of the country as a whole.
+
+    +----------------+----------+--------------------+
+    |                | Altitude | Fahrenheit Degrees.|
+    |    Locality.   |  (Feet). +--------------------+
+    |                |          |  January. |  May.  |
+    +----------------+----------+-----------+--------+
+    | Puerto Barrios |      6   |    74     |   81   |
+    | Salama         |   3020   |    68     |   77   |
+    | Campur         |   3050   |    64     |   73   |
+    | Chimax         |   4280   |    61     |   68   |
+    | Guatemala      |   4870   |    60     |   67   |
+    | Quezaltenango  |   7710   |    50     |   62   |
+    +----------------+----------+-----------+--------+
+
+  _Natural Products._--The minerals discovered in Guatemala include
+  gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, mercury, antimony, coal, salt and
+  sulphur; but it is uncertain if many of these exist in quantities
+  sufficient to repay exploitation. Gold is obtained at Las Quebradas
+  near Izabal, silver in the departments of Santa Rosa and Chiquimula,
+  salt in those of Santa Rosa and Alta Vera Paz. During the 17th century
+  gold-washing was carried on by English miners in the Motagua valley,
+  and is said to have yielded rich profits; hence the name of "Gold
+  Coast" was not infrequently given to the Atlantic littoral near the
+  mouth of the Motagua.
+
+  The area of forest has only been seriously diminished in the west, and
+  amounted to 2030 sq. m. in 1904. Besides rubber, it yields many
+  valuable dye-woods and cabinet-woods, such as cedar, mahogany and
+  logwood. Fruits, grain and medicinal plants are obtained in great
+  abundance, especially where the soil is largely of volcanic origin, as
+  in the Altos and Sierra Madre. Parts of the Peten district are equally
+  fertile, maize in this region yielding two hundredfold from unmanured
+  soil. The vegetable products of Guatemala include coffee, cocoa,
+  sugar-cane, bananas, oranges, vanilla, aloes, agave, ipecacuanha,
+  castor-oil, sarsaparilla, cinchona, tobacco, indigo and the wax-plant
+  (_Myrica cerifera_).
+
+_Inhabitants._--The inhabitants of Guatemala, who tend to increase
+rapidly owing to the high birth-rate, low mortality, and low rate of
+emigration, numbered in 1903 1,842,134, or more than one-third of the
+entire population of Central America. Fully 60% are pure Indians, and
+the remainder, classed as _Ladinos_ or "Latins" (i.e. Spaniards in
+speech and mode of life), comprise a large majority of half-castes
+(_mestizos_) and civilized Indians and a smaller proportion of whites.
+It includes a foreign population of about 12,000 Europeans and North
+Americans, among them being many Jews from the west of the United
+States. There are important German agricultural settlements, and many
+colonists from north Italy who are locally called _Tiroleses_, and
+despised by the Indians for their industry and thrift. About half the
+births among the Indians and one-third among the whites are
+illegitimate.
+
+No part of Central America contains a greater diversity of tribes, and
+in 1883 Otto Stoll estimated the number of spoken languages as eighteen,
+although east of the meridian of Lake Amatitlan the native speech has
+almost entirely disappeared and been replaced by Spanish. The Indians
+belong chiefly to the Maya stock, which predominates throughout Peten,
+or to the allied Quiche race which is well represented in the Altos and
+central districts. The Itzas, Mopans, Lacandons, Chols, Pokonchi and the
+Pokomans who inhabit the large settlement of Mixco near the capital, all
+belong to the Maya family; but parts of central and eastern Guatemala
+are peopled by tribes distinct from the Mayas and not found in Mexico.
+In the 16th century the Mayas and Quiches had attained a high level of
+civilization (see CENTRAL AMERICA, _Archaeology_), and at least two of
+the Guatemalan languages, Quiche and Cakchiquel, possess the rudiments
+or the relics of a literature. The Quiche _Popol Vuh_, or "Book of
+History," which was translated into Spanish by the Dominican friar
+Ximenes, and edited with a French version by Brasseur de Bourbourg, is
+an important document for students of the local myths. In appearance the
+various Guatemalan tribes differ very little; in almost all the
+characteristic type of Indian is short but muscular, with low forehead,
+prominent cheek-bones and straight black hair. In character the Indians
+are, as a rule, peaceable, though conscious of their numerical
+superiority and at times driven to join in the revolutions which so
+often disturb the course of local politics; they are often intensely
+religious, but with a few exceptions are thriftless, indolent and
+inveterate gamblers. Their _confradias_, or brotherhoods, each with its
+patron saint and male and female chiefs, exist largely to organize
+public festivals, and to purchase wooden masks, costumes and decorations
+for the dances and dramas in which the Indians delight. These dramas,
+which deal with religious and historical subjects, are of Indian origin,
+and somewhat resemble the mystery-plays of medieval Europe, a
+resemblance heightened by the introduction, due to Spanish missionaries,
+of Christian saints and heroes such as Charlemagne. The Indians are
+devoted to bull-fighting and cock-fighting. Choral singing is a popular
+amusement, and is accompanied by the Spanish guitar and native
+wind-instruments. The Indians have a habit of consuming a yellowish
+edible earth containing sulphur; on pilgrimages they obtain images
+moulded of this earth at the shrines they visit, and eat the images as a
+prophylactic against disease. Maize, beans and bananas, varied
+occasionally with dried meat and fresh pork, form their staple diet;
+drunkenness is common on pay-days and festivals, when large quantities
+of a fiery brandy called _chicha_ are consumed.
+
+  _Chief Towns._--The capital of the republic, Guatemala or Guatemala la
+  Nueva (pop. 1905 about 97,000) and the cities of Quezaltenango
+  (31,000), Totonicapam (28,000), Coban (25,000), Solola (17,000),
+  Escuintla (12,000), Huehuetanango (12,000), Amatitlan (10,000) and
+  Atitlan (9000) are described under separate headings. All the chief
+  towns except the seaports are situated within the mountainous region
+  where the climate is temperate. Retalhuleu, among the southern
+  foothills of the Sierra Madre, is one of the centres of coffee
+  production, and is connected by rail with the Pacific port of
+  Champerico, a very unhealthy place in the wet season. Both Retalhuleu
+  and Champerico were, like Quezaltenango, Solola, and other towns,
+  temporarily ruined by the earthquake of the 18th of April 1902. Santa
+  Cruz Quiche, 25 m. N.E. of Totonicapam, was formerly the capital of
+  the Quiche kings, but has now a Ladino population. Livingston, a
+  seaport at the mouth of the Polochic (here called the Rio Dulce), was
+  founded in 1806, and subsequently named after the author of a code of
+  Guatemalan laws; few vestiges remain of the Spanish settlement of
+  Sevilla la Nueva, founded in 1844, and of the English colony of
+  Abbotsville, founded in 1825,--both near Livingston. La Libertad, also
+  called by its Indian name of Sacluc, is the principal town of Peten.
+
+  _Shipping and Communications._--The republic is in regular steam
+  communication on the Atlantic side with New Orleans, New York and
+  Hamburg, by vessels which visit the ports of Barrios (Santo Tomas) and
+  Livingston. On the southern side the ports of San Jose, Champerico and
+  Ocos are visited by the Pacific mail steamers, by the vessels of a
+  Hamburg company and by those of the South American (Chilean) and the
+  Pacific Steam Navigation Companies. Iztapa, formerly the principal
+  harbour on the south coast, has been almost entirely abandoned since
+  1853. Gualan, on the Motagua, and Panzos, on the Polochic, are small
+  river-ports. The principal towns are connected by wagon roads, towards
+  the construction and maintenance of which each male inhabitant is
+  required to pay two pesos or give four days' work a year. There are
+  coach routes between the capital and Quezaltenango, but over a great
+  portion of the country transport is still on mule-back. All the
+  railway lines have been built since 1875. The main lines are the
+  Southern, belonging to an American company and running from San Jose
+  to the capital; the Northern, a government line from the capital to
+  Puerto Barrios, which completes the interoceanic railroad; and the
+  Western, from Champerico to Quezaltenango, belonging to a Guatemalan
+  company, but largely under German management. For local traffic there
+  are several lines; one from Iztapa, near San Jose, to Naranjo, and
+  another from Ocos to the western coffee plantations. On the Atlantic
+  slope transport is effected mainly by river tow-boats from Livingston
+  along the Golfo Dulce and other lakes, and the Polochic river as far
+  as Panzos. The narrow-gauge railway that serves the German plantations
+  in the Vera Paz region is largely owned by Germans.
+
+  Guatemala joined the Postal Union in 1881; but its postal and
+  telegraphic services have suffered greatly from financial
+  difficulties. The telephonic systems of Guatemala la Nueva,
+  Quezaltenango and other cities are owned by private companies.
+
+  _Commerce and Industry._--The natural resources of Guatemala are rich
+  but undeveloped; and the capital necessary for their development is
+  not easily obtained in a country where war, revolution and economic
+  crises recur at frequent intervals, where the premium on gold has
+  varied by no less than 500% in a single year, and where many of the
+  wealthiest cities and agricultural districts have been destroyed by
+  earthquake in one day (18th of April 1902). At the beginning of the
+  19th century, Guatemala had practically no export trade; but between
+  1825 and 1850 cochineal was largely exported, the centre of production
+  being the Amatitlan district. This industry was ruined by the
+  competition of chemical dyes, and a substitute was found in the
+  cultivation of coffee. Guatemala is surpassed only by Brazil and the
+  East Indies in the quantity of coffee it exports. The chief
+  plantations are owned and managed by Germans; more than half of the
+  crop is sent to Germany, while three-fifths of the remainder go to the
+  United States and one-fifth to Great Britain. The average yearly
+  product is about 70,000,000 lb., worth approximately L1,300,000, and
+  subject to an export duty of one gold dollar (4s.) per quintal (101
+  lb.). Sugar, bananas, tobacco and cocoa are also cultivated; but much
+  of the sugar and bananas, most of the cocoa, and all the tobacco are
+  consumed in the country. During the colonial period, the cocoa of
+  western Guatemala and Soconusco was reserved on account of its fine
+  flavour for the Spanish court. The indigo and cotton plantations yield
+  little profit, owing to foreign competition, and have in most cases
+  been converted to other uses. The cultivation of bananas tends to
+  increase, though more slowly than in other Central American countries.
+  Grain, sweet potatoes and beans are grown for home consumption.
+  Cattle-farming is carried on in the high pasture-lands and the plains
+  of Peten; but the whole number of sheep (77,000 in 1900) and pigs
+  (30,000) in the republic is inferior to the number kept in many single
+  English counties. Much of the wool is sold, like the native cotton, to
+  Indian and Ladino women, who manufacture coarse cloth and linen in
+  their homes.
+
+  By the Land Act of 1894 the state domains, except on the coasts and
+  frontiers, were divided into lots for sale. The largest holding
+  tenable by one person under this act was fixed at 50 caballerias, or
+  5625 acres; the price varies from L40 to L80 per caballeria of 112-1/2
+  acres. Free grants of uncultivated land are sometimes made to
+  immigrants (including foreign companies), to persons who undertake to
+  build roads or railways through their allotments, to towns, villages
+  and schools. The condition of the Indians on the plantations is often
+  akin to slavery, owing to the system adopted by some planters of
+  making payments in advance; for the Indians soon spend their earnings,
+  and thus contract debts which can only be repaid by long service.
+
+  In addition to the breweries, rum and brandy distilleries, sugar mills
+  and tobacco factories, which are sometimes worked as adjuncts to the
+  plantations, there are many purely urban industries, such as the
+  manufacture of woollen and cotton goods on a large scale, and
+  manufactures of building material and furniture; but these industries
+  are far less important than agriculture.
+
+  During the five years 1900 to 1904 inclusive, the average value of
+  Guatemalan imports, which consisted chiefly of textiles, iron and
+  machinery, sacks, provisions, flour, beer, wine and spirits, amounted
+  to L776,000; about one-half came from the United States, and nearly
+  one-fourth from the United Kingdom. The exports during the same period
+  had an average value of L1,528,000, and ranked as follows in order of
+  value: coffee (L1,300,000), timber, hides, rubber, sugar, bananas,
+  cocoa.
+
+  _Finance._--Within the republic there are six banks of issue, to which
+  the government is deeply indebted. There is practically neither gold
+  nor silver in circulation, and the value of the bank-notes is so
+  fluctuating that trade is seriously hampered. On the 25th of June
+  1903, the issue of bank-notes without a guarantee was restricted; and
+  thenceforward all banks were compelled to retain gold or silver to the
+  value of 10% of the notes issued in 1904, 20% in 1905 and 30% in 1906.
+  This reform has not, to any appreciable extent, rendered more stable
+  the value of the notes issued. The silver peso, or dollar, of 100
+  centavas is the monetary unit, weighs 25 grammes .900 fine, and has a
+  nominal value of 4s. Being no longer current it has been replaced by
+  the paper peso. The nickel coins include the real (nominal value 6d.),
+  half-real and quarter-real. The metric system of weights and measures
+  has been adopted, but the old Spanish standards remain in general use.
+
+  Of the revenue, about 64% is derived from customs and excise; 9% from
+  property, road, military, slaughter and salt taxes; 1.7% from the
+  gunpowder monopoly; and the remainder from various taxes, stamps,
+  government lands, and postal and telegraph services. The estimated
+  revenue for 1905-1906 was 23,000,000 pesos (about L328,500); the
+  estimated expenditure was 27,317,659 pesos (L390,200), of which
+  L242,800 were allotted to the public debt, L42,000 to internal
+  development and justice, L29,000 to the army and the remainder largely
+  to education. The gold value of the currency peso (75 = L1 in 1903, 70
+  = L1 in 1904, 58 = L1 in 1905) fluctuates between limits so wide that
+  conversion into sterling (especially for a series of years), with any
+  pretension to accuracy, is impracticable. In 1899 the rate of exchange
+  moved between 710% and 206% premium on gold. According to the official
+  statement, the gold debt, which runs chiefly at 4% and is held in
+  Germany and England, amounted to L1,987,905 on the 1st of January
+  1905; the currency debt (note issues, internal loans, &c.) amounted to
+  L704,730; total L2,692,635, a decrease since 1900 of about L300,000.
+
+_Government._--According to the constitution of December 1879 (modified
+in 1885, 1887, 1889 and 1903) the legislative power is vested in a
+national assembly of 69 deputies (1 for every 20,000 inhabitants) chosen
+for 4 years by direct popular vote, under universal manhood suffrage.
+The president of the republic is elected in a similar manner, but for 6
+years, and he is theoretically not eligible for the following term. He
+is assisted by 6 ministers, heads of government departments, and by a
+council of state of 13 members, partly appointed by himself and partly
+by the national assembly.
+
+_Local Government._--Each of the twenty-two departments is administered
+by an official called a _jefe politico_, or political chief, appointed
+by the president, and each is subdivided into municipal districts. These
+districts are administered by one or more _alcaldes_ or mayors, assisted
+by municipal councils, both alcaldes and councils being chosen by the
+people.
+
+_Justice._--The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, consisting
+of a chief justice and four associate justices elected by the people;
+six appeal courts, each with three judges, also elected by the people;
+and twenty-six courts of first instance, each consisting of one judge
+appointed by the president and two by the chief justice of the supreme
+court.
+
+_Religion and Instruction._--The prevailing form of religion is the
+Roman Catholic, but the state recognizes no distinction of creed. The
+establishment of conventual or monastic institutions is prohibited. Of
+the population in 1893, 90% could neither read nor write, 2% could only
+read, and 8% could read and write. Primary instruction is nominally
+compulsory, and, in government schools, is provided at the cost of the
+state. In 1903 there were 1064 government primary schools. There are
+besides about 128 private (occasionally aided) schools of similar
+character, owners of plantations on which there are more than ten
+children being obliged to provide school accommodation. Higher
+instruction is given in two national institutes at the capital, one for
+men with 500 pupils and one for women with 300. At Quezaltenango there
+are two similar institutes, and at Chiquimula there are other two. To
+each of the six there is a school for teachers attached, and within the
+republic there are four other schools for teachers. For professional
+instruction (law, medicine, engineering) there are schools supported by
+private funds, but aided occasionally by the government. Other
+educational establishments are a school of art, a national conservatory
+of music, a commercial college, four trades' schools with more than 600
+pupils and a national library. There is a German school, endowed by the
+German government.
+
+_Defence._--For the white and mixed population military service is
+compulsory; from the eighteenth to the thirtieth year of age in the
+active army, and from the thirtieth to the fiftieth in the reserve. The
+effective force of the active army is 56,900, of the reserve 29,400.
+About 7000 officers and men are kept in regular service. Military
+training is given in all public and most private schools.
+
+_History._--Guatemala was conquered by the Spaniards under Pedro de
+Alvarado between 1522 and 1524. Up to the years 1837-1839 its history
+differs only in minor details from that of the neighbouring states of
+Central America (q.v.). The colonial period was marked by the
+destruction of the ancient Indian civilization, the extermination of
+many entire tribes, and the enslavement of the survivors, who were
+exploited to the utmost for the benefit of Spanish officials and
+adventurers. But although the administration was weak, corrupt and
+cruel, it succeeded in establishing the Roman Catholic religion, and in
+introducing the Spanish language among the Indians and Ladinos, who thus
+obtained a tincture of civilization and ultimately a desire for more
+liberal institutions. The Central American provinces revolted in 1821,
+were annexed to the Mexican empire of Iturbide from 1822 to 1823, and
+united to form a federal republic from 1823 to 1839. In Guatemala the
+Clerical, Conservative or anti-Federal party was supreme; after a
+protracted struggle it overthrew the Liberals or Federalists, and
+declared the country an independent republic, with Rafael Carrera
+(1814-1865) as president. In 1845 an attempt to restore the federal
+union failed; in 1851 Carrera defeated the Federalist forces of Honduras
+and Salvador at La Arada near Chiquimula, and was recognized as the
+pacificator of the republic. In 1851 a new constitution was promulgated,
+and Carrera was appointed president till 1856, a dignity which was in
+1854 bestowed upon him for life. His rivalry with Gerardo Barrios (d.
+1865), president of Salvador, resulted in open war in 1863. At
+Coatepeque the Guatemalans suffered a severe defeat, which was followed
+by a truce. Honduras now joined with Salvador, and Nicaragua and Costa
+Rica with Guatemala. The contest was finally settled in favour of
+Carrera, who besieged and occupied San Salvador and made himself
+dominant also in Honduras and Nicaragua. During the rest of his rule,
+which lasted till his death in April 1865, he continued to act in
+concert with the Clerical party, and endeavoured to maintain friendly
+relations with the European governments. Carrera's successor was General
+Cerna, who had been recommended by him for election. The Liberal party
+began to rise in influence about 1870, and in May 1871 Cerna was
+deposed. The archbishop of Guatemala and the Jesuits were driven into
+exile as intriguers in the interests of the Clericals. Pres. Rufino
+Barrios (1835-1885), elected in 1873, governed the country after the
+manner of a dictator; he expelled the Jesuits, confiscated their
+property and disestablished and disendowed the church. But though he
+encouraged education, promoted railway and other enterprises, and
+succeeded in settling difficulties as to the Mexican boundary, the
+general result of his policy was baneful. Conspiracies against him were
+rife, and in 1884 he narrowly escaped assassination. His ambition was to
+be the restorer of the federal union of the Central American states, and
+when his efforts towards this end by peaceful means failed he had
+recourse to the sword. Counting on the support of Honduras and Salvador,
+he proclaimed himself, in February 1885, the supreme military chief of
+Central America, and claimed the command of all the forces within the
+five states. President Zaldivar, of Salvador, had been his friend, but
+after the issue of the decree of union he entered into a defensive
+alliance with Costa Rica and Nicaragua. In March Barrios invaded
+Salvador, and on the 2nd of April a battle was fought, in which the
+Guatemalan president was killed. He was succeeded by General Manuel
+Barillas. No further effort was made to force on the union, and on the
+16th of April the war was formally ended. Peace, however, only provided
+opportunity for domestic conspiracy, with assassination and revolution
+in view. In 1892 General Jose Maria Reina Barrios was elected president,
+and in 1897 he was re-elected; but on the 8th of February 1898 he was
+assassinated. Senor Morales, vice-president, succeeded him; but in the
+same year Don Manuel Estrada Cabrera (b. 1857) was elected president for
+the term ending 1905. Cabrera promoted education, commerce and the
+improvement of communications, but his re-election for the term
+1905-1911 caused widespread discontent. He was charged with aiming at a
+dictatorship, with permitting or even encouraging the imprisonment,
+torture and execution without trial of political opponents, with
+maladministration of the finances and with aggression against the
+neighbouring states. A well-armed force, which included a body of
+adventurers from San Francisco (U.S.A.) was organized by General
+Barillas, the ex-president, and invaded Guatemala in March 1906 from
+Mexico, British Honduras and Salvador. Barillas (1845-1907) proclaimed
+his intention of establishing a silver currency, and gained, to a great
+extent, the sympathy of the German and British residents; he had been
+the sole Guatemalan president who had not sought to prolong his own
+tenure of office. Ocos was captured by his lieutenant, General Castillo,
+and the revolution speedily became a war, in which Honduras, Costa Rica
+and Salvador were openly involved against Guatemala, while Nicaragua was
+hostile. But Cabrera held his ground, and even gained several indecisive
+victories. The intervention of President Roosevelt and of President Diaz
+of Mexico brought about an armistice on the 19th of July, and the
+so-called "Marblehead Pact" was signed on the following day on board the
+United States cruiser "Marblehead." Its terms were embodied in a treaty
+signed (28th of September) by representatives of the four belligerent
+states, Nicaragua taking no part in the negotiations. The treaty
+included regulations for the improvement of commerce and navigation in
+the area affected by the war, and provided for the settlement of
+subsequent disputes by the arbitration of the United States and Mexico.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Besides the works cited under CENTRAL AMERICA see the
+  interesting narrative of Thomas Gage, the English missionary, in
+  Juarros, _Compendio de la historia de Guatemala_ (1808-1818, 2 vols.;
+  new ed., 1857), which in Bailly's English translation (London, 1823)
+  long formed the chief authority. See also C. Juan Anino, _La Republica
+  de Guatemala_ (Guatemala, 1894); T. Brigham, _Guatemala, The Land of
+  the Quetzal_ (London, 1887); J. M. Caceres, _Geografia de
+  Centro-America_ (Paris, 1882); G. Lemale, _Guia geografica de los
+  centros de poblacion de la republica de Guatemala_ (Guatemala, 1882);
+  F. A. de Fuentes y Guzman, _Historia de Guatemala o Recordacion
+  Florida_ (Madrid, 1882); A. C. and A. P. Maudslay, _A Glimpse at
+  Guatemala, and some Notes on the Ancient Monuments of Central America_
+  (London, 1899); Gustavo Niederlein, _The Republic of Guatemala_
+  (Philadelphia, 1898); Ramon A. Salazar, _Historia del disenvolvimiento
+  intelectual de Guatemala_, vol. i. (Guatemala, 1897); Otto Stoll,
+  _Reisen und Schilderungen aus den Jahren 1878-1883_ (Leipzig, 1886);
+  J. Mendez, _Guia del immigrante en la republica de Guatemala_
+  (Guatemala, 1895); Karl Sapper, "Grundzuge der physikalischen
+  Geographie von Guatemala," Erganzungsheft No. 115, _Petermann's
+  Mitteilungen_ (Gotha, 1894); _Anuario de estadistica de la republica
+  de Guatemala_ (Guatemala); _Memoria de la Secretaria de Instruccion
+  Publica_ (Guatemala, 1899); _Handbook of Guatemala_, revised (Bureau
+  of the American Republics, Washington, 1897); _United States Consular
+  Reports_ (Washington); _British Foreign Office Diplomatic and Consular
+  Reports_ (London).
+
+
+
+
+GUATEMALA, or GUATEMALA LA NUEVA (i.e. "New Guatemala," sometimes
+written Nueva Guatemala, and formerly Santiago de los Caballeros de
+Guatemala), the capital of the republic of Guatemala, and until 1821 of
+the Spanish captaincy-general of Guatemala, which comprised Chiapas in
+Mexico and all Central America except Panama. Pop. (1905) about 97,000.
+Guatemala is built more than 5000 ft. above sea-level, in a wide
+table-land traversed by the Rio de las Vacas, or Cow River, so called
+from the cattle introduced here by Spanish colonists in the 16th
+century. Deep ravines mark the edge of the table-land, and beyond it
+lofty mountains rise on every side, the highest peaks being on the
+south, where the volcanic summits of the Sierra Madre exceed 12,000 ft.
+Guatemala has a station on the transcontinental railway from Puerto
+Barrios on the Atlantic (190 m. N.E.) to San Jose on the Pacific (75 m.
+S. by W.). It is thrice the size of any other city in the republic, and
+has a corresponding commercial superiority. Its archbishop is the
+primate of Central America (excluding Panama). Like most
+Spanish-American towns Guatemala is laid out in wide and regular
+streets, often planted with avenues of trees, and it has extensive
+suburbs. The houses, though usually of only one storey, are solidly and
+comfortably constructed; many of them are surrounded by large gardens
+and courts. Among the open spaces the chief are the Plaza Mayor, which
+contains the cathedral, erected in 1730, the archiepiscopal palace, the
+government buildings, the mint and other public offices; and the more
+modern Reforma Park and Plaza de la Concordia, now the favourite resorts
+of the inhabitants. There are many large schools for both sexes, besides
+hospitals and an orphanage. Many of the principal buildings, such as the
+military academy, were originally convents. The theatre, founded in
+1858, is one of the best in Central America. A museum, founded in 1831,
+is maintained by the Sociedad Economica, which in various ways has done
+great service to the city and the country. There are two fortresses, the
+Castello Matamoros, built by Rafael Carrera (see GUATEMALA [republic]
+under _History_), and the Castello de San Jose. Water is brought from a
+distance of about 8 m. by two old aqueducts from the towns of Mixco and
+Pinula; fuel and provisions are largely supplied by the Pokoman Indians
+of Mixco. The general prosperity, and to some extent the appearance, of
+Guatemala have procured it the name of the Paris of Central America. It
+is lighted by electricity and has a good telephone service. Its trade is
+chiefly in coffee, but it also possesses cigar factories, wool and
+cotton factories, breweries, tanneries and other industrial
+establishments. The foreign trade is chiefly controlled by Germans.
+
+The first city named Guatemala, now called Ciudad Vieja or "Old City,"
+was founded in 1527 by Pedro de Alvarado, the conqueror of the country,
+on the banks of the Rio Pensativo, and at the foot of the volcano of
+Agua (i.e. "Water"). In 1541 it was overwhelmed by a deluge of water
+from the flooded crater of Agua; and in 1542 Alvarado founded Santiago
+de los Caballeros la Nueva, now Antigua. This city flourished greatly,
+and by the middle of the 18th century had become the most populous place
+in Central America, with 60,000 inhabitants and more than 100 churches
+and convents. But in 1773 it was ruined by an earthquake. It was
+rebuilt, and ultimately became capital of the department of
+Sacatepeques, and a health-resort locally celebrated for its thermal
+springs. But the Guatemalans determined to found a new capital on the
+site occupied by the hamlet of Ermita, 27 m. N.E. Here the third and
+last city of Guatemala was built, and became the seat of government in
+1779. The remarkable regularity of the streets is due to the
+construction of the city on a uniform plan. The wide area covered, and
+the lowness of the houses, were similarly due to an ordinance which, in
+order to minimize the danger from earthquakes, forbade the erection of
+any building more than 20 ft. high. Many of the belfries of convents or
+churches, added after the ordinance had fallen into abeyance, were
+overthrown by the earthquake of 1874, which also destroyed a large part
+of Antigua.
+
+
+
+
+GUATOS, a tribe of South American Indians of the upper Paraguay. They
+are of a European fairness and wear beards. They live almost entirely in
+canoes, building rough shelters in the swamps. They aided the Brazilians
+in the war with Paraguay 1865-70. Very few survive.
+
+
+
+
+GUATUSOS, a tribe of American Indians of Costa Rica. They are an active,
+hardy people, who have always maintained hostility towards the Spaniards
+and retain their independence. From their language they appear to be a
+distinct stock. They were described by old writers as being very fair,
+with flaxen hair, and these reports led to a belief, since exploded,
+that they were European hybrids. There are very few surviving.
+
+
+
+
+GUAVA (from the Mexican _guayaba_), the name applied to the fruits of
+species of _Psidium_, a genus belonging to the natural order
+_Myrtaceae_. The species which produces the bulk of the guava fruits of
+commerce is _Psidium Guajava_, a small tree from 15 to 20 ft. high, a
+native of the tropical parts of America and the West Indies. It bears
+short-stalked ovate or oblong leaves, with strongly marked veins, and
+covered with a soft tomentum or down. The flowers are borne on axillary
+stalks, and the fruits vary much in size, shape and colour, numerous
+forms and varieties being known and cultivated. The variety of which the
+fruits are most valued is that which is sometimes called the white guava
+(_P. Guajava_, var. _pyriferum_). The fruits are pear-shaped, about the
+size of a hen's egg, covered with a thin bright yellow or whitish skin
+filled with soft pulp, also of a light yellowish tinge, and having a
+pleasant sweet-acid and somewhat aromatic flavour. _P. Guajava_, var.
+_pomiferum_, produces a more globular or apple-shaped fruit, sometimes
+called the red guava. The pulp of this variety is mostly of a darker
+colour than the former and not of so fine a flavour, therefore the first
+named is most esteemed for eating in a raw state; both, however, are
+used in the preparation of two kinds of preserve known as guava jelly
+and guava cheese, which are made in the West Indies and imported thence
+to England; the fruits are of much too perishable a nature to allow of
+their importation in their natural state. Both varieties have been
+introduced into various parts of India, as well as in other countries of
+the East, where they have become perfectly naturalized. Though of course
+much too tender for outdoor planting in England, the guava thrives there
+in hothouses or stoves.
+
+_Psidium variabile_ (also known as _P. Cattleyanum_), a tree of from 10
+to 20 ft. high, a native of Brazil (the Araca or Araca de Praya), is
+known as the purple guava. The fruit, which is very abundantly produced
+in the axils of the leaves, is large, spherical, of a fine deep claret
+colour; the rind is pitted, and the pulp is soft, fleshy, purplish,
+reddish next the skin, but becoming paler towards the middle and in the
+centre almost or quite white. It has a very agreeable acid-sweet
+flavour, which has been likened to that of a strawberry.
+
+
+
+
+GUAYAMA, a small city and the capital of a municipal district and
+department of the same name, on the southern coast of Porto Rico, 53 m.
+S. of San Juan. Pop. (1899) of the city, 5334; (1910) 8321; (1899) of
+the district, 12,749. The district (156 sq. m.) includes Arroyo and
+Salinas. The city stands about 230 ft. above the sea and has a mild,
+healthy climate. It is connected with Ponce by railway (1910), and with
+the port of Arroyo by an excellent road, part of the military road
+extending to Cayey, and it exports sugar, rum, tobacco, coffee, cattle,
+fruit and other products of the department, which is very fertile. The
+city was founded in 1736, but was completely destroyed by fire in 1832.
+It was rebuilt on a rectangular plan and possesses several buildings of
+note. Drinking-water is brought in through an aqueduct.
+
+
+
+
+GUAYAQUIL, or SANTIAGO DE GUAYAQUIL, a city and port of Ecuador, capital
+of the province of Guayas, on the right bank of the Guayas river, 33 m.
+above its entrance into the Gulf of Guayaquil, in 2 deg. 12' S., 79 deg.
+51' W. Pop. (1890) 44,772; (1897, estimate) 51,000, mostly half-breeds.
+The city is built on a comparatively level _pajonal_ or savanna,
+extending southward from the base of three low hills, called Los Cerros
+de la Cruz, between the river and the partially filled waters of the
+Estero Salado. It is about 30 ft. above sea-level, and the lower parts
+of the town are partially flooded in the rainy season. The old town is
+the upper or northern part, and is inhabited by the poorer classes, its
+streets being badly paved, crooked, undrained, dirty and pestilential.
+The great fire of 1896 destroyed a large part of the old town, and some
+of its insanitary conditions were improved in rebuilding. The new town,
+or southern part, is the business and residential quarter of the better
+classes, but the buildings are chiefly of wood and the streets are
+provided with surface drainage only. Among the public buildings are the
+governor's and bishop's palaces, town-hall, cathedral and 9 churches,
+national college, episcopal seminary and schools of law and medicine,
+theatre, two hospitals, custom-house, and several asylums and charitable
+institutions. Guayaquil is also the seat of a university corporation
+with faculties of law and medicine. A peculiarity of Guayaquil is that
+the upper floors in the business streets project over the walks, forming
+covered arcades. The year is divided into a wet and dry season, the
+former from January to June, when the hot days are followed by nights of
+drenching rain. The mean annual temperature is about 82 deg. to 83 deg.
+F.; malarial and bilious fevers are common, the latter being known as
+"Guayaquil fever," and epidemics of yellow fever are frequent. The dry
+or summer season is considered pleasant and healthy. The water-supply is
+now brought in through iron mains from the Cordilleras 53 m. distant.
+The mains pass under the Guayas river and discharge into a large
+distributing reservoir on one of the hills N. of the city. The city is
+provided with tramway and telephone services, the streets are lighted
+with gas and electricity, and telegraph communication with the outside
+world is maintained by means of the West Coast cable, which lands at the
+small port of Santa Elena, on the Pacific coast, about 65 m. W. of
+Guayaquil. Railway connexion with Quito (290 m.) was established in June
+1908. There is also steamboat connexion with the producing districts of
+the province on the Guayas river and its tributaries, on which boats run
+regularly as far up as Bodegas (80 m.) in the dry season, and for a
+distance of 40 m. on the Daule. For smaller boats there are about 200 m.
+of navigation on this system of rivers. The exports of the province are
+almost wholly transported on these rivers, and are shipped either at
+Guayaquil, or at Puna, its deep-water port, 6-1/2 m. outside the Guayas
+bar, on the E. end of Puna Island. The Guayas river is navigable up to
+Guayaquil for steamers drawing 22 ft. of water; larger vessels anchor at
+Puna, 40 m. from Guayaquil, where cargoes and passengers are transferred
+to lighters and tenders. There is a quay on the river front, but the
+depth alongside does not exceed 18 ft. The principal exports are cacao,
+rubber, coffee, tobacco, hides, cotton, Panama hats, cinchona bark and
+ivory nuts, the value of all exports for the year 1905 being 14,148,877
+_sucres_, in a total of 18,565,668 _sucres_ for the whole republic. In
+1908 the exports were: cacao, about 64,000,000 lb., valued at
+$6,400,000; hides, valued at $135,000; rubber, valued at $235,000;
+coffee, valued at $273,000; and vegetable ivory, valued at $102,000.
+There are some small industries in the city, including a shipyard,
+saw-mills, foundry, sugar refineries, cotton and woollen mills, brewery,
+and manufactures of soap, cigars, chocolate, ice, soda-water and
+liqueurs.
+
+Santiago de Guayaquil was founded on St James's day, the 25th of July
+1535, by Sebastian de Benalcazar, but was twice abandoned before its
+permanent settlement in 1537 by Francesco de Orellana. It was captured
+and sacked several times in the 17th and 18th centuries by pirates and
+freebooters--by Jacob Clark in 1624, by French pirates in 1686, by
+English freebooters under Edward David in 1687, by William Dampier in
+1707 and by Clapperton in 1709. Defensive works were erected in 1730,
+and in 1763, when the town was made a governor's residence, a castle and
+other fortifications were constructed. Owing to the flimsy construction
+of its buildings Guayaquil has been repeatedly burned, the greater fires
+occurring in 1707, 1764, 1865, 1896 and 1899. The city was made the see
+of a bishopric in 1837.
+
+
+
+
+GUAYAS, or EL GUAYAS, a coast province of Ecuador, bounded N. by Manabi
+and Pichincha, E. by Los Rios, Canar and Azuay, S. by El Oro and the
+Gulf of Guayaquil, and W. by the same gulf, the Pacific Ocean and the
+province of Manabi. Pop. (1893, estimate) 98,100; area, 11,504 sq. m. It
+is very irregular in form and comprises the low alluvial districts
+surrounding the Gulf of Guayaquil between the Western Cordilleras and
+the coast. It includes (since 1885) the Galapagos Islands, lying 600 m.
+off the coast. The province of Guayas is heavily forested and traversed
+by numerous rivers, for the most part tributaries of the Guayas river,
+which enters the gulf from the N. This river system has a drainage area
+of about 14,000 sq. m. and an aggregate of 200 m. of navigable channels
+in the rainy season. Its principal tributaries are the Daule and
+Babahoyo or Chimbo (also called Bodegas), and of the latter the Vinces
+and Yaguachi. The climate is hot, humid and unhealthy, bilious and
+malarial fevers being prevalent. The rainfall is abundant and the soil
+is deep and fertile. Agriculture and the collection of forest products
+are the chief industries. The staple products are cacao, coffee,
+sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco and rice. The cultivation of cacao is the
+principal industry, the exports forming about one-third the world's
+supply. Stock-raising is also carried on to a limited extent. Among
+forest products are rubber, cinchona bark, toquilla fibre and ivory
+nuts. The manufacture of so-called Panama hats from the fibre of the
+toquilla palm (commonly called _jipijapa_, after a town in Manabi famous
+for this industry) is a long-established domestic industry among the
+natives of this and other coast provinces, the humidity of the climate
+greatly facilitating the work of plaiting the delicate straws, which
+would be broken in a dry atmosphere. Guayas is the chief industrial and
+commercial province of the republic, about nineteen-twentieths of the
+commerce of Ecuador passing through the port of its capital, Guayaquil.
+There are no land transport routes in the province except the Quito &
+Guayaquil railway, which traverses its eastern half. The sluggish river
+channels which intersect the greater part of its territory afford
+excellent facilities for transporting produce, and a large number of
+small boats are regularly engaged in that traffic. There are no large
+towns in Guayas other than Guayaquil. Duran, on the Guayas river
+opposite Guayaquil, is the starting point of the Quito railway and
+contains the shops and offices of that line. The port of Santa Elena on
+a bay of the same name, about 65 m. W. of Guayaquil, is a landing-point
+of the West Coast cable, and a port of call for some of the regular
+steamship lines. Its exports are chiefly Panama hats and salt.
+
+
+
+
+GUAYCURUS, a tribe of South American Indians on the Paraguay. The name
+has been used generally of all the mounted Indians of Gran Chaco. The
+Guaycurus are a wild, fierce people, who paint their bodies and go
+naked. They are fearless horsemen and are occupied chiefly in cattle
+rearing.
+
+
+
+
+GUAYMAS, or SAN JOSE DE GUAYMAS, a seaport of Mexico, in the state of
+Sonora, on a small bay opening into the Gulf of California a few miles
+W. of the mouth of the Yaqui river, in lat. 27 deg. 58' N., long. 110
+deg. 58' W. Pop. (1900) 8648. The harbour is one of the best on the W.
+coast of Mexico, and the port is a principal outlet for the products of
+the large state of Sonora. The town stands on a small, arid plain,
+nearly shut in by mountains, and has a very hot, dry climate. It is
+connected with the railways of the United States by a branch of the
+Southern Pacific from Benson, Arizona, and is 230 m. S. by W. of the
+frontier town of Nogales, where that line enters Mexico. The exports
+include gold, silver, hides and pearls.
+
+
+
+
+GUBBIO (anc. _Iguvium_, q.v.; med. _Eugubium_), a town and episcopal see
+of Umbria, Italy, in the province of Perugia, from which it is 23 m.
+N.N.E. by road; by rail it is 13 m. N.W. of Fossato di Vico (on the line
+between Foligno and Ancona) and 70 m. E.S.E. of Arezzo. Pop. (1901) 5783
+(town); 26,718 (commune). Gubbio is situated at the foot and on the
+steep slopes of Monte Calvo, from 1568 to 1735 ft. above sea-level, at
+the entrance to the gorge which ascends to Scheggia, probably on the
+site of the ancient Umbrian town. It presents a markedly medieval
+appearance. The most prominent building is the Palazzo dei Consoli, on
+the N. side of the Piazza della Signoria; it is a huge Gothic edifice
+with a tower, erected in 1332-1346, according to tradition, by Matteo di
+Giovanello of Gubbio, the name of Angelo da Orvieto occurs on the arch
+of the main door, but his work may be limited to the sculptures of this
+arch. It has two stories above the ground floor, and, being on the slope
+of the hill, is, like the whole piazza, raised on arched substructures.
+On the S. side of the piazza is the Palazzo Pretorio, or della Podesta,
+begun in 1349 and now the municipal palace. It contains the famous
+_Tabulae Iguvinae_, and a collection of paintings of the Umbrian school,
+of furniture and of majolica. On the E. side is the modern Palazzo
+Ranghiasci-Brancaleone, which until 1882 contained fine collections, now
+dispersed. Above the Piazza della Signoria, at the highest point of the
+town, is the Palazzo Ducale, erected by the dukes of Urbino in
+1474-1480; the architect was, in all probability, Lucio da Laurana, to
+whom is due the palace at Urbino, which this palace resembles,
+especially in its fine colonnaded court. The Palazzo Beni, lower down,
+belongs to a somewhat earlier period of the 15th century. Pope Martin V.
+lodged here for a few days in 1420. The Palazzo Accoramboni, on the
+other hand, is a Renaissance structure, with a fine entrance arch. Here
+Vittoria Accoramboni was born in 1557. Opposite the Palazzo Ducale is
+the cathedral, dedicated to SS. Mariano e Jacopo, a structure of the
+12th century, with a facade, adorned with contemporary sculptures,
+partly restored in 1514-1550. The interior contains some good pictures
+by Umbrian artists, a fine episcopal throne in carved wood, and a fine
+Flemish cope given by Pope Marcellus II. (1555) in the sacristy. The
+exterior of the Gothic church of S. Francesco, in the lower part of the
+town, built in 1259, preserves its original style, but the interior has
+been modernized; and the same fate has overtaken the Gothic churches of
+S. Maria Nuova and S. Pietro. S. Agostino, on the other hand, has its
+Gothic interior better preserved. The whole town is full of specimens of
+medieval architecture, the pointed arch of the 13th century being
+especially prevalent. A remarkable procession takes place in Gubbio on
+the 15th of May in each year, in honour of S. Ubaldo, when three
+colossal wooden pedestals, each over 30 ft. high, and crowned by statues
+of SS. Ubaldo, Antonio and Giorgio, are carried through the town, and
+then, in a wild race, up to the church of S. Ubaldo on the mountain-side
+(2690 ft.). See H. M. Bower, _The Elevation and Procession of the Ceri
+at Gubbio_ (Folk-lore Society, London, 1897).
+
+After its reconstruction with the help of Narses (see IGUVIUM) the town
+remained subject to the exarchs of Ravenna, and, after the destruction
+of the Lombard kingdom in 774, formed part of the donation of
+Charlemagne to the pope. In the 11th century the beginnings of its
+independence may be traced. In the struggles of that time it was
+generally on the Ghibelline side. In 1151 it repelled an attack of
+several neighbouring cities, and formed from this time a republic
+governed by consuls. In 1155 it was besieged by the emperor Frederick
+I., but saved by the intervention of its bishop, S. Ubaldo, and was
+granted privileges by the emperor. In 1203 it had its first podesta,
+and from this period dates the rise of its importance. In 1387, after
+various political changes, it surrendered to Antonio da Montefeltro of
+Urbino, and remained under the dominion of the dukes of Urbino until, in
+1624, the whole duchy was ceded to the pope.
+
+Gubbio was the birthplace of Oderisio, a famous miniature painter
+(1240-1299), mentioned by Dante as the honour of his native town
+(_Purg._ xi. 80 "_l'onor d'Agobbio_"), but no authentic works by him
+exist. In the 14th and 15th centuries a branch of the Umbrian school of
+painting flourished here, the most famous masters of which were Guido
+Palmerucci (1280-1345?) and several members of the Nelli family,
+particularly Ottaviano (d. 1444), whose best work is the "Madonna del
+Belvedere" in S. Maria Nuova at Gubbio (1404), extremely well preserved,
+with bright colouring and fine details. Another work by him is the group
+of frescoes including a large "Last Judgment," and scenes from the life
+of St Augustine, in the church of S. Agostino, discovered in 1902 under
+a coating of whitewash. These painters seem to have been influenced by
+the contemporary masters of the Sienese school.
+
+Gubbio occupies a far more important place in the history of majolica.
+In a decree of 1438 a _vasarius vasorum pictorum_ is mentioned, who
+probably was not the first of his trade. The art was brought to
+perfection by Giorgio Andreoli, whose father had emigrated hither from
+Pavia, and who in 1498 became a citizen of Gubbio. The works by his hand
+are remarkable for their ruby tint, with a beautiful metallic lustre;
+but only one small tazza remains in Gubbio itself. His art was carried
+on by his sons, Cencio and Ubaldo, but was afterwards lost, and only
+recovered in 1853 by Angelico Fabbri and Luigi Carocci.
+
+Two miles outside Porta Metauro to the N.E. is the Bottaccione, a large
+water reservoir, constructed in the 12th or 14th century; the water is
+collected in the bed of a stream by a massive dam.
+
+  See A. Colasanti, _Gubbio_ (Bergamo, 1905); L. McCracken, _Gubbio_
+  (London, 1905).     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+GUBEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, at the confluence
+of the Lubis with the Neisse, 28 m. S.S.E. of Frankfort-on-Oder, at the
+junction of railways to Breslau, Halle and Forst. Pop. (1875) 23,704;
+(1905) 36,666. It possesses three Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic
+church, a synagogue, a gymnasium, a modern school, a museum and a
+theatre. The principal industries are the spinning and weaving of wool,
+dyeing, tanning, and the manufacture of pottery ware, hats, cloth, paper
+and machinery. The vine is cultivated in the neighbourhood to some
+extent, and there is also some trade in fruit and vegetables. Guben is
+of Wendish origin. It is mentioned in 1207 and received civic rights in
+1235. It was surrounded by walls in 1311, about which time it came into
+the possession of the margrave of Brandenburg, from whom it passed to
+Bohemia in 1368. It was twice devastated by the Hussites, and in 1631
+and 1642 it was occupied by the Swedes. By the peace of Prague in 1635
+it came into the possession of the elector of Saxony, and in 1815 it
+was, with the rest of Lower Lusatia, united to Prussia.
+
+
+
+
+GUBERNATIS, ANGELO DE, COUNT (1840-   ), Italian man of letters, was born
+at Turin and educated there and at Berlin, where he studied philology.
+In 1862 he was appointed professor of Sanskrit at Florence, but having
+married a cousin of the Socialist Bakunin and become interested in his
+views he resigned his appointment and spent some years in travel. He was
+reappointed, however, in 1867; and in 1891 he was transferred to the
+university of Rome. He became prominent both as an orientalist, a
+publicist and a poet. He founded the _Italia letteraria_ (1862), the
+_Rivista orientale_ (1867), the _Civitta italiana_ and _Rivista europea_
+(1869), the _Bollettino italiano degli studii orientali_ (1876) and the
+_Revue internationale_ (1883), and in 1887 became director of the
+_Giornale della societa asiatica_. In 1878 he started the _Dizionario
+biografico degli scrittori contemporanei_. His Oriental and mythological
+works include the _Piccola enciclopedia indiana_ (1867), the _Fonti
+vediche_ (1868), a famous work on zoological mythology (1872), and
+another on plant mythology (1878). He also edited the encyclopaedic
+_Storia universale della letteratura_ (1882-1885). His work in verse
+includes the dramas _Cato_, _Romolo_, _Il re Nala_, _Don Rodrigo_,
+_Savitri_, &c.
+
+
+
+
+GUDBRANDSDAL, a district in the midlands of southern Norway, comprising
+the upper course of the river Lougen or Laagen from Lillehammer at the
+head of Lake Mjosen to its source in Lake Lesjekogen and tributary
+valleys. Lillehammer, the centre of a rich timber district, is 114 m. N.
+of Christiania by rail. The railway continues through the well-wooded
+and cultivated valley to Otta (70 m.). Several tracks run westward into
+the wild district of the Jotunheim. From Otto good driving routes run
+across the watershed and descend the western slope, where the scenery is
+incomparably finer than in Gudbrandsdal itself--(a) past Sorum, with the
+13th-century churches of Vaagen and Lom (a fine specimen of the
+Stavekirke or timber-built church), Aanstad and Polfos, with beautiful
+falls of the Otta river, to Grotlid, whence roads diverge to Stryn on
+the Nordfjord, and to Marok on the Geirangerfjord; (b) past Domaas (with
+branch road north to Storen near Trondhjem, skirting the Dovrefjeld),
+over the watershed formed by Lesjekogen Lake, which drains in both
+directions, and down through the magnificent Romsdal.
+
+
+
+
+GUDE (GUDIUS), MARQUARD (1635-1689), German archaeologist and classical
+scholar, was born at Rendsburg in Holstein on the 1st of February 1635.
+He was originally intended for the law, but from an early age showed a
+decided preference for classical studies. In 1658 he went to Holland in
+the hope of finding work as a teacher of classics, and in the following
+year, through the influence of J. F. Gronovius, he obtained the post of
+tutor and travelling companion to a wealthy young Dutchman, Samuel
+Schars. During his travels Gude seized the opportunity of copying
+inscriptions and MSS. At the earnest request of his pupil, who had
+become greatly attached to him, Gude refused more than one professional
+appointment, and it was not until 1671 that he accepted the post of
+librarian to Duke Christian Albert of Holstein-Gottorp. Schars, who had
+accompanied Gude, died in 1675, and left him the greater part of his
+property. In 1678 Gude, having quarrelled with the duke, retired into
+private life; but in 1682 he entered the service of Christian V. of
+Denmark as counsellor of the Schleswig-Holstein chancellery, and
+remained in it almost to the time of his death on the 26th of November
+1689. Gude's great life-work, the collection of Greek and Latin
+inscriptions, was not published till 1731. Mention may also be made of
+his _editio princeps_ (1661) of the treatise of Hippolytus the Martyr on
+Antichrist, and of his notes on Phaedrus (with four new fables
+discovered by him) published in P. Burmann's edition (1698).
+
+  His correspondence (ed. P. Burmann, 1697) is the most important
+  authority for the events of Gude's life, besides containing valuable
+  information on the learning of the times. See also J. Moller, _Cimbria
+  literata_, iii., and C. Bursian in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_,
+  x.
+
+
+
+
+GUDEMAN, ALFRED (1862-   ), American classical scholar, was born in
+Atlanta, Georgia, on the 26th of August 1862. He graduated at Columbia
+University in 1883 and studied under Hermann Diels at the University of
+Berlin. From 1890 to 1893 he was reader in classical philology at Johns
+Hopkins University, from 1893 to 1902 professor in the University of
+Pennsylvania, and from 1902 to 1904 professor in Cornell University. In
+1904 he became a member of the corps of scholars preparing the Wolfflin
+_Thesaurus linguae Latinae_--a unique distinction for an American
+Latinist, as was the publication of his critical edition, with German
+commentary, of Tacitus' _Agricola_ in 1902 by the Weidmannsche
+Buchhandlung of Berlin. He wrote _Latin Literature of the Empire_ (2
+vols., _Prose and Poetry_, 1898-1899), a _History of Classical
+Philology_ (1902) and _Sources of Plutarch's Life of Cicero_ (1902); and
+edited Tacitus' _Dialogus de oratoribus_ (text with commentary, 1894 and
+1898) and _Agricola_ (1899; with _Germania_, 1900), and Sallust's
+_Catiline_ (1903).
+
+
+
+
+GUDGEON (_Gobio fluviatilis_), a small fish of the Cyprinid family. It
+is nearly related to the barbel, and has a small barbel or fleshy
+appendage at each corner of the mouth. It is the _gobione_ of Italy,
+_goujon_ of France (whence adapted in M. English as _gojon_), and
+_Grassling_ or _Grundling_ of Germany. Gudgeons thrive in streams and
+lakes, keeping to the bottom, and seldom exceeding 8 in. in length. In
+China and Japan there are varieties differing only slightly from the
+common European type.
+
+
+
+
+GUDRUN (KUDRUN), a Middle High German epic, written probably in the
+early years of the 13th century, not long after the _Nibelungenlied_,
+the influence of which may be traced upon it. It is preserved in a
+single MS. which was prepared at the command of Maximilian I., and was
+discovered as late as 1820 in the Castle of Ambras in Tirol. The author
+was an unnamed Austrian poet, but the story itself belongs to the cycle
+of sagas, which originated on the shores of the North Sea. The epic
+falls into three easily distinguishable parts--the adventures of King
+Hagen of Ireland, the romance of Hettel, king of the Hegelingen, who
+woos and wins Hagen's daughter Hilde, and lastly, the more or less
+parallel story of how Herwig, king of Seeland, wins, in opposition to
+her father's wishes, Gudrun, the daughter of Hettel and Hilde. Gudrun is
+carried off by a king of Normandy, and her kinsfolk, who are in pursuit,
+are defeated in a great battle on the island of Wulpensand off the Dutch
+coast. The finest parts of the epic are those in which Gudrun, a
+prisoner in the Norman castle, refuses to become the wife of her captor,
+and is condemned to do the most menial work of the household. Here,
+thirteen years later, Herwig and her brother Ortwin find her washing
+clothes by the sea; on the following day they attack the Norman castle
+with their army and carry out the long-delayed retribution.
+
+The epic of _Gudrun_ is not unworthy to stand beside the greater
+_Nibelungenlied_, and it has been aptly compared with it as the
+_Odyssey_ to the _Iliad_. Like the _Odyssey_, Gudrun is an epic of the
+sea, a story of adventure; it does not turn solely round the conflict of
+human passions; nor is it built up round one all-absorbing,
+all-dominating idea like the _Nibelungenlied_. Scenery and incident are
+more varied, and the poet has an opportunity for a more lyric
+interpretation of motive and character. _Gudrun_ is composed in stanzas
+similar to those of the _Nibelungenlied_, but with the essential
+difference that the last line of each stanza is identical with the
+others, and does not contain the extra accented syllable characteristic
+of the _Nibelungen_ metre.
+
+  _Gudrun_ was first edited by von der Hagen in vol. i. of his
+  _Heldenbuch_ (1820). Subsequent editions by A. Ziemann and A. J.
+  Vollmer followed in 1837 and 1845. The best editions are those by K.
+  Bartsch (4th ed., 1880), who has also edited the poem for Kurschner's
+  _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_ (vol. 6, 1885), by B. Symons (1883) and
+  by E. Martin (2nd ed., 1901). L. Ettmuller first applied Lachmann's
+  ballad-theory to the poem (1841), and K. Mullenhoff (_Kudrun, die
+  echten Teile des Gedichts_, 1845) rejected more than three-quarters of
+  the whole as "not genuine." There are many translations of the epic
+  into modern German, the best known being that of K. Simrock (15th ed.,
+  1884). A translation into English by M. P. Nichols appeared at Boston,
+  U.S.A., in 1889.
+
+  See K. Bartsch, _Beitrage zur Geschichte und Kritik der Kudrun_
+  (1865); H. Keck, _Die Gudrunsage_ (1867); W. Wilmanns, _Die
+  Entwickelung der Kudrundichtung_ (1873); A. Fecamp, _Le Poeme de
+  Gudrun, ses origines, sa formation et son histoire_ (1892); F. Panzer,
+  _Hilde-Gudrun_ (1901). For later versions and adaptations of the saga
+  see O. Benedict, _Die Gudrunsage in der neueren Literatur_ (1902.)
+
+
+
+
+GUEBRIANT, JEAN BAPTISTE BUDES, COMTE DE (1602-1643), marshal of France,
+was born at Plessis-Budes, near St Brieuc, of an old Breton family. He
+served first in Holland, and in the Thirty Years' War he commanded from
+1638 to 1639 the French contingent in the army of his friend Bernard of
+Saxe-Weimar, distinguishing himself particularly at the siege of
+Breisach in 1638. Upon the death of Bernard he received the command of
+his army, and tried, in conjunction with J. Baner (1596-1641), the
+Swedish general, a bold attack upon Regensburg (1640). His victories of
+Wolfenbuttel on the 29th of June 1641 and of Kempen in 1642 won for him
+the marshal's baton. Having failed in an attempt to invade Bavaria in
+concert with Torstensson he seized Rottweil, but was mortally wounded
+there on the 17th of November 1643.
+
+  A biography was published by Le Laboureur, _Histoire du mareschal de
+  Guebriant_, in 1656. See A. Brinzinger in _Wurttembergische
+  Vierteljahrschrift fur Landesgeschichte_ (1902).
+
+
+
+
+
+GUELDER ROSE, so called from Guelderland, its supposed source, termed
+also marsh elder, rose elder, water elder (Ger. _Wasserholder_,
+_Schneeball_; Fr. _viorne-obier_, _l'obier d'Europe_), known botanically
+as _Viburnum Opulus_, a shrub or small tree of the natural order
+Caprifoliaceae, a native of Britain, and widely distributed in the
+temperate and colder parts of Europe, Asia and North America. It is
+common in Ireland, but rare in Scotland. In height it is from 6 to 12
+ft., and it thrives best in moist situations. The leaves are smooth, 2
+to 3 in. broad, with 3 to 5 unequal serrate lobes, and glandular
+stipules adnate to the stalk. In autumn the leaves change their normal
+bright green for a pink or crimson hue. The flowers, which appear in
+June and July, are small, white, and arranged in cymes 2 to 4 in. in
+diameter. The outer blossoms in the wild plant have an enlarged corolla,
+3/4 in. in diameter, and are devoid of stamens or pistils; in the common
+cultivated variety all the flowers are sterile and the inflorescence is
+globular, hence the term "snowball tree" applied to the plant, the
+appearance of which at the time of flowering has been prettily described
+by Cowper in his _Winter Walk at Noon_. The guelder rose bears juicy,
+red, elliptical berries, 1/3 in. long, which ripen in September, and
+contain each a single compressed seed. In northern Europe these are
+eaten, and in Siberia, after fermentation with flour, they are distilled
+for spirit. The plant has, however, emetic, purgative and narcotic
+properties; and Taylor (_Med. Jurisp._ i. 448, 2nd ed., 1873) has
+recorded an instance of the fatal poisoning of a child by the berries.
+Both they and the bark contain valerianic acid. The woody shoots of the
+guelder rose are manufactured into various small articles in Sweden and
+Russia. Another member of the genus, _Viburnum_, _Lantana_, wayfaring
+tree, is found in dry copses and hedges in England, except in the north.
+
+
+
+
+GUELPH, a city of Ontario, Canada, 45 m. W. of Toronto, on the river
+Speed and the Grand Trunk and Canadian Pacific railways. Pop. (1901)
+11,496. It is the centre of a fine agricultural district, and exports
+grain, fruit and live-stock in large quantities. It contains, in
+addition to the county and municipal buildings, the Ontario Agricultural
+College, which draws students from all parts of North and South America.
+The river affords abundant water-power for flour-mills, saw-mills,
+woollen-mills and numerous factories, of which agricultural implements,
+sewing machines and musical instruments are the chief.
+
+
+
+
+GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES. These names are doubtless Italianized forms of
+the German words Welf and Waiblingen, although one tradition says that
+they are derived from Guelph and Gibel, two rival brothers of Pistoia.
+Another theory derives Ghibelline from Gibello, a word used by the
+Sicilian Arabs to translate Hohenstaufen. However, a more popular story
+tells how, during a fight around Weinsberg in December 1140 between the
+German king Conrad III. and Welf, count of Bavaria, a member of the
+powerful family to which Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony and Bavaria,
+belonged, the soldiers of the latter raised the cry "Hie Welf!" to which
+the king's troops replied with "Hie Waiblingen!" this being the name of
+one of Conrad's castles. But the rivalry between Welf and Hohenstaufen,
+of which family Conrad was a member, was anterior to this event, and had
+been for some years a prominent fact in the history of Swabia and
+Bavaria, although its introduction into Italy--in a slightly modified
+form, however--only dates from the time of the Italian expeditions of
+the emperor Frederick I. It is about this time that the German
+chronicler, Otto of Freising, says, "Duae in Romano orbe apud Galliae
+Germaniaeve fines famosae familiae actenus fuere, una Heinricorum de
+Gueibelinga, alia Guelforum de Aldorfo, altera imperatores, altera
+magnos duces producere solita." Chosen German king in 1152, Frederick
+was not only the nephew and the heir of Conrad, he was related also to
+the Welfs; yet, although his election abated to some extent the rivalry
+between Welf and Hohenstaufen in Germany, it opened it upon a larger and
+fiercer scale in Italy.
+
+During the long and interesting period covered by Frederick's Italian
+campaigns, his enemies, prominent among whom were the cities of the
+Lombard League, became known as Welfs, or Guelphs, while his partisans
+seized upon the rival term of Waiblingen, or Ghibelline, and the
+contest between these two parties was carried on with a ferocity unknown
+even to the inhabitants of southern Germany. The distracted state of
+northern Italy, the jealousies between various pairs of towns, the
+savage hatred between family and family, were some of the causes which
+fed this feud, and it reached its height during the momentous struggle
+between Frederick II. and the Papacy in the 13th century. The story of
+the contest between Guelph and Ghibelline, however, is little less than
+the history of Italy in the middle ages. At the opening of the 13th
+century it was intensified by the fight for the German and imperial
+thrones between Philip, duke of Swabia, a son of Frederick I., and the
+Welf, Otto of Brunswick, afterwards the emperor Otto IV., a fight waged
+in Italy as well as in Germany. Then, as the heir of Philip of Swabia
+and the rival of Otto of Brunswick, Frederick II. was forced to throw
+himself into the arms of the Ghibellines, while his enemies, the popes,
+ranged themselves definitely among the Guelphs, and soon Guelph and
+Ghibelline became synonymous with supporter of pope and emperor.
+
+After the death of Frederick II. in 1250 the Ghibellines looked for
+leadership to his son and successor, the German king, Conrad IV., and
+then to his natural son, Manfred, while the Guelphs called the French
+prince, Charles of Anjou, to their aid. But the combatants were nearing
+exhaustion, and after the execution of Conradin, the last of the
+Hohenstaufen, in 1268, this great struggle began to lose force and
+interest. Guelph and Ghibelline were soon found representing local and
+family rather than papal and imperial interests; the names were taken
+with little or no regard for their original significance, and in the
+15th century they began to die out of current politics. However, when
+Louis XII. of France conquered Milan at the beginning of the 16th
+century the old names were revived; the French king's supporters were
+called Guelphs and the friends of the emperor Maximilian I. were
+referred to as Ghibellines.
+
+The feud of Guelph and Ghibelline penetrated within the walls of almost
+every city of northern Italy, and the contest between the parties, which
+practically makes the history of Florence during the 13th century, is
+specially noteworthy. First one side and then the other was driven into
+exile; the Guelph defeat at the battle of Monte Aperto in 1260 was
+followed by the expulsion of the Ghibellines by Charles of Anjou in
+1266, and on a smaller scale a similar story may be told of many other
+cities (see FLORENCE).
+
+The Guelph cause was buttressed by an idea, yet very nebulous, of
+Italian patriotism. Dislike of the German and the foreigner rather than
+any strong affection for the Papacy was the feeling which bound the
+Guelph to the pope, and so enabled the latter to defy the arms of
+Frederick II. The Ghibelline cause, on the other hand, was aided by the
+dislike of the temporal power of the pope and the desire for a strong
+central authority. This made Dante a Ghibelline, but the hopes of this
+party, kindled anew by the journey of Henry VII. to Italy in 1310, were
+extinguished by his departure. J. A. Symonds thus describes the
+constituents of the two parties: "The Guelph party meant the burghers of
+the consular Communes, the men of industry and commerce, the upholders
+of civil liberty, the friends of democratic expansion. The Ghibelline
+party included the naturalized nobles, the men of arms and idleness, the
+advocates of feudalism, the politicians who regarded constitutional
+progress with disfavour. That the banner of the church floated over the
+one camp, while the standard of the empire rallied to itself the hostile
+party, was a matter of comparatively superficial moment." In another
+passage the same writer thus describes the sharp and universal division
+between Guelph and Ghibelline: "Ghibellines wore the feathers in their
+caps upon one side, Guelphs upon the other. Ghibellines cut fruit at
+table crosswise, Guelphs straight down ... Ghibellines drank out of
+smooth and Guelphs out of chased goblets. Ghibellines wore white and
+Guelphs red roses." It is interesting to note that while Dante was a
+Ghibelline, Petrarch was a Guelph.
+
+  See J. A. Symonds, _The Renaissance in Italy_, vol. i. (1875).
+
+
+
+
+
+GUENEVERE (Lat. _Guanhumara_; Welsh, _Gwenhwyfar_; O. Eng. _Gaynore_),
+in Arthurian romance the wife of King Arthur. Geoffrey of Monmouth, who
+calls her Guanhumara, makes her a Roman lady, but the general tradition
+is that she was of Cornish birth and daughter to King Leodegrance. Wace,
+who, while translating Geoffrey, evidently knew, and used, popular
+tradition, combines these two, asserting that she was of Roman parentage
+on the mother's side, but cousin to Cador of Cornwall by whom she was
+brought up. The tradition relating to Guenevere is decidedly confused
+and demands further study. The Welsh triads know no fewer than three
+Gwenhwyfars; Giraldus Cambrensis, relating the discovery of the royal
+tombs at Glastonbury, speaks of the body found as that of Arthur's
+second wife; the prose _Merlin_ gives Guenevere a bastard half-sister of
+the same name, who strongly resembles her; and the _Lancelot_ relates
+how this lady, trading on the likeness, persuaded Arthur that she was
+the true daughter of Leodegrance, and the queen the bastard interloper.
+This episode of the false Guenevere is very perplexing.
+
+To the majority of English readers Guenevere is best known in connexion
+with her liaison with Lancelot, a story which, in the hands of Malory and
+Tennyson, has assumed a form widely different from the original
+conception, and at once more picturesque and more convincing. In the
+French romances Lancelot is a late addition to the Arthurian cycle, his
+birth is not recorded till long after the marriage of Arthur and
+Guenevere, and he is at least twenty years the junior of the queen. The
+relations between them are of the most conventional and courtly
+character, and are entirely lacking in the genuine dramatic passion which
+marks the love story of Tristan and Iseult. The _Lancelot-Guenevere_
+romance took form and shape in the artificial atmosphere encouraged by
+such patronesses of literature as Eleanor of Aquitaine and her daughter
+Marie, Comtesse de Champagne (for whom Chretien de Troyes wrote his
+_Chevalier de la Charrette_), and reflects the low social morality of a
+time when love between husband and wife was declared impossible. But
+though Guenevere has changed her lover, the tradition of her infidelity
+is of much earlier date and formed a part of the primitive Arthurian
+legend. Who the original lover was is doubtful; the _Vita Gildae_ relates
+how she was carried off by Melwas, king of Aestiva Regis, to Glastonbury,
+whither Arthur, at the head of an army, pursued the ravisher. A fragment
+of a Welsh poem seems to confirm this tradition, which certainly lies at
+the root of her later abduction by Meleagaunt. In the _Lanzelet_ of
+Ulrich von Zatzikhoven the abductor is Falerin. The story in these forms
+represents an other-world abduction. A curious fragment of Welsh
+dialogues, printed by Professor Rhys in his _Studies on the Arthurian
+Legend_, appears to represent Kay as the abductor. In the
+pseudo-Chronicles and the romances based upon them the abductor is
+Mordred, and in the chronicles there is no doubt that the lady was no
+unwilling victim. On the final defeat of Mordred she retires to a
+nunnery, takes the veil, and is no more heard of. Wace says
+emphatically--
+
+  _Ne fu oie ne veue,
+  Ne fu trovee, ne seue
+  Por la vergogne del mesfait
+  Et del pecie qu ele avoit fait_ (11. 13627-30).
+
+Layamon, who in his translation of Wace treats his original much as Wace
+treated Geoffrey, says that there was a tradition that she had drowned
+herself, and that her memory and that of Mordred were hateful in every
+land, so that none would offer prayer for their souls. On the other hand
+certain romances, e.g. the _Perceval_, give her an excellent character.
+The truth is probably that the tradition of his wife's adultery and
+treachery was a genuine part of the Arthurian story, which, neglected
+for a time, was brought again into prominence by the social conditions
+of the courts for which the later romances were composed; and it is in
+this later and conventionalized form that the tale has become familiar
+to us (see also LANCELOT).
+
+  See _Studies on the Arthurian Legend_ by Professor Rhys; _The Legend
+  of Sir Lancelot_, Grimm Library, xii., Jessie L. Weston; _Der
+  Karrenritter_, ed. Professor Foerster.     (J. L. W.)
+
+
+
+
+GUENON (from the French, = one who grimaces, hence an ape), the name
+applied by naturalists to the monkeys of the African genus
+_Cercopithecus_, the Ethiopian representative of the Asiatic macaques,
+from which they differ by the absence of a posterior heel to the last
+molar in the lower jaw.
+
+
+
+
+GUERET, a town of central France, capital of the department of Creuse,
+situated on a mountain declivity 48 m. N.E. of Limoges on the Orleans
+railway. Pop. (1906), town, 6042; commune (including troops, &c.), 8058.
+Apart from the Hotel des Monneyroux (used as prefecture), a picturesque
+mansion of the 15th and 16th centuries, with mansard roofs and mullioned
+windows, Gueret has little architectural interest. It is the seat of a
+prefect and a court of assizes, and has a tribunal of first instance, a
+chamber of commerce and lycees and training colleges, for both sexes.
+The industries include brewing, saw-milling, leather-making and the
+manufacture of basket-work and wooden shoes, and there is trade in
+agricultural produce and cattle. Gueret grew up round an abbey founded
+in the 7th century, and in later times became the capital of the
+district of Marche.
+
+
+
+
+GUEREZA, the native name of a long-tailed, black and white Abyssinian
+monkey, _Colobus guereza_ (or _C. abyssinicus_), characterized by the
+white hairs forming a long pendent mantle. Other east African monkeys
+with a similar type of colouring, which, together with the wholly black
+west African _C. satanas_, collectively constitute the subgenus
+_Guereza_, may be included under the same title; and the name may be
+further extended to embrace all the African thumbless monkeys of the
+genus _Colobus_. These monkeys are the African representatives of the
+Indo-Malay langurs (_Semnopithecus_), with which they agree in their
+slender build, long limbs and tail, and complex stomachs, although
+differing by the rudimentary thumb. The members of the subgenus
+_Guereza_ present a transition from a wholly black animal (_C. satanas_)
+to one (_C. caudatus_) in which the sides of the face are white, and the
+whole flanks, as well as the tail, clothed with a long fringe of pure
+white hairs.
+
+
+
+
+GUERICKE, HEINRICH ERNST FERDINAND (1803-1878), German theologian, was
+born at Wettin in Saxony on the 25th of February 1803 and studied
+theology at Halle, where he was appointed professor in 1829. He greatly
+disliked the union between the Lutheran and the Reformed churches, which
+had been accomplished by the Prussian government in 1817, and in 1833 he
+definitely threw in his lot with the Old Lutherans. In 1835 he lost his
+professorship, but he regained it in 1840. Among his works were a Life
+of _August Hermann Francke_ (1827, Eng. trans. 1837), _Church History_
+(1833, Eng. trans. by W. T. Shedd, New York, 1857-1863), _Allgemeine
+christliche Symbolik_ (1839). In 1840 he helped to found the
+_Zeitschrift fur die gesammte lutherische Theologie und Kirche_, and he
+died at Halle on the 4th of February 1878.
+
+
+
+
+GUERICKE, OTTO VON (1602-1686), German experimental philosopher, was
+born at Magdeburg, in Prussian Saxony, on the 20th of November 1602.
+Having studied law at Leipzig, Helmstadt and Jena, and mathematics,
+especially geometry and mechanics, at Leiden, he visited France and
+England, and in 1636 became engineer-in-chief at Erfurt. In 1627 he was
+elected alderman of Magdeburg, and in 1646 mayor of that city and a
+magistrate of Brandenburg. His leisure was devoted to scientific
+pursuits, especially in pneumatics. Incited by the discoveries of
+Galileo, Pascal and Torricelli, he attempted the creation of a vacuum.
+He began by experimenting with a pump on water placed in a barrel, but
+found that when the water was drawn off the air permeated the wood. He
+then took a globe of copper fitted with pump and stopcock, and
+discovered that he could pump out air as well as water. Thus he became
+the inventor of the air-pump (1650). He illustrated his discovery before
+the emperor Ferdinand III. at the imperial diet which assembled at
+Regensburg in 1654, by the experiment of the "Magdeburg hemispheres."
+Taking two hollow hemispheres of copper, the edges of which fitted
+nicely together, he exhausted the air from between them by means of his
+pump, and it is recorded that thirty horses, fifteen back to back, were
+unable to pull them asunder until the air was readmitted. Besides
+investigating other phenomena connected with a vacuum, he constructed an
+electrical machine which depended on the excitation of a rotating ball
+of sulphur; and he made successful researches in astronomy, predicting
+the periodicity of the return of comets. In 1681 he gave up office, and
+retired to Hamburg, where he died on the 11th of May 1686.
+
+  His principal observations are given in his work, _Experimenta nova,
+  ut vocant, Magdeburgica de vacuo spatio_ (Amsterdam, 1672). He is also
+  the author of a _Geschichte der Belagerung und Eroberung von
+  Magdeburg_. See F. W. Hoffmann, _Otto von Guericke_ (Magdeburg, 1874).
+
+
+
+
+GUERIDON, a small table to hold a lamp or vase, supported by a tall
+column or a human or mythological figure. This piece of furniture, often
+very graceful and elegant, originated in France towards the middle of
+the 17th century. In the beginning the table was supported by a negro or
+other exotic figure, and there is some reason to believe that it took
+its name from the generic appellation of the young African groom or
+"tiger," who was generally called "Gueridon," or as we should say in
+English "Sambo." The swarthy figure and brilliant costume of the "Moor"
+when reproduced in wood and picked out in colours produced a very
+striking effect, and when a small table was supported on the head by the
+upraised hands the idea of passive service was suggested with
+completeness. The gueridon is still occasionally seen in something
+approaching its original form; but it had no sooner been introduced than
+the artistic instinct of the French designer and artificer converted it
+into a far worthier object. By the death of Louis XIV. there were
+several hundreds of them at Versailles, and within a generation or two
+they had taken an infinity of forms--columns, tripods, termini and
+mythological figures. Some of the simpler and more artistic forms were
+of wood carved with familiar decorative motives and gilded. Silver,
+enamel, and indeed almost any material from which furniture can be made,
+have been used for their construction. A variety of small "occasional"
+tables are now called in French _gueridons_.
+
+
+
+
+GUERIN, JEAN BAPTISTE PAULIN (1783-1855), French painter, was born at
+Toulon, on the 25th of March 1783, of poor parents. He learnt, as a lad,
+his father's trade of a locksmith, whilst at the same time he followed
+the classes of the free school of art. Having sold some copies to a
+local amateur, Guerin started for Paris, where he came under the notice
+of Vincent, whose counsels were of material service. In 1810 Guerin made
+his first appearance at the Salon with some portraits, which had a
+certain success. In 1812 he exhibited "Cain after the murder of Abel"
+(formerly in Luxembourg), and, on the return of the Bourbons, was much
+employed in works of restoration and decoration at Versailles. His "Dead
+Christ" (Cathedral, Baltimore) obtained a medal in 1817, and this
+success was followed up by a long series of works, of which the
+following are the more noteworthy: "Christ on the knees of the Virgin"
+(1819); "Anchises and Venus" (1822) (formerly in Luxembourg); "Ulysses
+and Minerva" (1824) (Musee de Rennes); "the Holy Family" (1829)
+(Cathedral, Toulon); and "Saint Catherine" (1838) (St Roch). In his
+treatment of subject, Guerin attempted to realize rococo graces of
+conception, the liveliness of which was lost in the strenuous effort to
+be correct. His chief successes were attained by portraits, and those of
+Charles Nodier and the Abbe Lamennais became widely popular. He died on
+the 19th of January 1855.
+
+
+
+
+GUERIN, PIERRE NARCISSE, BARON (1774-1833), French painter, was born at
+Paris on the 13th of May 1774. Becoming a pupil of Jean Baptiste
+Regnault, he carried off one of the three "grands prix" offered in 1796,
+in consequence of the competition not having taken place since 1793. The
+_pension_ was not indeed re-established, but Guerin fulfilled at Paris
+the conditions imposed upon a _pensionnaire_, and produced various
+works, one of which brought him prominently before the public. This
+work, "Marcus Sextus" (Louvre), exhibited at the Salon of 1799, excited
+wild enthusiasm, partly due to the subject,--a victim of Sulla's
+proscription returning to Rome to find his wife dead and his house in
+mourning--in which an allusion was found to the actual situation of the
+_emigres_. Guerin on this occasion was publicly crowned by the president
+of the Institute, and before his departure for Rome (on the
+re-establishment of the Ecole under Suvee) a banquet was given to him by
+the most distinguished artists of Paris. In 1800, unable to remain in
+Rome on account of his health, he went to Naples, where he painted the
+"Grave of Amyntas." In 1802 Guerin produced "Phaedra and Hippolytus"
+(Louvre); in 1810, after his return to Paris, he again achieved a great
+success with "Andromache and Pyrrhus" (Louvre); and in the same year
+also exhibited "Cephalus and Aurora" (Collection Sommariva) and
+"Bonaparte and the Rebels of Cairo" (Versailles). The Restoration
+brought to Guerin fresh honours; he had received from the first consul
+in 1803 the cross of the Legion of Honour, and in 1815 Louis XVIII.
+named him Academician. The success of Guerin's "Hippolytus" of
+"Andromache," of "Phaedra" and of "Clytaemnestra" (Louvre) had been
+ensured by the skilful selection of highly melodramatic situations,
+treated with the strained and pompous dignity proper to the art of the
+first empire; in "Aeneas relating to Dido the disasters of Troy"
+(Louvre), which appeared side by side with "Clytaemnestra" at the Salon
+of 1817, the influence of the Restoration is plainly to be traced. In
+this work Guerin sought to captivate the public by an appeal to those
+sensuous charms which he had previously rejected, and by the
+introduction of picturesque elements of interest. But with this work
+Guerin's public successes came to a close. He was, indeed, commissioned
+to paint for the Madeleine a scene from the history of St Louis, but his
+health prevented him from accomplishing what he had begun, and in 1822
+he accepted the post of director of the Ecole de Rome, which in 1816 he
+had refused. On returning to Paris in 1828, Guerin, who had previously
+been made chevalier of the order of St Michel, was ennobled. He now
+attempted to complete "Pyrrhus and Priam," a work which he had begun at
+Rome, but in vain; his health had finally broken down, and in the hope
+of improvement he returned to Italy with Horace Vernet. Shortly after
+his arrival at Rome Baron Guerin died, on the 6th of July 1833, and was
+buried in the church of La Trinita de' Monti by the side of Claude
+Lorraine.
+
+  A careful analysis and criticism of his principal works will be found
+  in Meyer's _Geschichte der franzosischen Malerei_.
+
+
+
+
+GUERIN DU CAYLA, GEORGES MAURICE DE (1810-1839), French poet, descended
+from a noble but poor family, was born at the chateau of Le Cayla in
+Languedoc, on the 4th of August 1810. He was educated for the church at
+a religious seminary at Toulouse, and then at the College Stanislas,
+Paris, after which he entered the society at La Chesnaye in Brittany,
+founded by Lamennais. It was only after great hesitation, and without
+being satisfied as to his religious vocation, that under the influence
+of Lamennais he joined the new religious order in the autumn of 1832;
+and when, in September of the next year, Lamennais, who had come under
+the displeasure of Rome, severed connexion with the society, Maurice de
+Guerin soon followed his example. Early in the following year he went to
+Paris, where he was for a short time a teacher at the College Stanislas.
+In November 1838 he married a Creole lady of some fortune; but a few
+months afterwards he was attacked by consumption and died on the 19th of
+July 1839. In the _Revue des deux mondes_ for May 15th, 1840, there
+appeared a notice of Maurice de Guerin by George Sand, to which she
+added two fragments of his writings--one a composition in prose entitled
+the _Centaur_, and the other a short poem. His _Reliquiae_ (2 vols.,
+1861), including the _Centaur_, his journal, a number of his letters and
+several poems, was edited by G. S. Trebutien, and accompanied with a
+biographical and critical notice by Sainte-Beuve; a new edition, with
+the title _Journal, lettres et poemes_, followed in 1862; and an English
+translation of it was published at New York in 1867. Though he was
+essentially a poet, his prose is more striking and original than his
+poetry. Its peculiar and unique charm arises from his strong and
+absorbing passion for nature, a passion whose intensity reached almost
+to adoration and worship, but in which the pagan was more prominent than
+the moral element. According to Sainte-Beuve, "no French poet or
+painter has rendered so well the feeling for nature--the feeling not so
+much for details as for the ensemble and the divine universality, the
+feeling for the origin of things and the sovereign principle of life."
+
+The name of EUGENIE DE GUERIN (1805-1848), the sister of Maurice, cannot
+be omitted from any notice of him. Her _Journals_ (1861, Eng. trans.,
+1865) and her _Lettres_ (1864, Eng. trans., 1865) indicated the
+possession of gifts of as rare an order as those of her brother, though
+of a somewhat different kind. In her case mysticism assumed a form more
+strictly religious, and she continued to mourn her brother's loss of his
+early Catholic faith. Five years older than he, she cherished a love for
+him which was blended with a somewhat motherly anxiety. After his death
+she began the collection and publication of the scattered fragments of
+his writings. She died, however, on the 31st of May 1848, before her
+task was completed.
+
+  See the notices by George Sand and Sainte-Beuve referred to above;
+  Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_ (vol. xii.) and _Nouveaux Lundis_
+  (vol. iii.); G. Merlet, _Causeries sur les femmes et les livres_
+  (Paris, 1865); Selden, _L'Esprit des femmes de notre temps_ (Paris,
+  1864); Marelle, _Eugenie et Maurice de Guerin_ (Berlin, 1869); Harriet
+  Parr, _M. and E. de Guerin, a monograph_ (London, 1870); and Matthew
+  Arnold's essays on Maurice and Eugenie de Guerin, in his _Essays in
+  Criticism_.
+
+
+
+
+GUERNIERI, or WERNER, a celebrated mercenary captain who lived about the
+middle of the 14th century. He was a member of the family of the dukes
+of Urslingen, and probably a descendant of the dukes of Spoleto. From
+1340 to 1343 he was in the service of the citizens of Pisa, but
+afterwards he collected a troop of adventurers which he called the Great
+Company, and with which he plundered Tuscany and Lombardy. He then
+entered the service of Louis I. the Great, king of Hungary and Poland,
+whom he assisted to obtain possession of Naples; but when dismissed from
+this service his ravages became more terrible than ever, culminating in
+the dreadful sack of Anagni in 1358, shortly after which Guernieri
+disappeared from history. He is said to have worn a breastplate with the
+inscription, "The enemy of God, of pity and of mercy."
+
+
+
+
+GUERNSEY (Fr. _Guernesey_), one of the Channel Islands, belonging to
+Britain, the second in size and westernmost of the important members of
+the group. Its chief town, St Peter Port, on the east coast, is in 2
+deg. 33' W., 49 deg. 27' N., 74 m. S. of Portland Bill on the English
+coast, and 30 m. from the nearest French coast to the east. The island,
+roughly triangular in form, is 9-1/4 m. long from N.E. to S.W. and has
+an extreme breadth of 5-1/4 m. and an area of 15,691 acres or 24.5 sq.
+m. Pop. (1901), 40,446, the density being thus 162 per sq. m.
+
+The surface of the island rises gradually from north to south, and
+reaches its greatest elevation at Haut Nez (349 ft.) above Point Icart
+on the south coast. The coast scenery, which forms one of the principal
+attractions to the numerous summer visitors to the island, is finest on
+the south. This coast, between Jerbourg and Pleinmont Points,
+respectively at the south-eastern and south-western corners of the
+island, is bold, rocky and indented with many exquisite little bays. Of
+these the most notable are Moulin Huet, Saint's, and Petit Bot, all in
+the eastern half of the south coast. The cliffs, however, culminate in
+the neighbourhood of Pleinmont. Picturesque caves occur at several
+points, such as the Creux Mahie. On the west coast there is a succession
+of larger bays--Rocquaine Perelle, Vazon, and Cobo. Off the first lies
+Lihou Island, the Hanois and other islets, and all three bays are sown
+with rocks. The coast, however, diminishes in height, until at the
+north-eastern extremity of the island the land is so low across the Vale
+or Braye du Val, from shore to shore, that the projection of L'Ancresse
+is within a few feet of being isolated. The east coast, on which,
+besides the town and harbour of St Peter Port, is that of St Sampson,
+presents no physical feature of note. The interior of the island is
+generally undulating, and gains in beauty from its rich vegetation.
+Picturesque glens descend upon some of the southern bays (the two
+converging upon Petit Bot are notable), and the high-banked paths,
+arched with foliage, which follow the small rills down to Moulin Huet
+Bay, are much admired under the name of water-lanes.
+
+The soil is generally light sandy loam, overlying an angular gravel
+which rests upon the weathered granite. This soil requires much manure,
+and a large proportion of the total area (about three-fifths) is under
+careful cultivation, producing a considerable amount of grain, but more
+famous for market-gardening. Vegetables and potatoes are exported, with
+much fruit, including grapes and flowers. Granite is quarried and
+exported from St Sampson, and the fisheries form an important industry.
+
+For administrative purposes Guernsey is united with Alderney, Sark, Herm
+and the adjacent islets to form the bailiwick of Guernsey, separate from
+Jersey. The peculiar constitution, machinery of administration and
+justice, finance, &c., are considered under the heading CHANNEL ISLANDS.
+Guernsey is divided into the ten parishes of St Peter Port, St Sampson,
+Vale, Catel, St Saviour, St Andrew, St Martin, Forest, St Peter du Bois
+and Torteval. The population of St Peter Port in 1901 was 18,264; of the
+other parishes that of St Sampson was 5614 and that of Vale 5082. The
+population of the bailiwick of Guernsey nearly doubled between 1821 and
+1901, and that of the island increased from 35,243 in 1891 to 40,446 in
+1901. The island roads are excellent, Guernsey owing much in this
+respect to Sir John Doyle (d. 1834), the governor whose monument stands
+on the promontory of Jerbourg. Like Jersey and the neighbouring part of
+France, Guernsey retains considerable traces of early habitation in
+cromlechs and menhirs, of which the most notable is the cromlech in the
+north at L'Ancresse. As regards ecclesiastical architecture, all the
+parish churches retain some archaeological interest. There is good
+Norman work in the church of St Michael, Vale, and the church of St
+Peter Port is a notable building of various periods from the early 14th
+century. Small remains of monastic buildings are seen at Vale and on
+Lihou Island.
+
+
+
+
+GUERRAZZI, FRANCESCO DOMENICO (1804-1873), Italian publicist, born at
+Leghorn, was educated for the law at Pisa, and began to practise in his
+native place. But he soon took to politics and literature, under the
+influence of Byron, and his novel, the _Battagli di Benevento_ (1827),
+brought him into notice. Mazzini made his acquaintance, and with Carlo
+Bini they started a paper, the _Indicatore_, at Leghorn in 1829, which
+was quickly suppressed. Guerrazzi himself had to endure several terms of
+imprisonment for his activity in the cause of Young Italy, and it was in
+Portoferrato in 1834 that he wrote his most famous novel _Assidio di
+Firenze_. He was the most powerful Liberal leader at Leghorn, and in
+1848 became a minister, with some idea of exercising a moderating
+influence in the difficulties with the grand-duke of Tuscany. In 1849,
+when the latter fled, he was first one of the triumvirate with Mazzini
+and Montanelli, and then dictator, but on the restoration he was
+arrested and imprisoned for three years. His _Apologia_ was published in
+1852. Released from prison, he was exiled to Corsica, but subsequently
+was restored and was for some time a deputy at Turin (1862-1870), dying
+of apoplexy at Leghorn on the 25th of September 1873. He wrote a number
+of other works besides the novels already mentioned, notably _Isabella
+Orsini_ (1845) and _Beatrice Cenci_ (1854), and his _Opere_ were
+collected at Milan (1868).
+
+  See the _Life and Works_ by Bosio (1877), and Carducci's edition of
+  his letters (1880).
+
+
+
+
+GUERRERO, a Pacific coast state of Mexico, bounded N.W. by Michoacan, N.
+by Mexico (state) and Morelos, N.E. and E. by Puebla and Oaxaca, and S.
+and W. by the Pacific. Area, 24,996 sq. m. Pop., largely composed of
+Indians and mestizos (1895), 417,886; (1900) 479,205. The state is
+roughly broken by the Sierra Madre and its spurs, which cover its entire
+surface with the exception of the low coastal plain (averaging about 20
+m. in width) on the Pacific. The valleys are usually narrow, fertile and
+heavily forested, but difficult of access. The state is divided into two
+distinct zones--the _tierras calientes_ of the coast and lower river
+courses where tropical conditions prevail, and the _tierras templadas_
+of the mountain region where the conditions are subtropical. The latter
+is celebrated for its agreeable and healthy climate, and for the variety
+and character of its products. The principal river of the state is the
+Rio de las Balsas or Mescala, which, having its source in Tlaxcala,
+flows entirely across the state from W. to E., and then southward to the
+Pacific on the frontier of Michoacan. This river is 429 m. long and
+receives many affluents from the mountainous region through which it
+passes, but its course is very precipitous and its mouth obstructed by
+sand bars. The agricultural products include cotton, coffee, tobacco and
+cereals, and the forests produce rubber, vanilla and various textile
+fibres. Mining is undeveloped, although the mineral resources of the
+state include silver, gold, mercury, lead, iron, coal, sulphur and
+precious stones. The capital, Chilpancingo, or Chilpancingo de los
+Bravos (pop. 7497 in 1900), is a small town in the Sierra Madre about
+110 m. from the coast and 200 m. S. of the Federal capital. It is a
+healthy well-built town on the old Acapulco road, is lighted by
+electricity and is temporarily the western terminus of the Interoceanic
+railway from Vera Cruz. It is celebrated in the history of Mexico as the
+meeting-place of the revolutionary congress of 1813, which issued a
+declaration of independence. Chilpancingo was badly damaged by an
+earthquake in January 1902, and again on the 16th of April 1907. Other
+important towns of the state are Tixtla, or Tixtla de Guerrero, formerly
+the capital (pop. 6316 in 1900), 3 m. N.E. of Chilpancingo; Chilapa
+(8256 in 1895), the most populous town of the state, partially destroyed
+by a hurricane in 1889, and again by the earthquake of 1907; Iguala
+(6631 in 1895); and Acapulco. Guerrero was organized as a state in 1849,
+its territory being taken from the states of Mexico, Michoacan and
+Puebla.
+
+
+
+
+GUERRILLA (erroneously written "guerilla," being the diminutive of the
+Span. _guerra_, war), a term currently used to denote war carried on by
+bands in any irregular and unorganized manner. At the Hague Conference
+of 1899 the position of irregular combatants was one of the subjects
+dealt with, and the rules there adopted were reaffirmed at the
+Conference of 1907. They provide that irregular bands in order to enjoy
+recognition as belligerent forces shall (a) have at their head a person
+responsible for his subordinates, (b) wear some fixed distinctive badge
+recognizable at a distance, (c) carry arms openly, and (d) conform in
+their operations to the laws and customs of war. The rules, however,
+also provide that in case of invasion the inhabitants of a territory who
+on the approach of the invading enemy spontaneously take up arms to
+resist it, shall be regarded as belligerent troops if they carry arms
+openly and respect the laws and customs of war, although they may not
+have had time to become organized in accordance with the above
+provisions. These rules were borrowed almost word for word from the
+project drawn up at the Brussels international conference of 1874,
+which, though never ratified, was practically incorporated in the army
+regulations issued by the Russian government in connexion with the war
+of 1877-78.     (T. Ba.)
+
+
+
+
+GUERRINI, OLINDO (1845-   ), Italian poet, was born at Sant' Alberto,
+Ravenna, and after studying law took to a life of letters, becoming
+eventually librarian at Bologna University. In 1877 he published
+_Postuma_, a volume of _canzoniere_, under the name of Lorenzo
+Stechetti, following this with _Polemica_ (1878), _Canti popolari
+romagnoli_ (1880) and other poetical works, and becoming known as the
+leader of the "verist" school among Italian lyrical writers.
+
+
+
+
+GUESDE, JULES BASILE (1845-   ), French socialist, was born in Paris on
+the 11th of November 1845. He had begun his career as a clerk in the
+French Home Office, but at the outbreak of the Franco-German War he was
+editing _Les Droits de l'homme_ at Montpellier, and had to take refuge
+at Geneva in 1871 from a prosecution instituted on account of articles
+which had appeared in his paper in defence of the Commune. In 1876 he
+returned to France to become one of the chief French apostles of Marxian
+collectivism, and was imprisoned for six months in 1878 for taking part
+in the first Parisian International Congress. He edited at different
+times _Les Droits de l'homme_, _Le Cri du peuple_, _Le Socialiste_, but
+his best-known organ was the weekly _Egalite_. He had been in close
+association with Paul Lafargue, and through him with Karl Marx, whose
+daughter he married. It was in conjunction with Marx and Lafargue that
+he drew up the programme accepted by the national congress of the Labour
+party at Havre in 1880, which laid stress on the formation of an
+international labour party working by revolutionary methods. Next year
+at the Reims congress the orthodox Marxian programme of Guesde was
+opposed by the "possibilists," who rejected the intransigeant attitude
+of Guesde for the opportunist policy of Benoit Malon. At the congress of
+St-Etienne the difference developed into separation, those who refused
+all compromise with a capitalist government following Guesde, while the
+opportunists formed several groups. Guesde took his full share in the
+consequent discussion between the Guesdists, the Blanquists, the
+possibilists, &c. In 1893 he was returned to the Chamber of Deputies for
+Lille (7th circonscription) with a large majority over the Christian
+Socialist and Radical candidates. He brought forward various proposals
+in social legislation forming the programme of the Labour party, without
+reference to the divisions among the Socialists, and on the 20th of
+November 1894 succeeded in raising a two days' discussion of the
+collectivist principle in the Chamber. In 1902 he was not re-elected,
+but resumed his seat in 1906. In 1903 there was a formal reconciliation
+at the Reims congress of the sections of the party, which then took the
+name of the Socialist party of France. Guesde, nevertheless, continued
+to oppose the opportunist policy of Jaures, whom he denounced for
+supporting one bourgeois party against another. His defence of the
+principle of freedom of association led him, incongruously enough, to
+support the religious Congregations against Emile Combes. Besides his
+numerous political and socialist pamphlets he published in 1901 two
+volumes of his speeches in the Chamber of Deputies entitled _Quatre ans
+de lutte de classe 1893-1898_.
+
+
+
+
+GUEST, EDWIN (1800-1880), English antiquary, was born in 1800. He was
+educated at King Edward's school, Birmingham, and at Caius College,
+Cambridge, where he graduated as eleventh wrangler, subsequently
+becoming a fellow of his college. Called to the bar in 1828, he devoted
+himself, after some years of legal practice, to antiquarian and literary
+research. In 1838 he published his exhaustive _History of English
+Rhythms_. He also wrote a very large number of papers on Roman-British
+history, which, together with a mass of fresh material for a history of
+early Britain, were published posthumously under the editorship of Dr
+Stubbs under the title _Origines Celticae_ (1883). In 1852 Guest was
+elected master of Caius College, becoming LL.D. in the following year,
+and in 1854-1855 he was vice-chancellor of Cambridge University. Guest
+was a fellow of the Royal Society, and an honorary member of the Society
+of Antiquaries. He died on the 23rd of November 1880.
+
+
+
+
+GUEST (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. _Gast_, and Swed.
+_gast_; cognate with Lat. _hostis_, originally a stranger, hence enemy;
+cf. "host"), one who receives hospitality in the house of another, his
+"host"; hence applied to a parasite.
+
+
+
+
+GUETTARD, JEAN ETIENNE (1715-1786), French naturalist and mineralogist,
+was born at Etampes, on the 22nd of September 1715. In boyhood he gained
+a knowledge of plants from his grandfather, who was an apothecary, and
+later he qualified as a doctor in medicine. Pursuing the study of botany
+in various parts of France and other countries, he began to take notice
+of the relation between the distribution of plants and the soils and
+subsoils. In this way his attention came to be directed to minerals and
+rocks. In 1746 he communicated to the Academy of Sciences in Paris a
+memoir on the distribution of minerals and rocks, and this was
+accompanied by a map on which he had recorded his observations. He thus,
+as remarked by W. D. Conybeare, "first carried into execution the idea,
+proposed by [Martin] Lister years before, of geological maps." In the
+course of his journeys he made a large collection of fossils and figured
+many of them, but he had no clear ideas about the sequence of strata. He
+made observations also on the degradation of mountains by rain, rivers
+and sea; and he was the first to ascertain the existence of former
+volcanoes in the district of Auvergne. He died in Paris on the 7th of
+January 1786.
+
+  His publications include: _Observations sur les plantes_ (2 vols.,
+  1747); _Histoire de la decouverte faite en France de matieres
+  semblables a celles dont la porcelaine de la Chine est composee_
+  (1765); _Memoires sur differentes parties des sciences et arts_ (5
+  vols., 1768-1783); _Memoire sur la mineralogie du Dauphine_ (2 vols.,
+  1779). See _The Founders of Geology_, by Sir A. Geikie (1897).
+
+
+
+
+GUEUX, LES, or "THE BEGGARS," a name assumed by the confederacy of
+nobles and other malcontents, who in 1566 opposed Spanish tyranny in the
+Netherlands. The leaders of the nobles, who signed a solemn league known
+as "the Compromise," by which they bound themselves to assist in
+defending the rights and liberties of the Netherlands against the civil
+and religious despotism of Philip II., were Louis, count of Nassau, and
+Henry, count of Brederode. On the 5th of April 1566 permission was
+obtained for the confederates to present a petition of grievances,
+called "the Request," to the regent, Margaret, duchess of Parma. About
+250 nobles marched to the palace accompanied by Louis of Nassau and
+Brederode. The regent was at first alarmed at the appearance of so large
+a body, but one of her councillors, Berlaymont by name, was heard to
+exclaim, "What, madam, is your highness afraid of these beggars (_ces
+gueux_)?" The appellation was not forgotten. At a great feast held by
+some 300 confederates at the Hotel Culemburg three days later, Brederode
+in a speech declared that if need be they were all ready to become
+"beggars" in their country's cause. The words caught on, and the hall
+resounded with loud cries of "_Vivent les gueux!_" The name became
+henceforward a party appellation. The patriot party adopted the emblems
+of beggarhood, the wallet and the bowl, as trinkets to be worn on their
+hats or their girdles, and a medal was struck having on one side the
+head of Philip II., on the other two clasped hands with the motto
+"_Fidele au roy, jusques a porter la besace_." The original league of
+"Beggars" was short-lived, crushed by the iron hand of Alva, but its
+principles survived and were to be ultimately triumphant.
+
+In the year 1569 the prince of Orange, who had now openly placed himself
+at the head of the party of revolt, granted letters of marque to a
+number of vessels manned by crews of desperadoes drawn from all
+nationalities. These fierce corsairs under the command of a succession
+of daring and reckless leaders--the best-known of whom is William de la
+Marek, lord of Lumey--were called "_Gueux de mer_," or "Sea Beggars." At
+first they were content with plundering both by sea and land and
+carrying their booty to the English ports where they were able to refit
+and replenish their stores. This went on till 1572, when Queen Elizabeth
+suddenly refused to admit them to her harbours. Having no longer any
+refuge, the Sea Beggars in desperation made an attack upon Brill, which
+they seized by surprise in the absence of the Spanish garrison on the
+1st of April 1572. Encouraged by their unhoped-for success, they now
+sailed to Flushing, which was also taken by a _coup de main._ The
+capture of these two towns gave the signal for a general revolt of the
+northern Netherlands, and is regarded as the real beginning oi the War
+of Dutch Independence.
+
+
+
+
+GUEVARA, ANTONIO DE (c. 1490-1544), Spanish chronicler and moralist,
+was a native of the province of Alava, and passed some of his earlier
+years at the court of Isabella, queen of Castile. In 1528 he entered the
+Franciscan order, and afterwards accompanied the emperor Charles V.
+during his journeys to Italy and other parts of Europe. After having
+held successively the offices of court preacher, court historiographer,
+bishop of Guadix and bishop of Mondonedo, he died in 1544. His earliest
+work, entitled _Reloj de principes_, published at Valladolid in 1529,
+and, according to its author, the fruit of eleven years' labour, is a
+didactic novel, designed, after the manner of Xenophon's _Cyropaedia_,
+to delineate, in a somewhat ideal way for the benefit of modern
+sovereigns, the life and character of an ancient prince, Marcus
+Aurelius, distinguished for wisdom and virtue. It was often reprinted in
+Spanish; and before the close of the century had also been translated
+into Latin, Italian, French and English, an English translation being
+by J. Bourchier (London, 1546) and another being by T. North. It is
+difficult now to account for its extraordinary popularity, its thought
+being neither just nor profound, while its style is stiff and affected.
+It gave rise to a literary controversy, however, of great bitterness and
+violence, the author having ventured without warrant to claim for it an
+historical character, appealing to an imaginary "manuscript in
+Florence." Other works of Guevara are the _Decada de los Cesares_
+(Valladolid, 1539), or "Lives of the Ten Roman Emperors," in imitation
+of the manner of Plutarch and Suetonius; and the _Epistolas familiares_
+(Valladolid, 1539-1545), sometimes called "The Golden Letters," often
+printed in Spain, and translated into all the principal languages of
+Europe. They are in reality a collection of stiff and formal essays
+which have long ago fallen into merited oblivion. Guevara, whose
+influence upon the Spanish prose of the 16th century was considerable,
+also wrote _Libro de los inventores del arte de marear_ (Valladolid,
+1539, and Madrid, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+GUEVARA, LUIS VELEZ DE (1579-1644), Spanish dramatist and novelist, was
+born at Ecija on the 1st of August 1579. After graduating as a sizar at
+the university of Osuna in 1596, he joined the household of Rodrigo de
+Castro, cardinal-archbishop of Seville, and celebrated the marriage of
+Philip II. in a poem signed "Velez de Santander," a name which he
+continued to use till some years later. He appears to have served as a
+soldier in Italy and Algiers, returning to Spain in 1602 when he entered
+the service of the count de Saldana, and dedicated himself to writing
+for the stage. He died at Madrid on the 10th of November 1644. He was
+the author of over four hundred plays, of which the best are _Reinar
+despues de morir_, _Mas pesa el rey que la sangre_, _La Luna de la
+Sierra_ and _El Diablo esta en Cantillana_; but he is most widely known
+as the author of _El Diablo cojuelo_ (1641), a fantastic novel which
+suggested to Le Sage the idea of his _Diable boiteux_.
+
+
+
+
+GUGLIELMI, PIETRO (1727-1804), Italian composer, was born at Massa
+Carrara in May 1727, and died in Rome on the 19th of November 1804. He
+received his first musical education from his father, and afterwards
+studied under Durante at the Conservatorio di Santa Maria di Loreto at
+Naples. His first operatic work, produced at Turin in 1755, established
+his reputation, and soon his fame spread beyond the limits of his own
+country, so that in 1762 he was called to Dresden to conduct the opera
+there. He remained for some years in Germany, where his works met with
+much success, but the greatest triumphs were reserved for him in
+England. He went to London, according to Burney, in 1768, but according
+to Florimo in 1772, returning to Naples in 1777. He still continued to
+produce operas at an astounding rate, but was unable to compete
+successfully with the younger masters of the day. In 1793 he became
+_maestro di cappella_ at St Peter's, Rome. He was a very prolific
+composer of Italian comic opera, and there is in most of his scores a
+vein of humour and natural gaiety not surpassed by Cimarosa himself. In
+serious opera he was less successful. But here also he shows at least
+the qualities of a competent musician. Considering the enormous number
+of his works, his unequal workmanship and the frequent instances of
+mechanical and slip-shod writing in his music need not surprise us. The
+following are among the most celebrated of his operas: _I Due Gemelli_,
+_La Serva inamorata_, _La Pastorella nobile_, _La Bella Peccatrice_,
+_Rinaldo_, _Artaserse_, _Didone_ and _Enea e Lavinia_. He also wrote
+oratorios and miscellaneous pieces of orchestral and chamber music. Of
+his eight sons two at least acquired fame as musicians--Pietro Carlo
+(1763-1827), a successful imitator of his father's operatic style, and
+Giacomo, an excellent singer.
+
+
+
+
+GUIANA (_Guyana_, _Guayana_[1]), the general name given in its widest
+acceptation to the part of South America lying to the north-east from 8
+deg. 40' N. to 3 deg. 30' S. and from 50 deg. W. to 68 deg. 30' W. Its
+greatest length, from Cabo do Norte to the confluence of the Rio Xie and
+Rio Negro, is about 1250 m., its greatest breadth, from Barima Point in
+the mouth of the Orinoco to the confluence of the Rio Negro and Amazon,
+800 m. Its area is roughly 690,000 sq. m. Comprised in this vast
+territory are Venezuelan (formerly Spanish) Guiana, lying on both sides
+of the Orinoco and extending S. and S.W. to the Rio Negro and Brazilian
+settlements; British Guiana, extending from Venezuela to the left bank
+of the Corentyn river; Dutch Guiana (or Surinam), from the Corentyn to
+the Maroni river; French Guiana (or Cayenne), from the Maroni to the
+Oyapock river;[2] Brazilian (formerly Portuguese) Guiana, extending from
+the southern boundaries of French, Dutch, British and part of Venezuelan
+Guiana, to the Amazon and the Negro. Of these divisions the first and
+last are now included in Venezuela and Brazil respectively; British,
+Dutch and French Guiana are described in order below, and are alone
+considered here.
+
+[Illiustration: Map of Guiana.]
+
+In their physical geography the three Guianas present certain common
+characteristics. In each the principal features are the rivers and their
+branch streams. In each colony the northern portion consists of a
+fluviomarine deposit extending inland and gradually rising to a height
+of 10 to 15 ft. above the sea. This alluvial plain varies in width from
+50 m. to 18 m. and is traversed by ridges of sand and shells, roughly
+parallel to what is now the coast, indicating the trend of former shore
+lines. By the draining and diking of these lands the plantations have
+been formed along the coast and up the rivers. These low lands are
+attached to a somewhat higher plateau, which towards the coast is
+traversed by numerous huge sand-dunes and inland by ranges of hills
+rising in places to as much as 2000 ft. The greater part of this belt of
+country, in which the auriferous districts principally occur, is covered
+with a dense growth of jungle and high forest, but savannahs, growing
+only a long wiry grass and poor shrubs, intrude here and there, being in
+the S.E. much nearer to the coast than in the N.W. The hinterlands
+consist of undulating open savannahs rising into hills and mountains,
+some grass-covered, some in dense forest.
+
+  _Geology_[3].--Guiana is formed almost entirely of gneiss and
+  crystalline schists penetrated by numerous dikes of diorite, diabase,
+  &c. The gold of the placer deposits appears to be derived, not from
+  quartz reefs, but from the schists and intrusive rocks, the selvages
+  of the diabase dikes sometimes containing as much as 5 oz. of gold to
+  the ton. In British Guiana a series of conglomerates, red and white
+  sandstone and red shale, rests upon the gneiss and forms the
+  remarkable table-topped mountains Roraima, Kukenaam, &c. The beds are
+  horizontal, and according to Brown and Sawkins, three layers of
+  greenstone, partly intrusive and partly contemporaneous, are
+  interstratified with the sedimentary deposits. The age of these beds
+  is uncertain, but they evidently correspond with the similar series
+  which occurs in Brazil, partly Palaeozoic and partly Cretaceous. In
+  Dutch Guiana there are a few small patches supposed to belong to the
+  Cretaceous period. Along the coast, and in the lower parts of the
+  river valleys, are deposits which are mainly Quaternary but may also
+  include beds of Tertiary age.
+
+_History._--The coast of Guiana was sighted by Columbus in 1498 when he
+discovered the island of Trinidad and the peninsula of Paria, and in the
+following year by Alonzo de Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci; and in 1500
+Vincente Yanez Pinzon ventured south of the equator, and sailing
+north-west along the coast discovered the Amazon; he is believed to have
+also entered some of the other rivers of Guiana, one of which, now
+called Oyapock, is marked on early maps as Rio Pinzon. Little, however,
+was known of Guiana until the fame of the fabled golden city Manoa or El
+Dorado tempted adventurers to explore its rivers and forests. From
+letters of these explorers found in captured ships, Sir Walter Raleigh
+was induced to ascend the Orinoco in search of El Dorado in 1595, to
+send Lawrence Keymis on the same quest in the following year, and in
+1617 to try once again, with the same intrepid lieutenant, an expedition
+fraught with disaster for both of them. As early as 1580 the Dutch had
+established a systematic trade with the Spanish main, but so far as is
+known their first voyage to Guiana was in 1598. By 1613 they had three
+or four settlements on the coast of Demerara and Essequibo, and in about
+1616 some Zeelanders settled on a small island, called by them _Kyk ober
+al_ ("see over all"), in the confluence of the Cuyuni and Mazaruni
+rivers. While the Dutch traders were struggling for a footing in
+Essequibo and Demerara, English and French traders were endeavouring to
+form settlements on the Oyapock river, in Cayenne and in Surinam, and by
+1652 the English had large interests in the latter and the French in
+Cayenne. In 1663 Charles II. issued letters patent to Lord Willoughby of
+Parham and Lawrence Hyde, second son of the earl of Clarendon, granting
+them the district between the Copenam and Maroni rivers, a province
+described as extending from E. to W. some 120 m. This colony was,
+however, formally ceded to the Netherlands in 1667 by the peace of
+Breda, Great Britain taking possession of New York. Meanwhile the Dutch
+West India Company, formed in 1621, had taken possession of Essequibo,
+over which colony it exercised sovereign rights until 1791. In 1624 a
+Dutch settlement was effected in the Berbice river, and from this grew
+Berbice, for a long time a separate and independent colony. In 1657 the
+Zeelanders firmly established themselves in the Pomeroon, Moruca and
+Demerara rivers, and by 1674 the Dutch were colonizing all the territory
+now known as British and Dutch Guiana. The New Dutch West Indian
+Company, founded in that year to replace the older company which had
+failed, received Guiana by charter from the states-general in 1682. In
+the following year the company sold one-third of their territory to the
+city of Amsterdam, and another third to Cornelis van Aerssens, lord of
+Sommelsdijk. The new owners and the company incorporated themselves as
+the Chartered Society of Surinam, and Sommelsdijk agreed to fill the
+post of governor of the colony at his own expense. The lucrative trade
+in slaves was retained by the West Indian Company, but the society could
+import them on its own account by paying a fine to the company.
+Sommelsdijk's rule was wise and energetic. He repressed and pacified the
+Indian tribes, erected forts and disciplined the soldiery, constructed
+the canal which bears his name, established a high court of justice and
+introduced the valuable cultivation of the cocoa-nut. But on the 17th of
+June 1688 he was massacred in a mutiny of the soldiers. The "third"
+which Sommelsdijk possessed was offered by his widow to William III. of
+England, but it was ultimately purchased by the city of Amsterdam for
+700,000 fl. The settlements in Essequibo progressed somewhat slowly, and
+it was not until immigration was attracted in 1740 by offers to
+newcomers of free land and immunity for a decade from taxation that
+anything like a colony could be said to exist there. In 1732 Berbice
+placed itself under the protection of the states-general of Holland and
+was granted a constitution, and in 1773 Demerara, till then a dependency
+of Essequibo, was constituted as a separate colony. In 1781 the three
+colonies, Demerara, Essequibo and Berbice, were captured by British
+privateers, and were placed by Rodney under the governor of Barbados,
+but in 1782 they were taken by France, then an ally of the Netherlands,
+and retained until the peace of 1783, when they were restored to
+Holland. In 1784 Essequibo and Demerara were placed under one governor,
+and Georgetown--then called Stabroek--was fixed on as the seat of
+government. The next decade saw a series of struggles between the
+colonies and the Dutch West India company, which ended in the company
+being wound up and in the three colonies being governed directly by the
+states-general. In 1796 the British again took possession, and retained
+the three colonies until the peace of Amiens in 1802, when they were
+once again restored to Holland, only to be recaptured by Great Britain
+in 1803, in which year the history proper of British Guiana began.
+
+
+  British Guiana.
+
+I. BRITISH GUIANA, the only British possession in S. America, was
+formally ceded in 1814-1815. The three colonies were in 1831
+consolidated into one colony divided into three counties, Berbice
+extending from the Corentyn river to the Abary creek, Demerara from the
+Abary to the Boerasirie creek, Essequibo from the Boerasirie to the
+Venezuelan frontier. This boundary-line between British Guiana and
+Venezuela was for many years the subject of dispute. The Dutch, while
+British Guiana was in their possession, claimed the whole watershed of
+the Essequibo river, while the Venezuelans asserted that the Spanish
+province of Guayana had extended up to the left bank of the Essequibo.
+In 1840 Sir Robert Schomburgk had suggested a demarcation, afterwards
+known as the "Schomburgk line"; and subsequently, though no agreement
+was arrived at, certain modifications were made in this British claim.
+In 1886 the government of Great Britain declared that it would
+thenceforward exercise jurisdiction up to and within a boundary known as
+"the modified Schomburgk line." Outposts were located at points on this
+line, and for some years Guianese police and Venezuelan soldiers faced
+one another across the Amacura creek in the Orinoco mouth and at Yuruan
+up the Cuyuni river. In 1897 the dispute formed the subject of a message
+to congress from the president of the United States, and in consequence
+of this intervention the matter was submitted to an international
+commission, whose award was issued at Paris in 1899 (see VENEZUELA). By
+this decision neither party gained its extreme claim, the line laid down
+differing but little from the original Schomburgk line. The demarcation
+was at once undertaken by a joint commission appointed by Venezuela and
+British Guiana and was completed in 1904. It was not found practicable,
+owing to the impassable nature of the country, to lay down on earth that
+part of the boundary fixed by the Paris award between the head of the
+Wenamu creek and the summit of Mt. Roraima, and the boundary
+commissioners suggested a deviation to follow the watersheds of the
+Caroni, Cuyuni and Mazaruni rivers, a suggestion accepted by the two
+governments. In 1902 the delimitation of the boundary between British
+Guiana and Brazil was referred to the arbitration of the king of Italy,
+and by his reward, issued in June 1904, the substantial area in dispute
+was conceded to British Guiana. The work of demarcation has since been
+carried out.
+
+_Towns, &c._--The capital of British Guiana is Georgetown, at the mouth
+of the Demerara river, on its right bank, with a population of about
+50,000. New Amsterdam, on the right bank of the Berbice river, has a
+population of about 7500. Each possesses a mayor and town council, with
+statutory powers to impose rates. There are nineteen incorporated
+villages, and ten other locally governed areas known as country
+districts, the affairs of which are controlled by local authorities,
+known as village councils and country authorities respectively.
+
+_Population._--The census of 1891 gave the population of British Guiana
+as 278,328. There was no census taken in 1901. By official estimates the
+population at the end of 1904 was 301,923. Of these some 120,000 were
+negroes and 124,000 East Indians; 4300 were Europeans, other than
+Portuguese, estimated at about 11,600, and some 30,000 of mixed race.
+The aborigines--Arawaks, Caribs, Wapisianas, Warraws, &c.--who numbered
+about 10,000 in 1891, are now estimated at about 6500. In 1904 the
+birth-rate for the whole colony was 30.3 per 1000 and the death-rate
+28.8.
+
+  _Physical Geography._--The surface features of British Guiana may be
+  divided roughly into four regions: first, the alluvial seaboard, flat
+  and below the level of high-water; secondly, the forest belt, swampy
+  along the rivers but rising into undulating lands and hills between
+  them; thirdly, the savannahs in and inland of the forest belt,
+  elevated table-lands, grass-covered and practically treeless; and
+  fourthly, the mountain ranges. The eastern portion of the colony, from
+  the source of its two largest rivers, the Corentyn and Essequibo, is a
+  rough inclined plain, starting at some 900 ft. above sea-level at the
+  source of the Takutu in the west, but only some 400 at that of the
+  Corentyn in the west, and sloping down gradually to the low alluvial
+  flats about 3 ft. below high-water line. The eastern part is generally
+  forested; the western is an almost level savannah, with woodlands
+  along the rivers. The northern portion of British Guiana, the
+  alluvial flats alluded to already, consists of a fluviomarine deposit
+  extending inland from 25 m. to 30 m., gradually rising to about 12 ft.
+  above high-water mark and ending against beds of sandy clay, the
+  residua of igneous rocks decomposed _in situ_, which form an extensive
+  undulating region rising to 150 ft. above the sea and stretching back
+  to the forest-covered hills. Roughly parallel to the existing
+  coast-line are narrow reefs of sand and sea-shells, which are dunes
+  indicating the trend of former limits of the sea, and still farther
+  back are the higher "sand hills," hills of granite or diabase with a
+  thick stratum of coarse white sand superimposed. From the coast-line
+  seawards the ocean deepens very gradually, and at low tide extensive
+  flats of sand and of mixed clay and sand (called locally "caddy") are
+  left bare, these flats being at times covered with a deposit of thin
+  drift mud.
+
+  Two great parallel mountain systems cross the colony from W. to E.,
+  the greater being that of the Pacaraima and Merume Mts., and the
+  lesser including the Kanuku Mts. (2000 ft.), while the Acarai Mts., a
+  densely-wooded range rising to 2500 ft., form the southern boundary of
+  British Guiana and the watershed between the Essequibo and the Amazon.
+  These mountains rise generally in a succession of terraces and broad
+  plateaus, with steep or even sheer sandstone escarpments. They are
+  mostly flat-topped, and their average height is about 3500 ft. The
+  Pacaraima Mts., however, reach 8635 ft. at Roraima, and the latter
+  remarkable mountain rises as a perpendicular wall of red rock 1500 ft.
+  in height springing out of the forest-clad slopes below the summit,
+  and was considered inaccessible until in December 1884 Messrs im Thurn
+  and Perkins found a ledge by which the top could be reached. The
+  summit is a table-land some 12 sq. m. in area. Mt. Kukenaam is of
+  similar structure and also rises above 8500 ft. Other conspicuous
+  summits (about 7000 ft.) are Iwalkarima, Eluwarima, Ilutipu and
+  Waiakapiapu. The southern portion of the Pacaraima range comprises
+  rugged hills and rock-strewn valleys, but to the N., where the
+  sandstone assumes the table-shaped form, there are dense forests, and
+  the scenery is of extraordinary grandeur. Waterfalls frequently
+  descend the cliffs from a great height (nearly 2000 ft. sheer at
+  Roraima and Kukenaam). The sandstone formation can be traced from the
+  northern Pacaraima range on the N.W. to the Corentyn in the S.E. It is
+  traversed in places by dikes and sills of diabase or dolerite, while
+  bosses of more or less altered gabbro rise through it. The surface of
+  a large part of the colony is composed of gneiss, and of gneissose
+  granite, which is seen in large water-worn bosses in the river beds.
+  Intrusive granite is of somewhat rare occurrence; where found, it
+  gives rise to long low rolls of hilly country and to cataracts in the
+  rivers. Extensive areas of the country consist of quartz-porphyry,
+  porphyrites and felstone, and of more or less schistose rocks derived
+  from them. These rocks are closely connected with the gneissose
+  granites and gneiss, and there are reasons for believing that the
+  latter are the deep-seated portions of them and are only visible where
+  they have been exposed by denudation. Long ranges of hills, varying in
+  elevation from a few hundreds to from 2000 ft. to 3000 ft., traverse
+  the plains of the gneissose districts. These are caused either by old
+  intrusions of diabase and gabbro which have undergone modifications,
+  or by later ones of dolerite. These ranges are of high importance, as
+  the rocks comprising them are the main source of gold in British
+  Guiana.
+
+  _Rivers._--The principal physical features of British Guiana are its
+  rivers and their branches, which form one vast network of waterways
+  all over it, and are the principal, indeed practically the only,
+  highways inland from the coast. Chief among them are the Waini, the
+  Essequibo, and its tributaries the Mazaruni and Cuyuni, the Demerara,
+  the Berbice and the Corentyn. The Essequibo rises in the Acarai Mts.,
+  in 0 deg. 41' N. and about 850 ft. above the sea, and flows northwards
+  for about 600 m. until it discharges itself into the ocean by an
+  estuary nearly 15 m. in width. In this estuary are several large and
+  fertile islands, on four of which sugar used to be grown. Now but one,
+  Wakenaam, can boast of a factory. The Essequibo can be entered only by
+  craft drawing less than 20 ft. and is navigable for these vessels for
+  not more than 50 m., its subsequent course upwards being frequently
+  broken by cataracts and rapids. Some 7 m. below the first series of
+  rapids it is joined by the Mazaruni, itself joined by the Cuyuni some
+  4 m. farther up. It has a remarkable course from its source in the
+  Merume Mountains, about 2400 ft. above the sea. It flows first south,
+  then west, north-west, north, and finally south-east to within 20 m.
+  of its own source, forming many fine falls, and its course thereafter
+  is still very tortuous. In 4 deg. N. and 58 deg. W., the Essequibo is
+  joined by the Rupununi, which, rising in a savannah at the foot of the
+  Karawaimento Mts., has a northerly and easterly course of fully 200 m.
+  In 3 deg. 37' N. the Awaricura joins the Rupununi, and by this
+  tributary the Pirara, a tributary of the Amazon, may be reached,--an
+  example of the interesting series of _itabos_ connecting nearly all S.
+  American rivers with one another. Another large tributary of the
+  Essequibo is the Potaro, on which, at 1130 ft. above sea-level and in
+  5 deg. 8' N. and 59 deg. 19' W., is the celebrated Kaieteur fall,
+  discovered in 1870 by Mr C. Barrington Brown while engaged on a
+  geological survey. This fall is produced by the river flowing from a
+  tableland of sandstone and conglomerate into a deep valley 822 ft.
+  below. For the first 741 ft. the water falls as a perpendicular
+  column, thence as a sloping cataract to the still reach below. The
+  river 200 yds. above the fall is about 400 ft. wide, while the actual
+  waterway of the fall itself varies from 120 ft. in dry weather to
+  nearly 400 ft. in rainy seasons. The Kaieteur, which it took Mr Brown
+  a fortnight to reach from the coast, can now be reached on the fifth
+  day from Georgetown. Among other considerable tributaries of the
+  Essequibo are the Siparuni, Burro-Burro, Rewa, Kuyuwini and
+  Kassi-Kudji. The Demerara river, the head-waters of which are known
+  only to Indians, rises probably near 5 deg. N., and after a winding
+  northerly course of some 200 m. enters the ocean in 6 deg. 50' N. and
+  58 deg. 20' W. A bar of mud and sand prevents the entrance of vessels
+  drawing more than 19 ft. The river is from its mouth, which is nearly
+  2 m. wide, navigable for 70 m. to all vessels which can enter. The
+  Berbice river rises in about 3 deg. 40' N., and in 3 deg. 53' N. is
+  within 9 m. of the Essequibo. At its mouth it is about 2-1/2 m. wide,
+  and is navigable for vessels drawing not more than 12 ft. for about
+  105 m. and for vessels drawing not more than 7 ft. for fully 175 m.
+  Thence upwards it is broken by great cataracts. The Canje creek joins
+  the Berbice river close to the sea. The Corentyn river rises in 1 deg.
+  48' 30" N., about 140 m. E. of the Essequibo, and flowing northwards
+  enters the Atlantic by an estuary some 14 m. wide. The divide between
+  its head-waters and those of streams belonging to the Amazon system is
+  only some 400 ft. in elevation. It is navigable for about 150 m., some
+  of the reaches being of great width and beauty. The upper reaches are
+  broken by a series of great cataracts, some of which, until the
+  discovery of Kaieteur, were believed to be the grandest in British
+  Guiana. Among other rivers are the Pomeroon, Moruca and Barima, while
+  several large streams or creeks fall directly into the Atlantic, the
+  largest being the Abary, Mahaicony and Mahaica, between Berbice and
+  Demerara, and the Boerasirie between Demerara and Essequibo. The
+  colour of the water of the rivers and creeks is in general a dark
+  brown, caused by the infusion of vegetable matter, but where the
+  streams run for a long distance through savannahs they are of a milky
+  colour.
+
+  _Climate._--The climate is, as tropical countries go, not unhealthy.
+  Malarial fevers are common but preventible; and phthisis is prevalent,
+  not because the climate is unsuitable to sufferers from pulmonary
+  complaints, but because of the ignorance of the common people of the
+  elementary principles of hygiene, an ignorance which the state is
+  endeavouring to lessen by including the teaching of hygiene in the
+  syllabus of the primary schools. The temperature is uniform on the
+  coast for the ten months from October to July, the regular N.E. trade
+  winds keeping it down to an average of 80 deg. F. In August and
+  September the trades die away and the heat becomes oppressive. In the
+  interior the nights are cold and damp. Hurricanes, indeed even strong
+  gales, are unknown; a tidal wave is an impossibility; and the nature
+  of the soil of the coast lands renders earthquakes practically
+  harmless. Occasionally there are severe droughts, and the rains are
+  sometimes unduly prolonged, but usually the year is clearly divided
+  into two wet and two dry seasons. The long wet season begins in
+  mid-April and lasts until mid-August. The long dry season is from
+  September to the last week in November. December and January
+  constitute the short rainy season, and February and March the short
+  dry season. The rainfall varies greatly in different parts of the
+  colony; on the coast it averages about 80 in. annually.
+
+  _Flora._--The vegetation is most luxuriant and its growth perpetual.
+  Indigenous trees and plants abound in the utmost variety, while many
+  exotics have readily adapted themselves to local conditions. Along the
+  coast is a belt of courida and mangrove--the bark of the latter being
+  used for tanning--forming a natural barrier to the inroads of the sea,
+  but one which--very unwisely--has been in parts almost ruined to allow
+  of direct drainage. The vast forests afford an almost inexhaustible
+  supply of valuable timbers; greenheart and mora, largely used in
+  shipbuilding and for wharves and dock and lock gates; silverbally,
+  yielding magnificent planks for all kinds of boats; and cabinet woods,
+  such as cedar and crabwood. There may be seen great trees, struggling
+  for life one with the other, covered with orchids--some of great
+  beauty and value--and draped with falling _lianas_ and vines. Giant
+  palms fringe the river-banks and break the monotony of the mass of
+  smaller foliage. Many of the trees yield gums, oils and febrifuges,
+  the bullet tree being bled extensively for _balata_, a gum used
+  largely in the manufacture of belting. Valuable varieties of rubber
+  have also been found in several districts, and since early in 1905
+  have attracted the attention of experts from abroad. On the coast
+  plantains, bananas and mangoes grow readily and are largely used for
+  food, while several districts are admirably adapted to the growth of
+  limes. Oranges, pineapples, star-apples, granadillas, guavas are among
+  the fruits; Indian corn, cassava, yams, eddoes, tannias, sweet
+  potatoes and ochroes are among the vegetables, while innumerable
+  varieties of peppers are grown and used in large quantities by all
+  classes. The dainty avocado pear, purple and green, grows readily. In
+  the lagoons and trenches many varieties of water-lilies grow wild, the
+  largest being the famous _Victoria regia_.
+
+  _Fauna._--Guiana is full of wild animals, birds, insects and reptiles.
+  Among the wild animals, one and all nocturnal, are the mipourrie or
+  tapir, manatee, acouri and labba (both excellent eating), sloth,
+  ant-eater, armadillo, several kinds of deer, baboons, monkeys and the
+  puma and jaguar. The last is seen frequently down on the coast,
+  attracted from the forest by the cattle grazing on the front and back
+  pasture lands of the estates. Among the birds may be mentioned the
+  carrion crow (an invaluable scavenger), vicissi and muscovy ducks,
+  snipe, teal, plover, pigeon, the ubiquitous kiskadee or _qu'est que
+  dit_, a species of shrike--his name derived from his shrill call--the
+  canary and the twa-twa, both charming whistlers. These are all found
+  on the coast. In the forest are maam (partridge), maroudi (wild
+  turkey), the beautiful bell-bird with note like a silver gong, the
+  quadrille bird with its tuneful oft-repeated bar, great flocks of
+  macaws and parrots, and other birds of plumage of almost indescribable
+  richness and variety. On the coast the trenches and canals are full of
+  alligators, but the great cayman is found only in the rivers of the
+  interior. Among the many varieties of snakes are huge constricting
+  camoudies, deadly bushmasters, labarrias and rattlesnakes. Among other
+  reptiles are the two large lizards, the salumpenta (an active enemy of
+  the barn-door fowl), and the iguana, whose flesh when cooked resembles
+  tender chicken. The rivers, streams and trenches abound with fishes,
+  crabs and shrimps, the amount of the latter consumed being enormous,
+  running into tons weekly as the coolies use them in their curries and
+  the blacks in their foo-foo.
+
+_Government and Administration._--Executive power is vested in a
+governor, who is advised in all administrative matters by an executive
+council, consisting of five official and three unofficial members
+nominated by the crown. Legislative authority is vested in the Court of
+Policy, consisting of the governor, who presides and without whose
+permission no legislation can be initiated, seven other official members
+and eight elected members. This body has, however, no financial
+authority, all taxation and expenditure being dealt with by the Combined
+Court, consisting of the Court of Policy combined with six financial
+representatives. The elected members of the Court of Policy and the
+financial representatives are elected by their several constituencies
+for five years. Qualification for the Court of Policy is the ownership,
+or possession under lease for a term of twenty-one years, of eighty
+acres of land, of which at least forty acres are under cultivation, or
+of house property to the value of $7500. A financial representative must
+be similarly qualified or be in receipt of a clear income of not less
+than L300 per annum. Every male is entitled to be registered as a voter
+who (in addition to the usual formal qualifications) owns (during six
+months prior to registration) three acres of land in cultivation or a
+house of the annual rental or value of L20; or is a secured tenant for
+not less than three years of six acres of land in cultivation or for one
+year of a house of L40 rental; or has an income of not less than L100
+per annum; or has during the previous twelve months paid L4, 3s. 4d. in
+direct taxation. Residence in the electoral district for six months
+prior to registration is coupled with the last two alternative
+qualifications. Plural voting is legal but no plumping is allowed. The
+combined court is by this constitution, which was granted in 1891,
+allowed the use of all revenues due to the crown in return for a civil
+list voted for a term now fixed at three years. English is the official
+and common language. The Roman-Dutch law, modified by orders-in-council
+and local statutes, governs actions in the civil courts, but the
+criminal law is founded on that of England. Magistrates have in civil
+cases jurisdiction up to L20, while an appeal lies from their decisions
+in any criminal or civil case. The supreme court consists of a chief
+justice and two puisne judges, and has various jurisdictions. The full
+court, consisting of the three judges or any two of them, has
+jurisdiction over all civil matters, but an appeal lies to His Majesty
+in privy council in cases involving L500 and upwards. A single judge
+sits in insolvency, in actions involving not over L520, and in appeals
+from magistrates' decisions. The appeal full court, consisting of three
+judges, sits to hear appeals from decisions of a single judge in the
+limited civil, appellate and insolvency courts. Criminal courts are held
+four times a year in each county, a single judge presiding in each
+court. A court of crown cases reserved is formed by the three judges, of
+whom two form a quorum provided the chief-justice is one of the two.
+There are no imperial troops now stationed in British Guiana, but there
+is a semi-military police force, a small militia and two companies of
+volunteers. The Church of England and the Church of Scotland are both
+established, and grants-in-aid are also given to the Roman Catholic and
+Wesleyan churches and to several other denominations.
+
+  The revenue and expenditure now each amount annually to an average of
+  a little over L500,000. About one-half of the revenue is produced by
+  import duties, and about L90,000 by excise. The public debt on the
+  31st of March 1905 stood at L989,620.
+
+  The system of primary education is denominational and is mainly
+  supported from the general revenue. During 1904-1905, 213 schools
+  received grants-in-aid amounting to L23,500, the average cost per
+  scholar being a little over L1. These grants are calculated on the
+  results of examinations held annually, an allowance varying from 4s.
+  4-1/2d. to 1s. 0-1/2d. being made for each pass in reading, writing,
+  arithmetic, school-garden work, nature study, singing and drill,
+  English, geography, elementary hygiene and sewing. Secondary education
+  is provided in Georgetown at some private establishments, and for boys
+  at Queen's College, an undenominational government institution where
+  the course of instruction is the same as at a public school in
+  England, and the boys are prepared for the Cambridge local
+  examinations, on the result of which annually depend the Guiana
+  scholarship--open to boys and girls, and carrying a university or
+  professional training in England--and two scholarships at Queen's
+  College.
+
+  _Industries and Trade._--At the end of the third decade of the 19th
+  century the principal exports were sugar, rum, molasses, cotton and
+  coffee. In 1830, 9,500,000 lb. of coffee were sent abroad, but after
+  the emancipation of the slaves it almost ceased as an export, and the
+  little that is now grown is practically entirely consumed in the
+  colony. The cultivation of cotton ceased in 1844, and, but for a short
+  revival during the American civil war, has never prospered since.
+  Efforts have been made to resuscitate its growth, but the experiments
+  of the Board of Agriculture have only shown that Sea Island cotton is
+  not adaptable to local conditions, and that no other known variety can
+  as yet be recommended. To-day the principal exports are sugar, rum,
+  molasses, molascuit--a cattle food made from molasses--gold, timber,
+  balata, shingles and cattle. The annual value of the total exports is
+  just under L2,000,000, of which about two-thirds go to Great Britain
+  and British possessions. The cultivation of rice has made great
+  strides in recent years, and, where difficulties of drainage and
+  irrigation can be economically overcome, promises to increase rapidly.
+  In 1873, 32,000,000 lb. of rice were imported, whereas in 1904-1905,
+  the quantity imported having fallen to 20,500,000 lb., there were over
+  18,000 acres under rice cultivation, and exportation, principally to
+  the British West Indies, had commenced. The cultivation of the
+  sugar-cane, and its manufacture into sugar and its by-products, still
+  remains, in spite of numerous fluctuations, the staple industry. The
+  provision of a trustworthy labour supply for the estates is of great
+  importance, and local scarcity has made it necessary since 1840 to
+  import it under a system of indenture. In that year and until 1867,
+  liberated Africans were brought from Rio de Janeiro, Havana, Sierra
+  Leone and St Helena, and in 1845 systematic immigration from India
+  commenced and has since been carried on annually--save in 1849-1850.
+  In 1853 immigration from China was tried, and was carried on by the
+  government from 1859 to 1866, when it ceased owing to a convention
+  arranged at Peking, stipulating that all immigrants should on the
+  expiry of their term of indenture be entitled to be sent back at the
+  expense of the colony, a liability it could not afford to incur. To
+  reduce the cost of supervision and kindred expenses, and consequently
+  of the cane and its manufacture into sugar, the policy of
+  centralization has been universally adopted, and forty-six estates now
+  produce as much sugar as three times that number did in 1875. During
+  recent years Canada has come forward as a large buyer of Guiana's
+  sugar, and in 1904-1905 the same amount went there as to the United
+  States, in each case over 44,000 tons, whereas in 1901-1902 the United
+  States took 85,000 tons and Canada under 8000 tons. Practically all
+  the rum and molascuit go to England, and the molasses to Holland and
+  Portuguese possessions. The lands on the coast and on the river banks
+  up to the sand hills are of marked fertility, and can produce almost
+  any tropical vegetable or fruit. Cultivation, however, save on the
+  sugar, coffee and cocoa estates, and by a few exceptional small
+  farmers, is carried on in a haphazard and half-hearted manner, and the
+  problem of agricultural development is one of great difficulty for the
+  government. Much of the privately-owned land is not beneficially
+  occupied, and in many cases it is not possible even to learn to whom
+  it belongs, and though there are vast tracts of uncultivated crown
+  land where a large farm or a small homestead can be easily and cheaply
+  acquired, the difficulties involved in clearing, draining, and in some
+  cases of protecting it by dams, are prohibitive to all but the
+  exceptionally determined.
+
+  Prospecting for gold began in 1880, and from 1884 to 1893-1894 the
+  output, chiefly from alluvial workings, increased from 250 oz. to
+  nearly 140,000 oz. annually. The industry then received a serious
+  check by the failure of several mines, and for nearly a decade was
+  almost entirely in the hands of the small tributor, known locally as a
+  pork-knocker. There has been some revival, chiefly due to foreign
+  enterprise. At Omai on the Essequibo river a German syndicate worked a
+  large concession on the hydraulic process of placer mining with
+  considerable success, and more recently took to dredging on its
+  flats. In the Puruni (a tributary of the Mazaruni) American
+  capitalists, working the Peters' mine, have established their workings
+  to a considerable depth, besides constructing a road, 60 m. in length,
+  from Kartabo point, at the confluence of the Guyuni and Mazaruni, to
+  the Puruni river opposite the mine. An English syndicate started
+  dredging in the Conawarook, a tributary of the Essequibo. The
+  principal gold districts are on the Essequibo and its tributaries--the
+  chief being the Cuyuni, Mazaruni, Potaro and Conawarook--and on the
+  Barima, Barama and Waini rivers in the north-west district. There have
+  been smaller workings, mostly unsuccessful, in the Demerara and
+  Berbice rivers.
+
+  Diamonds and other precious stones have been found in small
+  quantities, and since 1900 efforts have been made to extend the
+  output, nearly 11,000 carats weight of diamonds being exported in
+  1904. But though the small stones found were of good water, the cost
+  of transport to the diamond fields, on the Mazaruni river, was heavy,
+  and after 1904 the industry declined. Laws dealing with gold and
+  precious stones passed in 1880, 1886 and 1887, and regulations in
+  1899, were codified in 1902 and amended in 1905.
+
+  Timber is cut, and balata and rubber collected, from crown lands by
+  licences issued from the department of Lands and Mines. Wood-cutting,
+  save on concessions held by a local company owning an up-country line
+  of railway connecting the Demerara and Essequibo rivers, is limited to
+  those parts of the forest which are close to the lower stretches of
+  the rivers and creeks, the overland haulage of the heavy logs being
+  both difficult and costly, while transport through the upper reaches
+  of the rivers is impossible on account of the many cataracts and
+  rapids. The average annual value of imports is L1,500,000, of which
+  about two-thirds are from Great Britain and British possessions. Of
+  the vessels trading with the colony, most are under the British flag,
+  the remainder being principally American and Norwegian.
+
+  The money of account is dollars and cents, but, with the exception of
+  the notes of the two local banks, the currency is British sterling.
+  The unit of land measure is the Rhynland rood, roughly equal to 12 ft.
+  4 in. A Rhynland acre contains 300 square roods.
+
+  _Inland Communication, &c._--The public roads extend along the coast
+  from the Corentyn river to some 20 m. N. of the Essequibo mouth on the
+  Aroabisci coast, and for a short distance up each of the principal
+  rivers and creeks entering the sea between these points. A line of
+  railway 60-1/2 m. in length runs from Georgetown to Rosignol on the
+  left bank of the Berbice river opposite New Amsterdam; and another
+  line 15 m. long starts from Vreed-en-hoop, on the left bank of the
+  Demerara river opposite Georgetown, and runs to Greenwich Park on the
+  right bank of the Essequibo river some 3 m. from its mouth. A light
+  railway, metre gauge, 18-1/2 m. in length, connects Wismar (on the
+  left bank of the Demerara river some 70 m. from its mouth) with
+  Rockstone (on the right bank of the Essequibo, and above the first
+  series of cataracts in that river). Steamers run daily to and from
+  Georgetown and Wismar, and launches to and from Rockstone and
+  Tumatumari Fall on the Potaro, and all expeditions for the goldfields
+  of the Essequibo and its tributaries above Rockstone travel by this
+  route. Another steamer goes twice a week to Bartica at the confluence
+  of the Essequibo and Mazaruni, and another weekly to Mt. Everard on
+  the Barima, from which termini expeditions start to the other gold and
+  diamond fields. Steamers also run from Georgetown to New Amsterdam and
+  up the Berbice river for about 100 m. Above the termini of these
+  steamer routes all travelling is done in keelless _bateaux_, propelled
+  by paddlers and steered when coming through the rapids at both bow and
+  stern by certificated bowmen and steersmen. Owing to the extreme
+  dangers of this inland travelling, stringent regulations have been
+  framed as to the loading of boats, supply of ropes and qualifications
+  of men in charge, and the shooting of certain falls is prohibited.
+  Voyages up-country are of necessity slow, but the return journey is
+  made with comparatively great rapidity, distances laboriously covered
+  on the up-trip in three days being done easily in seven hours when
+  coming back.
+
+  From England British Guiana is reached in sixteen days by the steamers
+  of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, and in nineteen days by those
+  of the direct line from London and Glasgow. There are also regular
+  services from Canada, the United States, France and Holland.
+
+_History._--When taken over in 1803 the prospects of three British
+colonies were by no means promising, and during the next decade the
+situation became very critical. Owing to the increased output of sugar
+by conquered Dutch and French colonies the English market was glutted
+and the markets of the continent of Europe were not available, Bonaparte
+having closed the ports. The years 1811 and 1812 were peculiarly
+disastrous, especially to those engaged in the manufacture of sugar, and
+at a public meeting held in Georgetown early in the latter year it was
+stated that the produce of the colony ordinarily worth L1,860,000 had on
+account of deteriorated value decreased by fully one-third. At this
+meeting it was resolved to petition the imperial parliament to allow the
+interchange of produce with the United States; a resolution which was
+unfortunately rendered abortive by the outbreak of war between England
+and the States in 1812, the trade of British Guiana being instead
+actually harried by American privateers. In his address to the Combined
+Court on the 20th of October 1812 the governor (General Carmichael)
+stated that a vessel with government stores had been captured by an
+American privateer, and in February 1813 the imperial government sent
+H.M.S. "Peacock" to protect the coast. On the 23rd of that month in
+cruising along the east coast of Demerara the "Peacock" met the American
+privateer "Hornet," and though, after a gallant struggle, in which
+Captain Peake, R.N., was killed, the English ship was sunk with nearly
+all her crew, the colony did not suffer from any further depredations.
+In the following years news of the agitation in England in favour of
+emancipation gradually became known to the slaves and caused
+considerable unrest among them, culminating in 1823 in a serious
+outbreak on the estates on the east coast of Demerara. Negroes,
+demanding their freedom, attacked the houses of several managers, and
+although at most points these attacks were repulsed with but little loss
+on either side, the situation was so serious as to necessitate the
+calling out of the military. The ringleaders were arrested and promptly
+and vigorously dealt with, while a special court-martial was appointed
+to try the Rev. John Smith, of the London Missionary Society, who it was
+alleged had fostered the rising by his teachings to the slave
+congregation at his chapel in Le Ressouvenir. This trial was stigmatized
+as unfair by the missionary party in England, but on the whole appears
+to have been conducted decently by an undoubtedly unbiassed court. It is
+difficult now to form any very definite conclusion. Mr Smith certainly
+had great influence over the slaves, and while his teaching prior to the
+outbreak was at least ill-advised, he made no efforts while the
+disturbances were going on to use his influence on the side of law and
+order; indeed all he could say in his own defence was that he was
+ignorant of what was going on, a statement it is impossible to believe
+to have been strictly veracious. He was found guilty and sentenced to be
+hanged. It is obvious that it was never intended to carry out this
+sentence, and on the 29th of November the governor announced that he
+felt it imperative on him to transmit the findings of the court for His
+Majesty's consideration. The question of Smith's guilt or innocence
+created a great deal of feeling in England, the anti-slavery and
+missionary societies making it a basis for increased agitation in favour
+of the slaves; but the imperial government evidently agreed with the
+colonial executive in holding that he could not be exonerated of grave
+responsibility, as the order of the king was that while the sentence of
+death was remitted Mr Smith was to be dismissed from the colony and to
+enter into a recognizance in L2000 not to return to British Guiana or to
+reside in any other West Indian colony. This order reached Georgetown in
+April 1824, but Mr Smith had died in the city jail on the 6th of
+February of a pulmonary complaint from which he had been suffering for
+some time.
+
+Sir Benjamin d'Urban was governor from April 1824 to May 1833, the
+principal event of his administration being the consolidation in 1831 of
+the three colonies into one colony divided into three counties, Berbice,
+Demerara and Essequibo.
+
+Governor d'Urban was succeeded in June 1833 by Sir James Carmichael
+Smyth, who began his administration by a proclamation to the slaves
+stating that while the king intended to improve their condition, the
+details of his plans were not as yet completed, and warning them against
+impatience or insubordination. When the resolutions foreshadowing
+emancipation, passed by the House of Commons on the 12th of June 1833,
+reached the colony, the planters, to whom the governor's proclamation
+had been most distasteful, were thunderstruck and even the government
+was surprised. Naturally the slaves were wildly jubilant. Emancipation
+brought troublous times through which the governor steered the colony
+with great tact and firmness, serious troubles being nipped in the bud
+solely by his great personality, and the subsequent conflicts with the
+apprentices might have been obviated had he lived longer. He died at
+Camp House on the 4th of March 1838.
+
+In the years following emancipation the colony was in a serious
+condition. The report of a commission in 1850 proved that it was
+virtually ruined, and only by the introduction of immigrants to provide
+a reliable labour supply were the sugar estates saved from total
+extinction. By 1853 the colony had begun to make headway, and Sir Henry
+Barkly, the then governor, was able to state in his speech to the
+Combined Court in January that its progress was in every way
+satisfactory. During Governor Barkly's administration the long series of
+struggles between the legislature and the executive terminated, and when
+he left in May 1853 he did so with the respect and good-will of all
+classes. The strengthening of the labour supply was not effected without
+troubles. In 1847 the negroes in Berbice attacked the persons and
+property of the Portuguese immigrants, the riots spreading to Demerara
+and Essequibo, and not until the military were called out were the
+disturbances quelled. Similar riots in 1862 were only stopped by the
+prompt and firm action of the new governor, Mr (afterwards Sir) Francis
+Hincks, while rows between negroes and Chinese and negroes and East
+Indians were frequent. Gradually, however, things quieted down, and
+until 1883 the estates as a whole did well. In 1884 the price of sugar
+fell so seriously as to make the prospects of the colony very gloomy,
+and for nearly two decades proprietors had to be content with a price
+kept artificially low by bounty-fed beet-sugar, many estates being
+ruined, while those that survived only did so by the application of
+every economy, and by their owners availing themselves of every new
+discovery in the sciences of cultivation and manufacture.
+
+The year 1889 was marked by an outbreak on the part of a section of the
+negro population in Georgetown directed against the Portuguese residents
+there. A Portuguese had murdered his black paramour and had been
+convicted and sentenced to death. The governor commuted the sentence to
+penal servitude for life. Shortly after this a Portuguese stall-holder
+in the market assaulted a small black boy whom he suspected of
+pilfering, the latter having to be taken to a hospital, while the
+former, after being taken to a police station was, through some
+misunderstanding or informality, at once released. Almost immediately
+excitable and unreasoning negroes were rushing about loudly proclaiming
+that the boy was dead, that the Portuguese were allowed to kill black
+people and to go free, and calling on one another to take their own
+revenge. Mobs gathered quickly, attacked individual Portuguese and
+wrecked their shops and houses, and not until the city had been given up
+for two days to scenes of disgraceful disorder were the efforts of the
+police and special constables successful in quelling the disturbances.
+The damage done amounted to several thousands of dollars, the Portuguese
+owners being eventually compensated from general revenue.
+
+In 1884 the dispute as to the boundary with Venezuela became acute. It
+was reported to the colonial government that the government of Venezuela
+had granted to an American syndicate a concession which covered much of
+the territory claimed by Great Britain, and although prompt
+investigation by an agent despatched by the governor did not then
+disclose any trace of interference with British claims, a further visit
+in January 1885, made in consequence of reports that servants of the
+Manoa Company had torn down notices posted by Mr McTurk on his former
+visit, discovered that the British notices had been covered over by
+Venezuelan ones and resulted in the government of Great Britain
+declaring that it would thenceforward exercise jurisdiction up to and
+within a boundary known as "the modified Schomburgk line." Outposts were
+located at points on this line, and for some years Guianese police and
+Venezuelan soldiers faced one another across the Amacura creek in the
+Orinoco mouth and at Yuruan up the Cuyuni river. Guianese officers were,
+however, presumably instructed not actively to oppose acts of aggression
+by the Venezuelan government, for in January 1895 Venezuelan soldiers
+arrested Messrs D. D. Barnes and A. H. Baker, inspectors of police in
+charge at Yuruan station, conveyed them through Venezuela to Caracas,
+eventually allowing them to take steamer to Trinidad. For this act
+compensation was demanded and was eventually paid by Venezuela. The
+diplomatic question as to the boundary--the results of which are stated
+above--was passed out of the hands of the colony; see the account of the
+arbitration under VENEZUELA.
+
+The last two months of 1905 were marked by serious disturbances in
+Georgetown, and in a lesser degree on the east and west banks of the
+Demerara river. On the 29th of November the dock labourers employed on
+the wharves in Georgetown struck for higher wages, and large crowds
+invaded the principal stores in the city, compelling men willing to work
+to desist and in some cases assaulting those who opposed them. By the
+evening of the 30th of November they had got so far out of hand as to
+necessitate the reading of the Riot Act and a proclamation by the
+governor (Sir F. M. Hodgson) forbidding all assemblies. On the morning
+of the 1st of December serious disturbances broke out at Ruimvelt, a
+sugar estate directly south of Georgetown, where the cane-cutters had
+suddenly struck for higher pay, and the police were compelled to fire on
+the mob, killing some and wounding others. All through that day mobs in
+all parts of the city assaulted any white man they met, houses were
+invaded and windows smashed, and on two further occasions the police had
+to fire. At night torrential rains forced the rioters to shelter, and
+enabled the police to get rest, their places being taken by pickets of
+militiamen and special constables. On Saturday, the 2nd of December, the
+police had got the upper hand, and the arrival that night of H.M.S.
+"Sappho" and on Sunday of H.M.S. "Diamond" gave the government complete
+control of the situation. Threatened troubles on the sugar estates on
+the west bank were suppressed by the prompt action of the governor, and
+the arrest of large numbers of the rioters and their immediate trial by
+special courts restored thorough order.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--See Raleigh's _Voyages for the Discovery of Guiana
+  1595-1596_, ("Hakluyt" series); Laurence Keymis' _Relation of the
+  second Voyage to Guiana (1596)_, ("Hakluyt" series); Sir R. H.
+  Schomburgk, _Description of British Guiana_ (London, 1840); C.
+  Waterton, _Wanderings in South America, 1812-1825_ (London, 1828); J.
+  Rodway, _History of British Guiana_ (Georgetown, 1891-1894); H. G.
+  Dalton, History of British Guiana (London, 1855); J. W. Boddam
+  Whetham, _Roraima and British Guiana_ (London, 1879); C. P. Lucas,
+  _Historical Geography of British Colonies_; E. F. im Thurn, _Among the
+  Indians of Guiana_ (London, 1883); _British Guiana Directory_
+  (Georgetown, 1906); G. D. Bayley, _Handbook of British Guiana_
+  (Georgetown, 1909).     (A. G. B.*)
+
+
+  Dutch Guiana.
+
+II. DUTCH GUIANA, or _Surinam_, has an area of about 57,900 sq. m.
+British Guiana bounds it on the west and French on the east (the long
+unsettled question of the French boundary is dealt with in section III.,
+FRENCH GUIANA). The various peoples inhabiting Surinam are distributed
+according to the soil and the products. The Indians (Caribs, Arawaks,
+Warrous) live on the savannahs, or on the upper Nickerie, Coppename and
+Maroni, far from the plantations, cultivating their fields of manioc or
+cassava, and for the rest living by fishing and hunting. They number
+about 2000. The bush negroes (Marrons) dwell between 3 deg. and 4 deg.
+N., near the isles and cataracts. They are estimated at 10,000, and are
+employed in the transport of men and goods to the goldfields, the
+navigation of the rivers in trade with the Indians, and in the transport
+of wood to Paramaribo and the plantations. They are the descendants of
+runaway slaves, and before missionaries had worked among them their
+paganism retained curious traces of their former connexion with
+Christianity. Their chief god was Gran Gado (grand-god), his wife Maria,
+and his son Jesi Kist. Various minor deities were also worshipped,
+Ampuka the bush-god, Toni the water-god, &c. Their language was based on
+a bastard English, mingled with many Dutch, Portuguese and native
+elements. Their chiefs are called _gramman_ or grand man; but the
+authority of these men, and the peculiarities of language and religion,
+have in great measure died out owing to modern intercourse with the
+Dutch and others. The inhabitants of Paramaribo and the plantations
+comprise a variety of races, represented by Chinese, Javanese, coolies
+from India and the West Indies, negroes and about 2000 whites. Of
+non-Christian immigrants there are about 6000 Mahommedans and 12,000
+Hindus; and Jews number about 1200. The total population was given in
+1907 as 84,103, exclusive of Indians, &c., in the forests. Nearly
+one-half of this total are in Paramaribo and one-half in the districts.
+The population has shown a tendency to move from the districts to the
+town; thus in 1852 there were 6000 persons in the town and 32,000 in the
+districts.
+
+The principal settlements have been made in the lower valley of the
+Surinam, or between that river and the Saramacca on the W. and the
+Commewyne on the E. The Surinam is the chief of a number of large rivers
+which rise in the Tumuc Humac range or the low hills between it and the
+sea, which they enter on the Dutch seaboard, between the Corentyn and
+the Maroni (Dutch _Corantijn_ and _Marowijne_), which form the
+boundaries with British and French territories respectively. Between the
+rivers of Dutch Guiana there are remarkable cross channels available
+during the floods at least. As the Maroni communicates with the Cottica,
+which is in turn a tributary of the Commewyne, a boat can pass from the
+Maroni to Paramaribo; thence by the Sommelsdijk canal it can reach the
+Saramacca; and from the Saramacca it can proceed up the Coppename, and
+by means of the Nickerie find its way to the Corentyn. The rivers are
+not navigable inland to any considerable extent, as their courses are
+interrupted by rapids. The interior of the country consists for the most
+part of low hills, though an extreme height of 3800 ft. is known in the
+Wilhelmina Kette, in the west of the colony, about 3 deg. 50' to 4 deg.
+N. The hinterland south of this latitude, and that part of the Tumuc
+Humac range along which the Dutch frontier runs, are, however,
+practically unexplored. Like the other territories of Guiana the Dutch
+colony is divided physically into a low coast-land, savannahs and almost
+impenetrable forest.
+
+Meteorological observations have been carried on at five stations
+(Paramaribo, Coronie, Sommelsdijk, Nieuw-Nickerie and Groningen). The
+mean range of temperature for the day, month and year shows little
+variation, being respectively 77.54 deg.-88.38 deg. F., 76.1 deg.-78.62
+deg. F. and 70.52 deg.-90.14 deg. F. The north-east trade winds prevail
+throughout the year, but the rainfall varies considerably; for December
+and January the mean is respectively 8.58 and 9.57 in., for May and June
+11.26 and 10.31 in., but for February and March 7.2 and 6.81 in., and
+for September 2.48 and 2.0 in. The seasons comprise a long and a short
+dry season, and a period of heavy and of slight rainfall.
+
+  _Products and Trade._--It has been found exceedingly difficult to
+  exploit the produce of the forests. The most important crops and those
+  supplying the chief exports are cocoa, coffee and sugar, all
+  cultivated on the larger plantations, with rice, maize and bananas on
+  the smaller or coast lands. Most of the larger plantations are
+  situated on the lower courses of the Surinam, Commewyne, Nickerie and
+  Cottica, and on the coast lands, rarely in the upper parts. Goldfields
+  lie in the older rocks (especially the slate) of the upper Surinam,
+  Saramacca and Maroni. The first section of a railway designed to
+  connect the goldfields with Paramaribo was opened in 1906. The annual
+  production of gold amounts in value to about L100,000, but has shown
+  considerable fluctuation. Agriculture is the chief means of
+  subsistence. About 42,000 acres are under cultivation. Of 30,000,
+  persons whose occupation is given in official statistics, close upon
+  21,000 are engaged in agriculture or on the plantations, 2400 in
+  gold-mining and only 1000 in trade. The exports increased in value
+  from L200,800 in 1875 to L459,800 in 1899, and imports from L260,450
+  in 1875 to L510,180 in 1899; but the average value of exports over
+  five years subsequently was only L414,000, while that of imports was
+  L531,000.
+
+  _Administration._--The colony is under a governor, who is president of
+  an executive council, which also includes a vice-president and three
+  members nominated by the crown. The legislative body is the states,
+  the members of which are elected for six years by electors, of whom
+  there is one for every 200 holders of the franchise. The colony is
+  divided into sixteen districts. For the administration of justice
+  there are three cantonal courts, two district courts, and the supreme
+  court at Paramaribo, whose president and permanent members are
+  nominated by the crown. The average local revenue (1901-1906) was
+  about L276,000 and the expenditure about L317,000; both fluctuated
+  considerably, and a varying subvention is necessary from the home
+  government (L16,000 in 1902, L60,400 in 1906; the annual average is
+  about L37,000). There are a civic guard of about 1800 men and a
+  militia of 500, with a small garrison.
+
+_History._--The history of the Dutch in Guiana, and the compression of
+their influence within its present limits, belongs to the general
+history of Guiana (above). Surinam and the Dutch islands of the West
+Indies were placed under a common government in 1828, the governor
+residing at Paramaribo, but in 1845 they were separated. Slavery was
+abolished in 1863. Labour then became difficult to obtain, and in 1870 a
+convention was signed between Holland and England for the regulation of
+the coolie traffic, and a Dutch government agent for Surinam was
+appointed at Calcutta. The problem was never satisfactorily solved, but
+the interest of the mother-country in the colony greatly increased
+during the last twenty years of the 19th century, as shown by the
+establishment of the Surinam Association, of the Steam Navigation
+Company's service to Paramaribo, and by the formation of a botanical
+garden for experimental culture at that town, as also by geological and
+other scientific expeditions, and the exhibition at Haarlem in 1898.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Among the older works on Surinam the first rank is held
+  by Jan Jacob Hartsinck's masterly _Beschryving van Guiana, of de Wilde
+  Kust, in Zuid Amerika_ (2 vols., Amsterdam, 1770). Extracts from this
+  work, selected for their bearing upon British boundary questions, were
+  translated and annotated by J. A. J. de Villiers (London, 1897). A
+  valuable _Geschiedenis der Kolonie van Suriname_, by a number of
+  "learned Jews," was published at Amsterdam in 1791 and it was
+  supplemented and so far superseded by Wolbers, _Geschiedenis van
+  Suriname_ (Amsterdam, 1861). See further W. G. Palgrave, _Dutch
+  Guiana_ (London, 1876); A. Kappler, _Surinam, sein Land, &c._
+  (Stuttgart, 1887); Prince Roland Bonaparte, _Les Habitants de Surinam_
+  (Paris, 1884); K. Martin, "Bericht uber eine Reise ins Gebiet des
+  Oberen-Surinam," _Bijdragen v. h. Inst. voor Taal Land en
+  Volkenkunde_, i. 1. (The Hague); Westerouen van Meeteren, _La Guyane
+  neerlandaise_ (Leiden, 1884); H. Ten Kate, "Een en ander over
+  Suriname," _Gids_ (1888); G. Verschuur, "Voyages aux trois Guyanes,"
+  _Tour du monde_ (1893). pp. 1, 49, 65; W. L. Loth, _Beknopte
+  Aardrijkskundige beschrijving van Suriname_ (Amsterdam, 1898), and
+  _Tijdschrift van het Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_ (1878), 79, 93; Asch
+  van Wyck, "La Colonie de Surinam," _Les Pays-Bas_ (1898); L. Thompson,
+  _Overzicht der Geschiedenis van Suriname_ (The Hague, 1901);
+  _Catalogus der Nederl. W. I. ten Toonstelling te Haarlem_ (1899);
+  _Guide a travers la section des Indes neerlandaises_, p. 323
+  (Amsterdam, 1899); _Surinaamsche Almanak_ (Paramaribo, annually). For
+  the language of the bush-negroes see Wullschlaegel, _Kurzgefasste
+  neger-englische Grammatik_ (Bautzen, 1854), and _Deutsch
+  neger-englisches Worterbuch_ (Lobau, 1865).
+
+
+  French Guiana.
+
+III. FRENCH GUIANA (_Guyane_).--This colony is situated between Dutch
+Guiana and Brazil. A delimitation of the territory belonging to France
+and the Netherlands was arrived at in 1891, by decision of the emperor
+of Russia. This question originated in the arrangement of 1836, that the
+river Maroni should form the frontier. It turned on the claim of the Awa
+or the Tapanahoni to be recognized as the main head-stream of the
+Maroni, and the final decision, in indicating the Awa, favoured the
+Dutch. In 1905 certain territory lying between the upper Maroni and the
+Itany, the possession of which had not then been settled, was acquired
+by France by agreement between the French and Dutch governments. The
+question of the exploitation of gold in the Maroni was settled by
+attributing alternate reaches of the river to France and Holland; while
+France obtained the principal islands in the lower Maroni. The
+additional territory thus attached to the French colony amounted to 965
+sq. m. In December 1900 the Swiss government as arbitrators fixed the
+boundary between French Guiana and Brazil as the river Oyapock and the
+watershed on the Tumuc Humac mountains, thus awarding to France about
+3000 of the 100,000 sq. m. which she claimed. This dispute was of
+earlier origin than that with the Dutch; dissensions between the French
+and the Portuguese relative to territory north of the Amazon occurred in
+the 17th century. In 1700 the Treaty of Lisbon made the contested area
+(known as the Terres du Cap du Nord) neutral ground. The treaty of
+Utrecht in 1713 indicated as the French boundary a river which the
+French afterwards claimed to be the Araguary, but the Portuguese
+asserted that the Oyapock was intended. After Brazil had become
+independent the question dragged on until in 1890-1895 there were
+collisions in the contested territory between French and Brazilian
+adventurers. This compelled serious action, and a treaty of arbitration,
+preliminary to the settlement, was signed at Rio de Janeiro in 1897.
+French Guiana, according to official estimate, has an area of about
+51,000 sq. m. The population is estimated at about 30,000; its movement
+is not rapid. Of this total 12,350 live at Cayenne, 10,100 were in the
+communes, 5700 formed the penal population, 1500 were native Indians
+(Galibi, Emerillon, Oyampi) and 500 near Maroni were negroes. Apart from
+Cayenne, which was rebuilt after the great fire of 1888, the centres of
+population are unimportant: Sinnamarie with 1500 inhabitants, Mana with
+1750, Roura with 1200 and Approuague with 1150. In 1892 French Guiana
+was divided into fourteen communes, exclusive of the Maroni district.
+Belonging to the colony are also the three Safety Islands (Royale,
+Joseph and Du Diable--the last notable as the island where Captain
+Dreyfus was imprisoned), the Enfant Perdu Island and the five Remire
+Islands.
+
+  A considerable portion of the low coast land is occupied by marshes,
+  with a dense growth of mangroves or, in the drier parts, with the
+  pinot or wassay palm (_Euterpe oleracea_). Settlements are confined
+  almost entirely to the littoral and alluvial districts. The
+  forest-clad hills of the hinterland do not generally exceed 1500 ft.
+  in elevation; that part of the Tumuc Humac range which forms the
+  southern frontier may reach an extreme elevation of 2600 ft. But the
+  dense tropical forests attract so much moisture from the ocean winds
+  that the highlands are the birthplace of a large number of rivers
+  which in the rainy season especially pour down vast volumes of water.
+  Not less than 15 are counted between the Maroni and the Oyapock.
+  South-eastward from the Maroni the first of importance is the Mana,
+  which is navigable for large vessels 10 m. from its mouth, and for
+  smaller vessels 27 m. farther. Passing the Sinnamary and the Kourou,
+  the Oyock is next reached, near the mouth of which is Cayenne, the
+  capital of the colony, and thereafter the Approuage. All these rivers
+  take their rise in a somewhat elevated area about the middle of the
+  colony; those streams which rise farther south, in the Tumuc Humac
+  hills, are tributaries of the two frontier rivers, the Maroni on the
+  one hand or the Oyapock on the other.
+
+  _Climate and Products._--The rainy season begins in November or
+  December, and lasts till the latter part of June; but there are
+  usually three or four weeks of good weather in March. During the rest
+  of the year there is often hardly a drop of rain for months, but the
+  air is always very moist. At Cayenne the average annual rainfall
+  amounts to fully 130 in., and it is naturally heavier in the interior.
+  During the hotter part of the year--August, September, October--the
+  temperature usually rises to about 86 deg. F., but it hardly ever
+  exceeds 88 deg.; in the colder season the mean is 79 deg. and it
+  seldom sinks so low as 70 deg. Between day and night there is very
+  little thermometric difference. The prevailing winds are the N.N.E.
+  and the S.E.; and the most violent are those of the N.E. During the
+  rainy season the winds keep between N. and E., and during the dry
+  season between S. and E. Hurricanes are unknown. In flora and fauna
+  French Guiana resembles the rest of the Guianese region. Vegetation is
+  excessively rich. Among leguminous trees, which are abundantly
+  represented, the wacapou is the finest of many hardwood trees.
+  Caoutchouc and various palms are also common. The manioc is a
+  principal source of food; rice is an important object of cultivation;
+  and maize, yams, arrowroot, bananas and the bread-fruit are also to be
+  mentioned. Vanilla is one of the common wild plants of the country.
+  The clove tree has been acclimatized, and in the latter years of the
+  empire it formed a good source of wealth; the cinnamon tree was also
+  successfully introduced in 1772, but like that of the pepper-tree and
+  the nutmeg its cultivation is neglected. A very small portion of the
+  territory indeed is devoted to agriculture, although France has paid
+  some attention to the development of this branch of activity. In 1880
+  a colonial garden was created near Cayenne; since 1894 an experimental
+  garden has been laid out at Baduel. About 8200 acres are cultivated,
+  of which 5400 acres are under cereals and rice, the remaining being
+  under coffee (introduced in 1716), cacao, cane and other cultures. The
+  low lands between Cayenne and Oyapock are capable of bearing colonial
+  produce, and the savannahs might support large herds; cereals,
+  root-crops and vegetables might easily be grown on the high grounds,
+  and timber working in the interior should be profitable.
+
+  Gold-mining is the most important industry in the colony. Placers of
+  great wealth have been discovered on the Awa, on the Dutch frontier
+  and at Carsevenne in the territory which formed the subject of the
+  Franco-Brazilian dispute. But wages are high and transport is costly,
+  and the amount of gold declared at Cayenne did not average more than
+  130,550 oz. annually in 1900-1905. Silver and iron have been found in
+  various districts; kaolin is extracted in the plains of Montsinery;
+  and phosphates have been discovered at several places. Besides
+  gold-workings, the industrial establishments comprise saw-mills,
+  distilleries, brick-works and sugar-works.
+
+  _Trade and Communications._--The commerce in 1885 amounted to L336,000
+  for imports and to L144,000 for exports; in 1897 the values were
+  respectively L373,350 and L286,400, but in 1903, while imports had
+  increased in value only to L418,720, exports had risen to L493,213.
+  The imports consist of wines, flour, clothes, &c.; the chief are gold,
+  phosphates, timber, cocoa and rosewood essence. Cayenne is the only
+  considerable port. One of the drawbacks to the development of the
+  colony is the lack of labour. Native labour is most difficult to
+  obtain, and attempts to utilize convict labour have not proved very
+  successful. Efforts to supply the need by immigration have not done so
+  completely. The land routes are not numerous. The most important are
+  that from Cayenne to Mana by way of Kourou, Sinnamarie and Iracoubo,
+  and that from Cayenne along the coast to Kaw and the mouth of the
+  Approuague. Towards the interior there are only foot-paths, badly
+  made. By water, Cayenne is in regular communication with the Safety
+  Islands (35 m.), and the mouth of the Maroni (80 m.), with Fort de
+  France in the island of Martinique, where travellers meet the mail
+  packet for France, and with Boston (U.S.A.). There is a French cable
+  between Cayenne and Brest.
+
+  _Administration._--The colony is administered by a
+  commissioner-general assisted by a privy council, including the
+  secretary general and chief of the judicial service, the military,
+  penitentiary and administrative departments. In 1879 an elective
+  general council of sixteen members was constituted. There are a
+  tribunal of first instance and a higher tribunal at Cayenne, besides
+  four justices of peace, one of whom has extensive jurisdiction in
+  other places. Of the L256,000 demanded for the colony in the colonial
+  budget for 1906, L235,000 represented the estimated expenditure on the
+  penal settlement, so that the cost of the colony was only about
+  L21,000. The local budget for 1901 balanced at L99,000 and in 1905 at
+  L116,450. Instruction is given in the college of Cayenne and in six
+  primary schools. At the head of the clergy is an apostolic prefect.
+  The armed force consists of two companies of marine infantry, half a
+  battery of artillery, and a detachment of gendarmerie, and comprises
+  about 380 men. The penal settlement was established by a decree of
+  1852. From that year until 1867, 18,000 exiles had been sent to
+  Guiana, but for the next twenty years New Caledonia became the chief
+  penal settlement in the French colonies. But in 1885-1887 French
+  Guiana was appointed as a place of banishment for confirmed criminals
+  and for convicts sentenced to more than eight years' hard labour. A
+  large proportion of these men have been found unfit for employment
+  upon public works.
+
+_History._--The Sieur La Revardiere, sent out in 1604 by Henry IV. to
+reconnoitre the country, brought back a favourable report; but the death
+of the king put a stop to the projects of formal colonization. In 1626 a
+small body of traders from Rouen settled on the Sinnamary, and in 1635 a
+similar band founded Cayenne. The Compagnie du Cap Nord, founded by the
+people of Rouen in 1643 and conducted by Poncet de Bretigny, the
+Compagnie de la France Equinoxiale, established in 1645, and the second
+Compagnie de la France Equinoxiale, or Compagnie des Douze Seigneurs,
+established in 1652, were failures, the result of incompetence,
+mismanagement and misfortune. From 1654 the Dutch held the colony for a
+few years. The French Compagnie des Indes Occidentales, chartered in
+1664 with a monopoly of Guiana commerce for forty years, proved hardly
+more successful than its predecessors; but in 1674 the colony passed
+under the direct control of the crown, and the able administration of
+Colbert began to tell favourably on its progress, although in 1686 an
+unsuccessful expedition against the Dutch in Surinam set back the
+advance of the French colony until the close of the century.
+
+The year 1763 was marked by a terrible disaster. Choiseul, the prime
+minister, having obtained for himself and his cousin Praslin a
+concession of the country between the Kourou and the Maroni, sent out
+about 12,000 volunteer colonists, mainly from Alsace and Lorraine. They
+were landed at the mouth of the Kourou, where no preparation had been
+made for their reception, and where even water was not to be obtained.
+Mismanagement was complete; there was (for example) a shop for skates,
+whereas the necessary tools for tillage were wanting. By 1765 no more
+than 918 colonists remained alive, and these were a famished
+fever-stricken band. A long investigation in Paris resulted in the
+imprisonment of the incompetent leaders of the expedition. Several minor
+attempts at colonization in Guiana were made in the latter part of the
+century; but they all seemed to suffer from the same fatal prestige of
+failure. During the revolution band after band of political prisoners
+were transported to Guiana. The fate of the royalists, nearly 600 in
+number, who were exiled on the 18th Fructidor (1797), was especially
+sad. Landed on the Sinnamary without shelter or food, two-thirds of them
+perished miserably. In 1800 Victor Hugues was appointed governor, and he
+managed to put the colony in a better state; but in 1809 his work was
+brought to a close by the invasion of the Portuguese and British.
+
+Though French Guiana was nominally restored to the French in 1814, it
+was not really surrendered by the Portuguese till 1817. Numerous efforts
+were now made to establish the colony firmly, although its past
+misfortunes had prejudiced the public mind in France against it. In 1822
+the first steam sugar mills were introduced; in 1824 an agricultural
+colony (Nouvelle Angouleme) was attempted in the Mana district, which,
+after failure at first, became comparatively successful. The
+emancipation of slaves and the consequent dearth of labour almost ruined
+the development of agricultural resources about the middle of the
+century, but in 1853 a large body of African immigrants was introduced.
+The discovery of gold on the Approuague in 1855 caused feverish
+excitement, and seriously disturbed the economic condition of the
+country.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--A detailed bibliography of French Guiana will be found
+  in Ternaux-Compans, _Notice historique de la Guyane francaise_ (Paris,
+  1843). Among more recent works, see E. Bassieres, _Notice sur la
+  Guyane_, issued on the occasion of the Paris Exhibition (1900);
+  _Publications de la societe d'etudes pour la colonisation de la Guyane
+  francaise_ (Paris, 1843-1844); H. A. Coudreau, _La France equinoxiale_
+  (1887), _Dialectes indiens de Guyane_ (1891), _Dix ans de Guyane_
+  (1892), and _Chez nos Indiens_ (1893), all at Paris; G. Brousseau,
+  _Les Richesses de la Guyane francaise_ (Paris, 1901); L. F. Viala,
+  _Les Trois Guyanes_ (Montpellier, 1893).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The origin of the name is somewhat obscure, and has been
+    variously interpreted. But the late Col. G. E. Church supplies the
+    following note, which has the weight of his great authority: "I
+    cannot confirm the suggestion of Schomburgk that Guayana 'received
+    its name from a small river, a tributary of the Orinoco', supposed to
+    be the Waini or Guainia. In South America, east of the Andes, it was
+    the common custom of any tribe occupying a length of river to call it
+    simply 'the river'; but the other tribes designated any section of it
+    by the name of the people living on its banks. Many streams,
+    therefore, had more than a dozen names. It is probable that no
+    important river had one name alone throughout its course, prior to
+    the time of the Conquest. The radical _wini_, _waini_, _wayni_, is
+    found as a prefix, and very frequently as a termination, to the names
+    of numerous rivers, not only throughout Guayana but all over the
+    Orinoco and Amazon valleys. For instance, Paymary Indians called the
+    portion of the Purus river which they occupied the _Waini_. It simply
+    means water, or a fountain of water, or a river. The alternative
+    suggestion that Guayana is an Indian word signifying 'wild coast,' I
+    also think untenable. This term, applied to the north-east frontage
+    of South America between the Orinoco and the Amazon, is found on the
+    old Dutch map of Hartsinck, who calls it 'Guiana Caribania of de
+    Wilde Kust,' a name which must have well described it when, in 1580,
+    some Zealanders, of the Netherlands, sent a ship to cruise along it,
+    from the mouth of the Amazon to that of the Orinoco, and formed the
+    first settlement near the river Pomeroon. The map of Firnao Vaz
+    Dourado, 1564, calls the northern part of South America, including
+    the present British Guiana, 'East Peru.' An anonymous Spanish map,
+    about 1566, gives Guayana as lying on the east side of the Orinoco
+    just above its mouth. About 1660, Sebastien de Ruesta, cosmographer
+    of the _Casa de Contractacion de Seville_, shows Guayana covering the
+    British, French and Dutch Guayanas. According to the map of Nicolas
+    de Fer, 1719, a tribe of Guayazis (Guyanas) occupied the south side
+    of the Amazon river, front of the island of Tupinambara, east of the
+    mouth of the Madeira. Aristides Rojas, an eminent Venezuelan scholar,
+    says that the Mariches Indians, near Caracas, inhabited a site called
+    Guayana long before the discovery of South America by the Spaniards.
+    Coudreau in his _Chez nos Indiens_ mentions that the _Roucouyennes_
+    of Guayana take their name from a large tree in their forests, 'which
+    appears to be the origin of the name Guayane.' According to Michelana
+    y Rojas, in their report to the Venezuelan government on their
+    voyages in the basin of the Orinoco, 'Guyana derives its name from
+    the Indians who live between the Caroni river and the Sierra de
+    Imataca, called Guayanos.' My own studies of aboriginal South America
+    lead me to support the statement of Michelana y Rojas, but with the
+    following enlargement of it: The Portuguese, in the early part of the
+    16th century, found that the coast and mountain district of Rio de
+    Janeiro, between Cape Sao Thome and Angra dos Reis, belonged to the
+    formidable _Tamoyos_. South of these, for a distance of about 300 m.
+    of the ocean slope of the coast range, were the _Guayana_ tribes,
+    called by the early writers _Guianas_, _Goyana_, _Guayana_, _Goana_
+    and, plural, _Goaynazes_, _Goayanazes_ and _Guayanazes_. They were
+    constantly at feud with the _Tamoyos_ and with their neighbours on
+    the south, the _Carijos_, as well as with the vast Tapuya hordes of
+    the Sertao of the interior. Long before the discovery, they had been
+    forced to abandon their beautiful lands, but had recuperated their
+    strength, returned and reconquered their ancient habitat. Meanwhile,
+    however, many of them had migrated northward, some had settled in the
+    _Sertao_ back of Bahia and Pernambuco, others on the middle Amazon
+    and in the valley of the Orinoco, but a large number had crossed the
+    lower Amazon and occupied an extensive area of country to the north
+    of it, about the size of Belgium, along the Tumuchumac range of
+    highlands, and the upper Paron and Maroni rivers, as well as a large
+    district on the northern slope of the above-named range. In their new
+    home they became known as _Roucouyennes_, because, like the
+    Mundurucus of the middle Amazon, they rubbed and painted themselves
+    with _roucou_ or _urucu_ (Bixa Orellana); but other surrounding
+    tribes called them Ouayanas, that is Guayanas--the Gua, so common to
+    the Guarani-Tupi tongue, having become corrupted into _Oua_. Porto
+    Seguro says of the so-called Tupis, 'at other times they gave
+    themselves the name of _Guaya_ or _Guayana_, which probably means
+    "brothers," from which comes _Guayazes_ and _Guayanazes_.... The
+    latter occupied the country just south of Rio de Janeiro.... The
+    masters of the Capitania of St Vincente called themselves _Guianas_.'
+    Guinila, referring to north-eastern South America (1745), speaks of
+    five missions being formed to civilize the '_Nacion Guayana_.' In
+    view of the above, it may be thought reasonable to assume that the
+    vast territory now known as _Guayana_ (British, Dutch, French,
+    Brazilian and Venezuelan) derives its name from its aborigines who
+    were found there at the time of the discovery, and whose original
+    home was the region I have indicated."
+
+  [2] This is the boundary generally accepted; but it is in dispute.
+
+  [3] See C. B. Brown and J. G. Sawkins, _Reports on the Physical,
+    Descriptive and Economic Geology of British Guiana_ (London, 1875);
+    C. Velain, "Esquisse geologique de la Guyane francaise et des bassins
+    du Parou et du Yari (affluents de l'Amazone) d'apres les explorations
+    du Dr Crevaux," _Bull. Soc. Geogr._ ser. 7, vol. vi. (Paris, 1885),
+    pp. 453-492 (with geological map); E. Martin, _Geologische Studien
+    uber Niederlandisch-West-Indien, auf Grund eigener
+    Untersuchungsreisen_ (Leiden, 1888); W. Bergt, "Zur Geologie des
+    Coppename- und Nickerietales in Surinam (Hollandisch-Guyana),"
+    _Samml. d. Geol. Reichsmus._ (Leiden), ser. 2, Bd. ii. Heft 2, pp.
+    93-163 (with 3 maps); and for British Guiana, the official reports on
+    the geology of various districts, by J. B. Harrison, C. W. Anderson,
+    H. I. Perkins, published at Georgetown.
+
+
+
+
+GUIART (or GUIARD), GUILLAUME (d. c. 1316), French chronicler and poet,
+was probably born at Orleans, and served in the French army in Flanders
+in 1304. Having been disabled by a wound he began to write, lived at
+Arras and then in Paris, thus being able to consult the large store of
+manuscripts in the abbey of St Denis, including the _Grandes chroniques
+de France_. Afterwards he appears as a _menestrel de bouche_. Guiart's
+poem _Branche des royaulx lignages_, was written and then rewritten
+between 1304 and 1307, in honour of the French king Philip IV., and in
+answer to the aspersions of a Flemish poet. Comprising over 21,000
+verses it deals with the history of the French kings from the time of
+Louis VIII.; but it is only really important for the period after 1296
+and for the war in Flanders from 1301 to 1304, of which it gives a
+graphic account, and for which it is a high authority. It was first
+published by J. A. Buchon (Paris, 1828), and again in tome xxii. of the
+_Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France_ (Paris, 1865).
+
+  See A. Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de France_, tome iii.
+  (Paris, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+GUIBERT, or WIBERT (c. 1030-1100), of Ravenna, antipope under the title
+of Clement III. from the 25th of June 1080 until September 1100, was
+born at Parma between 1020 and 1030 of the noble imperialist family,
+Corregio. He entered the priesthood and was appointed by the empress
+Agnes, chancellor and, after the death of Pope Victor II. (1057),
+imperial vicar in Italy. He strove to uphold the imperial authority
+during Henry IV.'s minority, and presided over the synod at Basel (1061)
+which annulled the election of Alexander II. and created in the person
+of Cadalous, bishop of Parma, the antipope Honorius II. Guibert lost the
+chancellorship in 1062. In 1073, through the influence of Empress Agnes
+and the support of Cardinal Hildebrand, he obtained the archbishopric of
+Ravenna and swore fealty to Alexander II. and his successors. He seems
+to have been at first on friendly terms with Gregory VII., but soon
+quarrelled with him over the possession of the city of Imola, and
+henceforth was recognized as the soul of the imperial faction in the
+investiture contest. He allied himself with Cencius, Cardinal Candidus
+and other opponents of Gregory at Rome, and, on his refusal to furnish
+troops or to attend the Lenten synod of 1075, he was ecclesiastically
+suspended by the pope. He was probably excommunicated at the synod of
+Worms (1076) with other Lombard bishops who sided with Henry IV., and
+at the Lenten synod of 1078 he was banned by name. The emperor, having
+been excommunicated for the second time in March 1080, convened nineteen
+bishops of his party at Mainz on the 31st of May, who pronounced the
+deposition of Gregory; and on the 25th of June he caused Guibert to be
+elected pope by thirty bishops assembled at Brixen. Guibert, whilst
+retaining possession of his archbishopric, accompanied his imperial
+master on most of the latter's military expeditions. Having gained Rome,
+he was installed in the Lateran and consecrated as Clement III. on the
+24th of March 1084. One week later, on Easter Sunday, he crowned Henry
+IV. and Bertha in St Peter's. Clement survived not only Gregory VII. but
+also Victor III. and Urban II., maintaining his title to the end and in
+great measure his power over Rome and the adjoining regions.
+Excommunication was pronounced against him by all his rivals. He was
+driven out of Rome finally by crusaders in 1097, and sought refuge in
+various fortresses on his own estates. St Angelo, the last Guibertist
+stronghold in Rome, fell to Urban II. on the 24th of August 1098.
+Clement, on the accession of Paschal II. in 1099, prepared to renew his
+struggle but was driven from Albano by Norman troops and died at Civita
+Castellana in September 1100. His ashes, which were said by his
+followers to have worked miracles, were thrown into the water by Paschal
+II.
+
+  See J. Langen, _Geschichte der romischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis
+  Innocenz III._ (Bonn, 1893); Jaffe-Wattenbach, _Regesta pontif.
+  Roman_. (2nd ed., 1885-1888); K. J. von Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_,
+  vol. v. (2nd ed.); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol.
+  iv., trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); and O. Kohncke,
+  _Wibert von Ravenna_ (Leipzig, 1888).     (C. H. Ha.)
+
+
+
+
+GUIBERT (1053-1124), of Nogent, historian and theologian, was born of
+noble parents at Clermont-en-Beauvoisis, and dedicated from infancy to
+the church. He received his early education at the Benedictine abbey of
+Flavigny (Flaviacum) or St Germer, where he studied with great zeal,
+devoting himself at first to the secular poets, an experience which left
+its imprint on his works; later changing to theology, through the
+influence of Anselm of Bec, afterwards of Canterbury. In 1104, he was
+chosen to be head of the abbey of Notre Dame de Nogent and henceforth
+took a prominent part in ecclesiastical affairs. His autobiography (_De
+vita sua, sive monodiarum_), written towards the close of his life,
+gives many picturesque glimpses of his time and the customs of his
+country. The description of the commune of Laon is an historical
+document of the first order. The same local colour lends charm to his
+history of the first crusade (_Gesta Dei per Francos_) written about
+1110. But the history is largely a paraphrase, in ornate style, of the
+_Gesta Francorum_ of an anonymous Norman author (see CRUSADES); and when
+he comes to the end of his authority, he allows his book to degenerate
+into an undigested heap of notes and anecdotes. At the same time his
+high birth and his position in the church give his work an occasional
+value.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Guibert's works, edited by d'Achery, were first
+  published in 1651, in 1 vol. folio, at Paris (_Venerabilis Guiberti
+  abbatis B. Mariae de Novigento opera omnia_), and republished in
+  Migne's _Patrologia Latina_, vols. clvi. and clxxxiv. They include,
+  besides minor works, a treatise on homiletics ("Liber quo ordine sermo
+  fieri debeat"); ten books of _Moralia_ on Genesis, begun in 1084, but
+  not completed until 1116, composed on the model of Gregory the Great's
+  _Moralia in Jobum_; five books of _Tropologiae_ on Hosea, Amos and the
+  Lamentations; a treatise on the _Incarnation_, against the Jews; four
+  books _De pignoribus sanctorum_, a remarkably free criticism on the
+  abuses of saint and relic worship; three books of autobiography, _De
+  vita sua, sive monodiarum_; and eight books of the _Historia quae
+  dicitur Gesta Dei per Francos, sive historia Hierosolymitana_ (the
+  ninth book is by another author). Separate editions exist of the last
+  named, in J. Bongars, _Gesta Dei per Francos_, i., and _Recueil des
+  historiens des croisades, hist. Occid._, iv. 115-263. It has been
+  translated into French in Guizot's _Collection_, ix. 1-338. See H. von
+  Sybel, _Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges_ (Leipzig, 1881); B. Monod,
+  _Le Moine Guibert et son temps_ (Paris, 1905); and _Guibert de Nogent;
+  histoire de sa vie_, edited by G. Bourgin (Paris, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+GUIBERT, JACQUES ANTOINE HIPPOLYTE, COMTE DE (1743-1790), French general
+and military writer, was born at Montauban, and at the age of thirteen
+accompanied his father, Charles Benoit, comte de Guibert (1715-1786),
+chief of staff to Marshal de Broglie, throughout the war in Germany,
+and won the cross of St Louis and the rank of colonel in the expedition
+to Corsica (1767). In 1770 he published his _Essai general de tactique_
+in London, and this celebrated work appeared in numerous subsequent
+editions and in English, German and even Persian translations (extracts
+also in Liskenne and Sauvan, _Bibl. historique et militaire_, Paris,
+1845). Of this work (for a detailed critique of which see Max Jahns,
+_Gesch. d. Kriegswissenschaften_, vol. iii. pp. 2058-2070 and references
+therein) it may be said that it was the best essay on war produced by a
+soldier during a period in which tactics were discussed even in the
+salon and military literature was more abundant than at any time up to
+1871. Apart from technical questions, in which Guibert's enlightened
+conservatism stands in marked contrast to the doctrinaire
+progressiveness of Menil Durand, Folard and others, the book is chiefly
+valued for its broad outlook on the state of Europe, especially of
+military Europe in the period 1763-1792. One quotation may be given as
+being a most remarkable prophecy of the impending revolution in the art
+of war, a revolution which the "advanced" tacticians themselves scarcely
+foresaw. "The standing armies, while a burden on the people, are
+inadequate for the achievement of great and decisive results in war, and
+meanwhile the mass of the people, untrained in arms, degenerates.... The
+hegemony over Europe will fall to that nation which ... becomes
+possessed of manly virtues and _creates a national army_"--a prediction
+fulfilled almost to the letter within twenty years of Guibert's death.
+In 1773 he visited Germany and was present at the Prussian regimental
+drills and army manoeuvres; Frederick the Great, recognizing Guibert's
+ability, showed great favour to the young colonel and freely discussed
+military questions with him. Guibert's _Journal d'un voyage en
+Allemagne_ was published, with a memoir, by Toulongeon (Paris, 1803).
+His _Defense du systeme de guerre moderne_, a reply to his many critics
+(Neuchatel, 1779) is a reasoned and scientific defence of the Prussian
+method of tactics, which formed the basis of his work when in 1775 he
+began to co-operate with the count de St Germain in a series of
+much-needed and successful reforms in the French army. In 1777, however,
+St Germain fell into disgrace, and his fall involved that of Guibert who
+was promoted to the rank of _marechal de camp_ and relegated to a
+provincial staff appointment. In his semi-retirement he vigorously
+defended his old chief St Germain against his detractors. On the eve of
+the Revolution he was recalled to the War Office, but in his turn he
+became the object of attack and he died, practically of disappointment,
+on the 6th of May 1790. Other works of Guibert, besides those mentioned,
+are: _Observations sur la constitution politique et militaire des armees
+de S. M. Prussienne_ (Amsterdam, 1778), _Eloges_ of Marshal Catinat
+(1775), of Michel de l'Hopital (1778), and of Frederick the Great
+(1787). Guibert was a member of the Academy from 1786, and he also wrote
+a tragedy, _Le Connetable de Bourbon_ (1775) and a journal of travels in
+France and Switzerland.
+
+  See Toulongeon, _Eloge veridique de Guibert_ (Paris, 1790); Madame de
+  Stael, _Eloge de Guibert_; Bardin, _Notice historique du general
+  Guibert_ (Paris, 1836); Flavian d'Aldeguier, _Discours sur la vie et
+  les ecrits du comte de Guibert_ (Toulouse, 1855); Count Forestie,
+  _Biographie du comte de Guibert_ (Montauban, 1855); Count zur Lippe,
+  "Friedr. der Grosse und Oberst Guibert" (_Militar-Wochenblatt_, 1873,
+  9 and 10).
+
+
+
+
+GUICCIARDINI, FRANCESCO (1483-1540), the celebrated Italian historian
+and statesman, was born at Florence in the year 1483, when Marsilio
+Ficino held him at the font of baptism. His family was illustrious and
+noble; and his ancestors for many generations had held the highest posts
+of honour in the state, as may be seen in his own genealogical _Ricordi
+autobiografici e di famiglia_ (_Op. ined._ vol. x.). After the usual
+education of a boy in grammar and elementary classical studies, his
+father, Piero, sent him to the universities of Ferrara and Padua, where
+he stayed until the year 1505. The death of an uncle, who had occupied
+the see of Cortona with great pomp, induced the young Guicciardini to
+hanker after an ecclesiastical career. He already saw the scarlet of a
+cardinal awaiting him, and to this eminence he would assuredly have
+risen. His father, however, checked this ambition, declaring that,
+though he had five sons, he would not suffer one of them to enter the
+church in its then state of corruption and debasement. Guicciardini,
+whose motives were confessedly ambitious (see _Ricordi, Op. ined._ x.
+68), turned his attention to law, and at the age of twenty-three was
+appointed by the Signoria of Florence to read the _Institutes_ in
+public. Shortly afterwards he engaged himself in marriage to Maria,
+daughter of Alamanno Salviati, prompted, as he frankly tells us, by the
+political support which an alliance with that great family would bring
+him (ib. x. 71). He was then practising at the bar, where he won so much
+distinction that the Signoria, in 1512, entrusted him with an embassy to
+the court of Ferdinand the Catholic. Thus he entered on the real work of
+his life as a diplomatist and statesman. His conduct upon that legation
+was afterwards severely criticized; for his political antagonists
+accused him of betraying the true interests of the commonwealth, and
+using his influence for the restoration of the exiled house of Medici to
+power. His Spanish correspondence with the Signoria (_Op. ined._ vol.
+vi.) reveals the extraordinary power of observation and analysis which
+was a chief quality of his mind; and in Ferdinand, hypocritical and
+profoundly dissimulative, he found a proper object for his scientific
+study. To suppose that the young statesman learned his frigid statecraft
+in Spain would be perhaps too simple a solution of the problem offered
+by his character, and scarcely fair to the Italian proficients in
+perfidy. It is clear from Guicciardini's autobiographical memoirs that
+he was ambitious, calculating, avaricious and power-loving from his
+earliest years; and in Spain he had no more than an opportunity of
+studying on a large scale those political vices which already ruled the
+minor potentates of Italy. Still the school was pregnant with
+instructions for so apt a pupil. Guicciardini issued from this first
+trial of his skill with an assured reputation for diplomatic ability, as
+that was understood in Italy. To unravel plots and weave counterplots;
+to meet treachery with fraud; to parry force with sleights of hand; to
+credit human nature with the basest motives, while the blackest crimes
+were contemplated with cold enthusiasm for their cleverness, was
+reckoned then the height of political sagacity. Guicciardini could play
+the game to perfection. In 1515 Leo X. took him into service, and made
+him governor of Reggio and Modena. In 1521 Parma was added to his rule,
+and in 1523 he was appointed viceregent of Romagna by Clement VII. These
+high offices rendered Guicciardini the virtual master of the papal
+states beyond the Apennines, during a period of great bewilderment and
+difficulty. The copious correspondence relating to his administration
+has recently been published (_Op. ined._ vols. vii., viii.). In 1526
+Clement gave him still higher rank as lieutenant-general of the papal
+army. While holding this commission, he had the humiliation of
+witnessing from a distance the sack of Rome and the imprisonment of
+Clement, without being able to rouse the perfidious duke of Urbino into
+activity. The blame of Clement's downfall did not rest with him; for it
+was merely his duty to attend the camp, and keep his master informed of
+the proceedings of the generals (see the Correspondence, _Op. ined._
+vols. iv., v.). Yet Guicciardini's conscience accused him, for he had
+previously counselled the pope to declare war, as he notes in a curious
+letter to himself written in 1527 (_Op. ined._, x. 104). Clement did
+not, however, withdraw his confidence, and in 1531 Guicciardini was
+advanced to the governorship of Bologna, the most important of all the
+papallord-lieutenancies (Correspondence, _Op. ined._ vol. ix.). This
+post he resigned in 1534 on the election of Paul III., preferring to
+follow the fortunes of the Medicean princes. It may here be noticed that
+though Guicciardini served three popes through a period of twenty years,
+or perhaps because of this, he hated the papacy with a deep and frozen
+bitterness, attributing the woes of Italy to the ambition of the church,
+and declaring he had seen enough of sacerdotal abominations to make him
+a Lutheran (see _Op. ined._ i. 27, 104, 96, and _Ist. d' It._, ed. Ros.,
+ii. 218). The same discord between his private opinions and his public
+actions may be traced in his conduct subsequent to 1534. As a political
+theorist, Guicciardini believed that the best form of government was a
+commonwealth administered upon the type of the Venetian constitution
+(_Op. ined._ i. 6; ii. 130 sq.); and we have ample evidence to prove
+that he had judged the tyranny of the Medici at its true worth (_Op.
+ined._ i. 171, on the tyrant; the whole _Storia Fiorentina_ and
+_Reggimento di Firenze_, ib. i. and iii., on the Medici). Yet he did not
+hesitate to place his powers at the disposal of the most vicious members
+of that house for the enslavement of Florence. In 1527 he had been
+declared a rebel by the Signoria on account of his well-known Medicean
+prejudices; and in 1530, deputed by Clement to punish the citizens after
+their revolt, he revenged himself with a cruelty and an avarice that
+were long and bitterly remembered. When, therefore, he returned to
+inhabit Florence in 1534, he did so as the creature of the dissolute
+Alessandro de' Medici. Guicciardini pushed his servility so far as to
+defend this infamous despot at Naples in 1535, before the bar of Charles
+V., from the accusations brought against him by the Florentine exiles
+(_Op. ined._ vol. ix.). He won his cause; but in the eyes of all
+posterity he justified the reproaches of his contemporaries, who
+describe him as a cruel, venal, grasping seeker after power, eager to
+support a despotism for the sake of honours, offices and emoluments
+secured for himself by a bargain with the oppressors of his country.
+Varchi, Nardi, Jacopo Pitti and Bernardo Segni are unanimous upon this
+point; but it is only the recent publication of Guicciardini's private
+MSS. that has made us understand the force of their invectives. To plead
+loyalty or honest political conviction in defence of his Medicean
+partianship is now impossible, face to face with the opinions expressed
+in the _Ricordi politici_ and the _Storia Fiorentina_. Like Machiavelli,
+but on a lower level, Guicciardini was willing to "roll stones," or to
+do any dirty work for masters whom, in the depth of his soul, he
+detested and despised. After the murder of Duke Alessandro in 1537,
+Guicciardini espoused the cause of Cosimo de' Medici, a boy addicted to
+field sports, and unused to the game of statecraft. The wily old
+diplomatist hoped to rule Florence as grand vizier under this
+inexperienced princeling. He was mistaken, however, in his schemes, for
+Cosimo displayed the genius of his family for politics, and coldly
+dismissed his would-be lord-protector. Guicciardini retired in disgrace
+to his villa, where he spent his last years in the composition of the
+_Storia d'Italia_. He died in 1540 without male heirs.
+
+Guicciardini was the product of a cynical and selfish age, and his life
+illustrated its sordid influences. Of a cold and worldly temperament,
+devoid of passion, blameless in his conduct as the father of a family,
+faithful as the servant of his papal patrons, severe in the
+administration of the provinces committed to his charge, and
+indisputably able in his conduct of affairs, he was at the same time,
+and in spite of these qualities, a man whose moral nature inspires a
+sentiment of liveliest repugnance. It is not merely that he was
+ambitious, cruel, revengeful and avaricious, for these vices have
+existed in men far less antipathetic than Guicciardini. Over and above
+those faults, which made him odious to his fellow-citizens, we trace in
+him a meanness that our century is less willing to condone. His
+phlegmatic and persistent egotism, his sacrifice of truth and honour to
+self-interest, his acquiescence in the worst conditions of the world, if
+only he could use them for his own advantage, combined with the glaring
+discord between his opinions and his practice, form a character which
+would be contemptible in our eyes were it not so sinister. The social
+and political decrepitude of Italy, where patriotism was unknown, and
+only selfishness survived of all the motives that rouse men to action,
+found its representative and exponent in Guicciardini. When we turn from
+the man to the author, the decadence of the age and race that could
+develop a political philosophy so arid in its cynical despair of any
+good in human nature forces itself vividly upon our notice. Guicciardini
+seems to glory in his disillusionment, and uses his vast intellectual
+ability for the analysis of the corruption he had helped to make
+incurable. If one single treatise of that century should be chosen to
+represent the spirit of the Italian people in the last phase of the
+Renaissance, the historian might hesitate between the _Principe_ of
+Machiavelli and the _Ricordi politici_ of Guicciardini. The latter is
+perhaps preferable to the former on the score of comprehensiveness. It
+is, moreover, more exactly adequate to the actual situation, for the
+_Principe_ has a divine spark of patriotism yet lingering in the cinders
+of its frigid science, an idealistic enthusiasm surviving in its moral
+aberrations; whereas a great Italian critic of this decade has justly
+described the _Ricordi_ as "Italian corruption codified and elevated to
+a rule of life." Guicciardini is, however, better known as the author of
+the _Storia d'Italia_, that vast and detailed picture of his country's
+sufferings between the years 1494 and 1532. Judging him by this
+masterpiece of scientific history, he deserves less commendation as a
+writer than as a thinker and an analyst. The style is wearisome and
+prolix, attaining to precision at the expense of circumlocution, and
+setting forth the smallest particulars with the same distinctness as the
+main features of the narrative. The whole tangled skein of Italian
+politics, in that involved and stormy period, is unravelled with a
+patience and an insight that are above praise. It is the crowning merit
+of the author that he never ceases to be an impartial spectator--a cold
+and curious critic. We might compare him to an anatomist, with knife and
+scalpel dissecting the dead body of Italy, and pointing out the symptoms
+of her manifold diseases with the indifferent analysis of one who has no
+moral sensibility. This want of feeling, while it renders Guicciardini a
+model for the scientific student, has impaired the interest of his
+history. Though he lived through that agony of the Italian people, he
+does not seem to be aware that he is writing a great historical tragedy.
+He takes as much pains in laying bare the trifling causes of a petty war
+with Pisa as in probing the deep-seated ulcer of the papacy. Nor is he
+capable of painting the events in which he took a part, in their
+totality as a drama. Whatever he touches, lies already dead on the
+dissecting table, and his skill is that of the analytical pathologist.
+Consequently, he fails to understand the essential magnitude of the
+task, or to appreciate the vital vigour of the forces contending in
+Europe for mastery. This is very noticeable in what he writes about the
+Reformation. Notwithstanding these defects, inevitable in a writer of
+Guicciardini's temperament, the _Storia d'Italia_ was undoubtedly the
+greatest historical work that had appeared since the beginning of the
+modern era. It remains the most solid monument of the Italian reason in
+the 16th century, the final triumph of that Florentine school of
+philosophical historians which included Machiavelli, Segni, Pitti,
+Nardi, Varchi, Francesco Vettori and Donato Giannotti. Up to the year
+1857 the fame of Guicciardini as a writer, and the estimation of him as
+a man, depended almost entirely upon the _History of Italy_, and on a
+few ill-edited extracts from his aphorisms. At that date his
+representatives, the counts Piero and Luigi Guicciardini, opened their
+family archives, and committed to Signor Giuseppe Canestrini the
+publication of his hitherto inedited MSS. in ten important volumes. The
+vast mass of documents and finished literary work thus given to the
+world has thrown a flood of light upon Guicciardini, whether we consider
+him as author or as citizen. It has raised his reputation as a political
+philosopher into the first rank, where he now disputes the place of
+intellectual supremacy with his friend Machiavelli; but it has coloured
+our moral judgment of his character and conduct with darker dyes. From
+the stores of valuable materials contained in those ten volumes, it will
+be enough here to cite (1) the _Ricordi politici_, already noticed,
+consisting of about 400 aphorisms on political and social topics; (2)
+the observations on Machiavelli's _Discorsi_, which bring into
+remarkable relief the views of Italy's two great theorists on statecraft
+in the 16th century, and show that Guicciardini regarded Machiavelli
+somewhat as an amiable visionary or political enthusiast; (3) the
+_Storia Fiorentina_, an early work of the author, distinguished by its
+animation of style, brilliancy of portraiture, and liberality of
+judgment; and (4) the _Dialogo del reggimento di Firenze_, also in all
+probability an early work, in which the various forms of government
+suited to an Italian commonwealth are discussed with infinite subtlety,
+contrasted, and illustrated from the vicissitudes of Florence up to the
+year 1494. To these may be added a series of short essays, entitled
+_Discorsi politici_, composed during Guicciardini's Spanish legation. It
+is only after a careful perusal of these minor works that the student of
+history may claim to have comprehended Guicciardini, and may feel that
+he brings with him to the consideration of the _Storia d' Italia_ the
+requisite knowledge of the author's private thoughts and jealously
+guarded opinions. Indeed, it may be confidently affirmed that those who
+desire to gain an insight into the true principles and feelings of the
+men who made and wrote history in the 16th century will find it here far
+more than in the work designed for publication by the writer. Taken in
+combination with Machiavelli's treatises, the _Opere inedite_ furnish a
+comprehensive body of Italian political philosophy anterior to the date
+of Fra Paolo Sarpi. (J. A. S.)
+
+  See Rosini's edition oi the _Storia d' Italia_ (10 vols., Pisa, 1819),
+  and the _Opere inedite_, in 10 vols., published at Florence, 1857. A
+  complete and initial edition of Guicciardini's works is now in
+  preparation in the hands of Alessandro Gherardi of the Florence
+  archives. Among the many studies on Guicciardini we may mention
+  Agostino Rossi's _Francesco Guicciardini e il governo Fiorentino_ (2
+  vols., Bologna, 1896), based on many new documents; F. de Sanctis's
+  essay "L'Uomo del Guicciardini," in his _Nuovi Saggi critici_ (Naples,
+  1879), and many passages in Professor P. Villari's _Machiavelli_ (Eng.
+  trans., 1892); E. Benoist's _Guichardin, historien et homme d'etat
+  italien an XVI^e siecle_ (Paris, 1862), and C. Gioda's _Francesco
+  Guicciardini e le sue opere inedite_ (Bologna, 1880) are not without
+  value, but the authors had not had access to many important documents
+  since published. See also Geoffrey's article "Une Autobiographie de
+  Guichardin d'apres ses oeuvres inedites," in the _Revue des deux
+  mondes_ (1st of February 1874).
+
+
+
+
+GUICHARD, KARL GOTTLIEB (1724-1775), soldier and military writer, known
+as QUINTUS ICILIUS, was born at Magdeburg in 1724, of a family of French
+refugees. He was educated for the Church, and at Leiden actually
+preached a sermon as a candidate for the pastorate. But he abandoned
+theology for more secular studies, especially that of ancient history,
+in which his learning attracted the notice of the prince of Orange, who
+promised him a vacant professorship at Utrecht. On his arrival, however,
+he found that another scholar had been elected by the local authorities,
+and he thereupon sought and obtained a commission in the Dutch army. He
+made the campaigns of 1747-48 in the Low Countries. In the peace which
+followed, his combined military and classical training turned his
+thoughts in the direction of ancient military history. His notes on this
+subject grew into a treatise, and in 1754 he went over to England in
+order to consult various libraries. In 1757 his _Memoires militaires sur
+les Grecs et les Romains_ appeared at the Hague, and when Carlyle wrote
+his _Frederick the Great_ it had reached its fifth edition. Coming back,
+with English introductions, to the Continent, he sought service with
+Ferdinand of Brunswick, who sent him on to Frederick the Great, whom he
+joined in January 1758 at Breslau. The king was very favourably
+impressed with Guichard and his works, and he remained for nearly 18
+months in the royal suite. His Prussian official name of Quintus Icilius
+was the outcome of a friendly dispute with the king (see Nikolai,
+_Anekdoten_, vi. 129-145; Carlyle, _Frederick the Great_, viii.
+113-114). Frederick in discussing the battle of Pharsalia spoke of a
+centurion Quintus Caecilius as Q. Icilius. Guichard ventured to correct
+him, whereupon the king said, "_You_ shall be Quintus Icilius," and as
+Major Quintus Icilius he was forthwith gazetted to the command of a free
+battalion. This corps he commanded throughout the later stages of the
+Seven Years' War, his battalion, as time went on, becoming a regiment of
+three battalions, and Quintus himself recruited seven more battalions of
+the same kind of troops. His command was almost always with the king's
+own army in these campaigns, but for a short time it fought in the
+western theatre under Prince Henry. When not on the march he was always
+at the royal headquarters, and it was he who brought about the famous
+interview between the king and Gellert (see Carlyle, _Frederick the
+Great_, ix. 109; Gellert, _Briefwechsel mit Demoiselle Lucius_, ed.
+Ebert, Leipzig, 1823, pp. 629-631) on the subject of national German
+literature. On 22nd January 1761 Quintus was ordered to sack the castle
+of Hubertusburg (a task which Major-General Saldern had point-blank
+refused to undertake, from motives of conscience), and carried out his
+task, it is said, to his own very considerable profit. The place cannot
+have been seriously injured, as it was soon afterwards the meeting-place
+of the diplomatists whose work ended in the peace of Hubertusburg, but
+the king never ceased to banter Quintus on his supposed depredations.
+The very day of Frederick's triumphant return from the war saw the
+disbanding of most of the free battalions, including that of Quintus,
+but the major to the end of his life remained with the king. He was made
+lieutenant-colonel in 1765, and in 1773, in recognition of his work
+_Memoires critiques et historiques sur plusieurs points d'antiquites
+militaires_, dealing mainly with Caesar's campaigns in Spain (Berlin,
+1773), was promoted colonel. He died at Potsdam, 1775.
+
+
+
+
+GUICHEN, LUC URBAIN DE BOUEXIC, COMTE DE (1712-1790), French admiral,
+entered the navy in 1730 as "garde de la Marine," the first rank in the
+corps of royal officers. His promotion was not rapid. It was not till
+1748 that he became "lieutenant de vaisseau," which was, however, a
+somewhat higher rank than the lieutenant in the British navy, since it
+carried with it the right to command a frigate. He was "capitaine de
+vaisseau," or post captain, in 1756. But his reputation must have been
+good, for he was made chevalier de Saint Louis in 1748. In 1775 he was
+appointed to the frigate "Terpsichore," attached to the training
+squadron, in which the duc de Chartres, afterwards notorious as the duc
+d'Orleans and as Philippe Egalite, was entered as volunteer. In the next
+year he was promoted chef d'escadre, or rear-admiral. When France had
+become the ally of the Americans in the War of Independence, he hoisted
+his flag in the Channel fleet, and was present at the battle of Ushant
+on the 27th of July 1779. In March of the following year he was sent to
+the West Indies with a strong squadron and was there opposed to Sir
+George Rodney. In the first meeting between them on the 17th of April to
+leeward of Martinique, Guichen escaped disaster only through the clumsy
+manner in which Sir George's orders were executed by his captains.
+Seeing that he had to deal with a formidable opponent, Guichen acted
+with extreme caution, and by keeping the weather gauge afforded the
+British admiral no chance of bringing him to close action. When the
+hurricane months approached (July to September) he left the West Indies,
+and his squadron, being in a bad state from want of repairs, returned
+home, reaching Brest in September. Throughout all this campaign Guichen
+had shown himself very skilful in handling a fleet, and if he had not
+gained any marked success, he had prevented the British admiral from
+doing any harm to the French islands in the Antilles. In December 1781
+the comte de Guichen was chosen to command the force which was entrusted
+with the duty of carrying stores and reinforcements to the West Indies.
+On the 12th Admiral Kempenfelt, who had been sent out by the British
+Government with an unduly weak force to intercept him, sighted the
+French admiral in the Bay of Biscay through a temporary clearance in a
+fog, at a moment when Guichen's warships were to leeward of the convoy,
+and attacked the transports at once. The French admiral could not
+prevent his enemy from capturing twenty of the transports, and driving
+the others into a panic-stricken flight. They returned to port, and the
+mission entrusted to Guichen was entirely defeated. He therefore
+returned to port also. He had no opportunity to gain any
+counterbalancing success during the short remainder of the war, but he
+was present at the final relief of Gibraltar by Lord Howe. His death
+occurred on the 13th of January 1790. The comte de Guichen was, by the
+testimony of his contemporaries, a most accomplished and high-minded
+gentleman. It is probable that he had more scientific knowledge than any
+of his English contemporaries and opponents. But as a commander in war
+he was notable chiefly for his skill in directing the orderly movements
+of a fleet, and seems to have been satisfied with formal operations,
+which were possibly elegant but could lead to no substantial result. He
+had none of the combative instincts of his countryman Suffren, or of the
+average British admiral.
+
+  See vicomte de Noailles, _Marins et soldats francais en Amerique_
+  (1903); and E. Chevalier, _Histoire de la marine francaise pendant la
+  guerre de l'independence americaine_ (1877).     (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. _gyde_, from the Fr. _guide_; the earlier French
+form was _guie_, English "guy," the _d_ was due to the Italian form
+_guida_; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being
+connected with the base seen in O. Eng. _witan_, to know), an agency for
+directing or showing the way, specifically a person who leads or directs
+a stranger over unknown or unmapped country, or conducts travellers and
+tourists through a town, or over buildings of interest. In European wars
+up to the time of the French Revolution, the absence of large scale
+detailed maps made local guides almost essential to the direction of
+military operations, and in the 18th century the general tendency to the
+stricter organization of military resources led in various countries to
+the special training of guide officers (called _Feldjager_, and
+considered as general staff officers in the Prussian army), whose chief
+duty it was to find, and if necessary establish, routes across country
+for those parts of the army that had to move parallel to the main road
+and as nearly as possible at deploying interval from each other, for in
+those days armies were rarely spread out so far as to have the use of
+two or more made roads. But the necessity for such precautions died away
+when adequate surveys (in which guide officers were, at any rate in
+Prussia, freely employed) were carried out, and, as a definite term of
+military organization to-day, "guide" possesses no more essential
+peculiarity than fusilier, grenadier or rifleman. The genesis of the
+modern "Guide" regiments is perhaps to be found in a short-lived Corps
+of Guides formed by Napoleon in Italy in 1796, which appears to have
+been a personal escort or body guard composed of men who knew the
+country. In the Belgian army of to-day the Guide regiments correspond
+almost to the Guard cavalry of other nations; in the Swiss army the
+squadrons of "Guides" act as divisional cavalry, and in this role
+doubtless are called upon on occasion to lead columns. The "Queen's own
+Corps of Guides" of the Indian army consists of infantry companies and
+cavalry squadrons. In drill, a "guide" is an officer or non-commissioned
+officer told off to regulate the direction and pace of movements, the
+remainder of the unit maintaining their alignment and distances by him.
+
+A particular class of guides are those employed in mountaineering; these
+are not merely to show the way but stand in the position of professional
+climbers with an expert knowledge of rock and snowcraft, which they
+impart to the amateur, at the same time assuring the safety of the
+climbing party in dangerous expeditions. This professional class of
+guides arose in the middle of the 19th century when Alpine climbing
+became recognized as a sport (see MOUNTAINEERING). It is thus natural to
+find that the Alpine guides have been requisitioned for mountaineering
+expeditions all over the world. In climbing in Switzerland, the central
+committee of the Swiss Alpine Club issues a guides' tariff which fixes
+the charges for guides and porters; there are three sections, for the
+Valais and Vaudois Alps, for the Bernese Oberland, and for central and
+eastern Switzerland. The names of many of the great guides have become
+historical. In Chamonix a statue has been raised to Jacques Balmat, who
+was the first to climb Mont Blanc in 1786. Of the more famous guides
+since the beginning of Alpine climbing may be mentioned Auguste Balmat,
+Michel Cros, Maquignay, J. A. Carrel, who went with E. Whymper to the
+Andes, the brothers Lauener, Christian Almer and Jakob and Melchior
+Anderegg.
+
+"Guide" is also applied to a book, in the sense of an elementary primer
+on some subject, or of one giving full information for travellers of a
+country, district or town. In mechanical usage, the term "guide" is of
+wide application, being used of anything which steadies or directs the
+motion of an object, as of the "leading" screw of a screw-cutting lathe,
+of a loose pulley used to steady a driving-belt, or of the bars or rods
+in a steam-engine which keep the sliding blocks moving in a straight
+line. The doublet "guy" is thus used of a rope which steadies a sail
+when it is being raised or lowered, or of a rope, chain or stay
+supporting a funnel, mast, derrick, &c.
+
+
+
+
+GUIDI, CARLO ALESSANDRO (1650-1712), Italian lyric poet, was born at
+Pavia in 1650. As chief founder of the well-known Roman academy called
+"L'Arcadia," he had a considerable share in the reform of Italian
+poetry, corrupted at that time by the extravagance and bad taste of the
+poets Marini and Achillini and their school. The poet Guidi and the
+critic and jurisconsult Gravina checked this evil by their influence and
+example. The genius of Guidi was lyric in the highest degree; his songs
+are written with singular force, and charm the reader, in spite of
+touches of bombast. His most celebrated song is that entitled _Alla
+Fortuna_ (To Fortune), which certainly is one of the most beautiful
+pieces of poetry of the 17th century. Guidi was squint-eyed, humpbacked,
+and of a delicate constitution, but possessed undoubted literary
+ability. His poems were printed at Parma in 1671, and at Rome in 1704.
+In 1681 he published at Parma his lyric tragedy _Amalasunta in Italy_,
+and two pastoral dramas _Daphne_ and _Endymion_. The last had the honour
+of being mentioned as a model by the critic Gravina, in his treatise on
+poetry. Less fortunate was Guidi's poetical version of the six homilies
+of Pope Clement XI., first as having been severely criticized by the
+satirist Settano, and next as having proved to be the indirect cause of
+the author's death. A splendid edition of this version had been printed
+in 1712, and, the pope being then in San Gandolfo, Guidi went there to
+present him with a copy. On the way he found out a serious typographical
+error, which he took so much to heart that he was seized with an
+apoplectic fit at Frascati and died on the spot. Guidi was honoured with
+the special protection of Ranuccio II., duke of Parma, and of Queen
+Christina of Sweden.
+
+
+
+
+GUIDICCIONI, GIOVANNI (1480-1541), Italian poet, was born at Lucca in
+1480, and died at Macerata in 1541. He occupied a high position, being
+bishop of Fossombrone and president of Romagna. The latter office nearly
+cost him his life; a murderer attempted to kill him, and had already
+touched his breast with his dagger when, conquered by the resolute
+calmness of the prelate, he threw away the weapon and fell at his feet,
+asking forgiveness. The _Rime_ and _Letters_ of Guidiccioni are models
+of elegant and natural Italian style. The best editions are those of
+Genoa (1749), Bergamo (1753) and Florence (1878).
+
+
+
+
+GUIDO OF AREZZO (possibly to be identified with Guido de St Maur des
+Fosses), a musician who lived in the 11th century. He has by many been
+called the father of modern music, and a portrait of him in the
+refectory of the monastery of Avellana bears the inscription _Beatus
+Guido, inventor musicae_. Of his life little is known, and that little
+is chiefly derived from the dedicatory letters prefixed to two of his
+treatises and addressed respectively to Bishop Theodald (not Theobald,
+as Burney writes the name) of Arezzo, and Michael, a monk of Pomposa and
+Guido's pupil and friend. Occasional references to the celebrated
+musician in the works of his contemporaries are, however, by no means
+rare, and from these it may be conjectured with all but absolute
+certainty that Guido was born in the last decade of the 10th century.
+The place of his birth is uncertain in spite of some evidence pointing
+to Arezzo; on the title-page of all his works he is styled _Guido
+Aretinus_, or simply _Aretinus_. At his first appearance in history
+Guido was a monk in the Benedictine monastery of Pomposa, and it was
+there that he taught singing and invented his educational method, by
+means of which, according to his own statement, a pupil might learn
+within five months what formerly it would have taken him ten years to
+acquire. Envy and jealousy, however, were his only reward, and by these
+he was compelled to leave his monastery--"inde est, quod me vides
+prolixis finibus exulatum," as he says himself in the second of the
+letters above referred to. According to one account, he travelled as far
+as Bremen, called there by Archbishop Hermann in order to reform the
+musical service. But this statement has been doubted. Certain it is that
+not long after his flight from Pomposa Guido was living at Arezzo, and
+it was here that, about 1030, he received an invitation to Rome from
+Pope John XIV. He obeyed the summons, and the pope himself became his
+first and apparently one of his most proficient pupils. But in spite of
+his success Guido could not be induced to remain in Rome, the
+insalubrious air of which seems to have affected his health. In Rome he
+met again his former superior, the abbot of Pomposa, who seems to have
+repented of his conduct, and to have induced Guido to return to Pomposa;
+and here all authentic records of Guido's life cease. We only know that
+he died, on the 17th of May 1050, as prior of Avellana, a monastery of
+the Camaldulians; such at least is the statement of the chroniclers of
+that order. It ought, however, to be added that the Camaldulians claim
+the celebrated musician as wholly their own, and altogether deny his
+connexion with the Benedictines.
+
+The documents discovered by Dom Germain Morin, the Belgian Benedictine,
+about 1888, point to the conclusion that Guido was a Frenchman and lived
+from his youth upwards in the Benedictine monastery of St Maur des
+Fosses where he invented his novel system of notation and taught the
+brothers to sing by it. In codex 763 of the British Museum the composer
+of the "Micrologus" and other works by Guido of Arezzo is always
+described as Guido de Sancto Mauro.
+
+There is no doubt that Guido's method shows considerable progress in the
+evolution of modern notation. It was he who for the first time
+systematically used the lines of the staff, and the intervals or
+_spatia_ between them. There is also little doubt that the names of the
+first six notes of the scale, _ut_, _re_, _mi_, _fa_, _sol_, _la_, still
+in use among Romance nations, were introduced by Guido, although he
+seems to have used them in a relative rather than in an absolute sense.
+It is well known that these words are the first syllables of six lines
+of a hymn addressed to St John the Baptist, which may be given here:--
+
+  _Ut_ queant laxis   _re_sonare fibris
+  _Mi_ra gestorum     _fa_muli tuorum,
+  _Sol_ve polluti     _la_bii reatum,
+             Sancte Joannes.
+
+In addition to this Guido is generally credited with the introduction of
+the F clef. But more important than all this, perhaps, is the thoroughly
+practical tone which Guido assumes in his theoretical writings, and
+which differs greatly from the clumsy scholasticism of his
+contemporaries and predecessors.
+
+  The most important of Guido's treatises, and those which are generally
+  acknowledged to be authentic, are _Micrologus Guidonis de disciplina
+  artis musicae_, dedicated to Bishop Theodald of Arezzo, and comprising
+  a complete theory of music, in 20 chapters; _Musicae Guidonis regulae
+  rhythmicae in antiphonarii sui prologum prolatae_, written in trochaic
+  decasyllabics of anything but classical structure; _Aliae Guidonis
+  regulae de ignoto cantu, identidem in antiphonarii sui prologum
+  prolatae_; and the _Epistola Guidonis Michaeli monacho de ignoto
+  cantu_, already referred to. These are published in the second volume
+  of Gerbert's _Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra_. A very
+  important manuscript unknown to Gerbert (the _Codex bibliothecae
+  Uticensis_, in the Paris library) contains, besides minor treatises,
+  an antiphonarium and gradual undoubtedly belonging to Guido.
+
+  See also L. Angeloni, _G. d'Arezzo_ (1811); Kiesewetter, _Guido von
+  Arezzo_ (1840); Kornmuller, "Leben und Werken Guidos von Arezzo," in
+  Habert's _Jahrb._ (1876); Antonio Brandi, _G. Aretino_ (1882); G. B.
+  Ristori, _Biografia di Guido monaco d'Arezzo_ (1868).
+
+
+
+
+GUIDO OF SIENA. The name of this Italian painter is of considerable
+interest in the history of art, on the ground that, if certain
+assumptions regarding him could be accepted as true, he would be
+entitled to share with Cimabue, or rather indeed to supersede him in,
+the honour of having given the first onward impulse to the art of
+painting. The case stands thus. In the church of S. Domenico in Siena is
+a large painting of the "Virgin and Child Enthroned," with six angels
+above, and in the Benedictine convent of the same city is a triangular
+pinnacle, once a portion of the same composition, representing the
+Saviour in benediction, with two angels; the entire work was originally
+a triptych, but is not so now. The principal section of this picture has
+a rhymed Latin inscription, giving the painter's name as Gu ... o de
+Senis, with the date 1221: the genuineness of the inscription is not,
+however, free from doubt, and especially it is maintained that the date
+really reads as 1281. In the general treatment of the picture there is
+nothing to distinguish it particularly from other work of the same early
+period; but the heads of the Virgin and Child are indisputably very
+superior, in natural character and graceful dignity, to anything to be
+found anterior to Cimabue. The question therefore arises, Are these
+heads really the work of a man who painted in 1221? Crowe and
+Cavalcaselle pronounce in the negative, concluding that the heads are
+repainted, and are, as they now stand, due to some artist of the 14th
+century, perhaps Ugolino da Siena; thus the claims of Cimabue would
+remain undisturbed and in their pristine vigour. Beyond this, little is
+known of Guido da Siena. There is in the Academy of Siena a picture
+assigned to him, a half-figure of the "Virgin and Child," with two
+angels, dating probably between 1250 and 1300; also in the church of S.
+Bernardino in the same city a Madonna dated 1262. Milanesi thinks that
+the work in S. Domenico is due to Guido Graziani, of whom no other
+record remains earlier than 1278, when he is mentioned as the painter of
+a banner. Guido da Siena appears always to have painted on panel, not in
+fresco on the wall. He has been termed, very dubiously, a pupil of
+Pietrolino, and the master of "Diotisalvi," Mino da Turrita and
+Berlinghieri da Lucca.
+
+
+
+
+GUIDO RENI (1575-1642), a prime master in the Bolognese school of
+painting, and one of the most admired artists of the period of incipient
+decadence in Italy, was born at Calvenzano near Bologna on the 4th of
+November 1575. His father was a musician of repute, a player on the
+flageolet; he wished to bring the lad up to perform on the harpsichord.
+At a very childish age, however, Guido displayed a determined bent
+towards the art of form, scribbling some attempt at a drawing here,
+there and everywhere. He was only nine years of age when Denis Calvart
+took notice of him, received him into his academy of design by the
+father's permission, and rapidly brought him forward, so that by the age
+of thirteen Guido had already attained marked proficiency. Albani and
+Domenichino became soon afterwards pupils in the same academy. With
+Albani Guido was very intimate up to the earlier period of manhood, but
+they afterwards became rivals, both as painters and as heads of
+ateliers, with a good deal of asperity on Albani's part; Domenichino was
+also pitted against Reni by the policy of Annibale Caracci. Guido was
+still in the academy of Calvart when he began frequenting the opposition
+school kept by Lodovico Caracci, whose style, far in advance of that of
+the Flemish painter, he dallied with. This exasperated Calvart. Him
+Guido, not yet twenty years of age, cheerfully quitted, transferring
+himself openly to the Caracci academy, in which he soon became
+prominent, being equally skilful and ambitious. He had not been a year
+with the Caracci when a work of his excited the wonder of Agostino and
+the jealousy of Annibale. Lodovico cherished him, and frequently painted
+him as an angel, for the youthful Reni was extremely handsome. After a
+while, however, Lodovico also felt himself nettled, and he patronized
+the competing talents of Giovanni Barbiere. On one occasion Guido had
+made a copy of Annibale's "Descent from the Cross"; Annibale was asked
+to retouch it, and, finding nothing to do, exclaimed pettishly, "He
+knows more than enough" ("Costui ne sa troppo"). On another occasion
+Lodovico, consulted as umpire, lowered a price which Reni asked for an
+early picture. This slight determined the young man to be a pupil no
+more. He left the Caracci, and started on his own account as a
+competitor in the race for patronage and fame. A renowned work, the
+story of "Callisto and Diana," had been completed before he left.
+
+Guido was faithful to the eclectic principle of the Bolognese school of
+painting. He had appropriated something from Calvart, much more from
+Lodovico Caracci; he studied with much zest after Albert Durer; he
+adopted the massive, sombre and partly uncouth manner of Caravaggio. One
+day Annibale Caracci made the remark that a style might be formed
+reversing that of Caravaggio in such matters as the ponderous shadows
+and the gross common forms; this observation germinated in Guido's mind,
+and he endeavoured after some such style, aiming constantly at suavity.
+Towards 1602 he went to Rome with Albani, and Rome remained his
+headquarters for twenty years. Here, in the pontificate of Paul V.
+(Borghese), he was greatly noted and distinguished. In the garden-house
+of the Rospigliosi Palace he painted the vast fresco which is justly
+regarded as his masterpiece--"Phoebus and the Hours preceded by Aurora."
+This exhibits his second manner, in which he had deviated far indeed
+from the promptings of Caravaggio. He founded now chiefly upon the
+antique, more especially the Niobe group and the "Venus de' Medici,"
+modified by suggestions from Raphael, Correggio, Parmigiano and Paul
+Veronese. Of this last painter, although on the whole he did not get
+much from him, Guido was a particular admirer; he used to say that he
+would rather have been Paul Veronese than any other master--Paul was
+more nature than art. The "Aurora" is beyond doubt a work of pre-eminent
+beauty and attainment; it is stamped with pleasurable dignity, and,
+without being effeminate, has a more uniform aim after graceful
+selectness than can readily be traced in previous painters, greatly
+superior though some of them had been in impulse and personal fervour of
+genius. The pontifical chapel of Montecavallo was assigned to Reni to
+paint; but, being straitened in payments by the ministers, the artist
+made off to Bologna. He was fetched back by Paul V. with ceremonious
+eclat, and lodging, living and equipage were supplied to him. At another
+time he migrated from Rome to Naples, having received a commission to
+paint the chapel of S. Gennaro. The notorious cabal of three painters
+resident in Naples--Corenzio, Caracciolo and Ribera--offered, however,
+as stiff an opposition to Guido as to some other interlopers who
+preceded and succeeded him. They gave his servant a beating by the hands
+of two unknown bullies, and sent by him a message to his master to
+depart or prepare for death; Guido waited for no second warning, and
+departed. He now returned to Rome; but he finally left that city
+abruptly, in the pontificate of Urban VIII., in consequence of an
+offensive reprimand administered to him by Cardinal Spinola. He had
+received an advance of 400 scudi on account of an altarpiece for St
+Peter's, but after some lapse of years had made no beginning with the
+work. A broad reminder from the cardinal put Reni on his mettle; he
+returned the 400 scudi, quitted Rome within a few days, and steadily
+resisted all attempts at recall. He now resettled in Bologna. He had
+taught as well as painted in Rome, and he left pupils behind him; but on
+the whole he did not stamp any great mark upon the Roman school of
+painting, apart from his own numerous works in the papal city.
+
+In Bologna Guido lived in great splendour, and established a celebrated
+school, numbering more than two hundred scholars. He himself drew in it,
+even down to his latest years. On first returning to this city, he
+charged about L21 for a full-length figure (mere portraits are not here
+in question), half this sum for a half-length, and L5 for a head. These
+prices must be regarded as handsome, when we consider that Domenichino
+about the same time received only L10, 10s. for his very large and
+celebrated picture, the "Last Communion of St Jerome." But Guido's
+reputation was still on the increase, and in process of time he
+quintupled his prices. He now left Bologna hardly at all; in one
+instance, however, he went off to Ravenna, and, along with three pupils,
+he painted the chapel in the cathedral with his admired picture of the
+"Israelites gathering Manna." His shining prosperity was not to last
+till the end. Guido was dissipated, generously but indiscriminately
+profuse, and an inveterate gambler. The gambling propensity had been his
+from youth, but until he became elderly it did not noticeably damage his
+fortunes. It grew upon him, and in a couple of evenings he lost the
+enormous sum of 14,400 scudi. The vice told still more ruinously on his
+art than on his character. In his decline he sold his time at so much
+per hour to certain picture dealers; one of them, the Shylock of his
+craft, would stand by, watch in hand, and see him work.
+Half-heartedness, half-performance, blighted his product:
+self-repetition and mere mannerism, with affectation for sentiment and
+vapidity for beauty, became the art of Guido. Some of these trade-works,
+heads or half-figures, were turned out in three hours or even less. It
+is said that, tardily wise, Reni left off gambling for nearly two
+years; at last he relapsed, and his relapse was followed not long
+afterwards by his death, caused by malignant fever. This event took
+place in Bologna on the 18th of August 1642; he died in debt, but was
+buried with great pomp in the church of S. Domenico.
+
+  Guido was personally modest, although he valued himself on his
+  position in the art, and would tolerate no slight in that relation; he
+  was extremely upright, temperate in diet, nice in his person and his
+  dress. He was fond of stately houses, but could feel also the charm of
+  solitude. In his temper there was a large amount of suspiciousness;
+  and the jealousy which his abilities and his successes excited, now
+  from the Caracci, now from Albani, now from the monopolizing league of
+  Neapolitan painters, may naturally have kept this feeling in active
+  exercise. Of his numerous scholars, Simone Cantarini, named II
+  Pesarese, counts as the most distinguished; he painted an admirable
+  head of Reni, now in the Bolognese Gallery. The portrait in the Uffizi
+  Gallery of Florence is from Reni's own hand. Two other good scholars
+  were Giacomo Semenza and Francesco Gessi.
+
+  The character of Guido's art is so well known as hardly to call for
+  detailed analysis, beyond what we have already intimated. His most
+  characteristic style exhibits a prepense ideal, of form rather than
+  character, with a slight mode of handling, and silvery, somewhat cold,
+  colour. In working from the nude he aimed at perfection of form,
+  especially marked in the hands and feet. But he was far from always
+  going to choice nature for his model; he transmuted _ad libitum_, and
+  painted, it is averred, a Magdalene of demonstrative charms from a
+  vulgar-looking colour-grinder. His best works have beauty, great
+  amenity, artistic feeling and high accomplishment of manner, all
+  alloyed by a certain core of commonplace; in the worst pictures the
+  commonplace swamps everything, and Guido has flooded European
+  galleries with trashy and empty pretentiousness, all the more noxious
+  in that its apparent grace of sentiment and form misleads the unwary
+  into approval, and the dilettante dabbler into cheap raptures. Both in
+  Rome and wherever else he worked he introduced increased softness of
+  style, which was then designated as the modern method. His pictures
+  are mostly Scriptural or mythologic in subject, and between two and
+  three hundred of them are to be found in various European
+  collections--more than a hundred of these containing life-sized
+  figures. The portraits which he executed are few--those of Sixtus V.,
+  Cardinal Spada and the so-called Beatrice Cenci being among the most
+  noticeable. The identity of the last-named portrait is very dubious;
+  it certainly cannot have been painted direct from Beatrice, who had
+  been executed in Rome before Guido ever resided there. Many etchings
+  are attributed to him--some from his own works, and some after other
+  masters; they are spirited, but rather negligent.
+
+  Of other works not already noticed, the following should be named:--in
+  Rome (the Vatican), the "Crucifixion of St Peter," an example of the
+  painter's earlier manner; in S. Lorenzo in Lucina, "Christ Crucified";
+  in Forli, the "Conception"; in Bologna, the "Alms of St Roch" (early),
+  the "Massacre of the Innocents," and the "Pieta, or Lament over the
+  Body of Christ" (in the church of the Mendicanti), which is by many
+  regarded as Guido's prime executive work; in the Dresden Gallery, an
+  "Ecce Homo"; in Milan (Brera Gallery), "Saints Peter and Paul"; in
+  Genoa (church of S. Ambrogio), the "Assumption of the Virgin"; in
+  Berlin, "St Paul the Hermit and St Anthony in the Wilderness." The
+  celebrated picture of "Fortune" (in the Capitol) is one of Reni's
+  finest treatments of female form; as a specimen of male form, the
+  "Samson Drinking from the Jawbone of an Ass" might be named beside it.
+  One of his latest works of mark is the "Ariadne," which used to be in
+  the Gallery of the Capitol. The Louvre contains twenty of his
+  pictures, the National Gallery of London seven, and others were once
+  there, now removed to other public collections. The most interesting
+  of the seven is the small "Coronation of the Virgin," painted on
+  copper, an elegantly finished work, more pretty than beautiful. It was
+  probably painted before the master quitted Bologna for Rome.
+
+  For the life and works of Guido Reni, see Bolognini, _Vita di Guido
+  Reni_ (1839); Passeri, _Vite de' pittori_; and Malvasia, _Felsina
+  Pittrice_; also Lanzi, _Storia pitiorica_.     (W. M. R.)
+
+
+
+
+GUIENNE, an old French province which corresponded roughly to the
+_Aquitania Secunda_ of the Romans and the archbishopric of Bordeaux. In
+the 12th century it formed with Gascony the duchy of Aquitaine, which
+passed under the dominion of the kings of England by the marriage of
+Eleanor of Aquitaine to Henry II.; but in the 13th, through the
+conquests of Philip Augustus, Louis VIII. and Louis IX., it was confined
+within the narrower limits fixed by the treaty of Paris (1259). It is at
+this point that Guienne becomes distinct from Aquitaine. It then
+comprised the Bordelais (the old countship of Bordeaux), the Bazadais,
+part of Perigord, Limousin, Quercy and Rouergue, the Agenais ceded by
+Philip III. (the Bold) to Edward I. (1279), and (still united with
+Gascony) formed a duchy extending from the Charente to the Pyrenees.
+This duchy was held on the terms of homage to the French kings, an
+onerous obligation; and both in 1296 and 1324 it was confiscated by the
+kings of France on the ground that there had been a failure in the
+feudal duties. At the treaty of Bretigny (1360) Edward III. acquired the
+full sovereignty of the duchy of Guienne, together with Aunis,
+Saintonge, Angoumois and Poitou. The victories of du Guesclin and Gaston
+Phoebus, count of Foix, restored the duchy soon after to its
+13th-century limits. In 1451 it was conquered and finally united to the
+French crown by Charles VII. In 1469 Louis XI. gave it in exchange for
+Champagne and Brie to his brother Charles, duke of Berry, after whose
+death in 1472 it was again united to the royal dominion. Guienne then
+formed a government which from the 17th century onwards was united with
+Gascony. The government of Guienne and Gascony, with its capital at
+Bordeaux, lasted till the end of the _ancien regime_. Under the
+Revolution the departments formed from Guienne proper were those of
+Gironde, Lot-et-Garonne, Dordogne, Lot, Aveyron and the chief part of
+Tarn-et-Garonne.
+
+
+
+
+GUIGNES, JOSEPH DE (1721-1800), French orientalist, was born at Pontoise
+on the 19th of October 1721. He succeeded Fourmont at the Royal Library
+as secretary interpreter of the Eastern languages. A _Memoire historique
+sur l'origine des Huns et des Turcs_, published by de Guignes in 1748,
+obtained his admission to the Royal Society of London in 1752, and he
+became an associate of the French Academy of Inscriptions in 1754. Two
+years later he began to publish his learned and laborious _Histoire
+generale des Huns, des Mongoles, des Turcs et des autres Tartares
+occidentaux_ (1756-1758); and in 1757 he was appointed to the chair of
+Syriac at the College de France. He maintained that the Chinese nation
+had originated in Egyptian colonization, an opinion to which, in spite
+of every argument, he obstinately clung. He died in Paris in 1800. The
+_Histoire_ had been translated into German by Dahnert (1768-1771). De
+Guignes left a son, Christian Louis Joseph (1759-1845), who, after
+learning Chinese from his father, went as consul to Canton, where he
+spent seventeen years. On his return to France he was charged by the
+government with the work of preparing a Chinese-French-Latin dictionary
+(1813). He was also the author of a work of travels (_Voyages a Pekin,
+Manille, et l'ile de France_, 1808).
+
+  See Querard, _La France litteraire_, where a list of the memoirs
+  contributed by de Guignes to the _Journal des savants_ is given.
+
+
+
+
+GUILBERT, YVETTE (1869-   ), French _diseuse_, was born in Paris. She
+served for two years until 1885 in the Magasin du Printemps, when, on
+the advice of the journalist, Edmond Stoullig, she trained for the stage
+under Landrol. She made her debut at the Bouffes du Nord, then played at
+the Varietes, and in 1890 she received a regular engagement at the
+Eldorado to sing a couple of songs at the beginning of the performance.
+She also sang at the Ambassadeurs. She soon won an immense vogue by her
+rendering of songs drawn from Parisian lower-class life, or from the
+humours of the Latin Quarter, "_Quatre z'etudiants_" and the "_Hotel du
+numero trois_" being among her early triumphs. Her adoption of an
+habitual yellow dress and long black gloves, her studied simplicity of
+diction, and her ingenuous delivery of songs charged with _risque_
+meaning, made her famous. She owed something to M. Xanrof, who for a
+long time composed songs especially for her, and perhaps still more to
+Aristide Bruant, who wrote many of her _argot_ songs. She made
+successful tours in England, Germany and America, and was in great
+request as an entertainer in private houses. In 1895 she married Dr M.
+Schiller. In later years she discarded something of her earlier manner,
+and sang songs of the "pompadour" and the "crinoline" period in costume.
+She published the novels _La Vedette_ and _Les Demi-vieilles_, both in
+1902.
+
+
+
+
+GUILDFORD, a market town and municipal borough, and the county town of
+Surrey, England, in the Guildford parliamentary division, 29 m. S.W. of
+London by the London and South Western railway; served also by the
+London, Brighton, and South Coast and the South Eastern and Chatham
+railways. Pop. (1901) 15,938. It is beautifully situated on an
+acclivity of the northern chalk Downs and on the river Wey. Its older
+streets contain a number of picturesque gabled houses, with quaint
+lattices and curious doorways. The ruins of a Norman castle stand finely
+above the town and are well preserved; while the ground about them is
+laid out as a public garden. Beneath the Angel Inn and a house in the
+vicinity are extensive vaults, apparently of Early English date, and
+traditionally connected with the castle. The church of St Mary is Norman
+and Early English, with later additions and considerably restored; its
+aisles retain their eastward apses and it contains many interesting
+details. The church of St Nicholas is a modern building on an ancient
+site, and that of Holy Trinity is a brick structure of 1763, with later
+additions, also on the site of an earlier church, from which some of the
+monuments are preserved, including that of Archbishop Abbot (1640). The
+town hall dates from 1683 and contains a number of interesting pictures.
+Other public buildings are the county hall, corn-market and institute
+with museum and library. Abbot's Hospital, founded by Archbishop Abbot
+in 1619, is a beautiful Tudor brick building. The county hospital (1866)
+was erected as a memorial to Albert, Prince Consort. The Royal Free
+Grammar School, founded in 1509, and incorporated by Edward VI., is an
+important school for boys. At Cranleigh, 6 m. S.E., is a large
+middle-class county school. The town has flour mills, iron foundries and
+breweries, and a large trade in grain; while fairs are held for live
+stock. There is a manufacture of gunpowder in the neighbouring village
+of Chilworth. Guildford is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of
+Winchester. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors.
+Area, 2601 acres.
+
+Guildford (Gyldeford, Geldeford), occurs among the possessions of King
+Alfred, and was a royal borough throughout the middle ages. It probably
+owed its rise to its position at the junction of trade routes. It is
+first mentioned as a borough in 1131. Henry III. granted a charter to
+the men of Guildford in 1256, by which they obtained freedom from toll
+throughout the kingdom, and the privilege of having the county court
+held always in their town. Edward III. granted charters to Guildford in
+1340, 1346 and 1367; Henry VI. in 1423; Henry VII. in 1488. Elizabeth in
+1580 confirmed earlier charters, and other charters were granted in
+1603, 1626 and 1686. The borough was incorporated in 1486 under the
+title of the mayor and good men of Guildford. During the middle ages the
+government of the town rested with a powerful merchant gild. Two members
+for Guildford sat in the parliament of 1295, and the borough continued
+to return two representatives until 1867 when the number was reduced to
+one. By the Redistribution Act of 1885 Guildford became merged in the
+county for electoral purposes. Edward II. granted to the town the right
+of having two fairs, at the feast of St Matthew (21st of September) and
+at Trinity respectively. Henry VII. granted fairs on the feast of St
+Martin (11th of November) and St George (23rd of April). Fairs in May
+for the sale of sheep and in November for the sale of cattle are still
+held. The market rights date at least from 1276, and three weekly
+markets are still held for the sale of corn, cattle and vegetables
+respectively. The cloth trade which formed the staple industry at
+Guildford in the middle ages is now extinct.
+
+
+
+
+GUILDHALL, the hall of the corporation of the city of London, England.
+It faces a courtyard opening out of Gresham Street. The date of its
+original foundation is not known. An ancient crypt remains, but the hall
+has otherwise undergone much alteration. It was rebuilt in 1411,
+beautified by the munificence of successive officials, damaged in the
+Great Fire of 1666, and restored in 1789 by George Dance; while the hall
+was again restored, with a new roof, in 1870. This fine chamber, 152 ft.
+in length, is the scene of the state banquets and entertainments of the
+corporation, and of the municipal meetings "in common hall." The
+building also contains a council chamber and various court rooms, with a
+splendid library, open to the public, a museum and art gallery
+adjoining. The hall contains several monuments and two giant figures of
+wood, known as Gog and Magog. These were set up in 1708, but the
+appearance of giants in city pageants is of much earlier date.
+
+
+
+
+GUILFORD, BARONS AND EARLS OF. FRANCIS NORTH, 1st Baron Guilford
+(1637-1685), was the third son of the 4th Baron North (see NORTH,
+BARONS), and was created Baron Guilford in 1683, after becoming lord
+keeper in succession to Lord Nottingham. He had been an eminent lawyer,
+solicitor-general (1671), attorney-general (1673), and chief-justice of
+the common pleas (1675), and in 1679 was made a member of the council of
+thirty and on its dissolution of the cabinet. He was a man of wide
+culture and a stanch royalist. In 1672 he married Lady Frances Pope,
+daughter and co-heiress of the earl of Downe, who inherited the Wroxton
+estate; and he was succeeded as 2nd baron by his son Francis
+(1673-1729), whose eldest son Francis (1704-1790), after inheriting
+first his father's title as 3rd baron, and then (in 1734) the barony of
+North from his kinsman the 6th Baron North, was in 1752 created 1st earl
+of Guilford. His first wife was a daughter of the earl of Halifax, and
+his son and successor Frederick was the English prime minister, commonly
+known as Lord North, his courtesy title while the 1st earl was alive.
+
+FREDERICK NORTH, 2nd earl of Guilford, but better known by his courtesy
+title of Lord North (1732-1792), prime minister of England during the
+important years of the American War, was born on the 13th of April 1732,
+and after being educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, was sent to
+make the grand tour of the continent. On his return he was, though only
+twenty-two years of age, at once elected M.P. for Banbury, of which town
+his father was high steward; and he sat for the same town in parliament
+for nearly forty years. In 1759 he was chosen by the duke of Newcastle
+to be a lord of the treasury, and continued in the same office under
+Lord Bute and George Grenville till 1765. He had shown himself such a
+ready debater that on the fall of the first Rockingham ministry in 1766
+he was sworn of the privy council, and made paymaster-general by the
+duke of Grafton. His reputation for ability grew so high that in
+December 1767, on the death of the brilliant Charles Townshend, he was
+made chancellor of the exchequer. His popularity with both the House of
+Commons and the people continued to increase, for his temper was never
+ruffled, and his quiet humour perpetually displayed; and, when the
+retirement of the duke of Grafton was necessitated by the hatred he
+inspired and the attacks of Junius, no better successor could be found
+for the premiership than the chancellor of the exchequer. Lord North
+succeeded the duke in March 1770, and continued in office for twelve of
+the most eventful years in English history. George III. had at last
+overthrown the ascendancy of the great Whig families, under which he had
+so long groaned, and determined to govern as well as rule. He knew that
+he could only govern by obtaining a majority in parliament to carry out
+his wishes, and this he had at last obtained by a great expenditure of
+money in buying seats and by a careful exercise of his patronage. But in
+addition to a majority he must have a minister who would consent to act
+as his lieutenant, and such a minister he found in Lord North. How a man
+of undoubted ability such as Lord North was could allow himself to be
+thus used as a mere instrument cannot be explained; but the confidential
+tone of the king's letters seems to show that there was an unusual
+intimacy between them, which may account for North's compliance. The
+path of the minister in parliament was a hard one; he had to defend
+measures which he had not designed, and of which he had not approved,
+and this too in a House of Commons in which all the oratorical ability
+of Burke and Fox was against him, and when he had only the purchased
+help of Thurlow and Wedderburne to aid him. The most important events of
+his ministry were those of the American War of Independence. He cannot
+be accused of causing it, but one of his first acts was the retention of
+the tea-duty, and he it was also who introduced the Boston Port Bill in
+1774. When the war had broken out he earnestly counselled peace, and it
+was only the earnest solicitations of the king not to leave his
+sovereign again at the mercy of the Whigs that induced him to defend a
+war which from 1779 he knew to be both hopeless and impolitic. At last,
+in March 1782, he insisted on resigning after the news of Cornwallis's
+surrender at Yorktown, and no man left office more blithely. He had been
+well rewarded for his assistance to the king: his children had good
+sinecures; his half-brother, Brownlow North (1741-1820), was bishop of
+Winchester; he himself was chancellor of the university of Oxford,
+lord-lieutenant of the county of Somerset, and had finally been made a
+knight of the Garter, an honour which has only been conferred on three
+other members of the House of Commons, Sir R. Walpole, Lord Castlereagh
+and Lord Palmerston. Lord North did not remain long out of office, but
+in April 1783 formed his famous coalition with his old subordinate, C.
+J. Fox (q.v.), and became secretary of state with him under the nominal
+premiership of the duke of Portland. He was probably urged to this
+coalition with his old opponent by a desire to show that he could act
+independently of the king, and was not a mere royal mouthpiece. The
+coalition ministry went out of office on Fox's India Bill in December
+1783, and Lord North, who was losing his sight, then finally gave up
+political ambition. He played, when quite blind, a somewhat important
+part in the debates on the Regency Bill in 1789, and in the next year
+succeeded his father as earl of Guilford. He did not long survive his
+elevation, and died peacefully on the 5th of August 1792. It is
+impossible to consider Lord North a great statesman, but he was a most
+good-tempered and humorous member of the House of Commons. In a time of
+unexampled party feeling he won the esteem and almost the love of his
+most bitter opponents. Burke finely sums up his character in his _Letter
+to a Noble Lord_: "He was a man of admirable parts, of general
+knowledge, of a versatile understanding, fitted for every sort of
+business; of infinite wit and pleasantry, of a delightful temper, and
+with a mind most disinterested. But it would be only to degrade myself,"
+he continues, "by a weak adulation, and not to honour the memory of a
+great man, to deny that he wanted something of the vigilance and spirit
+of command which the times required."
+
+By his wife Anne (d. 1797), daughter of George Speke of White
+Lackington, Somerset, Guilford had four sons, the eldest of whom, George
+Augustus (1757-1802), became 3rd earl on his father's death. This earl
+was a member of parliament from 1778 to 1792 and was a member of his
+father's ministry and also of the royal household; he left no sons when
+he died on the 20th of April 1802 and was succeeded in the earldom by
+his brother Francis (1761-1817), who also left no sons. The youngest
+brother, Frederick (1766-1827), who now became 5th earl of Guilford, was
+remarkable for his great knowledge and love of Greece and of the Greek
+language. He had a good deal to do with the foundation of the Ionian
+university at Corfu, of which he was the first chancellor and to which
+he was very liberal. Guilford, who was governor of Ceylon from 1798 to
+1805, died unmarried on the 14th of October 1827. His cousin, Francis
+(1772-1861), a son of Brownlow North, bishop of Winchester from 1781 to
+1820, was the 6th earl, and the latter's descendant, Frederick George
+(b. 1876), became 8th earl in 1886.
+
+On the death of the 3rd earl of Guilford in 1802 the barony of North
+fell into abeyance between his three daughters, the survivor of whom,
+Susan (1797-1884). wife of John Sidney Doyle, who took the name of
+North, was declared by the House of Lords in 1841 to be Baroness North,
+and the title passed to her son, William Henry John North, the 11th
+baron (b. 1836) (see NORTH, BARONS).
+
+  For the Lord Keeper Guilford see the _Lives_ by the Hon. R. North,
+  edited by A. Jessopp (1890); and E. Foss, _The Judges of England_,
+  vol. vii. (1848-1864). For the prime minister, Lord North, see
+  _Correspondence of George III._ with Lord North, edited by W. B. Donne
+  (1867); Horace Walpole, _Journal of the Reign of George III._ (1859),
+  and _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._, edited by G. F. R. Barker
+  (1894); Lord Brougham, _Historical Sketches of Statesmen_, vol. i.
+  (1839); Earl Stanhope, _History of England_ (1858); Sir T. E. May,
+  _Constitutional History of England_ (1863-1865); and W. E. H. Lecky,
+  _History of England in the 18th century_ (1878-1890).
+
+
+
+
+GUILFORD, a township, including a borough of the same name, in New Haven
+county, Connecticut, U.S.A., on Long Island Sound and at the mouth of
+the Menunkatuck or West river, about 16 m. E. by S. of New Haven. Pop.
+of the township, including the borough (1900), 2785, of whom 387 were
+foreign-born; (1910) 3001; pop. of the borough (1910), 1608. The borough
+is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railroad. On a plain is
+the borough green of nearly 12 acres, which is shaded by some fine old
+elms and other trees, and in which there is a soldiers' monument. About
+the green are several churches and some of the better residences. On an
+eminence commanding a fine view of the Sound is an old stone house,
+erected in 1639 for a parsonage, meeting-house and fortification; it was
+made a state museum in 1898, when extensive alterations were made to
+restore the interior to its original appearance. The Point of Rocks, in
+the harbour, is an attractive resort during the summer season. There are
+about 12 ft. of water on the harbour bar at high tide. The principal
+industries of Guilford are coastwise trade, the manufacture of iron
+castings, brass castings, wagon wheels and school furniture, and the
+canning of vegetables. Near the coast are quarries of fine granite; the
+stone for the pedestal of the Statue of Liberty on Bedloe's Island, in
+New York Harbour, was taken from them.
+
+Guilford was founded In 1639 as an independent colony by a company of
+twenty-five or more families from Kent, Surrey and Sussex, England,
+under the leadership of Rev. Henry Whitfield (1597-1657). While still on
+shipboard twenty-five members of the company signed a plantation
+covenant whereby they agreed not to desert the plantation which they
+were about to establish. Arriving at New Haven early in July 1639, they
+soon began negotiations with the Indians for the purchase of land, and
+on the 29th of September a deed was signed by which the Indians conveyed
+to them the territory between East River and Stony Creek for "12 coates,
+12 Fathoms of Wampam, 12 glasses (mirrors), 12 payer of shooes, 12
+Hatchetts, 12 paire of Stockings, 12 Hooes, 4 kettles, 12 knives, 12
+Hatts, 12 Porringers, 12 spoones, and 2 English coates." Other purchases
+of land from the Indians were made later. Before the close of the year
+the company removed from New Haven and established the new colony; it
+was known by the Indian name Menuncatuck for about four years and the
+name Guilford (from Guildford, England) was then substituted. As a
+provisional arrangement, civil power for the administration of justice
+and the preservation of the peace was vested in four persons until such
+time as a church should be organized. This was postponed until 1643 when
+considerations of safety demanded that the colony should become a member
+of the New Haven Jurisdiction, and then only to meet the requirements
+for admission to this union were the church and church state modelled
+after those of New Haven. Even then, though suffrage was restricted to
+church members, Guilford planters who were not church members were
+required to attend town meetings and were allowed to offer objections to
+any proposed order or law. From 1661 until the absorption of the members
+of the New Haven Jurisdiction by Connecticut, in 1664, William Leete
+(1611-1683), one of the founders of Guilford, was governor of the
+Jurisdiction, and under his leadership Guilford took a prominent part in
+furthering the submission to Connecticut, which did away with the church
+state and the restriction of suffrage to freemen. Guilford was the
+birthplace of Fitz-Greene Halleck (1790-1867), the poet; of Samuel
+Johnson (1696-1771), the first president of King's College (now Columbia
+University); of Abraham Baldwin (1754-1807), prominent as a statesman
+and the founder of the University of Georgia; and of Thomas Chittenden,
+the first governor of Vermont. The borough was incorporated in 1815.
+
+  See B. C. Steiner, _A History of the Plantation of Menunca-Tuck and of
+  the Original Town of Guilford, Connecticut_ (Baltimore, 1897), and
+  _Proceedings at the Celebration of the 250th Anniversary of the
+  Settlement of Guilford, Connecticut_ (New Haven, 1889).
+
+
+
+
+GUILLAUME, JEAN BAPTISTE CLAUDE EUGENE (1822-1905), French sculptor, was
+born at Montbard on the 4th of July 1822, and studied under Cavelier,
+Millet, and Barrias, at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, which he entered in
+1841, and where he gained the _prix de Rome_ in 1845 with "Theseus
+finding on a rock his Father's Sword." He became director of the Ecole
+des Beaux-Arts in 1864, and director-general of Fine Arts from 1878 to
+1879, when the office was suppressed. Many of his works have been bought
+for public galleries, and his monuments are to be found in the public
+squares of the chief cities of France. At Rheims there is his bronze
+statue of "Colbert," at Dijon his "Rameau" monument. The Luxembourg
+Museum has his "Anacreon" (1852), "Les Gracques" (1853), "Faucheur"
+(1855), and the marble bust of "Mgr Darboy"; the Versailles Museum the
+portrait of "Thiers"; the Sorbonne Library the marble bust of "Victor le
+Clerc, doyen de la faculte des lettres." Other works of his are at
+Trinity Church, St Germain l'Auxerrois, and the church of St Clotilde,
+Paris. Guillaume was a prolific writer, principally on sculpture and
+architecture of the Classic period and of the Italian Renaissance. He
+was elected member of the Academie Francaise in 1862, and in 1891 was
+sent to Rome as director of the Academie de France in that city. He was
+also elected an honorary member of the Royal Academy, London, 1869, on
+the institution of that class.
+
+
+
+
+GUILLAUME DE LORRIS (fl. 1230), the author of the earlier section of the
+_Roman de la rose_, derives his surname from a small town about
+equidistant from Montargis and Gien, in the present department of
+Loiret. This and the fact of his authorship may be said to be the only
+things positively known about him. The rubric of the poem, where his own
+part finishes, attributes Jean de Meun's continuation to a period forty
+years later than William's death and the consequent interruption of the
+romance. Arguing backwards, this death used to be put at about 1260; but
+Jean de Meun's own work has recently been dated earlier, and so the
+composition of the first part has been thrown back to a period before
+1240. The author represents himself as having dreamed the dream which
+furnished the substance of the poem in his twentieth year, and as having
+set to work to "rhyme it" five years later. The later and longer part of
+the _Roman_ shows signs of greater intellectual vigour and wider
+knowledge than the earlier and shorter, but Guillaume de Lorris is to
+all appearance more original. The great features of his four or five
+thousand lines are, in the first place, the extraordinary vividness and
+beauty of his word-pictures, in which for colour, freshness and
+individuality he has not many rivals except in the greatest masters,
+and, secondly, the fashion of allegorical presentation, which, hackneyed
+and wearisome as it afterwards became, was evidently in his time new and
+striking. There are of course traces of it before, as in some romances,
+such as those of Raoul de Houdenc, in the troubadours, and in other
+writers; but it was unquestionably Guillaume de Lorris who fixed the
+style.
+
+  For an attempt to identify Guillaume de Lorris see L. Jarry,
+  _Guillaume de Lorris et le testament d'Alphonse de Poitiers_ (1881).
+  Also Paulin Paris in the _Hist. litt. de la France_, vol. xxiii.
+
+
+
+
+GUILLAUME DE PALERME (WILLIAM OF PALERNE), hero of romance. The French
+verse romance was written at the desire of a Countess Yolande, generally
+identified with Yolande, daughter of Baldwin IV., count of Flanders. The
+English poem in alliterative verse was written about 1350 by a poet
+called William, at the desire of Humphrey Bohun, earl of Hereford, (d.
+1361). Guillaume, a foundling supposed to be of low degree, is brought
+up at the court of the emperor of Rome, and loves his daughter Melior
+who is destined for a Greek prince. The lovers flee into the woods
+disguised in bear-skins. Alfonso, who is Guillaume's cousin and a
+Spanish prince, has been changed into a wolf by his step-mother's
+enchantments. He provides food and protection for the fugitives, and
+Guillaume eventually triumphs over Alfonso's father, and wins back from
+him his kingdom. The benevolent werwolf is disenchanted, and marries
+Guillaume's sister.
+
+  See _Guillaume de Palerne_, ed. H. Michelant (Soc. d. anc. textes fr.,
+  1876); _Hist. litt. de la France_, xxii. 829; _William of Palerme_,
+  ed. Sir F. Madden (Roxburghe Club, 1832), and W. W. Skeat (E. E. Text
+  Soc., extra series No. 1, 1867); M. Kaluza, in _Eng. Studien_
+  (Heilbronn, iv. 196). The prose version of the French romance, printed
+  by N. Bonfons, passed through several editions.
+
+
+
+
+GUILLAUME D'ORANGE (d. 812), also known as Guillaume Fierabrace, St
+Guillaume de Gellone, and the Marquis au court nez, was the central
+figure of the southern cycle of French romance, called by the
+_trouveres_ the _geste_ of Garin de Monglane. The cycle of Guillaume has
+more unity than the other great cycles of Charlemagne or of Doon de
+Mayence, the various poems which compose it forming branches of the main
+story rather than independent epic poems. There exist numerous cyclic
+MSS. in which there is an attempt at presenting a continuous _histoire
+poetique_ of Guillaume and his family. MS. Royal 20 D xi. in the British
+Museum contains eighteen _chansons_ of the cycle. Guillaume, son of
+Thierry or Theodoric and of Alde, daughter of Charles Martel, was born
+in the north of France about the middle of the 8th century. He became
+one of the best soldiers and trusted counsellors of Charlemagne, and In
+790 was made count of Toulouse, when Charles's son Louis the Pious was
+put under his charge. He subdued the Gascons, and defended Narbonne
+against the infidels. In 793 Hescham, the successor of Abd-al-Rahman
+II., proclaimed a holy war against the Christians, and collected an army
+of 100,000 men, half of which was directed against the kingdom of the
+Asturias, while the second invaded France, penetrating as far as
+Narbonne. Guillaume met the invaders near the river Orbieux, at
+Villedaigne, where he was defeated, but only after an obstinate
+resistance which so far exhausted the Saracens that they were compelled
+to retreat to Spain. He took Barcelona from the Saracens in 803, and in
+the next year founded the monastery of Gellone (now Saint Guilhem-le
+Desert), of which he became a member in 806. He died there in the odour
+of sanctity on the 28th of May 812.
+
+No less than thirteen historical personages bearing the name of William
+(Guillaume) have been thought by various critics to have their share in
+the formation of the legend. William, count of Provence, son of Boso
+II., again delivered southern France from a Saracen invasion by his
+victory at Fraxinet in 973, and ended his life in a cloister. William
+Tow-head (_Tete d'etoupe_), duke of Aquitaine (d. 983), showed a
+fidelity to Louis IV. paralleled by Guillaume d'Orange's service to
+Louis the Pious. The cycle of twenty or more _chansons_ which form the
+_geste_ of Guillaume reposes on the traditions of the Arab invasions of
+the south of France, from the battle of Poitiers (732) under Charles
+Martel onwards, and on the French conquest of Catalonia from the
+Saracens. In the Norse version of the Carolingian epic Guillaume appears
+in his proper historical environment, as a chief under Charlemagne; but
+he plays a leading part in the _Couronnement Looys_, describing the
+formal associations of Louis the Pious in the empire at Aix (813, the
+year after Guillaume's death), and after the battle of Aliscans it is
+from the emperor Louis that he seeks reinforcements. This anachronism
+arises from the fusion of the epic Guillaume with the champion of Louis
+IV., and from the fact that he was the military and civil chief of Louis
+the Pious, who was titular king of Aquitaine under his father from the
+time when he was three years old. The inconsistencies between the real
+and the epic Guillaume are often left standing in the poems. The
+personages associated with Guillaume in his Spanish wars belong to
+Provence, and have names common in the south. The most famous of these
+are Beuves de Comarchis, Ernaud de Girone, Garin d'Anseun, Aimer le
+chetif, so called from his long captivity with the Saracens. The
+separate existence of Aimer, who refused to sleep under a roof, and
+spent his whole life in warring against the infidel, is proved. He was
+Hadhemar, count of Narbonne, who in 809 and 810 was one of the leaders
+sent by Louis against Tortosa. No doubt the others had historical
+prototypes. In the hands of the _trouveres_ they became all brothers of
+Guillaume, and sons of Aymeri de Narbonne,[1] the grandson of Garin de
+Monglane, and his wife Ermenjart. Nevertheless when Guillaume seeks help
+from Louis the emperor he finds all his relations in Laon, in accordance
+with his historic Frankish origin.
+
+The central fact of the _geste_ of Guillaume is the battle of the
+Archamp or Aliscans, in which perished Guillaume's heroic nephew, Vezian
+or Vivien, a second Roland. At the eleventh hour he summoned Guillaume
+to his help against the overwhelming forces of the Saracens. Guillaume
+arrived too late to help Vivien, was himself defeated, and returned
+alone to his wife Guibourc, leaving his knights all dead or prisoners.
+This event is related in a Norman-French transcript of an old French
+_chanson de geste_, the _Chancun de Willame_--which only was brought to
+light in 1901 at the sale of the books of Sir Henry Hope Edwardes--in
+the _Covenant Vivien_, a recension of an older French chanson and in
+_Aliscans_. _Aliscans_ continues the story, telling how Guillaume
+obtained reinforcements from Laon, and how, with the help of the comic
+hero, the scullion Rainouart or Rennewart, he avenged the defeat of
+Aliscans and his nephew's death. Rainouart turns out to be the brother
+of Guillaume's wife Guibourc, who was before her marriage the Saracen
+princess and enchantress Orable. Two other poems are consecrated to his
+later exploits, _La Bataille Loquifer_, the work of a French Sicilian
+poet, Jendeu de Brie (fl. 1170), and _Le Moniage Rainouart_. The
+staring-point of Herbert le duc of Dammartin (fl. 1170) in _Foucon de
+Candie_ (Candie=Gandia in Spain?) is the return of Guillaume from the
+battle; and the Italian compilation _I Nerbonesi_, based on these and
+other _chansons_, seems in some cases to represent an earlier tradition
+than the later of the French _chansons_, although its author Andrea di
+Barberino wrote towards the end of the 14th century. The minnesinger
+Wolfram von Eschenbach based his _Willehalm_ on a French original which
+must have differed from the versions we have. The variations in the
+story of the defeat of Aliscans or the Archant, and the numerous
+inconsistencies of the narratives even when considered separately have
+occupied many critics. Aliscans (Aleschans, Alyscamps, Elysii Campi)
+was, however, generally taken to represent the battle of Villedaigne,
+and to take its name from the famous cemetery outside Arles. Wolfram von
+Eschenbach even mentions the tombs which studded the field of battle.
+Indications that this tradition was not unassailable were not lacking
+before the discovery of the _Chancun de Willame_, which, although
+preserved in a very corrupt form, represents the earliest recension we
+have of the story, dating at least from the beginning of the 12th
+century. It seems probable that the Archant was situated in Spain near
+Vivien's headquarters at Tortosa, and that Guillaume started from
+Barcelona, not from Orange, to his nephew's help. The account of the
+disaster was modified by successive _trouveres_, and the uncertainty of
+their methods may be judged by the fact that in the _Chancun de Willame_
+two consecutive accounts (11. 450-1326 and 11. 1326-2420) of the fight
+appear to be set side by side as if they were separate episodes. _Le
+Couronnement Looys_, already mentioned, _Le Charroi de Nimes_ (12th
+century) in which Guillaume, who had been forgotten in the distribution
+of fiefs, enumerates his services to the terrified Louis, and _Aliscans_
+(12th century), with the earlier _Chancun_, are among the finest of the
+French epic poems. The figure of Vivien is among the most heroic
+elaborated by the _trouveres_, and the giant Rainouart has more than a
+touch of Rabelaisian humour.
+
+  The _chansons de geste_ of the cycle of Guillaume are: _Enfances Garin
+  de Monglane_ (15th century) and _Garin de Monglane_ (13th century), on
+  which is founded the prose romance of _Guerin de Monglane_, printed in
+  the 15th century by Jehan Trepperel and often later; _Girars de Viane_
+  (13th century, by Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube), ed. P. Tarbe (Reims,
+  1850); _Hernaut de Beaulande_ (fragment 14th century); _Renier de
+  Gennes_, which only survives in its prose form; _Aymeri de Narbonne_
+  (c. 1210) by Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube, ed. L. Demaison (Soc. des anc.
+  textes fr., Paris, 2 vols., 1887); _Les Enfances Guillaume_ (13th
+  century); _Les Narbonnais_, ed. H. Suchier (Soc. des anc. textes fr.,
+  2 vols., 1898), with a Latin fragment dating from the 11th century,
+  preserved at the Hague; _Le Couronnement Looys_ (ed. E. Langlois,
+  1888), _Le Charroi de Nimes_, _La Prise d'Orange_, _Le Covenant
+  Vivien_, _Aliscans_, which were edited by W. J. A. Jonckbloet in vol.
+  i. of his _Guillaume d'Orange_ (The Hague, 1854); a critical text of
+  _Aliscans_ (Halle, 1903, vol. i.) is edited by E. Wienbeck, W.
+  Hartnacke and P. Rasch; _Loquifer_ and _Le Moniage Rainouart_ (12th
+  century); _Bovon de Commarchis_ (13th century), recension of the
+  earlier Siege de Barbastre, by Adenes li Rois, ed. A. Scheler
+  (Brussels, 1874); _Guibert d'Andrenas_ (13th century); _La Prise de
+  Cordres_ (13th century); _La Mort Aimeri de Narbonne_, ed. J. Couraye
+  de Parc (Soc. des Anciens Textes francais, Paris, 1884); _Foulque de
+  Candie_ (ed. P. Tarbe, Reims, 1860); _Le Moniage Guillaume_ (12th
+  century); _Les Enfances Vivien_ (ed. C. Wahlund and H. v. Feilitzen,
+  Upsala and Paris, 1895); _Chancun de Willame_ (Chiswick Press, 1903),
+  described by P. Meyer in _Romania_ (xxxiii. 597-618). The ninth branch
+  of the _Karlamagnus Saga_ (ed. C. R. Unger, Christiania, 1860) deals
+  with the _geste_ of Guillaume. _I Nerbonesi_ is edited by J. G. Isola
+  (Bologna, 1877, &c.).
+
+  See C. Revillout, _Etude hist. et litt. sur la vita sancti Willelmi_
+  (Montpellier, 1876); W. J. A. Jonckbloet, _Guillaume d'Orange_ (2
+  vols., 1854, The Hague); L. Clarus (ps. for W. Volk), _Herzog Wilhelm
+  von Aquitanien_ (Munster, 1865); P. Paris, _in Hist. litt. de la
+  France_ (vol. xxii., 1852); L. Gautier, _Epopees francaises_ (vol.
+  iv., 2nd ed., 1882); R. Weeks, _The newly discovered Chancun de
+  Willame_ (Chicago, 1904); A. Thomas, _Etudes romanes_ (Paris, 1891),
+  on Vivien; L. Saltet, "S. Vidian de Martres-Tolosanes" in _Bull. de
+  litt. eccles._ (Toulouse, 1902); P. Becker, _Die altfrz. Wilhelmsage
+  u. ihre Beziehung zu Wilhelm dem Heiligen_ (Halle, 1896), and _Der
+  sudfranzosische Sagenkreis und seine Probleme_ (Halle, 1898); A.
+  Jeanroy, "Etudes sur le cycle de Guillaume au court nez" (in
+  _Romania_, vols. 25 and 26, 1896-1897); H. Suchier, "Recherches sur
+  ... Guillaume d'Orange" (in _Romania_, vol. 32, 1903). The conclusions
+  arrived at by earlier writers are combated by Joseph Bedier in the
+  first volume, "Le Cycle de Guillaume d'Orange" (1908), of his
+  _Legendes epiques_, in which he constructs a theory that the cycle of
+  Guillaume d'Orange grew up round the various shrines on the pilgrim
+  route to Saint Gilles of Provence and Saint James of Compostella--that
+  the _chansons de geste_ were, in fact, the product of 11th and 12th
+  century trouveres, exploiting local ecclesiastical traditions, and
+  were not developed from earlier poems dating back perhaps to the
+  lifetime of Guillaume of Toulouse, the saint of Gellone.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The poem of _Aymeri de Narbonne_ contains the account of the
+    young Aymeri's brilliant capture of Narbonne, which he then receives
+    as a fief from Charlemagne, of his marriage with Ermenjart, sister of
+    Boniface, king of the Lombards, and of their children. The fifth
+    daughter, Blanchefleur, is represented as the wife of Louis the
+    Pious. The opening of this poem furnished, though indirectly, the
+    matter of the _Aymerillot_ of Victor Hugo's _Legende des siecles_.
+
+
+
+
+GUILLEMOT (Fr. _guillemot_[1]), the name accepted by nearly all modern
+authors for a sea-bird, the _Colymbus troile_ of Linnaeus and the _Uria
+troile_ of Latham, which nowadays it seems seldom if ever to bear among
+those who, from their vocation, are most conversant with it, though,
+according to Willughby and Ray his translator, it was in their time so
+called "by those of Northumberland and Durham." Around the coasts of
+Britain it is variously known as the frowl, kiddaw or skiddaw, langy
+(cf. Ice. _Langvia_), lavy, marrock, murre, scout (cf. COOT), scuttock,
+strany, tinker or tinkershire and willock. In former days the guillemot
+yearly frequented the cliffs on many parts of the British coasts in
+countless multitudes, and this is still the case in the northern parts
+of the United Kingdom; but more to the southward nearly all its smaller
+settlements have been rendered utterly desolate by the wanton and cruel
+destruction of their tenants during the breeding season, and even the
+inhabitants of those which were more crowded had become so thinned that,
+but for the intervention of the Sea Birds Preservation Act (32 & 33
+Vict. cap. 17), which provided under penalty for the safety of this and
+certain other species at the time of year when they were most exposed to
+danger, they would unquestionably by this time have been exterminated so
+far as England is concerned.
+
+Part of the guillemot's history is still little understood. We know that
+it arrives at its wonted breeding stations on its accustomed day in
+spring, that it remains there till, towards the end of the summer, its
+young are hatched and able, as they soon are, to encounter the perils of
+a seafaring life, when away go all, parents and progeny. After that time
+it commonly happens that a few examples are occasionally met with in
+bays and shallow waters. Tempestuous weather will drive ashore a large
+number in a state of utter destitution--many of them indeed are not
+unfrequently washed up dead--but what becomes of the bulk of the birds,
+not merely the comparatively few thousands that are natives of Britain,
+but the tens and hundreds of thousands, not to say millions, that are in
+summer denizens of more northern latitudes, no one can say. This mystery
+is not peculiar to the guillemot, but is shared by all the _Alcidae_
+that inhabit the Atlantic Ocean. Examples stray every season across the
+Bay of Biscay, are found off the coasts of Spain and Portugal, enter
+the Mediterranean and reach Italian waters, or, keeping farther south,
+may even touch the Madeiras, Canaries or Azores; but these bear no
+proportion whatever to the mighty hosts of whom they are literally the
+"scouts," and whose position and movements they no more reveal than do
+the vedettes of a well-appointed army. The common guillemot of both
+sides of the Atlantic is replaced farther northward by a species with a
+stouter bill, the _U. arra_ or _U. bruennichi_ of ornithologists, and on
+the west coast of North America by the _U. californica_. The habits of
+all these are essentially the same, and the structural resemblance
+between all of them and the Auks is so great that several systematists
+have relegated them to the genus _Alca_, confining the genus _Uria_ to
+the guillemots of another group, of which the type is the _U. grylla_,
+the black guillemot of British authors, the dovekey or Greenland dove of
+sailors, the tysty of Shetlanders. This bird assumes in summer an
+entirely black plumage with the exception of a white patch on each wing,
+while in winter it is beautifully marbled with white and black. Allied
+to it as species or geographical races are the _U. mandti_, _U. columba_
+and _U. carbo_. All these differ from the larger guillemots by laying
+two or three eggs, which are generally placed in some secure niche,
+while the members of the other group lay but a single egg, which is
+invariably exposed on a bare ledge.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The word, however, seems to be cognate with or derived from the
+    Welsh and Manx _Guillem_, or _Gwilym_ as Pennant spells it. The
+    association may have no real meaning, but one cannot help comparing
+    the resemblance between the French _guillemot_ and _Guillaume_ with
+    that between the English willock (another name for the bird) and
+    William.
+
+
+
+
+GUILLOCHE, a French word for an ornament, either painted or carved,
+which was one of the principal decorative bands employed by the Greeks
+in their temples or on their vases. Guilloches are single, double or
+triple; they consist of a series of circles equidistant one from the
+other and enclosed in a band which winds round them and interlaces. This
+guilloche is of Asiatic origin and was largely employed in the
+decoration of the Assyrian palaces, where it was probably copied from
+Chaldaean work, as there is an early example at Erech which dates from
+the time of Gudea (2294 B.C.). The ornament as painted by the Greeks has
+almost entirely disappeared, but traces are found in the temple of
+Nemesis at Rhamnus; and on the terra-cotta slabs by which the timber
+roofs of Greek temples were protected, it is painted in colours which
+are almost as brilliant as when first produced, those of the Treasury of
+Gela at Olympia being of great beauty. These examples are double
+guilloches, with two rows of circles, each with an independent
+interlacing band and united by a small arc with palmette inside; in both
+the single and double guilloches of Greek work there is a flower in the
+centre of the circles. In the triple guilloche, the centre row of
+circles comes half-way between the others, and the enclosing band
+crosses diagonally both ways, interlacing alternately. The best example
+of the triple guilloche is that which is carved on the torus moulding of
+the base and on the small convex moulding above the echinus of the
+capitals of the columns of the Erechtheum at Athens. It was largely
+employed in Roman work, and the single guilloche is found almost
+universally as a border in mosaic pavements, not only in Italy but
+throughout Europe. In the Renaissance in Italy it was also a favourite
+enrichment for borders and occasionally in France and England.
+
+
+
+
+GUILLON, MARIE NICOLAS SYLVESTRE (1760-1847), French ecclesiastic, was
+born in Paris on the 1st of January 1760. He was librarian and almoner
+in the household of the princess de Lamballe, and when in 1792 she was
+executed, he fled to the provinces, where under the name of Pastel he
+practised medicine. A man of facile conscience, he afterwards served in
+turn under Napoleon, the Bourbons and the Orleanists, and became canon
+of St Denis, bishop of Morocco and dean of the Sorbonne.
+
+  Among his many literary works are a _Collection des brefs du pape Pie
+  VI_ (1798), _Bibliotheque choisie des peres grecs et latins_ (1822, 26
+  vols.) and a French translation of Cyprian with notes (1837, 2 vols.).
+
+
+
+
+GUILLOTINE, the instrument for inflicting capital punishment by
+decapitation, introduced into France at the period of the Revolution. It
+consists of two upright posts surmounted by a cross beam, and grooved so
+as to guide an oblique-edged knife, the back of which is heavily
+weighted to make it fall swiftly and with force when the cord by which
+it is held aloft is let go. Some ascribe the invention of the machine
+to the Persians; and previous to the period when it obtained notoriety
+under its present name it had been in use in Scotland, England and
+various parts of the continent. There is still preserved In the
+antiquarian museum of Edinburgh the rude guillotine called the "maiden"
+by which the regent Morton was decapitated in 1581. The last persons
+decapitated by the Scottish "maiden" were the marquis of Argyll in 1661
+and his son the earl of Argyll in 1685. It would appear that no similar
+machine was ever in general use in England; but until 1650 there existed
+in the forest of Hardwick, which was coextensive with the parish of
+Halifax, West Riding, Yorkshire, a mode of trial and execution called
+the gibbet law, by which a felon convicted of theft within the liberty
+was sentenced to be decapitated by a machine called the Halifax gibbet.
+A print of it is contained in a small book called _Halifax and its
+Gibbet Law_ (1708), and in Gibson's edition of Camden's _Britannia_
+(1722). In Germany the machine was in general use during the middle
+ages, under the name of the _Diele_, the _Hobel_ or the _Dolabra_. Two
+old German engravings, the one by George Penez, who died in 1550, and
+the other by Heinrich Aldegrever, with the date 1553, represent the
+death of a son of Titus Manlius by a similar instrument, and its
+employment for the execution of a Spartan is the subject of the
+engraving of the eighteenth symbol in the volume entitled _Symbolicae
+quaestiones de universo genere_, by Achilles Bocchi (1555). From the
+13th century it was used in Italy under the name of _Mannaia_ for the
+execution of criminals of noble birth. The _Chronique de Jean d'Anton_,
+first published in 1835, gives minute details of an execution in which
+it was employed at Genoa in 1507; and it is elaborately described by
+Pere Jean Baptiste Labat in his _Voyage en Espagne et en Italie en
+1730_. It is mentioned by Jacques, viscomte de Puysegur, in his
+_Memoires_ as in use in the south of France, and he describes the
+execution by it of Marshal Montmorency at Toulouse in 1632. For about a
+century it had, however, fallen into general disuse on the continent;
+and Dr Guillotine, who first suggested its use in modern times, is said
+to have obtained his information regarding it from the description of an
+execution that took place at Milan in 1702, contained in an anonymous
+work entitled _Voyage historique et politique de Suisse, d'Italie, et
+d'Allemagne_.
+
+Guillotine, who was born at Saintes, May 28, 1738, and elected to the
+Constituent Assembly in 1789, brought forward on the 1st December of
+that year two propositions regarding capital punishment, the second of
+which was that, "in all cases of capital punishment it shall be of the
+same kind--that is, decapitation--and it shall be executed by means of a
+machine." The reasons urged in support of this proposition were that in
+cases of capital punishment the privilege of execution by decapitation
+should no longer be confined to the nobles, and that it was desirable to
+render the process of execution as swift and painless as possible. The
+debate was brought to a sudden termination in peals of laughter caused
+by an indiscreet reference of Dr Guillotine to his machine, but his
+ideas seem gradually to have leavened the minds of the Assembly, and
+after various debates decapitation was adopted as the method of
+execution in the penal code which became law on the 6th October 1791. At
+first it was intended that decapitation should be by the sword, but on
+account of a memorandum by M. Sanson, the executioner, pointing out the
+expense and certain other inconveniences attending that method, the
+Assembly referred the question to a committee, at whose request Dr
+Antoine Louis, secretary to the Academy of Surgeons, prepared a
+memorandum on the subject. Without mentioning the name of Guillotine, it
+recommended the adoption of an instrument similar to that which was
+formerly suggested by him. The Assembly decided in favour of the report,
+and the contract was offered to the person who usually provided the
+instruments of justice; but, as his terms were considered exorbitant, an
+agreement was ultimately come to with a German of the name of Schmidt,
+who, under the direction of M. Louis, furnished a machine for each of
+the French departments. After satisfactory experiments had been made
+with the machine on several dead bodies in the hospital of Bicetre, it
+was erected on the Place de Greve for the execution of the highwayman
+Pelletier on the 25th April 1792. While the experiments regarding the
+machine were being carried on, it received the name _Louisette_ or _La
+Petite Louison_, but the mind of the nation seems soon to have reverted
+to Guillotine, who first suggested its use; and in the _Journal des
+revolutions de Paris_ for 28th April 1792 it is mentioned as _la
+guillotine_, a name which it thenceforth bore both popularly and
+officially. In 1795 the question was much debated as to whether or not
+death by the guillotine was instantaneous, and in support of the
+negative side the case of Charlotte Corday was adduced whose
+countenance, it is said, blushed as if with indignation when the
+executioner, holding up the head to the public gaze, struck it with his
+fist. The connexion of the instrument with the horrors of the Revolution
+has hindered its introduction into other countries, but in 1853 it was
+adopted under the name of _Fallschwert_ or _Fallbeil_ by the kingdom of
+Saxony; and it is used for the execution of sentences of death in
+France, Belgium and some parts of Germany. It has often been stated that
+Dr Guillotine perished by the instrument which bears his name, but it is
+beyond question that he survived the Revolution and died a natural death
+in 1814.
+
+  See Sedillot, _Reflexions historiques et physiologiques sur le
+  supplice de la guillotine_ (1795); Sue, _Opinion sur le supplice de la
+  guillotine_, (1796); Reveille-Parise, _Etude biographique sur
+  Guillotine_ (Paris, 1851); _Notice historique et physiologique sur le
+  supplice de la guillotine_ (Paris, 1830); Louis Dubois, _Recherches
+  historiques et physiologiques sur la guillotine et details sur Sanson_
+  (Paris, 1843); and a paper by J. W. Croker in the _Quarterly Review_
+  for December 1843, reprinted separately in 1850 under the title _The
+  Guillotine, a historical Essay_.
+
+
+
+
+GUILT, a lapse from duty, a crime, now usually the fact of wilful
+wrong-doing, the condition of being guilty of a crime, hence conduct
+deserving of punishment. The O. Eng. form of the word is _gylt_. The
+_New English Dictionary_ rejects for phonetic reasons the usually
+accepted connexion with the Teutonic root _gald_-, to pay, seen in Ger.
+_gelten_, to be of value, _Geld_, money, payment, English "yield."
+
+
+
+
+GUIMARAES (sometimes written _Guimaraens_), a town of northern Portugal,
+in the district of Braga, formerly included in the province of
+Entre-Minho-e-Douro; 36 m. N.E. of Oporto by the Trofa-Guimaraes branch
+of the Oporto-Corunna railway. Pop. (1900) 9104. Guimaraes is a very
+ancient town with Moorish fortifications; and even the quarters which
+are locally described as "new" date partly from the 15th century. It
+occupies a low hill, skirted on the north-west by a small tributary of
+the river Ave. The citadel, founded in the 11th century by Count Henry
+of Burgundy, was in 1094 the birthplace of his son Alphonso, the first
+king of Portugal. The font in which Alphonso was baptized is preserved,
+among other interesting relics, in the collegiate church of Santa Maria
+da Oliveira, "St Mary of the Olive," a Romanesque building of the 14th
+century, which occupies the site of an older foundation. This church
+owes its name to the legend that the Visigothic king Wamba (672-680)
+here declined the crown of Spain, until his olive wood spear-shaft
+blossomed as a sign that he should consent. The convent of Sao Domingos,
+now a museum of antiquities, has a fine 12th-13th century cloister; the
+town hall is built in the blend of Moorish and Gothic architecture known
+as Manoelline. Guimaraes has a flourishing trade in wine and farm
+produce; it also manufactures cutlery, linen, leather and preserved
+fruits. Near the town are Citania, the ruins of a prehistoric Iberian
+city, and the hot sulphurous springs of Taipas, frequented since the 4th
+century, when Guimaraes itself was founded.
+
+
+
+
+GUIMARD, MARIE MADELEINE (1743-1816), French dancer, was born in Paris
+on the 10th of October 1743. For twenty-five years she was the star of
+the Paris Opera. She made herself even more famous by her love affairs,
+especially by her long liaison with the prince de Soubise. She bought a
+magnificent house at Pantin, and built a private theatre connected with
+it, where Colle's _Partie de chasse de Henri IV_ which was prohibited in
+public, and most of the _Proverbes_ of Carmontelle (Louis Carrogis,
+1717-1806), and similar licentious performances were given to the
+delight of high society. In 1772, in defiance of the archbishop of
+Paris, she opened a gorgeous house with a theatre seating five hundred
+spectators in the Chaussee d'Antin. In this Temple of Terpsichore, as
+she named it, the wildest orgies took place. In 1786 she was compelled
+to get rid of the property, and it was disposed of by lottery for her
+benefit for the sum of 300,000 francs. Soon after her retirement in 1789
+she married Jean Etienne Despreaux (1748-1820), dancer, song-writer and
+playwright.
+
+
+
+
+GUIMET, JEAN BAPTISTE (1795-1871), French industrial chemist, was born
+at Voiron on the 20th of July 1795. He studied at the Ecole
+Polytechnique in Paris, and in 1817 entered the Administration des
+Poudres et Salpetres. In 1828 he was awarded the prize offered by the
+Societe d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale for a process of
+making artificial ultramarine with all the properties of the substance
+prepared from lapis lazuli; and six years later he resigned his official
+position in order to devote himself to the commercial production of that
+material, a factory for which he established at Fleurieux sur Saone. He
+died on the 8th of April 1871.
+
+His son EMILE ETIENNE GUIMET, born at Lyons on the 26th of June 1836,
+succeeded him in the direction of the factory, and founded the Musee
+Guimet, which was first located at Lyons in 1879 and was handed over to
+the state and transferred to Paris in 1885. Devoted to travel, he was in
+1876 commissioned by the minister of public instruction to study the
+religions of the Far East, and the museum contains many of the fruits of
+this expedition, including a fine collection of Japanese and Chinese
+porcelain and many objects relating not merely to the religions of the
+East but also to those of Ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome. He wrote
+_Lettres sur l'Algerie_ (1877) and _Promenades japonaises_ (1880), and
+also some musical compositions, including a grand opera, _Tai-Tsoung_
+(1894).
+
+
+
+
+GUINEA, the general name applied by Europeans to part of the western
+coast region of equatorial Africa, and also to the gulf formed by the
+great bend of the coast line eastward and then southward. Like many
+other geographical designations the use of which is controlled neither
+by natural nor political boundaries, the name has been very differently
+employed by different writers and at different periods. In the widest
+acceptation of the term, the Guinea coast may be said to extend from 13
+deg. N. to 16 deg. S., from the neighbourhood of the Gambia to Cape
+Negro. Southern or Lower Guinea comprises the coasts of Gabun and Loango
+(known also as French Congo) and the Portuguese possessions on the
+south-west coast, and Northern or Upper Guinea stretches from the river
+Casamance to and inclusive of the Niger delta, Cameroon occupying a
+middle position. In a narrower use of the name, Guinea is the coast only
+from Cape Palmas to the Gabun estuary. Originally, on the other hand,
+Guinea was supposed to begin as far north as Cape Nun, opposite the
+Canary Islands, and Gomes Azurara, a Portuguese historian of the 15th
+century, is said to be the first authority who brings the boundary south
+to the Senegal. The derivation of the name is uncertain, but is probably
+taken from Ghinea, Ginnie, Genni or Jenne, a town and kingdom in the
+basin of the Niger, famed for the enterprise of its merchants and dating
+from the 8th century A.D. The name Guinea is found on maps of the middle
+of the 14th century, but it did not come into general use in Europe till
+towards the close of the 15th century.[1]
+
+Although the term Gulf of Guinea is applied generally to that part of
+the coast south of Cape Palmas and north of the mouth of the Congo,
+particular indentations have their peculiar designations. The bay formed
+by the configuration of the land between Cape St Paul and the Nun mouth
+of the Niger is known as the Bight of Benin, the name being that of the
+once powerful native state whose territory formerly extended over the
+whole district. The Bight of Biafra, or Mafra (named after the town of
+Mafra in southern Portugal), between Capes Formosa and Lopez, is the
+most eastern part of the Gulf of Guinea; it contains the islands
+Fernando Po, Prince's and St Thomas's. The name Biafra--as indicating
+the country--fell into disuse in the later part of the 19th century.
+
+The coast is generally so low as to be visible to navigators only within
+a very short distance, the mangrove trees being their only sailing
+marks. In the Bight of Biafra the coast forms an exception, being high
+and bold, with the Cameroon Mountains for background. At Sierra Leone
+also there is high land. The coast in many places maintains a dead level
+for 30 to 50 m. inland. Vegetation is exceedingly luxuriant and varied.
+The palm-oil tree is indigenous and abundant from the river Gambia to
+the Congo. The fauna comprises nearly all the more remarkable of African
+animals. The inhabitants are the true Negro stock.
+
+By the early traders the coast of Upper Guinea was given names founded
+on the productions characteristic of the different parts. The Grain
+coast, that part of the Guinea coast extending for 500 m. from Sierra
+Leone eastward to Cape Palmas received its name from the export of the
+seeds of several plants of a peppery character, called variously grains
+of paradise, Guinea pepper and melegueta. The name Grain coast was first
+applied to this region in 1455. It was occasionally styled the Windy or
+Windward coast, from the frequency of short but furious tornadoes
+throughout the year. Towards the end of the 18th century, Guinea pepper
+was supplanted in Europe by peppers from the East Indies. The name now
+is seldom used, the Grain coast being divided between the British colony
+of Sierra Leone and the republic of Liberia. The Ivory coast extends
+from Cape Palmas to 3 deg. W., and obtained its name from the quantity
+of ivory exported therefrom. It is now a French possession. Eastwards of
+the Ivory coast are the Gold and Slave coasts. The Niger delta was for
+long known as the Oil rivers. To two regions only of the coast is the
+name Guinea officially applied, the French and Portuguese colonies north
+of Sierra Leone being so styled.
+
+Of the various names by which the divisions of Lower Guinea were known,
+Loango was applied to the country south of the Gabun and north of the
+Congo river. It is now chiefly included in French Congo. Congo was used
+to designate the country immediately south of the river of the same
+name, usually spoken of until the last half of the 19th century as the
+Zaire. Congo is now one of the subdivisions of Portuguese West Africa
+(see ANGOLA). It must not be confounded with the Belgian Congo.
+
+Few questions in historical geography have been more keenly discussed
+than that of the first discovery of Guinea by the navigators of modern
+Europe. Lancelot Malocello, a Genoese, in 1270 reached at least as far
+as the Canaries. The first direct attempt to find a sea route to India
+was, it is said, also made by Genoese, Ugolino and Guido de Vivaldo,
+Tedisio Doria and others who equipped two galleys and sailed south along
+the African coast in 1291. Beyond the fact that they passed Cape Nun
+there is no trustworthy record of their voyage. In 1346 a Catalan
+expedition started for "the river of gold" on the Guinea coast; its fate
+is unknown. The French claim that between 1364 and 1410 the people of
+Dieppe sent out several expeditions to Guinea; and Jean de Bethencourt,
+who settled in the Canaries about 1402, made explorations towards the
+south. At length the consecutive efforts of the navigators employed by
+Prince Henry of Portugal--Gil Eannes, Diniz Diaz, Nuno Tristam, Alvaro
+Fernandez, Cadamosto, Usodimare and Diego Gomez--made known the coast as
+far as the Gambia, and by the end of the 15th century the whole region
+was familiar to Europeans.
+
+  For further information see SENEGAL, GOLD COAST, IVORY COAST, FRENCH
+  GUINEA, PORTUGUESE GUINEA, LIBERIA, &c. For the history of European
+  discoveries, consult G. E. de Azurara, _Chronica de descobrimento e
+  conquista de Guine_, published, with an introduction, by Barros de
+  Santarem (Paris, 1841), English translation, _The Discovery and
+  Conquest of Guinea_, by C. R. Beazley and E. Prestage (Hakluyt Society
+  publications, 2 vols., London, 1896-1899, vol. ii. has an
+  introduction on the early history of African exploration, &c. with
+  full bibliographical notes). L. Estancelin, _Recherches sur les
+  voyages et decouvertes des navigateurs normands en Afrique_ (Paris,
+  1832); Villault de Bellefond, _Relation des costes d'Afrique appellees
+  Guinee_ (Paris, 1669); Pere Labat, _Nouvelle Relation de l'Afrique
+  occidentale_ (Paris, 1728); Desmarquets, _Mem. chron. pour servir a
+  l'hist. de Dieppe_ (1875); Santarem, _Priorite de la decouverte des
+  pays situes sur la cote occidentale d'Afrique_ (Paris, 1842); R. H.
+  Major, _Life of Prince Henry the Navigator_ (London, 1868); and the
+  elaborate review of Major's work by M. Codine in the _Bulletin de la
+  Soc. de Geog._ (1873); A. E. Nordenskiold, _Periplus_ (Stockholm,
+  1897); _The Story of Africa_, vol. i. (London, 1892), edited by Dr
+  Robert Brown.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Guinea may, however, be derived from Ghana (or Ghanata) the name
+    of the oldest known state in the western Sudan. Ghana dates,
+    according to some authorities, from the 3rd century A.D. From the 7th
+    to the 12th century it was a powerful empire, its dominions
+    extending, apparently, from the Atlantic to the Niger bend. At one
+    time Jenne was included within its borders. Ghana was finally
+    conquered by the Mandingo kings of Melle in the 13th century. Its
+    capital, also called Ghana, was west of the Niger, and is generally
+    placed some 200 m. west of Jenne. In this district L. Desplagnes
+    discovered in 1907 numerous remains of a once extensive city, which
+    he identified as those of Ghana. The ruins lie 25 m. W. of the Niger,
+    on both banks of a marigot, and are about 40 m. N. by E. of Kulikoro
+    (see _La Geographie_, xvi. 329). By some writers Ghana city is,
+    however, identified with Walata, which town is mentioned by Arab
+    historians as the capital of Ghanata. The identification of Ghana
+    city with Jenne is not justified, though Idrisi seems to be
+    describing Jenne when writing of "Ghana the Great."
+
+
+
+
+GUINEA, a gold coin at one time current in the United Kingdom. It was
+first coined in 1663, in the reign of Charles II., from gold imported
+from the Guinea coast of West Africa by a company of merchants trading
+under charter from the British crown--hence the name. Many of the first
+guineas bore an elephant on one side, this being the stamp of the
+company; in 1675 a castle was added. Issued at the same time as the
+guinea were five-guinea, two-guinea and half-guinea pieces. The current
+value of the guinea on its first issue was twenty shillings. It was
+subsidiary to the silver coinage, but this latter was in such an
+unsatisfactory state that the guinea in course of time became
+over-valued in relation to silver, so much so that in 1694 it had risen
+in value to thirty shillings. The rehabilitation of the silver coinage
+in William III.'s reign brought down the value of the guinea to 21s. 6d.
+in 1698, at which it stood until 1717, when its value was fixed at
+twenty-one shillings. This value the guinea retained until its
+disappearance from the coinage. It was last coined in 1813, and was
+superseded in 1817 by the present principal gold coin, the sovereign. In
+1718 the quarter-guinea was first coined. The third-guinea was first
+struck in George III.'s reign (1787). To George III.'s reign also
+belongs the "spade-guinea," a guinea having the shield on the reverse
+pointed at the base or spade-shaped. It is still customary to pay
+subscriptions, professional fees and honoraria of all kinds, in terms of
+"guineas," a guinea being twenty-one shillings.
+
+
+
+
+GUINEA FOWL, a well-known domestic gallinaceous bird, so called from the
+country whence in modern times it was brought to Europe, the _Meleagris_
+and _Avis_ or _Gallina Numidica_ of ancient authors.[1] Little is
+positively known of the wild stock to which we owe our tame birds, nor
+can the period of its reintroduction (for there is apparently no
+evidence of its domestication being continuous from the time of the
+Romans) be assigned more than roughly to that of the African discoveries
+of the Portuguese. It does not seem to have been commonly known till the
+middle of the 16th century, when John Caius sent a description and
+figure, with the name _Gallus Mauritanus_, to Gesner, who published both
+in his _Paralipomena_ in 1555, and in the same year Belon also gave a
+notice and woodcut under the name of _Poulle de la Guinee_; but while
+the former authors properly referred their bird to the ancient
+_Meleagris_, the latter confounded the _Meleagris_ and the turkey.
+
+The ordinary guinea fowl of the poultry-yard (see also POULTRY AND
+POULTRY-FARMING) is the _Numida meleagris_ of ornithologists. The chief
+or only changes which domestication seems to have induced in its
+appearance are a tendency to albinism generally shown in the plumage of
+its lower parts, and frequently, though not always, the conversion of
+the colour of its legs and feet from dark greyish-brown to bright
+orange. That the home of this species is West Africa from the Gambia[2]
+to the Gaboon is certain, but its range in the interior is quite
+unknown. It appears to have been imported early into the Cape Verd
+Islands, where, as also in some of the Greater Antilles and in
+Ascension, it has run wild. Representing the species in South Africa we
+have the _N. coronata_, which is very numerous from the Cape Colony to
+Ovampoland, and the _N. cornuta_ of Drs Finsch and Hartlaub, which
+replaces it in the west as far as the Zambesi. Madagascar also has its
+peculiar species, distinguishable by its red crown, the _N. mitrata_ of
+Pallas, a name which has often been misapplied to the last. This bird
+has been introduced to Rodriguez, where it is now found wild. Abyssinia
+is inhabited by another species, the _N. ptilorhyncha_,[3] which differs
+from all the foregoing by the absence of any red colouring about the
+head. Very different from all of them, and the finest species known, is
+the _N. vulturina_ of Zanzibar, conspicuous by the bright blue in its
+plumage, the hackles that adorn the lower part of its neck, and its long
+tail. By some writers it is thought to form a separate genus,
+_Acryllium_. All these guinea fowls except the last are characterized by
+having the crown bare of feathers and elevated into a bony "helmet," but
+there is another group (to which the name _Guttera_ has been given) in
+which a thick tuft of feathers ornaments the top of the head. This
+contains four or five species, all inhabiting some part or other of
+Africa, the best known being the _N. cristata_ from Sierra Leone and
+other places on the western coast. This bird, apparently mentioned by
+Marcgrave more than 200 years ago, but first described by Pallas, is
+remarkable for the structure--unique, if not possessed by its
+representative forms--of its _furcula_, where the head, instead of being
+the thin plate found in all other _Gallinae_, is a hollow cup opening
+upwards, into which the trachea dips, and then emerges on its way to the
+lungs. Allied to the genus _Numida_, but readily distinguished form
+among other characters by the possession of spurs and the absence of a
+helmet, are two very rare forms, _Agelastes_ and _Phasidus_, both from
+western Africa. Of their habits nothing is known. All these birds are
+beautifully figured in Elliot's _Monograph of the Phasianidae_, from
+drawings by Wolf.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Columella (_De re rustica_, viii. cap. 2) distinguishes the
+    _Meleagris_ from the _Gallina Africana_ or _Numidica_, the latter
+    having, he says, a red wattle (_palea_, a reading obviously
+    preferable to _galea_), while it was blue in the former. This would
+    look as if the _Meleagris_ had sprung from what is now called _Numida
+    ptilorhyncha_, while the _Gallina Africana_ originated in the _N.
+    meleagris_, species which have a different range, and if so the fact
+    would point to two distinct introductions--one by Greeks, the other
+    by Latins.
+
+  [2] Specimens from the Gambia are said to be smaller, and have been
+    described as distinct under the name of _N. rendalli_.
+
+  [3] Darwin (_Anim. and Pl. under Domestication_, i. 294), gives this
+    as the original stock of the modern domestic birds, but obviously by
+    an accidental error. As before observed, it may possibly have been
+    the true [Greek: meleagris] of the Greeks.
+
+
+
+
+GUINEA-WORM (_Dracontiasis_), a disease due to the _Filaria medinensis_,
+or _Dracunculus_, or Guinea-worm, a filarious nematode like a
+horse-hair, whose most frequent habitat is the subcutaneous and
+intramuscular tissues of the legs and feet. It is common on the Guinea
+coast, and in many other tropical and subtropical regions and has been
+familiarly known since ancient times. The condition of dracontiasis due
+to it is a very common one, and sometimes amounts to an epidemic. The
+black races are most liable, but Europeans of almost any social rank and
+of either sex are not altogether exempt. The worm lives in water, and,
+like the _Filaria sanguinis hominis_, appears to have an intermediate
+host for its larval stage. It is doubtful whether the worm penetrates
+the skin of the legs directly; it is not impossible that the
+intermediate host (a cyclops) which contains the larvae may be swallowed
+with the water, and that the larvae of the _Dracunculus_ may be set free
+in the course of digestion.
+
+
+
+
+GUINES, a town in the interior of Havana province, Cuba, about 30 m.
+S.E. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 8053. It is situated on a plain, in the
+midst of a rich plantation district, chiefly devoted to the cultivation
+of tobacco. The first railway in Cuba was built from Havana to Guines
+between 1835 and 1838. One of the very few good highways of the island
+also connects Guines with the capital. The pueblo of Guines, which was
+built on a great private estate of the same name, dates back to about
+1735. The church dates from 1850. Guines became a "villa" in 1814, and
+was destroyed by fire in 1817.
+
+
+
+
+GUINGAMP, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Cotes-du-Nord, on the right bank of the Trieux, 20
+m. W.N.W. of St Brieuc on the railway to Brest. Pop. (1906), town 6937,
+commune 9212. Its chief church, Notre-Dame de Bon-Secours, dates from
+the 14th to the 16th centuries; two towers rise on each side of the
+richly sculptured western portal and a third surmounts the crossing. A
+famous statue of the Virgin, the object of one of the most important
+"pardons" or religious pilgrimages in Brittany, stands in one of the two
+northern porches. The central square is decorated by a graceful fountain
+in the Renaissance style, restored in 1743. Remains of the ramparts and
+of the chateau of the dukes of Penthievre, which belong to the 15th
+century, still survive. Guingamp is the seat of a sub-prefect and of a
+tribunal of first instance. It is an important market for dairy-cattle,
+and its industries include flour-milling, tanning and leather-dressing.
+Guingamp was the chief town of the countship (subsequently the duchy) of
+Penthievre. The Gothic chapel of Graces, near Guingamp, contains fine
+sculptures.
+
+
+
+
+GUINNESS, the name of a family of Irish brewers. The firm was founded by
+ARTHUR GUINNESS, who about the middle of the 18th century owned a modest
+brewing-plant at Leixlip, a village on the upper reaches of the river
+Liffey. In or about 1759 Arthur Guinness, seeking to extend his trade,
+purchased a small porter brewery belonging to a Mr Rainsford at St
+James's Gate, Dublin. By careful attention to the purity of his product,
+coupled with a shrewd perception of the public taste, he built up a
+considerable business. But his third son, BENJAMIN LEE GUINNESS
+(1798-1868), may be regarded as the real maker of the firm, into which
+he was taken at an early age, and of which about 1825 he was given sole
+control. Prior to that date the trade in Guinness's porter and stout had
+been confined to Ireland, but Benjamin Lee Guinness at once established
+agencies in the United Kingdom, on the continent, in the British
+colonies and in America. The export trade soon assumed huge proportions;
+the brewery was continually enlarged, and when in 1855 his father died,
+Benjamin Lee Guinness, who in 1851 was elected first lord mayor of
+Dublin, found himself sole proprietor of the business and the richest
+man in Ireland. Between 1860 and 1865 he devoted a portion of this
+wealth to the restoration of St Patrick's cathedral, Dublin. The work,
+the progress of which he regularly superintended himself, cost L160,000.
+Benjamin Lee Guinness represented the city of Dublin in parliament as a
+Conservative from 1865 till his death, and in 1867 was created a
+baronet. He died in 1868, and was succeeded in the control of the
+business by Sir Arthur Edward Guinness (b. 1840), his eldest, and Edward
+Cecil Guinness (b. 1847), his third, son. SIR ARTHUR EDWARD GUINNESS,
+who for some time represented Dublin in parliament, was in 1880 raised
+to the peerage as Baron Ardilaun, and about the same time disposed of
+his share in the brewery to his brother Edward Cecil Guinness. In 1886
+EDWARD CECIL GUINNESS disposed of the brewery, the products of which
+were then being sent all over the world, to a limited company, in which
+he remained the largest shareholder. Edward Cecil Guinness was created a
+baronet in 1885, and in 1891 was raised to the peerage as Baron Iveagh.
+
+The Guinness family have been distinguished for their philanthropy and
+public munificence. Lord Ardilaun gave a recreation ground to Dublin,
+and the famous Muckross estate at Killarney to the nation. Lord Iveagh
+set aside L250,000 for the creation of the Guinness trust (1889) for the
+erection and maintenance of buildings for the labouring poor in London
+and Dublin, and was a liberal benefactor to the funds of Dublin
+university.
+
+
+
+
+GUINOBATAN, a town of the province of Albay, Luzon, Philippine Islands,
+on the Inaya river, 9 m. W. by N. of the town of Albay. Pop. (1903),
+20,027. Its chief interest is in hemp, which is grown in large
+quantities in the neighbouring country.
+
+
+
+
+GUIPUZCOA, a maritime province of northern Spain, included among the
+Basque provinces, and bounded on the N. by the Bay of Biscay; W. by the
+province of Biscay (_Vizcaya_); S. and S.E. by. Alava and Navarre: and
+N.E. by the river Bidassoa,[1] which separates it from France. Pop.
+(1900), 195,850; area, 728 sq. m. Situated on the northern slope of the
+great Cantabrian chain at its junction with the Pyrenees, the province
+has a great variety of surface in mountain, hill and valley; and its
+scenery is highly picturesque. The coast is much indented, and has
+numerous harbours, but none of very great importance; the chief are
+those of San Sebastian, Pasajes, Guetaria, Deva and Fuenterrabia. The
+rivers (Deva, Urola, Oria, Urumea, Bidassoa) are all short, rapid and
+unnavigable. The mountains are for the most part covered with forests of
+oak, chestnut or pine; holly and arbutus are also common, with furze and
+heath in the poorer parts. The soil in the lower valleys is generally of
+hard clay and unfertile; it is cultivated with great care, but the grain
+raised falls considerably short of what is required for home
+consumption. The climate, though moist, is mild, pleasant and healthy;
+fruit is produced in considerable quantities, especially apples for
+manufacture into _zaragua_ or cider. The chief mineral products are
+iron, lignite, lead, copper, zinc and cement. Ferruginous and sulphurous
+springs are very common, and are much frequented every summer by
+visitors from all parts of the kingdom. There are excellent fisheries,
+which supply the neighbouring provinces with cod, tunny, sardines and
+oysters; and the average yearly value of the coasting trade exceeds
+L400,000. By Irun, Pasajes and the frontier roads L4,000,000 of imports
+and L3,000,000 of exports pass to and from France, partly in transit for
+the rest of Europe. Apart from the four Catalan provinces, no province
+has witnessed such a development of local industries as Guipuzcoa. The
+principal industrial centres are Irun, Renteria, Villabona, Vergara and
+Azpeitia for cotton and linen stuffs; Zumarraga for osiers; Eibar,
+Plasencia and Elgoibar for arms and cannon and gold incrustations; Irun
+for soap and carriages; San Sebastian, Irun and Onate for paper, glass,
+chemicals and saw-mills; Tolosa for paper, timber, cloths and furniture;
+and the banks of the bay of Pasajes for the manufacture of liqueurs of
+every kind, and the preparation of wines for export and for consumption
+in the interior of Spain. This last industry occupies several thousand
+French and Spanish workmen. An arsenal was established at Azpeitia
+during the Carlist rising of 1870-1874; but the manufacture of ordnance
+and gunpowder was subsequently discontinued. The main line of the
+northern railway from Madrid to France runs through the province, giving
+access, by a loop line, to the chief industrial centres. The
+custom-house through which it passes on the frontier is one of the most
+important in Spain. Despite the steep gradients, where traffic is hardly
+possible except by ox-carts, there are over 350 m. of admirably
+engineered roads, maintained solely by the local tax-payers. After San
+Sebastian, the capital (pop. 1900, 37,812), the chief towns are
+Fuenterrabia (4345) and Irun (9912). Other towns with more than 6000
+inhabitants are Azpeitia (6066), Eibar (6583), Tolosa (8111) and Vergara
+(6196). Guipuzcoa is the smallest and one of the most densely peopled
+provinces of Spain; for its constant losses by emigration are
+counterbalanced by a high birth-rate and the influx of settlers from
+other districts who are attracted by its industrial prosperity.
+
+  For an account of its inhabitants and their customs, language and
+  history, see BASQUES and BASQUE PROVINCES.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] A small island in the Bidassoa, called La Isla de los Faisanes,
+    or l'Isle de la Conference, is celebrated as the place where the
+    marriage of the duke of Guienne was arranged between Louis XI. and
+    Henry IV. in 1463, where Francis I., the prisoner of Charles V., was
+    exchanged for his two sons in 1526, and where in 1659 "the Peace of
+    the Pyrenees" was concluded between D. Luis de Haro and Cardinal
+    Mazarin.
+
+
+
+
+GUIRAUD, ERNEST (1837-1892), French composer, was born at New Orleans on
+the 26th of June 1837. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire, where he
+won the _grand prix de Rome_. His father had gained the same distinction
+many years previously, this being the only instance of both father and
+son obtaining this prize. Ernest Guiraud composed the following operas:
+_Sylvie_ (1864); _Le Kobold_ (1870), _Madame Turlupin_ (1872),
+_Piccolino_ (1876), _Galante Aventure_ (1882), and also the ballet
+_Gretna Green_, given at the Opera in 1873. His opera _Fredegonde_ was
+left in an unfinished condition and was completed by Camille
+Saint-Saens. Guiraud, who was a fellow-student and intimate friend of
+Georges Bizet, was for some years professor of composition at the
+Conservatoire. He was the author of an excellent treatise on
+instrumentation. He died in Paris on the 6th of May 1892.
+
+
+
+
+GUISBOROUGH, or GUISBROUGH, a market town in the Cleveland parliamentary
+division of the North Riding of Yorkshire, England, 10 m. E.S.E. of
+Middlesbrough by a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. of urban
+district (1901), 5645. It is well situated in a narrow, fertile valley
+at the N. foot of the Cleveland Hills. The church of St Nicholas is
+Perpendicular, greatly restored. Other buildings are the town hall, and
+the modern buildings of the grammar school founded in 1561. Ruins of an
+Augustinian priory, founded in 1129, are beautifully situated near the
+eastern extremity of the town. The church contains some fine Decorated
+work, and the chapter house and parts of the conventual buildings may be
+traced. Considerable fragments of Norman and transitional work remain.
+Among the historic personages who were buried within its walls was
+Robert Bruce, lord of Annandale, the competitor for the throne of
+Scotland with John Baliol, and the grandfather of King Robert the Bruce.
+About 1 m. S.E. of the town there is a sulphurous spring discovered in
+1822. The district neighbouring to Guisborough is rich in iron-stone.
+Its working forms the chief industry of the town, and there are also
+tanneries and breweries.
+
+
+
+
+GUISE, a town of northern France, in the department of Aisne, on the
+Oise, 31 m. N. of Laon by rail. Pop. (1906), 7562. The town was formerly
+the capital of the district of Thierache and afterwards of a countship
+(see below). There is a chateau dating in part from the middle of the
+16th century. Camille Desmoulins was in 1762 born in the town, which has
+erected a statue to him. The chief industry is the manufacture of iron
+stoves and heating apparatus, carried on on the co-operative system in
+works founded by J. B. A. Godin, who built for his workpeople the huge
+buildings known as the _familistere_, in front of which stands his
+statue. A board of trade-arbitration is among the public institutions.
+
+
+
+
+GUISE, HOUSE OF, a cadet branch of the house of Lorraine (q.v.). Rene
+II., duke of Lorraine (d. 1508), united the two branches of the house of
+Lorraine. From his paternal grandmother, Marie d'Harcourt, Rene
+inherited the countships of Aumale, Mayenne, Elbeuf, Lillebonne, Brionne
+and other French fiefs, in addition to the honours of the elder branch,
+which included the countship of Guise, the dowry of Marie of Blois on
+her marriage in 1333 with Rudolph or Raoul of Lorraine. Rene's eldest
+surviving son by his marriage with Philippa, daughter of Adolphus of
+Egmont, duke of Gelderland, was Anthony, who succeeded his father as
+duke of Lorraine (d. 1544), while the second, Claude, count and
+afterwards duke of Guise, received the French fiefs. The Guises, though
+naturalized in France, continued to interest themselves in the fortunes
+of Lorraine, and their enemies were always ready to designate them as
+foreigners. The partition between the brothers Anthony and Claude was
+ratified by a further agreement in 1530, reserving the lapsed honours of
+the kingdoms of Jerusalem, Sicily, Aragon, the duchy of Anjou and the
+countships of Provence and Maine to the duke of Lorraine. Of the other
+sons of Rene II., John (1498-1550) became the first cardinal of
+Lorraine, while Ferri, Louis and Francis fell fighting in the French
+armies at Marignano (1515), Naples (1528) and Pavia (1525) respectively.
+
+CLAUDE OF LORRAINE, count and afterwards 1st duke of Guise (1496-1550),
+was born on the 20th of October 1496. He was educated at the French
+court, and at seventeen allied himself to the royal house of France by a
+marriage with Antoinette de Bourbon (1493-1583) daughter of Francois,
+Count of Vendome. Guise distinguished himself at Marignano (1515), and
+was long in recovering from the twenty-two wounds he received in the
+battle; in 1521 he fought at Fuenterrabia, when Louise of Savoy ascribed
+the capture of the place to his efforts; in 1522 he defended northern
+France, and forced the English to raise the siege of Hesdin; and in 1523
+he obtained the government of Champagne and Burgundy, defeating at
+Neufchateau the imperial troops who had invaded his province. In 1525
+he destroyed the Anabaptist peasant army, which was overrunning
+Lorraine, at Lupstein, near Saverne (Zabern). On the return of Francis
+I. from captivity, Guise was erected into a duchy in the peerage of
+France, though up to this time only princes of the royal house had held
+the title of duke and peer of France. The Guises, as cadets of the
+sovereign house of Lorraine and descendants of the house of Anjou,
+claimed precedence of the Bourbon princes. Their pretensions and
+ambitions inspired distrust in Francis I., although he rewarded Guise's
+services by substantial gifts in land and money. The duke distinguished
+himself in the Luxemburg campaign in 1542, but for some years before his
+death he effaced himself before the growing fortunes of his sons. He
+died on the 12th of April 1550.
+
+He had been supported in all his undertakings and intrigues by his
+brother JOHN, cardinal of Lorraine (1498-1550), who had been made
+coadjutor of Metz at the age of three. The cardinal was archbishop of
+Reims, Lyons and Narbonne, bishop of Metz, Toul, Verdun, Therouanne,
+Lucon, Albi, Valence, Nantes and Agen, and before he died had squandered
+most of the wealth which he had derived from these and other benefices.
+Part of his ecclesiastical preferments he gave up in favour of his
+nephews. He became a member of the royal council in 1530, and in 1536
+was entrusted with an embassy to Charles V. Although a complaisant
+helper in Francis I.'s pleasures, he was disgraced in 1542, and retired
+to Rome. He died at Nogent-sur-Yonne on the 18th of May 1550. He was
+extremely dissolute, but as an open-handed patron of art and learning,
+as the protector and friend of Erasmus, Marot and Rabelais he did
+something to counter-balance the general unpopularity of his calculating
+and avaricious brother.
+
+  Claude of Guise had twelve children, among them Francis, 2nd duke of
+  Guise; Charles, 2nd cardinal of Lorraine (1524-1574), who became
+  archbishop of Reims in 1538 and cardinal in 1547; Claude, marquis of
+  Mayenne, duke of Aumale (1526-1573), governor of Burgundy, who married
+  Louise de Breze, daughter of Diane de Poitiers, thus securing a
+  powerful ally for the family; Louis (1527-1578), bishop of Troyes,
+  archbishop of Sens and cardinal of Guise; Rene, marquis of Elbeuf
+  (1536-1566), from whom descended the families of Harcourt, Armagnac,
+  Marsan and Lillebonne; Mary of Lorraine (q.v.), generally known as
+  Mary of Guise, who after the death of her second husband, James V. of
+  Scotland, acted as regent of Scotland for her daughter Mary, queen of
+  Scots; and Francis (1534-1563), grand prior of the order of the
+  Knights of Malta. The solidarity of this family, all the members of
+  which through three generations cheerfully submitted to the authority
+  of the head of the house, made it a formidable factor in French
+  politics.
+
+FRANCIS OF LORRAINE, 2nd duke of Guise (1519-1563), "le grand Guise,"
+was born at Bar on the 17th of February 1519. As count of Aumale he
+served in the French army, and was nearly killed at the siege of
+Boulogne in 1545 by a wound which brought him the name of "Balafre."
+Aumale was made (1547) a peerage-duchy in his favour, and on the
+accession of Henry II. the young duke, who had paid assiduous court to
+Diane de Poitiers, shared the chief honours of the kingdom with the
+constable Anne de Montmorency. Both cherished ambitions for their
+families, but the Guises were more unscrupulous in subordinating the
+interests of France to their own. Montmorency's brutal manners, however,
+made enemies where Guise's grace and courtesy won him friends. Guise was
+a suitor for the hand of Jeanne d'Albret, princess of Navarre, who
+refused, however, to become a sister-in-law of a daughter of Diane de
+Poitiers and remained one of the most dangerous and persistent enemies
+of the Guises. He married in December 1548 Anne of Este, daughter of
+Ercole II., duke of Ferrara, and through her mother Renee, a
+granddaughter of Louis XII. of France. In the same year he had put down
+a peasant rising in Saintonge with a humanity that compared very
+favourably with the cruelty shown by Montmorency to the town of
+Bordeaux. He made preparations in Lorraine for the king's German
+campaign of 1551-52. He was already governor of Dauphine, and now became
+grand chamberlain, prince of Joinville, and hereditary seneschal of
+Champagne, with large additions to his already considerable revenues. He
+was charged with the defence of Metz, which Henry II. had entered in
+1551. He reached the city in August 1552, and rapidly gave proof of his
+great powers as a soldier and organizer by the skill with which the
+place, badly fortified and unprovided with artillery, was put in a state
+of defence. Metz was invested by the duke of Alva in October with an
+army of 60,000 men, and the emperor joined his forces in November. An
+army of brigands commanded by Albert of Brandenburg had also to be
+reckoned with. Charles was obliged to raise the siege on the 2nd of
+January 1553, having lost, it is said, 30,000 men before the walls.
+Guise used his victory with rare moderation and humanity, providing
+medical care for the sick and wounded left behind in the besiegers'
+camp. The subsequent operations were paralysed by the king's suspicion
+and carelessness, and the constable's inactivity, and a year later Guise
+was removed from the command. He followed the constable's army as a
+volunteer, and routed the army of Charles V. at the siege of Renty on
+the 12th of August 1554. Montmorency's inaction rendered the victory
+fruitless, and a bitter controversy followed between Guise and the
+constable's nephew Coligny, admiral of France, which widened a breach
+already existing.
+
+The conclusion of a six years' truce at Vaucelles (1556) disappointed
+Guise's ambitions, and he was the main mover in the breach of the treaty
+in 1558, when he was sent at the head of a French army to Italy to the
+assistance of Pope Paul IV. against Spain. Guise, who perhaps had in
+view the restoration to his family of the Angevin dominion of Naples and
+Sicily, crossed the Alps early in 1557 and after a month's delay in
+Rome, where he failed to receive the promised support, marched on the
+kingdom of Naples, then occupied by the Spanish troops under Alva. He
+seized and sacked Campli (April 17th), but was compelled to raise the
+siege of Civitella. Meanwhile the pope had veered round to a Spanish
+alliance, and Guise, seeing that no honour was to be gained in the
+campaign, wisely spared his troops, so that his army was almost intact
+when, in August, he was hastily summoned home to repel the Spanish army
+which had invaded France from the north, and had taken St Quentin. On
+reaching Paris in October Guise was made lieutenant-general of the
+kingdom, and proceeded to prepare for the siege of Calais. The town was
+taken, after six days' fighting, on the 6th of January 1558, and this
+success was followed up by the capture of Guines, Thionville and Arlon,
+when the war was ended by the treaty of Cateau Cambresis (1559).
+Although his brother, the cardinal of Lorraine, was one of the
+negotiators, this peace was concluded against the wishes of Guise, and
+was regarded as a triumph of the constable's party. The Guises were
+provided with a weapon against Montmorency by the bishop of Arras
+(afterwards Cardinal Granvella), who gave to the cardinal of Lorraine at
+an interview at Peronne in 1558 an intercepted letter proving the
+Huguenot leanings of the constable's nephews.
+
+On the accession in 1559 of Francis II., their nephew by marriage with
+Mary Stuart, the royal authority was practically delegated to Guise and
+the cardinal, who found themselves beyond rivalry for the time being.
+They had, however, to cope with a new and dangerous force in Catherine
+de' Medici, who was now for the first time free to use her political
+ability. The incapacity, suspicion and cruelty of the cardinal, who
+controlled the internal administration, roused the smaller nobility
+against the Lorraine princes. A conspiracy to overturn their government
+was formed at Nantes, with a needy Perigord nobleman named La Renaudie
+as its nominal head, though the agitation had in the first instance been
+fostered by the agents of Louis I., prince of Conde. The Guises were
+warned of the conspiracy while the court was at Blois, and for greater
+security removed the king to Amboise. La Renaudie, nothing daunted,
+merely postponed his plans; and the conspirators assembled in small
+parties in the woods round Amboise. They had, however, been again
+betrayed and many of them were surrounded and taken before the _coup_
+could be delivered; one party, which had seized the chateau of Noizay,
+surrendered on a promise of amnesty given "on his faith as a prince" by
+James of Savoy, duke of Nemours, a promise which, in spite of the duke's
+protest, was disregarded. On the 19th of March 1560, La Renaudie and
+the rest of the conspirators openly attacked the chateau of Amboise.
+They were repelled; their leader was killed; and a large number were
+taken prisoners. The merciless vengeance of the Guises was the measure
+of their previous fears. For a whole week the torturings, quarterings
+and hangings went on, the bodies being cast into the Loire, the young
+king and queen witnessing the bloody spectacle day by day from a balcony
+of the chateau.
+
+The cruel repression of this "conspiracy of Amboise" inspired bitter
+hatred of the Guises, since they were avenging a rising rather against
+their own than the royal authority. They now entrenched themselves with
+the king at Orleans, and the Bourbon princes, Anthony, king of Navarre,
+and his brother Conde, were summoned to court. The Guises convened a
+special commission to try Conde, who was condemned to death; but the
+affair was postponed by the chancellor, and the death of Francis II. in
+December saved Conde. Guise then made common cause with his old rival
+Montmorency and with the Marshal de Saint Andre against Catherine, the
+Bourbons and Coligny. This alliance, constituted on the 6th of April
+1561, and known as the triumvirate, aimed at the annulment of the
+concessions made by Catherine to the Huguenots. The cardinal of Lorraine
+fomented the discord which appeared between the clergy of the two
+religions when they met at the colloquy of Poissy in 1561, but in spite
+of the extreme Catholic views he there professed, he was at the time in
+communication with the Lutheran princes of Germany, and in February 1562
+met the duke of Wurttemberg at Zabern to discuss the possibility of a
+religious compromise.
+
+The signal for civil war was given by an attack of Guise's escort on a
+Huguenot congregation at Vassy (1st of March 1562). Although Guise did
+not initiate the massacre, and although, when he learned what was going
+on, he even tried to restrain his soldiers, he did not disavow their
+action. When Catherine de' Medici forbade his entry into Paris, he
+accepted the challenge, and on the 16th of March he entered the city,
+where he was a popular hero, at the head of 2000 armed nobles. The
+provost of the merchants offered to put 20,000 men and two million
+livres at his disposal. In September he joined Montmorency in besieging
+Rouen, which was sacked as if it had been a foreign city, in spite of
+Guise's efforts to save it from the worst horrors. At the battle of
+Dreux (19th of December 1562) he commanded a reserve army, with which he
+saved Montmorency's forces from destruction and inflicted a crushing
+defeat on the Huguenots. The prince of Conde was his prisoner, while the
+capture of Montmorency by the Huguenots and the assassination of the
+Marshal de Saint-Andre after the battle left Guise the undisputed head
+of the Catholic party. He was appointed lieutenant-general of the
+kingdom, and on the 5th of February 1563 he appeared with his army
+before Orleans. On the 19th, however, he was shot by the Huguenot Jean
+Poltrot de Mere as he was returning to his quarters, and died on the
+24th of the effects of the wound. Guise's splendid presence, his
+generosity and humanity and his almost unvarying success on the
+battlefield made him the idol of his soldiers. He attended personally to
+the minutest details, and Monluc complains that he even wrote out his
+own orders. The mistakes and cruelties associated with his name were
+partly due to the evil counsels of his brother Charles, the cardinal,
+whose cowardice and insincerity were the scorn of his contemporaries.
+The negotiations of the Guises with Spain dated from the interview with
+Granvella at Peronne, in 1558, and after the death of his brother the
+cardinal of Lorraine was constantly in communication with the Spanish
+court, offering, in the event of the failure of direct heirs to the
+Valois kings, to deliver up the frontier fortresses and to acknowledge
+Philip II. as king of France. His death in 1574 temporarily weakened the
+extreme Catholic party.
+
+  Of the children of Francis "le Balafre" five survived him: Henry, 3rd
+  duke of Guise; Charles, duke of Mayenne (1554-1611) (q.v.), who
+  consolidated the League; Catherine (1552-1596), who married Louis of
+  Bourbon, duke of Montpensier, and encouraged the fanaticism of the
+  Parisian leaguers; Louis, second cardinal of Guise, afterwards of
+  Lorraine (1555-1588), who was assassinated with his brother Henry; and
+  Francis (1558-1573).
+
+HENRY OF LORRAINE, 3rd duke of Guise (1550-1588), born on the 31st of
+December 1550, was thirteen years old at the time of his father's death,
+and grew up under the domination of a passionate desire for revenge.
+Catherine de' Medici refused to take steps against Coligny, who was
+formally accused by the duchess of Guise and her brothers-in-law of
+having incited the murder. In 1566 she insisted on a formal
+reconciliation at Moulins between the Guises and Coligny, at which,
+however, none of the sons of the murdered man was present. Henry and his
+brothers were, however, compelled in 1572 to sign an ambiguous assent to
+this agreement. Guise's widow married James of Savoy, duke of Nemours,
+and the young duke at sixteen went to fight against the Turks in
+Hungary. On the fresh outbreak of civil war in 1567 he returned to
+France and served under his uncle Aumale. In the autumn of 1568 he
+received a considerable command, and speedily came into rivalry with
+Henry of Valois, duke of Anjou. He had not inherited his father's
+generalship, and his rashness and headstrong valour more than once
+brought disaster on his troops, but the showy quality of his fighting
+brought him great popularity in the army. In the defence of Poitiers in
+1569 with his brother, the duke of Mayenne, he showed more solid
+abilities as a soldier. On the conclusion of peace in 1570 he returned
+to court, where he made no secret of his attachment to Margaret of
+Valois. His pretensions were violently resented by her brothers, who
+threatened his life, and he saved himself by a precipitate marriage with
+Catherine of Cleves (daughter of Francis of Cleves, duke of Nevers, and
+Margaret of Bourbon), the widow of a Huguenot nobleman, Antoine de Crog,
+prince of Porcien. Presently he ended his disgrace by an apparent
+reconciliation with Henry of Valois and an alliance with Catherine de'
+Medici. He was an accomplice in the first attack on Coligny's life, and
+when permission for the massacre of Saint Bartholomew had been extorted
+from Charles IX. he roused Paris against the Huguenots, and satisfied
+his personal vengeance by superintending the murder of Coligny. He was
+now the acknowledged chief of the Catholic party, and the power of his
+family was further increased by the marriage (1575) of Henry III. with
+Louise of Vaudemont, who belonged to the elder branch of the house of
+Lorraine. In a fight at Dormans (10th of October 1575), the only
+Catholic victory in a disastrous campaign, Guise received a face wound
+which won for him his father's name of Balafre and helped to secure the
+passionate attachment of the Parisians. He refused to acquiesce in the
+treaty of Beaulieu (5th of May 1576), and with the support of the
+Jesuits proceeded to form a "holy league" for the defence of the Roman
+Catholic Church. The terms of enrolment enjoined offensive action
+against all who refused to join. This association had been preceded by
+various provincial leagues among the Catholics, notably one at Peronne.
+Conde had been imposed on this town as governor by the terms of the
+peace, and the local nobility banded together to resist him. This, like
+the Holy League itself, was political as well as religious in its aims,
+and was partly inspired by revolt against the royal authority. In the
+direction of the League Guise was hampered by Philip of Spain, who
+subsidized the movement, while he also had to submit to the dictation of
+the Parisian democracy. Ulterior ambitions were freely ascribed to him.
+It was asserted that papers seized from his envoy to Rome, Jean David,
+revealed a definite design of substituting the Lorraines, who
+represented themselves as the successors of Charlemagne, for the Valois;
+but these papers were probably a Huguenot forgery. Henry III. eventually
+placed himself at the head of the League, and resumed the war against
+the Huguenots; but on the conclusion of peace (September 1577) he seized
+the opportunity of disbanding the Catholic associations. The king's
+jealousy of Guise increased with the duke's popularity, but he did not
+venture on an open attack, nor did he dare to avenge the murder by
+Guise's partisans of one of his personal favourites, Saint-Megrin, who
+had been set on by the court to compromise the reputation of the duchess
+of Guise.[1]
+
+Meanwhile the duke had entered on an equivocal alliance with Don John of
+Austria. He was also in constant correspondence with Mary of Lorraine,
+and meditated a descent on Scotland in support of the Catholic cause.
+But the great riches of the Guises were being rapidly dissipated, and in
+1578 the duke became a pensioner of Philip II. When in 1584 the death of
+the duke of Anjou made Henry of Navarre the next heir to the throne, the
+prospect of a Huguenot dynasty roused the Catholics to forget their
+differences, and led to the formation of a new league of the Catholic
+nobles. At the end of the same year Guise and his brother, the duke of
+Mayenne, with the assent of other Catholic nobles, signed a treaty at
+Joinville with Philip II., fixing the succession to the crown on
+Charles, cardinal of Bourbon, to the exclusion of the Protestant princes
+of his house. In March 1585 the chiefs of the League issued the
+Declaration of Peronne, exposing their grievances against the government
+and announcing their intention to restore the dignity of religion by
+force of arms. On the refusal of Henry III. to accept Spanish help
+against his Huguenot subjects, war broke out. The chief cities of France
+declared for the League, and Guise, who had recruited his forces in
+Germany and Switzerland, took up his headquarters at Chalons, while
+Mayenne occupied Dijon, and his relatives, the dukes of Elbeuf, Aumale
+and Mercoeur,[2] roused Normandy and Brittany. Henry III. accepted, or
+feigned to accept, the terms imposed by the Guises at Nemours (7th of
+July 1585). The edicts in favour of the Huguenots were immediately
+revoked. Guise added to his reputation as the Catholic champion by
+defeating the German auxiliaries of the Huguenots at Vimory (October
+1587) and Auneau (November 1587). The protestations of loyalty to Henry
+III. which had marked the earlier manifestoes of the League were
+modified. Obedience to the king was now stated to depend on his giving
+proof of Catholic zeal and showing no favour to heresy. In April 1588
+Guise arrived in Paris, where he put himself at the head of the Parisian
+mob, and on the 12th of May, known as the Day of the Barricades, he
+actually had the crown within his grasp. He refused to treat with
+Catherine de' Medici, who was prepared to make peace at any cost, but
+restrained the populace from revolution and permitted Henry to escape
+from Paris. Henry came to terms with the League in May, and made Guise
+lieutenant-general of the royal armies. The estates-general, which were
+assembled at Blois, were devoted to the Guise interest, and alarmed the
+king by giving voice to the political as well as the religious
+aspirations of the League. Guise remained at the court of Blois after
+receiving repeated warnings that Henry meditated treason. On the 25th of
+December he was summoned to the king's chamber during a sitting of the
+royal council, and was murdered by assassins carefully posted by Henry
+III. himself. The cardinal of Lorraine was murdered in prison on the
+next day. The history of the Guises thenceforward centres in the duke of
+Mayenne (q.v.).
+
+  By his wife, Catherine of Cleves, the third duke had fourteen
+  children: among them Charles, 4th duke of Guise (1571-1640); Claude,
+  duke of Chevreuse (1578-1657), whose wife, Marie de Rohan, duchess of
+  Chevreuse, became famous for her intrigues; Louis (1585-1621), 3rd
+  cardinal of Guise, archbishop of Reims, remembered for his liaison
+  with Charlotte des Essarts, mistress of Henry IV.
+
+CHARLES, 4th duke of Guise (1571-1640), was imprisoned for three years
+after his father's death. He married Henriette Catherine de Joyeuse,
+widow of the duke of Montpensier. His eldest son predeceased him, and he
+was succeeded by his second son HENRY (1614-1664), who had been
+archbishop of Reims, but renounced the ecclesiastical estate and became
+5th duke. He made an attempt (1647) on the crown of Naples, and was a
+prisoner in Spain from 1648 to 1652. A second expedition to Naples in
+1654 was a fiasco. He was succeeded by his nephew, LOUIS JOSEPH
+(1650-1671), as 6th duke. With his son, FRANCIS JOSEPH (1670-1675), the
+line failed; and the title and estates passed to his great-aunt, Marie
+of Lorraine, duchess of Guise (1615-1688), daughter of the 4th duke, and
+with her the title became extinct. The title is now vested in the family
+of the Bourbon-Orleans princes.
+
+
+GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF GUISE
+
+  Rene II. (who united the two branches of the house of Lorraine), duke
+  of Lorraine, and Philippa of Gelderland, had (besides two older boys
+  who died in childhood, and four unmarried daughters)
+
+                                                  |
+             +--------------+--------------+------+-----+------------+-----------+
+             |              |              |            |            |           |
+         Antoine,        Claude,         John,        Ferri,       Louis,     Francis,
+         duke of       1st duke of   1st cardinal   killed at    killed at   killed at
+        Lorraine,        Guise,      of Lorraine.   Marignano.     Naples.     Pavia.
+         +1544,          +1550,
+       ancestor of    = Antoinette
+      the dukes of     of Bourbon.
+    Lorraine and the        |
+   house of Mercoeur.       |
+                            |
+       +--------------+------------+-------------+------------+----------+------------+---------+
+       |              |            |             |            |          |            |         |
+    Francis,       Charles,      Claude,       Louis,      Francis,    Rene,      Marie =      And
+  2nd duke of   2nd cardinal   marquis of  1st cardinal     grand     marquis   (1) duke of    five
+     Guise,     of Lorraine,  Mayenne and    of Guise,      prior.   of Elbeuf, Longueville,  others.
+     +1563.        +1574.     and duke of      +1578                   +1566.   (2) James V.
+   = Anne of                    Aumale,                                  |      of Scotland.
+     Este.                      +1573.                                   |           |
+       |                  = Louise de Breze.                             |      Mary Stuart,
+       |                           |                                     |        queen of
+       |                        Charles,                              Charles,     Scots.
+       |                    duke of Aumale,                       duke of Elbeuf,
+       |                        +1631.                                +1605.
+       |
+       +----+-------------+-------------+----------------+-------------------+
+            |             |             |                |                   |
+          Henry,       Charles,       Louis,         Catherine =      And five others.
+        3rd duke,      duke of     2nd cardinal   Louis de Bourbon,
+          +1588        Mayenne,      of Guise,        duke of
+        =Catherine      +1611.        +1588.        Montpensier.
+        of Cleves         |
+        (and had          |
+       14 children).      |
+            |           Henry,
+            |      duke of Mayenne,
+            |           +1621.
+            |
+            ---+--------------------+-------------------------+---------------------+
+               |                    |                         |                     |
+            Charles,             Claude,                    Louis,          And eleven more.
+       4th duke of Guise,   duke of Chevreuse,      3rd cardinal of Guise,
+             +1640.         = Marie de Rohan,               +1621.
+               |       widow of the duke of Luynes.
+               |
+               +------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+
+               |                        |                         |                  |
+             Henry,                   Marie,                    Louis,           And eight
+      archbishop of Reims,    called Mlle. de Guise,   chevalier of Guise and      more.
+         and 5th duke,        succeeded to the duchy       duke of Joyeuse,
+            +1664.            in 1675 and sold her              +1654.
+                            rights to Louis Augustus,             |
+                                 duke of Maine.              Louis-Joseph,
+                                                           6th duke of Guise,
+                                                                +1671.
+                                                                  |
+                                                            Francis-Joseph,
+                                                      7th and last duke of Guise,
+                                                                +1675.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--A number of contemporary documents relating to the
+  Guises are included by L. Cimber and F. Danjou in their _Archives
+  curieuses de l'histoire de France_ (Paris, 1834, &c.). Vol. iii.
+  contains a soldier's diary of the siege of Metz, first published in
+  Italian (Lyons, 1553), accounts of the sieges of Calais (Tours, 1558).
+  of Thionville (Paris, 1558); vol. iv. an account of the tumult of
+  Amboise from the _Memoires_ of Conde, and four accounts of the affair
+  of Vassy; vol. v. four accounts of the battle of Dreux, one dictated
+  by Guise, and accounts of the murder of Guise; vol. xi. accounts of
+  the Parisian revolution of 1558; and vol. xii. numerous pamphlets and
+  pieces dealing with the murder of Henry of Guise and his brother. An
+  account of the murder of Guise and of the subsequent measures taken by
+  Mayenne, which was supplied by the Venetian ambassador, G. Mocenigo,
+  to his government, is printed by H. Brown in the _Eng. Hist. Rev._
+  (April 1895). For the foreign policy of the Guises, and especially
+  their relations with Scotland, there is abundant material in the
+  English _Calendar of State Papers_ of Queen Elizabeth (Foreign Series)
+  and in the correspondence of Cardinal Granvella. The memoirs of
+  Francis, duke of Guise, covering the years 1547 to 1563, were
+  published by Michel and Poujoulat in series 1, vol. iv. of their
+  _Coll. de memoires_. Among contemporary memoirs see especially those
+  of the prince of Conde, of Blaise de Monluc and of Gaspard de
+  Saulx-Tavannes. See also _La Vie de F. de Lorraine, duc de Guise_
+  (Paris, 1681), by J. B. H. du Trousset de Valincourt; A. de Ruble,
+  _L'Assassinat de F. de Lorraine, duc de Guise_ (1897), where there is
+  a list of the MS. sources available for a history of the house; R. de
+  Bouille, _Hist. des ducs de Guise_ (4 vols., 1849); H. Forneron, _Les
+  Guise et leur epoque_ (2 vols., 1887).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] This incident supplied Alexandre Dumas _pere_ with the subject of
+    his _Henri III et sa cour_ (1829).
+
+  [2] Philippe-Emmanuel of Lorraine, duke of Mercoeur, a cadet of
+    Lorraine and brother of Louise de Vaudemont, Henry III.'s queen. His
+    wife, Mary of Luxemburg, descended from the dukes of Brittany, and he
+    was made governor of the province in 1582. He aspired to separate
+    sovereignty, and called his son prince and duke of Brittany.
+
+
+
+
+GUITAR (Fr. _guitarre_, Ger. _Guitarre_, Ital. _chitarra_, Span.
+_guitarra_), a musical instrument strung with gut strings twanged by the
+fingers, having a body with a flat back and graceful incurvations in
+complete contrast to the members of the family of lute (i.e.), whose
+back is vaulted. The construction of the instrument is of paramount
+importance in assigning to the guitar its true position in the history
+of musical instruments, midway between the cithara (i.e.) and the
+violin. The medieval stringed instruments with neck fall into two
+classes, characterized mainly by the construction of the body: (1) Those
+which, like their archetype the cithara, had a body composed of a flat
+or delicately arched back and soundboard joined by ribs. (2) Those
+which, like the lyre, had a body consisting of a vaulted back over which
+was glued a flat soundboard without the intermediary of ribs; this
+method of construction predominates among Oriental Instruments and is
+greatly inferior to the first. A striking proof of this inferiority is
+afforded by the fact that instruments with vaulted backs, such as the
+rebab or rebec, although extensively represented during the middle ages
+in all parts of Europe by numerous types, have shown but little or no
+development during the course of some twelve centuries, and have dropped
+out one by one from the realm of practical music without leaving a
+single survivor. The guitar must be referred to the first of these
+classes.
+
+[Illustration: Notation.]
+
+[Illustration: Real Sounds.]
+
+The back and ribs of the guitar are of maple, ash or cherry-wood,
+frequently inlaid with rose-wood, mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell, &c.,
+while the soundboard is of pine and has one large ornamental rose sound
+hole. The bridge, to which the strings are fastened, is of ebony with an
+ivory nut which determines the one end of the vibrating strings, while
+the nut at the end of the fingerboard determines the other. The neck and
+fingerboard are made of hard wood, such as ebony, beech or pear. The
+head, bent back from the neck at an obtuse angle contains two parallel
+barrels or long holes through which the pegs or metal screws pass, three
+on each side of the head. The correct positions for stopping the
+intervals are marked on the fingerboard by little metal ridges called
+frets. The modern guitar has six strings, three of gut and three of silk
+covered with silver wire, tuned as shown. To the thumb are assigned the
+three deepest strings, while the first, second and third fingers are
+used to twang the highest strings. It is generally stated that the sixth
+or lowest string was added in 1790 by Jacob August Otto of Jena, who was
+the first in Germany to take up the construction of guitars after their
+introduction from Italy in 1788 by the duchess Amalie of Weimar. Otto[1]
+states that it was Capellmeister Naumann of Dresden who requested him to
+make him a guitar with six strings by adding the low E, a spun wire
+string. The original guitar brought from Italy by the duchess Amalie had
+five strings,[2] the lowest A being the only one covered with wire. Otto
+also covered the D in order to increase the fulness of the tone. In
+Spain six-stringed guitars and vihuelas were known in the 16th century;
+they are described by Juan Bermudo[3] and others.[4] The lowest string
+was tuned to G. Other Spanish guitars of the same period had four, five
+or seven strings or courses of strings in pairs of unisons. They were
+always twanged by the fingers.
+
+[Illustration: From Juan Bermudo.
+
+FIG. 1.--Spanish Guitar with seven Strings. 1555. _Vihuela da Mano_.]
+
+  The guitar is derived from the cithara[5] both structurally and
+  etymologically. It is usually asserted that the guitar was introduced
+  into Spain by the Arabs, but this statement is open to the gravest
+  doubts. There is no trace among the instruments of the Arabs known to
+  us of any similar to the guitar in construction or shape, although a
+  guitar (fig. 2) with slight incurvations was known to the ancient
+  Egyptians.[6] There is also extant a fine example of the guitar, with
+  ribs and incurvations and a long neck provided with numerous frets, on
+  a Hittite bas-relief on the dromos at Euyuk (_c_. 1000 B.C.) in
+  Cappadocia.[7] Unless other monuments of much later date should come
+  to light showing guitars with ribs, we shall be justified in assuming
+  that the instrument, which required skill in construction, died out in
+  Egypt and in Asia before the days of classic Greece, and had to be
+  evolved anew from the cithara by the Greeks of Asia Minor. That the
+  evolution should take place within the Byzantine Empire or in Syria
+  would be quite consistent with the traditions of the Greeks and their
+  veneration for the cithara, which would lead them to adapt the neck
+  and other improvements to it, rather than adopt the rebab, the tanbur
+  or the barbiton from the Persians or Arabians. This is, in fact, what
+  seems to have taken place. It is true that in the 14th century in an
+  enumeration of musical instruments by the Archipreste de Hita, a
+  _guitarra morisca_ is mentioned and unfavourably compared with the
+  _guitarra latina_; moreover, the Arabs of the present day still use an
+  instrument called _kuitra_ (which in N. Africa would be guithara), but
+  it has a vaulted back, the body being like half a pear with a long
+  neck; the strings are twanged by means of a quill. The Arab instrument
+  therefore belongs to a different class, and to admit the instrument as
+  the ancestor of the Spanish guitar would be tantamount to deriving the
+  guitar from the lute.[8]
+
+  By piecing together various indications given by Spanish writers, we
+  obtain a clue to the identity of the medieval instruments, which, in
+  the absence of absolute proof, is entitled to serious consideration.
+  From Bermudo's work, quoted above, we learn that the guitar and the
+  _vihuela da mano_ were practically identical, differing only in
+  accordance and occasionally in the number of strings.[9] Three kinds
+  of vihuelas were known in Spain during the middle ages, distinguished
+  by the qualifying phrases _da arco_ (with bow), _da mano_ (by hand),
+  _da penola_ (with quill). Spanish scholars[10] who have inquired into
+  this question of identity state that the _guitarra latina_ was
+  afterwards known as the _vihuela da mano_, a statement fully supported
+  by other evidence. As the Arab _kuitra_ was known to be played by
+  means of a quill, we shall not be far wrong in identifying it with the
+  _vihuela da penola_. The word _vihuela_ or _vigola_ is connected with
+  the Latin _fidicula_ or _fides_, a stringed instrument mentioned by
+  Cicero[11] as being made from the wood of the plane-tree and having
+  many strings. The remaining link in the chain of identification is
+  afforded by St Isidore, bishop of Seville in the 7th century, who
+  states that fidicula was another name for cithara, "Veteres aut
+  citharas fidicula vel fidice nominaverunt."[12] The fidicula therefore
+  was the cithara, either in its original classical form or in one of
+  the transitions which transformed it into the guitar. The existence of
+  a superior _guitarra latina_ side by side with the _guitarra morisca_
+  is thus explained. It was derived directly from the classical cithara
+  introduced by the Romans into Spain, the archetype of the structural
+  beauty which formed the basis of the perfect proportions and delicate
+  structure of the violin. In an inventory[13] made by Philip van Wilder
+  of the musical instruments which had belonged to Henry VIII. is the
+  following item bearing on the question: "foure gitterons with iiii.
+  cases _they are called Spanishe Vialles_." _Vial_ or _viol_ was the
+  English equivalent of _vihuela_. The transitions whereby the cithara
+  acquired a neck and became a guitar are shown in the miniatures (fig.
+  3) of a single MS., the celebrated Utrecht Psalter, which gave rise to
+  so many discussions. The Utrecht Psalter was executed in the diocese
+  of Reims in the 9th century, and the miniatures, drawn by an
+  Anglo-Saxon artist attached to the Reims school, are unique, and
+  illustrate the Psalter, psalm by psalm. It is evident that the
+  Anglo-Saxon artist, while endowed with extraordinary talent and vivid
+  imagination, drew his inspiration from an older Greek illustrated
+  Psalter from the Christian East,[14] where the evolution of the guitar
+  took place.
+
+  [Illustration: From Denon's _Voyage in Egypt_.
+
+  FIG. 2.--Ancient Egyptian Guitar. 1700 to 1200 B.C.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Instrumentalists from the Utrecht Psalter, 9th
+  century: (a) The bass rotta, first transition of cithara in (C);
+  (b, c, d), Transitions showing the addition of neck to the body of
+  the cithara.]
+
+  [Illustration: From Dr H. Janitschek's _Geschichte der deutschen
+  Malerei_.
+
+  FIG. 4.--Representation of a European Guitar. A.D. 1180.]
+
+  One of the earliest representations (fig. 4) of a guitar in Western
+  Europe occurs in a Passionale from Zwifalten A.D. 1180, now in the
+  Royal Library at Stuttgart.[15] St Pelagia seated on an ass holds a
+  rotta, or cithara in transition, while one of the men-servants leading
+  her ass holds her guitar. Both instruments have three strings and the
+  characteristic guitar outline with incurvations, the rotta differing
+  in having no neck. Mersenne[16] writing early in the 17th century
+  describes and figures two Spanish guitars, one with four, the other
+  with five strings; the former had a cittern head, the latter the
+  straight head bent back at an obtuse angle from the neck, as in the
+  modern instrument; he gives the Italian, French and Spanish tablatures
+  which would seem to show that the guitar already enjoyed a certain
+  vogue in France and Italy as well as in Spain. Mersenne states that
+  the proportions of the guitar demand that the length of the neck from
+  shoulder to nut shall be equal to the length of the body from the
+  centre of the rose to the tail end. From this time until the middle of
+  the 19th century the guitar enjoyed great popularity on the continent,
+  and became the fashionable instrument in England after the Peninsular
+  War, mainly through the virtuosity of Ferdinand Sor, who also wrote
+  compositions for it. This popularity of the guitar was due less to its
+  merits as a solo instrument than to the ease with which it could be
+  mastered sufficiently to accompany the voice. The advent of the
+  Spanish guitar in England led to the wane in the popularity of the
+  cittern, also known at that time in contradistinction as the English
+  or wire-strung guitar, although the two instruments differed in many
+  particulars. As further evidence of the great popularity of the guitar
+  all over Europe may be instanced the extraordinary number of books
+  extant on the instrument, giving instructions how to play the guitar
+  and read the tablature.[17]     (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Uber den Bau der Bogeninstrumente_ (Jena, 1828), pp. 94 and 95.
+
+  [2] See Pietro Millioni, _Vero e facil modo d' imparare a sonare et
+    accordare da se medesimo la chitarra spagnola_, with illustration
+    (Rome, 1637).
+
+  [3] _Declaracion de instrumentos musicales_ (Ossuna, 1555), fol.
+    xciii. _b_ and fol. xci. _a_. See also illustration of _vihuela da
+    mano_.
+
+  [4] See also G. G. Kapsperger, _Libro primo di Villanelle con l'
+    infavolutura del chitarone et alfabeto per la chitarra spagnola_
+    (three books, Rome, 1610-1623).
+
+  [5] See Kathleen Schlesinger, _The Instruments of the Orchestra_,
+    part ii. "Precursors of the Violin Family," pp. 230-248.
+
+  [6] See Denon's _Voyage in Egypt_ (London, 1807, pl. 55).
+
+  [7] Illustrated from a drawing in Perrot and Chipiez, "Judee
+    Sardaigne, Syrie, Cappadoce." Vol. iv. of _Hist. de l'art dans
+    l'antiquite_, Paris, 1887, p. 670. Also see plate from a photograph
+    by Prof. John Garstang, in Kathleen Schlesinger, _op. cit._
+
+  [8] See Biernath, _Die Guitarre_ (1908).
+
+  [9] See also Luys Milan, _Libro de musica de vihuela da mano,
+    Intitulado Il Maestro_, where the accordance is D, G, C, E, A, D from
+    bass to treble.
+
+  [10] Mariano Soriano, _Fuertes Historia de la musica espanola_
+    (Madrid, 1855), i. 105, and iv. 208, &c.
+
+  [11] _De natura deorum_, ii. 8, 22.
+
+  [12] See _Etymologiarium_, lib. iii., cap. 21.
+
+  [13] See British Museum, Harleian MS. 1419, fol. 200.
+
+  [14] The literature of the Utrecht Psalter embraces a large number of
+    books and pamphlets in many languages of which the principal are here
+    given: Professor J. O. Westwood, _Facsimiles of the Miniatures and
+    Ornaments of Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS._ (London, 1868); Sir Thos.
+    Duffus-Hardy, _Report on the Athanasian Creed in connection with the
+    Utrecht Psalter_ (London, 1872); _Report on the Utrecht Psalter_,
+    addressed to the Trustees of the British Museum (London, 1874); Sir
+    Thomas Duffus-Hardy, _Further Report on the Utrecht Psalter_ (London,
+    1874); Walter de Gray Birch, _The History, Art and Palaeography of
+    the MS. styled the Utrecht Psalter_ (London, 1876); Anton Springer,
+    "Die Psalterillustrationen im fruhen Mittelalter mit besonderer
+    Rucksicht auf den Utrecht Psalter," _Abhandlungen der kgl. sachs.
+    Ges. d. Wissenschaften, phil.-hist. Klasse_, Bd. viii. pp. 187-296,
+    with 10 facsimile plates in autotype from the MS.; Adolf Goldschmidt,
+    "Der Utrecht Psalter," in _Repertorium fur Kunstwissenschaft_, Bd.
+    xv. (Stuttgart, 1892), pp. 156-166; Franz Friedrich Leitschuh,
+    _Geschichte der karolingischen Malerei, ihr Bilderkreis und seine
+    Quellen_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 321-330; Adolf Goldschmidt, _Der Albani
+    Psalter in Hildesheim_, &c. (Berlin, 1895); Paul Durrieu, _L'Origine
+    du MS. celebre dit le Psaultier d'Utrecht_ (Paris, 1895); Hans
+    Graeven, "Die Vorlage des Utrecht Psalters," paper read before the
+    XI. International Oriental Congress, Paris, 1897. See also
+    _Repertorium fur Kunstwissenschaft_ (Stuttgart, 1898), Bd. xxi. pp.
+    28-35; J. J. Tikkanen, _Abendlandische Psalter-Illustration im
+    Mittelalter_, part iii. "Der Utrecht Psalter" (Helsingfors, 1900),
+    320 pp. and 77 ills. (Professor Tikkanen now accepts the Greek or
+    Syrian origin of the Utrecht Psalter); Georg Swarzenski, "Die
+    karolingische Malerei und Plastik in Reims." in _Jahrbuch d. kgl.
+    preussischen Kunstsammlungen_, Bd. xxiii. (Berlin, 1902), pp. 81-100;
+    Ormonde M. Dalton, "The Crystal of Lothair," in _Archaologie_, vol.
+    lix. (1904); Kathleen Schlesinger, _The Instruments of the
+    Orchestra_, part ii. "The Precursors of the Violin Family," chap.
+    viii. "The Question of the Origin of the Utrecht Psalter," pp.
+    352-382 (with illustrations), where all the foregoing are summarized.
+
+  [15] Reproduced in Hubert Janitschek's _Geschichte der deutschen
+    Malerei_, Bd. iii. of _Gesch. der deutschen Kunst_ (Berlin, 1890), p.
+    118.
+
+  [16] _Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636), livre ii. prop. xiv.
+
+  [17] See C. F. Becker, _Darstellung der musik. Literatur_ (Leipzig,
+    1836); and Wilhelm Tappert, "Zur Geschichte der Guitarre," in
+    _Monatshefte fur Musikgeschichte_ (Berlin, 1882), No. 5. pp. 77-85.
+
+
+
+
+GUITAR FIDDLE (_Troubadour Fiddle_), a modern name bestowed
+retrospectively upon certain precursors of the violin possessing
+characteristics of both guitar and fiddle. The name "guitar fiddle" is
+intended to emphasize the fact that the instrument in the shape of the
+guitar, which during the middle ages represented the most perfect
+principle of construction for stringed instruments with necks, adopted
+at a certain period the use of the bow from instruments of a less
+perfect type, the rebab and its hybrids. The use of the bow with the
+guitar entailed certain constructive changes in the instrument: the
+large central rose sound-hole was replaced by lateral holes of various
+shapes; the flat bridge, suitable for instruments whose strings were
+plucked, gave place to the arched bridge required in order to enable the
+bow to vibrate each string separately; the arched bridge, by raising the
+strings higher above the soundboard, made the stopping of strings on the
+neck extremely difficult if not impossible; this matter was adjusted by
+the addition of a finger-board of suitable shape and dimensions (fig.
+1). At this stage the guitar fiddle possesses the essential features of
+the violin, and may justly claim to be its immediate predecessor[1] not
+so much through the viols which were the outcome of the Minnesinger
+fiddle with sloping shoulders, as through the intermediary of the
+Italian _lyra_, a guitar-shaped bowed instrument with from 7 to 12
+strings.
+
+[Illustration: From Ruhlmann's _Geschichte der Bogeninstrumente_.
+
+FIG. 1.--Typical Alto Guitar Fiddle, 15th century (Pinakothek, Munich).]
+
+  From such evidence as we now possess, it would seem that the evolution
+  of the early guitar with a neck from the Greek cithara took place
+  under Greek influence in the Christian East. The various stages of
+  this transition have been definitely established by the remarkable
+  miniatures of the Utrecht Psalter.[2] Two kinds of citharas are shown:
+  the antique rectangular,[3] and the later design with rounded body
+  having at the point where the arms are added indications of the waist
+  or incurvations characteristic of the outline of the Spanish
+  guitar.[4] The first stage in the transition is shown by a cithara or
+  rotta[5] in which arms and transverse bar are replaced by a kind of
+  frame repeating the outline of the body and thus completing the second
+  lobe of the Spanish guitar. The next stages in the transition are
+  concerned with the addition of a neck[6] and of frets.[7] All these
+  instruments are twanged by the fingers. One may conclude that the use
+  of the bow was either unknown at this time (c. 6th century A.D.), or
+  that it was still confined to instruments of the rebab type. The
+  earliest known representation of a guitar fiddle complete with bow[8]
+  (fig. 2) occurs in a Greek Psalter written and illuminated in Caesarea
+  by the archpriest Theodorus in 1066 (British Museum, Add. MS. 19352).
+  Instances of perfect guitar fiddles abound in the 13th century MSS.
+  and monuments, as for instance in a picture by Cimabue (1240-1302). in
+  the Pitti Gallery in Florence.[9]
+
+  [Illustration: From a Byzantine MS. in the British Museum.
+
+  FIG. 2.--Earliest example of the Guitar Fiddle. A.D. 1066.]
+
+  An evolution on parallel lines appears also to have taken place from
+  the antique rectangular cithara[10] of the _citharoedes_, which was a
+  favourite in Romano-Christian art.[11] In this case examples
+  illustrative of the transitions are found represented in great variety
+  in Europe. The old German rotta[12] of the 6th century preserved in
+  the Volker Museum, Berlin, and the instruments played by King David in
+  two early Anglo-Saxon illuminated MSS., one a Psalter (Cotton MS.
+  Vesp. A. i. British Museum) finished in A.D. 700, the other "A
+  Commentary on the Psalms by Cassiodorus _manu Bedae_" of the 8th
+  century preserved in the Cathedral Library at Durham[13] form examples
+  of the first stage of transition. From such types as these the
+  rectangular _crwth_ or crowd was evolved by the addition of a
+  finger-board and the reduction in the number of strings, which follows
+  as a natural consequence as soon as an extended compass can be
+  obtained by stopping the strings. By the addition of a neck we obtain
+  the clue to the origin of rectangular citterns with rounded corners
+  and of certain instruments played with the bow whose bodies or
+  sound-chests have an outline based upon the rectangle with various
+  modifications. We may not look upon this type of guitar fiddle as due
+  entirely to western or southern European initiative; its origin like
+  that of the type approximating to the violin is evidently Byzantine.
+  It is found among the frescoes which cover walls and barrel vaults in
+  the palace of Kosseir 'Amra,[14] believed to be that of Caliph Walid
+  II. (A.D. 744) of the Omayyad dynasty, or of Prince Ahmad, the
+  Abbasid (862-866). The instrument, a cittern with four strings, is
+  being played by a bear. Other examples occur in the Stuttgart
+  Carolingian Psalter[15] (10th century); in MS. 1260 (Bibl. Imp. Paris)
+  _Tristan and Yseult_; as guitar fiddle in the Liber Regalis preserved
+  in Westminster Abbey (14th century); in the Sforza Book[16]
+  (1444-1476), the Book of Hours executed for Bona of Savoy, wife of
+  Galeazzo Maria Sforza; on one of the carvings of the 13th century in
+  the Cathedral of Amiens. It has also been painted by Italian artists
+  of the 15th and 16th centuries.     (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See "The Precursors of the Violin Family," by Kathleen
+    Schlesinger, part ii. of _An Illustrated Handbook on the Instruments
+    of the Orchestra_ (London, 1908), chs. ii. and x.
+
+  [2] See Kathleen Schlesinger, _op. cit._ part ii., the "Utrecht
+    Psalter," pp. 127-135, and the "Question of the Origin of the Utrecht
+    Psalter," pp. 136-166, where the subject is discussed and
+    illustrated.
+
+  [3] _Idem_, see pl. vi. (2) to the right centre.
+
+  [4] _Idem_, see pl. iii. centre and figs. 118 and 119.
+
+  [5] _Idem_, see fig. 117, p. 341, and figs. 172 and 116.
+
+  [6] _Idem_, see fig. 121, p. 246, figs. 122, 123, 125 and 126 pl.
+    iii. vi. (1) and (2).
+
+  [7] _Idem_, see fig. 126, p. 350, and pl. iii. right centre.
+
+  [8] _Idem_, see fig. 173, p. 448.
+
+  [9] _Idem_, see fig. 205, p. 480.
+
+  [10] See _Museo Pio Clementino_, by Visconti (Milan, 1818).
+
+  [11] See for example _Georgics_, iv. 471-475 in the Vatican Virgil
+    (Cod. 3225), in facsimile (Rome, 1899) (British Museum press-mark 8,
+    tab. f. vol. ii.).
+
+  [12] This rotta was found in an Alamannic tomb of the 4th to the 7th
+    centuries at Oberflacht in the Black Forest. A facsimile is preserved
+    in the collection of the Kgl. Hochschule, Berlin, illustrations in
+    "Grabfunde am Berge Lupfen bei Oberflacht, 1846," _Jahresberichte d.
+    Wurttemb. Altertums-Vereins_, iii. (Stuttgart, 1846), tab. viii. also
+    Kathleen Schlesinger, _op. cit._ part ii. fig. 168 (drawing from the
+    facsimile).
+
+  [13] Reproductions of both miniatures are to be found in Professor J.
+    O. Westwood's _Facsimiles of the Miniatures and Ornaments of
+    Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS._ (London, 1868).
+
+  [14] An illustration occurs in the fine publication of the Austrian
+    Academy of Sciences, _Kusejr 'Amra_ (Vienna, 1907, pl. xxxiv.).
+
+  [15] See reproduction of some of the miniatures in Jacob and H. von
+    Hefner-Alteneck, _Trachten des christlichen Mittelalters_ (Darmstadt.
+    1840-1854, 3 vols.), and in _Trachten, Kunstwerke und Geratschaften
+    vom fruhen Mittelalter_ (Frankfort-on-Main, 1879-1890),
+
+  [16] Add. MS. 34294, British Museum, vol. ii. fol. 83, 161, vol. iii.
+    fol. 402, vol. iv. fols. 534 and 667.
+
+
+
+
+GUITRY, LUCIEN GERMAIN (1860-   ), French actor, was born in Paris. He
+became prominent on the French stage at the Porte Saint-Martin theatre
+in 1900, and the Varietes in 1901, and then became a member of the
+Comedie Francaise, but he resigned very soon in order to become director
+of the Renaissance, where he was principally associated with the actress
+Marthe Brandes, who had also left the Comedie. Here he established his
+reputation, in a number of plays, as the greatest contemporary French
+actor in the drama of modern reality.
+
+
+
+
+GUIZOT, FRANCOIS PIERRE GUILLAUME (1787-1874), historian, orator and
+statesman, was born at Nimes on the 4th of October 1787, of an
+honourable Protestant family belonging to the _bourgeoisie_ of that
+city. It is characteristic of the cruel disabilities which still weighed
+upon the Protestants of France before the Revolution, that his parents,
+at the time of their union, could not be publicly or legally married by
+their own pastors, and that the ceremony was clandestine. The liberal
+opinions of his family did not, however, save it from the sanguinary
+intolerance of the Reign of Terror, and on the 8th April 1794 his father
+perished at Nimes upon the scaffold. Thenceforth the education of the
+future minister devolved entirely upon his mother, a woman of slight
+appearance and of homely manners, but endowed with great strength of
+character and clearness of judgment. Madame Guizot was a living type of
+the Huguenots of the 16th century, stern in her principles and her
+faith, immovable in her convictions and her sense of duty. She formed
+the character of her illustrious son and shared every vicissitude of his
+life. In the days of his power her simple figure, always clad in deep
+mourning for her martyred husband, was not absent from the splendid
+circle of his political friends. In the days of his exile in 1848 she
+followed him to London, and there at a very advanced age closed her life
+and was buried at Kensal Green. Driven from Nimes by the Revolution,
+Madame Guizot and her son repaired to Geneva, where he received his
+education. In spite of her decided Calvinistic opinions, the theories of
+Rousseau, then much in fashion, were not without their influence on
+Madame Guizot. She was a strong Liberal, and she even adopted the notion
+inculcated in the _Emile_ that every man ought to learn a manual trade
+or craft. Young Guizot was taught to be a carpenter, and he so far
+succeeded in his work that he made a table with his own hands, which is
+still preserved. Of the progress of his graver studies little is known,
+for in the work which he entitled _Memoirs of my own Times_ Guizot
+omitted all personal details of his earlier life. But his literary
+attainments must have been precocious and considerable, for when he
+arrived in Paris in 1805 to pursue his studies in the faculty of laws,
+he entered at eighteen as tutor into the family of M. Stapfer, formerly
+Swiss minister in France, and he soon began to write in a journal edited
+by M. Suard, the _Publiciste_. This connexion introduced him to the
+literary society of Paris. In October 1809, being then twenty-two, he
+wrote a review of M. de Chateaubriand's _Martyrs_, which procured for
+him the approbation and cordial thanks of that eminent person, and he
+continued to contribute largely to the periodical press. At Suard's he
+had made the acquaintance of Pauline Meulan, an accomplished lady of
+good family, some fourteen years older than himself, who had been forced
+by the hardships of the Revolution to earn her living by literature, and
+who also was engaged to contribute a series of articles to Suard's
+journal. These contributions were interrupted by her illness, but
+immediately resumed and continued by an unknown hand. It was discovered
+that Francois Guizot had quietly supplied the deficiency on her behalf.
+The acquaintance thus begun ripened into friendship and love, and in
+1812 Mademoiselle de Meulan consented to marry her youthful ally. She
+died in 1827; she was the author of many esteemed works on female
+education. An only son, born in 1819, died in 1837 of consumption. In
+1828 Guizot married Elisa Dillon, niece of his first wife, and also an
+author. She died in 1833, leaving a son, Maurice Guillaume (1833-1892),
+who attained some reputation as a scholar and writer.
+
+During the empire, Guizot, entirely devoted to literary pursuits,
+published a collection of French synonyms (1809), an essay on the fine
+arts (1811), and a translation of Gibbon with additional notes in 1812.
+These works recommended him to the notice of M. de Fontanes, then
+grand-master of the university of France, who selected Guizot for the
+chair of modern history at the Sorbonne in 1812. His first lecture
+(which is reprinted in his _Memoirs_) was delivered on the 11th of
+December of that year. The customary compliment to the all-powerful
+emperor he declined to insert in it, in spite of the hints given him by
+his patron, but the course which followed marks the beginning of the
+great revival of historical research in France in the 19th century. He
+had now acquired a considerable position in the society of Paris, and
+the friendship of Royer-Collard and the leading members of the liberal
+party, including the young duc de Broglie. Absent from Paris at the
+moment of the fall of Napoleon in 1814, he was at once selected, on the
+recommendation of Royer-Collard, to serve the government of Louis XVIII.
+in the capacity of secretary-general of the ministry of the interior,
+under the abbe de Montesquiou. Upon the return of Napoleon from Elba he
+immediately resigned, on the 25th of March 1815 (the statement that he
+retained office under General Carnot is incorrect), and returned to his
+literary pursuits. After the Hundred Days, he repaired to Ghent, where
+he saw Louis XVIII., and in the name of the liberal party pointed out to
+his majesty that a frank adoption of a liberal policy could alone secure
+the duration of the restored monarchy--advice which was ill-received by
+M. de Blacas and the king's confidential advisers. This visit to Ghent,
+at the time when France was a prey to a second invasion, was made a
+subject of bitter reproach to Guizot in after life by his political
+opponents, as an unpatriotic action. "The Man of Ghent" was one of the
+terms of insult frequently hurled against him in the days of his power.
+But the reproach appears to be wholly unfounded. The true interests of
+France were not in the defence of the falling empire, but in
+establishing a liberal policy on a monarchical basis and in combating
+the reactionary tendencies of the ultra-royalists. It is at any rate a
+remarkable circumstance that a young professor of twenty-seven, with
+none of the advantages of birth or political experience, should have
+been selected to convey so important a message to the ears of the king
+of France, and a proof, if any were wanting, that the Revolution had, as
+Guizot said, "done its work."
+
+On the second restoration, Guizot was appointed secretary-general of the
+ministry of justice under M. de Barbe-Marbois, but resigned with his
+chief in 1816. Again in 1819 he was appointed general director of
+communes and departments in the ministry of the interior, but lost his
+office with the fall of Decazes in February 1820. During these years
+Guizot was one of the leaders of the _Doctrinaires_, a small party
+strongly attached to the charter and the crown, and advocating a policy
+which has become associated (especially by Faguet) with the name of
+Guizot, that of the _juste milieu_, a _via media_ between absolutism and
+popular government. Their opinions had more of the rigour of a sect than
+the elasticity of a political party. Adhering to the great principles of
+liberty and toleration, they were sternly opposed to the anarchical
+traditions of the Revolution. They knew that the elements of anarchy
+were still fermenting in the country; these they hoped to subdue, not by
+reactionary measures, but by the firm application of the power of a
+limited constitution, based on the suffrages of the middle class and
+defended by the highest literary talent of the times. Their motives
+were honourable. Their views were philosophical. But they were opposed
+alike to the democratical spirit of the age, to the military traditions
+of the empire, and to the bigotry and absolutism of the court. The fate
+of such a party might be foreseen. They lived by a policy of resistance;
+they perished by another revolution (1830). They are remembered more for
+their constant opposition to popular demands than by the services they
+undoubtedly rendered to the cause of temperate freedom.
+
+In 1820, when the reaction was at its height after the murder of the duc
+de Berri, and the fall of the ministry of the duc Decazes, Guizot was
+deprived of his offices, and in 1822 even his course of lectures were
+interdicted. During the succeeding years he played an important part
+among the leaders of the liberal opposition to the government of Charles
+X., although he had not yet entered parliament, and this was also the
+time of his greatest literary activity. In 1822 he had published his
+lectures on representative government (_Histoire des origines du
+gouvernement representatif_, 1821-1822, 2 vols.; Eng. trans. 1852); also
+a work on capital punishment for political offences and several
+important political pamphlets. From 1822 to 1830 he published two
+important collections of historical sources, the memoirs of the history
+of England in 26 volumes, and the memoirs of the history of France in 31
+volumes, and a revised translation of Shakespeare, and a volume of
+essays on the history of France. The most remarkable work from his own
+pen was the first part of his _Histoire de la revolution d'Angleterre
+depuis Charles I^er a Charles II._ (2 vols., 1826-1827; Eng. trans., 2
+vols., Oxford, 1838), a book of great merit and impartiality, which he
+resumed and completed during his exile in England after 1848. The
+Martignac administration restored Guizot in 1828 to his professor's
+chair and to the council of state. Then it was that he delivered the
+celebrated courses of lectures which raised his reputation as an
+historian to the highest point of fame, and placed him amongst the best
+writers of France and of Europe. These lectures formed the basis of his
+general _Histoire de la civilisation en Europe_ (1828; Eng. trans, by W.
+Hazlitt, 3 vols., 1846), and of his _Histoire de la civilisation en
+France_ (4 vols., 1830), works which must ever be regarded as classics
+of modern historical research.
+
+Hitherto Guizot's fame rested on his merits as a writer on public
+affairs and as a lecturer on modern history. He had attained the age of
+forty-three before he entered upon the full display of his oratorical
+strength. In January 1830 he was elected for the first time by the town
+of Lisieux to the chamber of deputies, and he retained that seat during
+the whole of his political life. Guizot immediately assumed an important
+position in the representative assembly, and the first speech he
+delivered was in defence of the celebrated address of the 221, in answer
+to the menacing speech from the throne, which was followed by the
+dissolution of the chamber, and was the precursor of another revolution.
+On his returning to Paris from Nimes on the 27th of July, the fall of
+Charles X. was already imminent. Guizot was called upon by his friends
+Casimir-Perier, Laffitte, Villemain and Dupin to draw up the protest of
+the liberal deputies against the royal ordinances of July, whilst he
+applied himself with them to control the revolutionary character of the
+late contest. Personally, Guizot was always of opinion that it was a
+great misfortune for the cause of parliamentary government in France
+that the infatuation and ineptitude of Charles X. and Prince Polignac
+rendered a change in the hereditary line of succession inevitable. But,
+though convinced that it was inevitable, he became one of the most
+ardent supporters of Louis-Philippe. In August 1830 Guizot was made
+minister of the interior, but resigned in November. He had now passed
+into the ranks of the conservatives, and for the next eighteen years was
+the most determined foe of democracy, the unyielding champion of "a
+monarchy limited by a limited number of bourgeois."
+
+In 1831 Casimir-Perier formed a more vigorous and compact
+administration, which was terminated in May 1832 by his death; the
+summer of that year was marked by a formidable republican rising in
+Paris, and it was not till the 11th of October 1832 that a stable
+government was formed, in which Marshal Soult was first minister, the
+duc de Broglie took the foreign office, Thiers the home department, and
+Guizot the department of public instruction. This ministry, which lasted
+for nearly four years, was by far the ablest that ever served Louis
+Philippe. Guizot, however, was already marked with the stigma of
+unpopularity by the more advanced liberal party. He remained unpopular
+all his life, "not," said he, "that I court unpopularity, but that I
+think nothing about it." Yet never were his great abilities more useful
+to his country than whilst he filled this office of secondary rank but
+of primary importance in the department of public instruction. The
+duties it imposed on him were entirely congenial to his literary tastes,
+and he was master of the subjects they concerned. He applied himself in
+the first instance to carry the law of the 28th of June 1833, and then
+for the next three years to put it into execution. In establishing and
+organizing primary education in France, this law marked a distinct epoch
+in French history. In fifteen years, under its influence, the number of
+primary schools rose from ten to twenty-three thousand; normal schools
+for teachers, and a general system of inspection, were introduced; and
+boards of education, under mixed lay and clerical authority, were
+created. The secondary class of schools and the university of France
+were equally the subject of his enlightened protection and care, and a
+prodigious impulse was given to philosophical study and historical
+research. The branch of the Institute of France known as the "Academie
+des Sciences Morales et Politiques," which had been suppressed by
+Napoleon, was revived by Guizot. Some of the old members of this learned
+body--Talleyrand, Sieyes, Roederer and Lakanal--again took their seats
+there, and a host of more recent celebrities were added by election for
+the free discussion of the great problems of political and social
+science. The "Societe de l'Histoire de France" was founded for the
+publication of historical works; and a vast publication of medieval
+chronicles and diplomatic papers was undertaken at the expense of the
+state (see HISTORY; and FRANCE, _History_, section _Sources_).
+
+The object of the cabinet of October 1832 was to organize a conservative
+party, and to carry on a policy of resistance to the republican faction
+which threatened the existence of the monarchy. It was their pride and
+their boast that their measures never exceeded the limits of the law,
+and by the exercise of legal power alone they put down an insurrection
+amounting to civil war in Lyons and a sanguinary revolt in Paris. The
+real strength of the ministry lay not in its nominal heads, but in the
+fact that in this government and this alone Guizot and Thiers acted in
+cordial co-operation. The two great rivals in French parliamentary
+eloquence followed for a time the same path; but neither of them could
+submit to the supremacy of the other, and circumstances threw Thiers
+almost continuously on a course of opposition, whilst Guizot bore the
+graver responsibilities of power.
+
+Once again indeed, in 1839, they were united, but it was in opposition
+to M. Mole, who had formed an intermediate government, and this
+coalition between Guizot and the leaders of the left centre and the
+left, Thiers and Odilon Barrot, due to his ambition and jealousy of
+Mole, is justly regarded as one of the chief inconsistencies of his
+life. Victory was secured at the expense of principle, and Guizot's
+attack upon the government gave rise to a crisis and a republican
+insurrection. None of the three chiefs of that alliance took ministerial
+office, however, and Guizot was not sorry to accept the post of
+ambassador in London, which withdrew him for a time from parliamentary
+contests. This was in the spring of 1840, and Thiers succeeded shortly
+afterwards to the ministry of foreign affairs.
+
+Guizot was received with marked distinction by the queen and by the
+society of London. His literary works were highly esteemed, his
+character was respected, and France was never more worthily represented
+abroad than by one of her greatest orators. He was known to be well
+versed in the history and the literature of England, and sincerely
+attached to the alliance of the two nations and the cause of peace. But,
+as he himself remarked, he was a stranger to England and a novice in
+diplomacy; and unhappily the embroiled state of the Syrian question, on
+which the French government had separated itself from the joint policy
+of Europe, and possibly the absence of entire confidence between the
+ambassador and the minister of foreign affairs, placed him in an
+embarrassing and even false position. The warnings he transmitted to
+Thiers were not believed. The warlike policy of Thiers was opposed to
+his own convictions. The treaty of the 15th of July was signed without
+his knowledge and executed in the teeth of his remonstrances. For some
+weeks Europe seemed to be on the brink of war, until the king put an end
+to the crisis by refusing his assent to the military preparations of
+Thiers, and by summoning Guizot from London to form a ministry and to
+aid his Majesty in what he termed "ma lutte tenace contre l'anarchie."
+Thus began, under dark and adverse circumstances, on the 29th of October
+1840, the important administration in which Guizot remained the
+master-spirit for nearly eight years. He himself took the office of
+minister for foreign affairs, to which he added some years later, on the
+retirement of Marshal Soult, the ostensible rank of prime minister. His
+first care was the maintenance of peace and the restoration of amicable
+relations with the other powers of Europe. If he succeeded, as he did
+succeed, in calming the troubled elements and healing the wounded pride
+of France, the result was due mainly to the indomitable courage and
+splendid eloquence with which he faced a raging opposition, gave unity
+and strength to the conservative party, who now felt that they had a
+great leader at their head, and appealed to the thrift and prudence of
+the nation rather than to their vanity and their ambition. In his
+pacific task he was fortunately seconded by the formation of Sir Robert
+Peel's administration in England, in the autumn of 1841. Between Lord
+Palmerston and Guizot there existed an incompatibility of character
+exceedingly dangerous in the foreign ministers of two great and in some
+respects rival countries. With Lord Palmerston in office, Guizot felt
+that he had a bitter and active antagonist in every British agent
+throughout the world; the combative element was strong in his own
+disposition; and the result was a system of perpetual conflict and
+counter-intrigues. Lord Palmerston held (as it appears from his own
+letters) that war between England and France was, sooner or later,
+inevitable. Guizot held that such a war would be the greatest of all
+calamities, and certainly never contemplated it. In Lord Aberdeen, the
+foreign secretary of Sir Robert Peel, Guizot found a friend and an ally
+perfectly congenial to himself. Their acquaintance in London had been
+slight, but it soon ripened into mutual regard and confidence. They were
+both men of high principles and honour; the Scotch Presbyterianism which
+had moulded the faith of Lord Aberdeen was reflected in the Huguenot
+minister of France; both were men of extreme simplicity of taste, joined
+to the refinement of scholarship and culture; both had an intense
+aversion to war and felt themselves ill-qualified to carry on those
+adventurous operations which inflamed the imagination of their
+respective opponents. In the eyes of Lord Palmerston and Thiers their
+policy was mean and pitiful; but it was a policy which secured peace to
+the world, and united the two great and free nations of the West in what
+was termed the _entente cordiale_. Neither of them would have stooped to
+snatch an advantage at the expense of the other; they held the common
+interest of peace and friendship to be paramount; and when differences
+arose, as they did arise, in remote parts of the world,--in Tahiti, in
+Morocco, on the Gold Coast,--they were reduced by this principle to
+their proper insignificance. The opposition in France denounced Guizot's
+foreign policy as basely subservient to England. He replied in terms of
+unmeasured contempt,--"You may raise the pile of calumny as high as you
+will; vous n'arriverez jamais a la hauteur de mon dedain!" The
+opposition in England attacked Lord Aberdeen with the same reproaches,
+but in vain. King Louis Philippe visited Windsor. The queen of England
+(in 1843) stayed at the Chateau d'Eu. In 1845 British and French troops
+fought side by side for the first time in an expedition to the River
+Plate.
+
+The fall of Sir Robert Peel's government in 1846 changed these intimate
+relations; and the return of Lord Palmerston to the foreign office led
+Guizot to believe that he was again exposed to the passionate rivalry of
+the British cabinet. A friendly understanding had been established at Eu
+between the two courts with reference to the future marriage of the
+young queen of Spain. The language of Lord Palmerston and the conduct of
+Sir Henry Bulwer (afterwards Lord Dalling) at Madrid led Guizot to
+believe that this understanding was broken, and that it was intended to
+place a Coburg on the throne of Spain. Determined to resist any such
+intrigue, Guizot and the king plunged headlong into a counter-intrigue,
+wholly inconsistent with their previous engagements to England, and
+fatal to the happiness of the queen of Spain. By their influence she was
+urged into a marriage with a despicable offset of the house of Bourbon,
+and her sister was at the same time married to the youngest son of the
+French king, in direct violation of Louis Philippe's promises. This
+transaction, although it was hailed at the time as a triumph of the
+policy of France, was in truth as fatal to the monarch as it was
+discreditable to the minister. It was accomplished by a mixture of
+secrecy and violence. It was defended by subterfuges. By the
+dispassionate judgment of history it has been universally condemned. Its
+immediate effect was to destroy the Anglo-French alliance, and to throw
+Guizot into closer relations with the reactionary policy of Metternich
+and the Northern courts.
+
+The history of Guizot's administration, the longest and the last which
+existed under the constitutional monarchy of France, bears the stamp of
+the great qualities and the great defects of his political character,
+for he was throughout the master-spirit of that government. His first
+object was to unite and discipline the conservative party, which had
+been broken up by previous dissensions and ministerial changes. In this
+he entirely succeeded by his courage and eloquence as a parliamentary
+leader, and by the use of all those means of influence which France too
+liberally supplies to a dominant minister. No one ever doubted the
+purity and disinterestedness of Guizot's own conduct. He despised money;
+he lived and died poor; and though he encouraged the fever of
+money-getting in the French nation, his own habits retained their
+primitive simplicity. But he did not disdain to use in others the baser
+passions from which he was himself free. Some of his instruments were
+mean; he employed them to deal with meanness after its kind. Gross
+abuses and breaches of trust came to light even in the ranks of the
+government, and under an incorruptible minister the administration was
+denounced as corrupt. _Licet uti alieno vitio_ is a proposition as false
+in politics as it is in divinity.
+
+Of his parliamentary eloquence it is impossible to speak too highly. It
+was terse, austere, demonstrative and commanding,--not persuasive, not
+humorous, seldom adorned, but condensed with the force of a supreme
+authority in the fewest words. He was essentially a ministerial speaker,
+far more powerful in defence than in opposition. Like Pitt he was the
+type of authority and resistance, unmoved by the brilliant charges, the
+wit, the gaiety, the irony and the discursive power of his great rival.
+Nor was he less a master of parliamentary tactics and of those sudden
+changes and movements in debate which, as in a battle, sometimes change
+the fortune of the day. His confidence in himself, and in the majority
+of the chamber which he had moulded to his will, was unbounded; and long
+success and the habit of authority led him to forget that in a country
+like France there was a people outside the chamber elected by a small
+constituency, to which the minister and the king himself were held
+responsible.
+
+A government based on the principle of resistance and repression and
+marked by dread and distrust of popular power, a system of diplomacy
+which sought to revive the traditions of the old French monarchy, a
+sovereign who largely exceeded the bounds of constitutional power and
+whose obstinacy augmented with years, a minister who, though far removed
+from the servility of the courtier, was too obsequious to the personal
+influence of the king, were all singularly at variance with the promises
+of the Revolution of July, and they narrowed the policy of the
+administration. Guizot's view of politics was essentially historical and
+philosophical. His tastes and his acquirements gave him little insight
+into the practical business of administrative government. Of finance he
+knew nothing; trade and commerce were strange to him; military and naval
+affairs were unfamiliar to him; all these subjects he dealt with by
+second hand through his friends, P. S. Dumon (1797-1870), Charles Marie
+Tanneguy, Comte Duchatel (1803-1867), or Marshal Bugeaud. The
+consequence was that few measures of practical improvement were carried
+by his administration. Still less did the government lend an ear to the
+cry for parliamentary reform. On this subject the king's prejudices were
+insurmountable, and his ministers had the weakness to give way to them.
+It was impossible to defend a system which confined the suffrage to
+200,000 citizens, and returned a chamber of whom half were placemen.
+Nothing would have been easier than to strengthen the conservative party
+by attaching the suffrage to the possession of land in France, but blank
+resistance was the sole answer of the government to the just and
+moderate demands of the opposition. Warning after warning was addressed
+to them in vain by friends and by foes alike; and they remained
+profoundly unconscious of their danger till the moment when it
+overwhelmed them. Strange to say, Guizot never acknowledged either at
+the time or to his dying day the nature of this error; and he speaks of
+himself in his memoirs as the much-enduring champion of liberal
+government and constitutional law. He utterly fails to perceive that a
+more enlarged view of the liberal destinies of France and a less intense
+confidence in his own specific theory might have preserved the
+constitutional monarchy and averted a vast series of calamities, which
+were in the end fatal to every principle he most cherished. But with the
+stubborn conviction of absolute truth he dauntlessly adhered to his own
+doctrines to the end.
+
+The last scene of his political life was singularly characteristic of
+his inflexible adherence to a lost cause. In the afternoon oi the 23rd
+of February 1848 the king summoned his minister from the chamber, which
+was then sitting, and informed him that the aspect of Paris and the
+country during the banquet agitation for reform, and the alarm and
+division of opinion in the royal family, led him to doubt whether he
+could retain his ministry. That doubt, replied Guizot, is decisive of
+the question, and instantly resigned, returning to the chamber only to
+announce that the administration was at an end and that Mole had been
+sent for by the king. Mole failed in the attempt to form a government,
+and between midnight and one in the morning Guizot, who had according to
+his custom retired early to rest, was again sent for to the Tuileries.
+The king asked his advice. "We are no longer the ministers of your
+Majesty," replied Guizot; "it rests with others to decide on the course
+to be pursued. But one thing appears to be evident: this street riot
+must be put down; these barricades must be taken; and for this purpose
+my opinion is that Marshal Bugeaud should be invested with full power,
+and ordered to take the necessary military measures, and as your Majesty
+has at this moment no minister, I am ready to draw up and countersign
+such an order." The marshal, who was present, undertook the task,
+saying, "I have never been beaten yet, and I shall not begin to-morrow.
+The barricades shall be carried before dawn." After this display of
+energy the king hesitated, and soon added: "I ought to tell you that M.
+Thiers and his friends are in the next room forming a government!" Upon
+this Guizot rejoined, "Then it rests with them to do what they think
+fit," and left the palace. Thiers and Barrot decided to withdraw the
+troops. The king and Guizot next met at Claremont. This was the most
+perilous conjuncture of Guizot's life, but fortunately he found a safe
+refuge in Paris for some days in the lodging of a humble miniature
+painter whom he had befriended, and shortly afterwards effected his
+escape across the Belgian frontier and thence to London, where he
+arrived on the 3rd of March. His mother and daughters had preceded him,
+and he was speedily installed in a modest habitation in Pelham Crescent,
+Brompton.
+
+The society of England, though many persons disapproved of much of his
+recent policy, received the fallen statesman with as much distinction
+and respect as they had shown eight years before to the king's
+ambassador. Sums of money were placed at his disposal, which he
+declined. A professorship at Oxford was spoken of, which he was unable
+to accept. He stayed in England about a year, devoting himself again to
+history. He published two more volumes on the English revolution, and in
+1854 his _Histoire de la republique d'Angleterre et de Cromwell_ (2
+vols., 1854), then his _Histoire du protectorat de Cromwell et du
+retablissement des Stuarts_ (2 vols., 1856). He also published an essay
+on Peel, and amid many essays on religion, during the ten years
+1858-1868, appeared the extensive _Memoires pour servir a l'histoire de
+mon temps_, in nine volumes. His speeches were included in 1863 in his
+_Histoire parlementaire de la France_ (5 vols. of parliamentary
+speeches, 1863).
+
+Guizot survived the fall of the monarchy and the government he had
+served twenty-six years. He passed abruptly from the condition of one of
+the most powerful and active statesmen in Europe to the condition of a
+philosophical and patriotic spectator of human affairs. He was aware
+that the link between himself and public life was broken for ever; and
+he never made the slightest attempt to renew it. He was of no party, a
+member of no political body; no murmur of disappointed ambition, no
+language of asperity, ever passed his lips; it seemed as if the fever of
+oratorical debate and ministerial power had passed from him and left him
+a greater man than he had been before, in the pursuit of letters, in the
+conversation of his friends, and as head of the patriarchal circle of
+those he loved. The greater part of the year he spent at his residence
+at Val Richer, an Augustine monastery near Lisieux in Normandy, which
+had been sold at the time of the first Revolution. His two daughters,
+who married two descendants of the illustrious Dutch family of De Witt,
+so congenial in faith and manners to the Huguenots of France, kept his
+house. One of his sons-in-law farmed the estate. And here Guizot devoted
+his later years with undiminished energy to literary labour, which was
+in fact his chief means of subsistence. Proud, independent, simple and
+contented he remained to the last; and these years of retirement were
+perhaps the happiest and most serene portion of his life.
+
+Two institutions may be said even under the second empire to have
+retained their freedom--the Institute of France and the Protestant
+Consistory. In both of these Guizot continued to the last to take an
+active part. He was a member of three of the five academies into which
+the Institute of France is divided. The Academy of Moral and Political
+Science owed its restoration to him, and he became in 1832 one of its
+first associates. The Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres elected
+him in 1833 as the successor to M. Dacier; and in 1836 he was chosen a
+member of the French Academy, the highest literary distinction of the
+country. In these learned bodies Guizot continued for nearly forty years
+to take a lively interest and to exercise a powerful influence. He was
+the jealous champion of their independence. His voice had the greatest
+weight in the choice of new candidates; the younger generation of French
+writers never looked in vain to him for encouragement; and his constant
+aim was to maintain the dignity and purity of the profession of letters.
+
+In the consistory of the Protestant church in Paris Guizot exercised a
+similar influence. His early education and his experience of life
+conspired to strengthen the convictions of a religious temperament. He
+remained through life a firm believer in the truths of revelation, and a
+volume of _Meditations on the Christian Religion_ was one of his latest
+works. But though he adhered inflexibly to the church of his fathers and
+combated the rationalist tendencies of the age, which seemed to threaten
+it with destruction, he retained not a tinge of the intolerance or
+asperity of the Calvinistic creed. He respected in the Church of Rome
+the faith of the majority of his countrymen; and the writings of the
+great Catholic prelates, Bossuet and Bourdaloue, were as familiar and
+as dear to him as those of his own persuasion, and were commonly used by
+him in the daily exercises of family worship.
+
+In these literary pursuits and in the retirement of Val Richer years
+passed smoothly and rapidly away; and as his grandchildren grew up
+around him, he began to direct their attention to the history of their
+country. From these lessons sprang his last and not his least work, the
+_Histoire de France racontee a mes petits enfants_, for although this
+publication assumed a popular form, it is not less complete and profound
+than it is simple and attractive. The history came down to 1789, and was
+continued to 1870 by his daughter Madame Guizot de Witt from her
+father's notes.
+
+Down to the summer of 1874 Guizot's mental vigour and activity were
+unimpaired. His frame, temperate in all things, was blessed with a
+singular immunity from infirmity and disease; but the vital power ebbed
+away, and he passed gently away on the 12th of September 1874, reciting
+now and then a verse of Corneille or a text of Scripture.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See his own _Memoires pour servir a l'histoire de mon
+  temps_ (8 vols., 1858-1861); _Lettres de M. Guizot a sa famille et a
+  ses amis_ (1884); C. A. Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_ (vol. i.,
+  1857) and _Nouveaux Lundis_ (vols. i. and ix., 1863-1872); E. Scherer,
+  _Etudes critiques sur la litterature contemporaine_ (vol. iv., 1873);
+  Mme de Witt, _Guizot dans sa famille_ (1880); Jules Simon, _Thiers,
+  Guizot et Remusat_ (1885); E. Faguet, _Politiques et moralistes au
+  XIX^e siecle_ (1891); G. Bardoux, _Guizot_ (1894) in the series of
+  "Les Grands Ecrivains francais"; Maurice Guizot, _Les Annees de
+  retraite de M. Guizot_ (1901); and for a long list of books and
+  articles on Guizot in periodicals see H. P. Thieme, _Guide
+  bibliographique de la litterature francaise de 1800 a 1906_ (_s.v._
+  Guizot, Paris, 1907). For a notice of his first wife see C. A.
+  Sainte-Beuve, _Portraits de femmes_ (1884), and Ch. de Remusat,
+  _Critiques et etudes litteraires_ (vol. ii., 1847).
+       (H. R.; J. T. S.*)
+
+
+
+
+GUJARAT or GUZERAT, a region of India, in the Bombay Presidency. In the
+widest sense of the name it includes the whole of the country where the
+Gujarati language is spoken, i.e. the northern districts and states of
+the Presidency from Palanpur to Damaun, with Kathiawar and Cutch. But it
+is more properly confined to the country north of the Nerbudda and east
+of the Rann of Cutch and Kathiawar. In this sense it has an area of
+29,071 sq. m., with a population in 1901 of 4,798,504. It includes the
+states distributed among the agencies of Palanpur, Mahi Kantha, Rewa
+Kantha and Cambay, with most of Baroda and the British districts of
+Ahmedabad, Kaira, Panch Mahals and Broach. Less than one-fourth is
+British territory. The region takes its name from the Gujars, a tribe
+who passed into India from the north-west, established a kingdom in
+Rajputana, and spread south in A.D. 400-600. The ancient Hindu capital
+was Anhilvada; the Mahommedan dynasty, which ruled from 1396 to 1572,
+founded Ahmedabad, which is still the largest city; but Gujarat owed
+much of its historical importance to the seaports of Broach, Cambay and
+Surat. Its fertile plain, with a regular rainfall and numerous rivers,
+has caused it to be styled the "garden of India." It suffered, however,
+severely from the famine of 1899-1901. For an account of the history,
+geography, &c., of Gujarat see the articles on the various states and
+districts. Gujarat gives its name to the vernacular of northern Bombay,
+viz. Gujarati, one of the three great languages of that Presidency,
+spoken by more than 9 millions. It has an ancient literature and a
+peculiar character. As the language of the Parsis it is prominent in the
+Bombay press; and it is also the commercial language of Bombay city,
+which lies outside the territorial area of Gujarat.
+
+  See J. Campbell, _History of Gujarat_ (Bombay, 1896); Sir E. C.
+  Bayley, _The Muhammedan Kingdom of Gujarat_ (1886); A. K. Forbes, _Ras
+  Mala_ (1856).
+
+
+
+
+GUJARATI and RAJASTHANI, the names of two members of the western
+sub-group of the Intermediate Group of Indo-Aryan languages (q.v.). The
+remaining member of this sub-group is Panjabi or Punjabi (see
+HINDOSTANI). In 1901 the speakers of those now dealt with numbered:
+Gujarati, 9,439,925, and Rajasthani, 10,917,712. The two languages are
+closely connected and might almost be termed co-dialects of the same
+form of speech. Together they occupy an almost square block of country,
+some 400 m. broad, reaching from near Agra and Delhi on the river Jumna
+to the Arabian Sea. Gujarati (properly _Gujarati_) is spoken in Gujarat,
+the northern maritime province of the Bombay Presidency, and also in
+Baroda and the native states adjoining. Rajasthani (properly
+_Rajasthani_, from "_Rajasthan_," the native name for Rajputana) is
+spoken in Rajputana and the adjoining parts of Central India.
+
+In the articles INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES and PRAKRIT the history of the
+earlier stages of the Indo-Aryan vernaculars is given at some length. It
+is there shown that, from the most ancient times, there were two main
+groups of these forms of speech--one, the language of the Midland,
+spoken in the country near the Gangetic Doab, and the other, the
+so-called "Outer Band," containing the Midland on three sides, west,
+north and south. The country to the west and south-west of the Midland,
+in which this outer group of languages was spoken, included the modern
+Punjab, Rajputana and Gujarat. In process of time the population of the
+Midland expanded and carried its language to its new homes. It occupied
+the eastern and central Punjab, and the mixed (or "intermediate")
+language which there grew up became the modern Panjabi. To the west it
+spread into Rajputana, till its progress was stopped by the Indian
+desert, and in Rajputana another intermediate language took rise and
+became Rajasthani. As elsewhere explained, the language-wave of the
+Midland exercised less and less influence as it travelled farther from
+its home, so that, while in eastern Rajputana the local dialect is now
+almost a pure midland speech, in the west there are many evident traces
+of the old outer language still surviving. To the south-west of
+Rajputana there was no desert to stop the wave of Midland expansion,
+which therefore rolled on unobstructed into Gujarat, where it reached
+the sea. Here the survivals of the old outer language are stronger
+still. The old outer Prakrit of north Gujarat was known as "Saurastri,"
+while the Prakrit of the Midland invaders was called "Sauraseni," and we
+may therefore describe Gujarati as being an intermediate language
+derived (as explained in the articles PRAKRIT) from a mixture of the
+Apabhramsa forms of Saurastri and Sauraseni, in which the latter
+predominated.
+
+It will be observed that, at the present day, Gujarati breaks the
+continuity of the outer band of Indo-Aryan languages. To its north it
+has Sindhi and to its south Marathi, both outer languages with which it
+has only a slight connexion. On the other hand, on the east and
+north-east it has Rajasthani, into which it merges so gradually and
+imperceptibly that at the conventional border-line, in the state of
+Palanpur, the inhabitants of Rajputana say that the local dialect is a
+form of Gujarati, while the inhabitants of Gujarat say that it is
+Rajasthani.
+
+
+  Language.
+
+Gujarati has no important local dialects, but there is considerable
+variation in the speeches of different classes of the community. Parsees
+and Mussulmans (when the latter use the language--as a rule the Gujarat
+Mussulmans speak Hindostani) have some striking peculiarities of
+pronunciation, the most noticeable of which is the disregard by the
+latter of the distinction between cerebral and dental letters. The
+uneducated Hindus do not pronounce the language in the same way as their
+betters, and this difference is accentuated in northern Gujarat, where
+the lower classes substitute _e_ for _i_, _c_ for _k_, _ch_ for _kh_,
+_s_ for _c_ and _ch_, _h_ for _s_, and drop _h_ as readily as any
+cockney. There is also (as in the case of the Mussulmans) a tendency to
+confuse cerebral and dental consonants, to substitute _r_ for _d_ and
+_l_, to double medial consonants, and to pronounce the letter _a_ as
+_a_, something like the _a_ in "all." The Bhils of the hills east of
+Gujarat also speak a rude Gujarati, with special dialectic peculiarities
+of their own, probably due to the fact that the tribes are of Dravidian
+origin. These Bhil peculiarities are further mixed with corruptions of
+Marathi idioms in Nimar and Khandesh, where we have almost a new
+language.
+
+Rajasthani has numerous dialects, each state claiming one or more of its
+own. Thus, in the state of Jaipur there have been catalogued no less
+than ten dialects among about 1,688,000 people. All Rajasthani dialects
+can, however, be easily classed in four well-defined groups, a
+north-eastern, a southern, a western and an east-central. The
+north-eastern (Mewati) is that form of Rajasthani which is merging into
+the Western Hindi of the Midland. It is a mixed form of speech, and need
+not detain us further. Similarly, the southern (Malvi) is much mixed
+with the neighbouring Bundeli form of Western Hindi. The western
+(Marwari) spoken in Marwar and its neighbourhood, and the east-central
+(Jaipuri) spoken in Jaipur and its neighbourhood, may be taken as the
+typical Rajasthani dialects. In the following paragraphs we shall
+therefore confine ourselves to Gujarati, Marwari and Jaipuri.
+
+We know more about the ancient history of Gujarati than we do about that
+of any other Indo-Aryan language. The one native grammar of Apabhramsa
+Prakrit which we possess in a printed edition, was written by Hemacandra
+(12th century A.D.), who lived in what is now north Gujarat, and who
+naturally described most fully the particular vernacular with which he
+was personally familiar. It was known as the Nagara Apabhramsa, closely
+connected (as above explained) with Sauraseni, and was so named after
+the Nagara Brahmans of the locality. These men carried on the tradition
+of learning inherited from Hemacandra, and we see Gujarati almost in the
+act of taking birth in a work called the _Mugdhavabodhamauktika_,
+written by one of them only two hundred years after his death. Formal
+Gujarati literature is said to commence with the poet Narsingh Meta in
+the 15th century. Rajasthani literature has received but small attention
+from European or native scholars, and we are as yet unable to say how
+far back the language goes.
+
+Both Gujarati and Rajasthani are usually written in current scripts
+related to the well-known Nagari alphabet (see SANSKRIT). The form
+employed in Rajputana is known all over northern India as the "Mahajani"
+alphabet, being used by bankers or _Mahajans_, most of whom are
+Marwaris. It is noteworthy as possessing two distinct characters for _d_
+and _r_. The Gujarati character closely resembles the Kaithi character
+of northern India (see BIHARI). The Nagari character is also freely used
+in Rajputana, and to a less extent in Gujarat, where it is employed by
+the Nagara Brahmans, who claim that their tribe has given the alphabet
+its name.
+
+In the following description of the main features of our two languages,
+the reader is presumed to be familiar with the leading facts stated in
+the articles INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES and PRAKRIT. The article HINDOSTANI
+may also be perused with advantage.
+
+  (Abbreviations. Skr. = Sanskrit. Pr. = Prakrit. Ap. = Apabhramsa. G. =
+  Gujarati. R. = Rajasthani. H. = Hindostaani.)
+
+  _Vocabulary._--The vocabulary of both Gujarat and Rajasthani is very
+  free from _tatsama_ words. The great mass of both vocabularies is
+  _tadbhava_ (see INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES). Rajputana was from an early
+  period brought into close contact with the Mogul court at Agra and
+  Delhi, and even in the 13th century A.D. official documents of the
+  Rajput princes contained many borrowed Persian and Arabic words.
+  Gujarati, under the influence of the learned Nagara Brahmans, has
+  perhaps more _tatsama_ words than Rajasthani, but their employment is
+  not excessive. On the other hand, Parsees and Mussulmans employ
+  Persian and Arabic words with great freedom; while, owing to its
+  maritime connexions, the language has also borrowed occasional words
+  from other parts of Asia and from Europe. This is specially marked in
+  the strange dialect of the Kathiawar boatmen who travel all over the
+  world as lascars on the great steamships. Their language is a mixture
+  of Hindostani and Gujarati with a heterogeneous vocabulary.
+
+  _Phonetics._--With a few exceptions to be mentioned below, the
+  sound-system of the two languages is the same as that of Sanskrit, and
+  is represented in the same manner in the Roman character (see
+  SANSKRIT). The simplest method for considering the subject in regard
+  to Gujarati is to compare it with the phonetical system of Hindostani
+  (q.v.). As a rule, Rajasthani closely follows Gujarati and need not be
+  referred to except in special cases. G. invariably simplifies a medial
+  Pr. double consonant, lengthening the preceding vowel in compensation.
+  Thus Skr. _mraksanam_, Ap. _makkhanu_, H. _makkhan_, but G. _makhan_,
+  butter. In H. this rule is generally observed, but in G. it is
+  universal, while, on the other hand, in Panjabi the double consonant
+  is never simplified, but is retained as in Ap. In G. (and sometimes in
+  R.) when _a_ is followed by _h_ it is changed to _e_, as in H.
+  _shahr_, G. _seher_, a city. As in other outer languages H. _ai_ and
+  _au_ are usually represented by a short _e_ and by _a_ (sounded like
+  the _a_ in "all") respectively. Thus H. _baitha_. G. _betho_, seated;
+  H. _cautha_, G. _catho_ (written _cotho_), fourth. In R. this _e_ is
+  often further weakened to the sound of _a_ in "man," a change which
+  is also common in Bengali. Many words which have _i_ in H. have _a_ in
+  G. and R., thus, H. _likhe_, G. _lakhe_, he writes; H. din, G. and R.
+  _dan_, a day. Similarly we have _a_ for _u_, as in H. _tum_, G., R.
+  _tame_, you. In colloquial G. _a_ often becomes _a_, and _i_ becomes
+  _e_; thus, _pani_ for _pani_, water; _mares_ for _maris_, I shall
+  strike. As in most Indo-Aryan vernaculars an _a_ after an accented
+  syllable is very lightly pronounced, and is here represented by a
+  small ^a above the line.
+
+  The Vedic cerebral _l_ and the cerebral _n_ are very common as medial
+  letters in both G. and R. (both being unknown to literary H.). The
+  rule is, as elsewhere in western and southern intermediate and outer
+  languages, that when n and l represent a double _nn_ (or _nn_) or a
+  double _ll_ in Pr. they are dental, but when they represent single
+  medial letters they are cerebralized. Thus Ap. _sonnau_, G. _sonu_,
+  gold; Ap. _ghanau_, G. _ghanu_, dense; Ap. _callai_, G. _cale_, he
+  goes; Ap. _calai_, G. _cale_, he moves. In northern G. and in some
+  caste dialects dental and cerebral letters are absolutely
+  interchangeable, as in _dah^ado_ or _dahado_, a day; _tu_ or _tu_,
+  thou; _didho_ or _didho_, given. In G. and R. medial _d_ is pronounced
+  as a rough cerebral _r_, and is then so transcribed. We have seen that
+  in the Marwari alphabet there are actually distinct letters for these
+  two sounds. In colloquial G. _c_ and _ch_ are pronounced _s_,
+  especially in the north, as in _pas_ for _pac_, five; _pusyo_ for
+  _puchyo_, he asked. Similarly, in the north, _j_ and _jh_ become _z_,
+  as in _zad_ for _jhad_, a tree. In some localities (as in Marathi) we
+  have _ts_ and _dz_ for these sounds, as in _Tsarotar_ (name of a tract
+  of country) for _Carotar_. On the other hand, _k_, _kh_ and _g_,
+  especially when preceded or followed by _i_, _e_ or _y_, become in the
+  north _c_, _ch_ and _j_ respectively; thus, _dic^aro_ for _dik^aro_, a
+  son; _chetar_ for _khetar_, a field; _lajyo_ for _lagyo_, begun. A
+  similar change is found in dialectic Marathi, and is, of course, one
+  of the commonplaces of the philology of the Romance languages. The
+  sibilants _s_ and _s_ are colloquially pronounced _h_ (as in several
+  outer languages), especially in the north. Thus _deh_ for _des_, a
+  country; _hu_ for _su_, what; _ham^ajavyo_ for _sam^ajavyo_, he
+  explained. An original aspirate is, however, often dropped, as in _'u_
+  for _hu_, I; _'ate_ for _hathe_, on the hand. Standard G. is at the
+  same time fond of pronouncing an _h_ where it is not written, as in
+  _ame_, we, pronounced _ahme_. In other respects both G. and R. closely
+  agree in their phonetical systems with the Apabhramsa form of
+  Sauraseni Prakrit from which the Midland language is derived.
+
+  _Declension._--Gujarati agrees with Marathi (an outer language) as
+  against Hindostani in retaining the neuter gender of Sanskrit and
+  Prakrit. Moreover, the neuter gender is often employed to indicate
+  living beings of which the sex is uncertain, as in the case of
+  _dik^aru_, a child, compared with _dik^aro_, a son, and _dik^ari_, a
+  daughter. In R. there are only sporadic instances of the neuter, which
+  grow more and more rare as we approach the Midland. Nouns in both G.
+  and R. may be weak or strong as is fully explained in the article
+  HINDOSTANI. We have there seen that the strong form of masculine nouns
+  in Western Hindi generally ends in _au_, the _a_ of words like the
+  Hindostani _ghora_, a horse, being an accident due to the fact that
+  the Hindostani dialect of Western Hindi borrows this termination from
+  Panjabi. G. and R. follow Western Hindi, for their masculine strong
+  forms end in _o_. Feminine strong forms end in _i_ as elsewhere.
+  Neuter strong forms in G. end in _u_, derived as follows: Skr,
+  _svarnakam_, Ap. _sonnau_, G. _sonu_, gold. As an example of the three
+  genders of the same word we may take G. _chok^aro_ (masc.), a boy;
+  _chok^ari_ (fem.), a girl; _chok^aru_ (neut.), a child. Long forms
+  corresponding to the Eastern Hindi _ghor^awa_, a horse, are not much
+  used, but we not infrequently meet another long form made by suffixing
+  the pleonastic termination _do_ or _ro_ (fem. _di_ or _ri_; G. neut.
+  _du_ or _ru_) which is directly descended from the Ap. pleonastic
+  termination _dau_, _dai_, _dau_. We come across this most often in R.,
+  where it is used contemptuously, as in _Turuk-ro_, a Turk.
+
+  In the article HINDOSTANI it is shown that all the oblique cases of
+  each number in Sanskrit and Prakrit became melted down in the modern
+  languages into one general oblique case, which, in the Midland, is
+  derived in the singular from the Ap. termination _-hi_ or _-hi_, and
+  that even this has survived only in the case of strong masculine
+  nouns; thus, _ghora_, obl. _ghore_. In G. and R. this same termination
+  has also survived, but for all nouns as the case sign of the agent and
+  locative cases. The general oblique case is the same as the
+  nominative, except in the case of strong masculine and neuter nouns in
+  _o_ and _u_ respectively, where it ends in _a_, not _e_. This
+  _a_-termination is characteristic of the outer band of languages, and
+  is one of the survivals already referred to. It is derived from the
+  Apabhramsa genitive form in -_aha_, corresponding to the Magadhi Pr.
+  (an outer Prakrit) termination -_aha_. Thus, G. _chok^aro_, a son;
+  _chok^aru_, a child; obl. sing. _chok^ara_.
+
+  In G. the nominative and oblique plural for all nouns are formed by
+  adding _o_ to the oblique form singular, but in the neuter strong
+  forms the oblique singular is nasalized. The real plural is the same
+  in form as the oblique singular in the case of masculines, and as a
+  nasalized oblique singular in the case of neuter strong forms, as in
+  other modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars, and the added _o_ is a further
+  plural termination (making a double plural, exactly as it does in the
+  Ardhamagadhi Prakrit _putta-o_, sons) which is often dropped. The
+  nasalization of the strong neuter plurals is inherited from Ap., in
+  which the neuter nom. plural of such nouns ended in -_aai_ In R. the
+  nominative plural of masculine nouns is the same in form as the
+  oblique case singular, and the oblique plural ends in _a_. The
+  feminine has _a_ both in the nominative and in the oblique plural.
+  These are all explained in the article HINDOSTANI. We thus get the
+  following paradigms of the declension of nouns.
+
+    +----------------------+--------------+---------------+------------+
+    |                      |  Apabhramsa. |   Gujarati.   | Rajasthani.|
+    +----------------------+--------------+---------------+------------+
+    | Strong Noun Masc.--  |              |               |            |
+    | "A horse." Sing. Nom.| ghodau       | ghodo         |   ghodo    |
+    |                  Obl.| ghodaaha     | ghoda         |   ghoda    |
+    |              Ag.-Loc.| ghodaahi     | ghode, ghodae |   ghodai   |
+    |            Plur. Nom.| ghodaa       | ghoda-o       |   ghoda    |
+    |                  Obl.| ghodaaha     | ghoda-o       |   ghoda    |
+    |              Ag.-Loc.| ghodaahi     | ghoda-o-e     |   ghoda    |
+    | Strong Noun Neut.--  |              |               |            |
+    | "Gold."    Sing. Nom.| sonnau       | sonu          |     ..     |
+    |                  Obl.| sonnaaha     | sona          |     ..     |
+    |              Ag.-Loc.| sonnaahi     | sone, sonae   |     ..     |
+    |            Plur. Nom.| sonnaai      | sone          |     ..     |
+    |                  Obl.| sonnaaha     | sona-o        |     ..     |
+    |              Ag.-Loc.| sonnaahi     | sona-o-e      |     ..     |
+    | Strong Noun Fem.--   |              |               |            |
+    | "A mare."  Sing. Nom.| ghodia       | ghodi         |   ghodi    |
+    |                  Obl.| ghodiahi     | ghodi         |   ghodi    |
+    |              Ag.-Loc.| ghodiae      | ghodie        |   ghodi    |
+    |            Plur. Nom.| ghodia-o     | ghodi-o       |   ghodya   |
+    |                  Obl.| ghodiahu     | ghodi-o       |   ghodya   |
+    |              Ag.-Loc.| ghodiahi     | ghodi-o-e     |   ghodya   |
+    | Weak Noun Masc.      |              |               |            |
+    | or Neut.--           |              |               |            |
+    | "A house." Sing. Nom.| gharu (neut.)| ghar          |   ghar     |
+    |                  Obl.| gharaha      | ghar          |   ghar     |
+    |              Ag.-Loc.| gharahi      | ghare         |   gharai   |
+    |            Plur. Nom.| gharai       | ghar-o        |   ghar     |
+    |                  Obl.| gharaha      | ghar-o        |   ghara    |
+    |              Ag.-Loc.| gharahi      | ghar-o-e      |   ghara    |
+    | Weak Noun Fem.--     |              |               |            |
+    | "A word."  Sing. Nom.| vatta        | wat           |   bat      |
+    |                  Obl.| vattahi      | wat           |   bat      |
+    |              Ag.-Loc.| vattae       | wate          |   bat      |
+    |            Plur. Nom.| vatta-o      | wat-o         |   bata     |
+    |                  Obl.| vattahu      | wat-o         |   bata     |
+    |              Ag.-Loc.| vattahi      | wat-o-e       |   bata     |
+    +----------------------+--------------+---------------+------------+
+
+  The general oblique case can be employed for any case except the
+  nominative, but, in order to define the meaning, it is customary to
+  add postpositions as in Hindostani. These are:
+
+    +------------+----------+---------------+----------+----------+
+    |            | Genitive.|    Dative.    | Ablative.| Locative.|
+    +------------+----------+---------------+----------+----------+
+    | Gujarati   |    no    |       ne      |    thi   |    ma    |
+    | Rajasthani |  ro, ko  | nai, rai, kai |    su    |    mai   |
+    +------------+----------+---------------+----------+----------+
+
+  The suffix _no_ of the genitive is believed to be a contraction of
+  _tano_, which is found in old Gujarati poetry, and which, under the
+  form _tanas_ in Sanskrit and _tanau_ in Apabhramsa, mean "belonging
+  to." It is an adjective, and agrees in gender, number and case with
+  the thing possessed. Thus, _raja-no dik^aro_, the king's son; _raja-ni
+  dik^ari_, the king's daughter; _raja-nu ghar_, the king's house;
+  _raja-na dik^ara-ne_, to the king's son (_na_ is in the oblique case
+  masculine to agree with _dik^ara_); _raja-ne ghare_, in the king's
+  house. The _ro_ and _ko_ of R. are similarly treated, but, of course,
+  have no neuter. The dative postpositions are simply locatives of the
+  genitive ones, as in all modern Indo-Aryan languages (see HINDOSTANI).
+  _Thi_, the postposition of the G. ablative, is connected with _thawu_,
+  to be, one of the verbs substantive in that language. The ablative
+  suffix is made in this way in many modern Indo-Aryan languages (e.g.
+  Bengali, q.v.). It means literally "having been" and is to be
+  ultimately referred to the Sanskrit root, _stha_, stand. The
+  derivation of the other postpositions is discussed in the article
+  HINDOSTANI.
+
+  Strong adjectives agree with the nouns they qualify in gender, number
+  and case, as in the examples of the genitive above. Weak adjectives
+  are immutable.
+
+  Pronouns closely agree with those found in Hindostani. In the table on
+  following page we give the first two personal pronouns, and the
+  demonstrative pronoun "this."
+
+   Similarly are formed the remaining pronouns, viz. G. _a_, R. _u_,
+  he, that; G. _te_, R. _so_ (obl. sing. _ti_), that; G. _je_, R. _jo_,
+  who; G. _kan_ (obl. _kan_, _ko_, or _ke_), R. _kun_ (obl. _kun_),
+  who?; G. _su_, R. _kai_, what?; G., R. _koi_, anyone, someone, _kai_
+  anything, something. G. has two other demonstratives, _pelo_ and
+  _olyo_, both meaning "that." The derivation of these and of _su_ has
+  been discussed without any decisive result. The rest are explained in
+  the article HINDOSTANI. The reflexive pronoun is G. _ap^ane_, R.
+  _apa_. It is generally employed as a plural of the first personal
+  pronoun including the person addressed; thus G. _ap^ane_, we
+  (including you), but _ame_, we (excluding you). In G. _pote_, obl.
+  _pota_, is used to mean "self."
+
+    +------------------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
+    |                  |    Apabhramsa.    | Gujarati.|   Rajasthani.  |
+    +------------------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
+    | I           Nom. |   hau             |  hu      | hu, mhu, mai   |
+    |             Obl. | mai, mahu, majjhu | ma, maj  | ma, mha, mu    |
+    | MY               |   maharau         |  maro    | maro, mharo    |
+    | WE          Nom. |   amhe            |  ame     | mhe            |
+    |             Obl. |   amhaha          |  am-o    | mha            |
+    | OUR              |   amharau         |  amaro   | mha-ro, mha-ko |
+    | THOU        Nom. |   tuhu            |  tu      | tu             |
+    |             Obl. | tai, tuha, tujjhu | ta, tuj  | ta, tha, tu    |
+    | THY              |   tuharau         |  taro    | tharo          |
+    | YOU         Nom. |   tumhe           |  tame    | the, tame      |
+    |             Obl. |   tumhaha         |  tam-o   | tha, tama      |
+    | YOUR             |   tumharau        |  tamaro  | tha-ro, tha-ko |
+    | THIS, HE    Nom. |   eho             |  e       | yo             |
+    |             Obl. | (?) ehaha, imaha  |  e       | i              |
+    | THESE, THEY Nom. |   ei              |  e-o     | e, ye          |
+    |             Obl. |   eammi, ehana    |  em      | ina, ya.       |
+    +------------------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
+
+  _Conjugation._--The old present has survived as in Hindostani and
+  other Indian languages. Taking the base _call_ or _cal_, go, as our
+  model, we have:
+
+    +-------------+------------+-----------------------+
+    |             | Apabhramsa.| Gujarati.| Rajasthani.|
+    +-------------+------------+-----------------------+
+    |  Sing.  1   |   callau   |   calu   |    calu    |
+    |         2   |   callahi  |   cale   |    calai   |
+    |         3   |   callai   |   cale   |    calai   |
+    |  Plur.  1   |   callahu  |   calie  |    cala    |
+    |         2   |   callahu  |   calo   |    calo    |
+    |         3   |   callahi  |   cale   |    calai   |
+    +-------------+------------+-----------------------+
+
+  The derivation of the G. 1 plural is unknown. That of the other G. and
+  R. forms is manifest. The imperative closely follows this, but as
+  usual has no termination in the second person singular.
+
+  In R. the future may be formed by adding _go_ (cf. Hindostani _ga_),
+  _lo_, or _la_ to the old present. Thus, _calu-go_, _calu-lo_ or
+  _calu-la_ I shall go. The _go_ and _lo_ agree in gender and number
+  with the subject, but _la_ is immutable. The termination with _l_ is
+  also found in Bhojpuri (see BIHARI), in Marathi and in Nepali. For
+  _go_ see HINDOSTANI. Another form of the future has _s_ or _h_ for its
+  characteristic letter, and is the only one employed in G. Thus, Ap.
+  _callisau_ or _callihau_, G. _calis_, R. (Jaipuri) _cal^asyu_,
+  (Marwari) _cal^ahu_. The other personal terminations differ
+  considerably from those of the old present, and closely follow Ap.
+  Thus, Ap. 3 sing. _callisai_ or _callihi_, G. _cal^ase_, Marwari
+  _cal^ahi_.
+
+  The participles and infinitive are as follows:
+
+    +----------------------+------------+-----------------------+
+    |                      | Apabhramsa.| Gujarati.| Rajasthani.|
+    +----------------------+------------+-----------------------+
+    | Pres. Part. Active   | callantau  | cal^ato  |   cal^ato  |
+    | Past. Part. Passive  | calliau    | calyo    |   calyo    |
+    | Future Part. Passive | calliavvau | cal^avo  |   cal^abo  |
+    | Infinitive           |     ..     | cal^avu  |   cal^abo  |
+    +----------------------+------------+-----------------------+
+
+  In G. the infinitive is simply the neuter of the future passive
+  participle. The participles are employed to form finite tenses; thus
+  G. _hu cal^ato_], I used to go; _hu calyo_, I went. If the verb is
+  transitive (see HINDOSTANI) the passive meaning of the past participle
+  comes into force. The subject is put into the case of the agent, and
+  the participle inflects to agree with the object, or, if there is no
+  object, is employed impersonally in the neuter (in G.) or in the
+  masculine (in R.). In Hindostani, if the object is expressed in the
+  dative, the participle is also employed impersonally, in the
+  masculine; thus _raja-ne sherni-ko mara_ (masc.), not _mari_, (fem.),
+  by-the-king, with reference-to-the-tigress,
+  it-(impersonal)-was-killed, i.e. the king killed the tigress. But in
+  G. and R., even if the object is in the dative, the past participle
+  agrees with it; thus, G. _rajae waghan-ne mari_, by-the-king,
+  with-reference-to-the-tigress, she-was-killed. Other examples from G.
+  of this passive construction are _me kahyu_, by me it was said, I
+  said; _tene citthi lakhi_, by him a letter was written, he wrote a
+  letter; _e baie vag^ada-ma, dahada kadya_, by this lady, in the
+  wilderness, days were passed, i.e. she passed her days in the
+  wilderness; _rajae vicaryu_, the king considered. The idiom of R. is
+  exactly the same in these cases, except that the masculine must be
+  used where G. has the neuter; thus, _rajaai vicaryo_. The future
+  passive participle is construed in much the same way, but (as in
+  Latin) the subject may be put into the dative. Thus, _mare a cap^adi
+  vac^avi, mihi ille liber (est) legendus_, I must read that book, but
+  also _tene_ (agent case) _e kam kar^avu_, by him this business is to
+  be done.
+
+  G. also forms a past participle in _elo_ (_calelo_), which is one of
+  the many survivals of the outer language. This -_l_- participle is
+  typical of most of the languages of the outer band, including Marathi,
+  Oriya, Bengali, Bihari and Assamese. It is formed by the addition of
+  the Prakrit pleonastic suffix _-illa-_, which was not used by the
+  Prakrit of the Midland, but was common elsewhere. Compare, for
+  instance, the Ardhamagadhi past participle passive _an-illia-_,
+  brought.
+
+  The usual verbs substantive are as follows: G. _chu_, R. _hu_ or
+  _chu_, I am, which are conjugated regularly as old presents, and G.
+  _hato_, R. _ho_ or _cho_, was, which is a past participle, like the
+  Hindostani (q.v.) _tha_. _Hu_, _hato_ and _ho_ are explained in the
+  article on that language. _Chu_ is for Skr. _[r deg.]cchami_, Ap.
+  _acchau_. The use of this base is one of the outer band survivals.
+  Even in Prakrit, it is not found (so far as the present writer is
+  aware) in the Sauraseni of the Midland. Using these as auxiliaries the
+  finite verb makes a whole series of periphrastic tenses. A present
+  definite is formed by conjugating the old present tense (not the
+  present participle) with the present tense of the verb substantive.
+  Thus, G. _calu chu_, I am going. A similar idiom is found in some
+  Western Hindi dialects, but Hindostani employs the present participle;
+  thus, _calta hu_. In G. and R., however, the imperfect is formed with
+  the present participle as in H. Thus, G. _hu cal^ato hato_, I was
+  going. So, as in H., we have a perfect _hu calyo_ (or _calelo_) _chu_,
+  I have gone, and a pluperfect _hu calyo_ (or _calelo_) _hato_, I had
+  gone. The R. periphrastic tenses are made on the same principles. With
+  the genitive of the G. future passive participle, _cal^ava-no_, we
+  have a kind of gerundive, as in _hu cal^avano chu_, I am to be gone,
+  i.e. I am about to go; _hu cal^avano hato_, I was about to go.
+
+  The same series of derivative verbs occurs in G. and R. as in H. Thus,
+  we have a potential passive (a simple passive in G.) formed by adding
+  _a_ to the base, as in G. _lakh^avu_, to write, _lakhavu_, to be
+  written; and a causal by adding _av_ or _ad_, as in _lakhav^avu_, to
+  cause to write; _bes^avu_, to sit, _besad^avu_, to seat. A new passive
+  may be formed in G. from the causal, as in _tap^avu_, to be hot;
+  _tapav^avu_, to cause to be hot; to heat; _tapavavu_, to be heated.
+
+  Several verbs have irregular past participles. These must be learnt
+  from the grammars. So also the numerous compound verbs, such as (G.)
+  _cali sak^avu_, to be able to go; _cali cuk^avu_, to have completed
+  going; _calya kar^avu_, to be in the habit of going, and so on.
+
+
+  Literature.
+
+Very little is known about the literature of Rajputana, except that it
+is of large extent. It includes a number of bardic chronicles of which
+only one has been partially edited, but the contents of which have been
+described by Tod in his admired _Rajasthan_. It also includes a
+considerable religious literature, but the whole mass of this is still
+in MS. From those specimens which the present writer has examined, it
+would appear that most of the authors wrote in Braj Bhasha, the Hindu
+literary dialect of Hindostani (q.v.) In Marwar it is an acknowledged
+fact that the literature falls into two branches, one called _Pingal_
+and couched in Braj Bhasha, and the other called _[D.]ingal_ and couched
+in Rajasthani. The most admired work in [D.]ingal is the _Raghunath
+Rupak_ written by Mansa Ram in the beginning of the 19th century. It is
+nominally a treatise on prosody, but, like many other works of the same
+kind, it contrives to pay a double debt, for the examples of the metres
+are so arranged as to form a complete epic poem celebrating the deeds of
+the hero Rama.
+
+The earliest writer of importance in Gujarati, and its most admired
+poet, was Narsingh Meta, who lived in the 15th century A.D. Before him
+there were writers on Sanskrit grammar, rhetoric and the like, who
+employed an old form of Gujarati for their explanations. Narsingh does
+not appear to have written any considerable work, his reputation
+depending on his short songs, many of which exhibit much felicity of
+diction. He had several successors, all admittedly his inferiors.
+Perhaps the most noteworthy of these was Rewa Sankar, the translator of
+the _Mahabharata_ (see SANSKRIT: _Literature_). A more important side of
+Gujarati literature is its bardic chronicles, the contents of which have
+been utilized by Forbes in his _Ras Mala_. Modern Gujarati literature
+mostly consists of translations or imitations of English works.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Volume ix. of the _Linguistic Survey of India_ contains
+  a full and complete account of Gujarati and Rajasthani, including
+  their various dialectic forms.
+
+  For Rajasthani, see S. H. Kellogg, _Grammar of the Hindi Language_
+  (2nd ed., London, 1893). In this are described several dialects of
+  Rajasthani. See also Ram Karn Sarma, _Marwari Vyakarana_ (Jodhpur,
+  1901) (a Marwari grammar written in that language), and G. Macalister,
+  _Specimens of the Dialects spoken in the State of Jaipur_ (contains
+  specimens, vocabularies and grammars) (Allahabad, 1898).
+
+  For Gujarati, there are numerous grammars, amongst which we may note
+  W. St C. Tisdall, _Simplified Grammar of the Gujarati Language_
+  (London, 1892) and (the most complete) G. P. Taylor, _The Student's
+  Gujarati Grammar_ (2nd ed., Bombay, 1908). As for dictionaries, the
+  most authoritative is the _Narma-kos_ of Narmada Sankar (Bhaunagar
+  and Surat, 1873), in Gujarati throughout. For English readers we may
+  mention Shahpurji Edalji's (2nd ed., Bombay, 1868), the introduction
+  to which contains an account of Gujarati literature by J. Glasgow,
+  Belsare's (Ahmedabad, 1895), and Karbhari's (Ahmedabad, 1899).
+       (G. A. Gr.)
+
+
+
+
+GUJRANWALA, a town and district of British India, in the Lahore division
+of the Punjab. The town is situated 40 m. N. of Lahore by rail. It is of
+modern growth, and owes its importance to the father and grandfather of
+Maharaja Ranjit Singh, whose capital it formed during the early period
+of the Sikh power. Pop. (1901) 29,224. There are manufactures of
+brass-ware, jewellery, and silk and cotton scarves.
+
+The DISTRICT comprises an area of 3198 sq. m. In 1901 the population was
+756,797, showing an increase of 29% in the decade. The district is
+divided between a low alluvial tract along the rivers Chenab and Degh
+and the upland between them, which forms the central portion of the
+Rechna Doab, intermediate between the fertile submontane plains of
+Sialkot and the desert expanses of Jhang. Part of the upland tract has
+been brought under cultivation by the Chenab canal. The country is very
+bare of trees, and the scenery throughout is tame and in the central
+plateau becomes monotonous. It seems likely that the district once
+contained the capital of the Punjab, at an epoch when Lahore had not
+begun to exist. We learn from the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, Hsuan Tsang,
+that about the year 630 he visited a town known as Tse-kia (or Taki),
+the metropolis of the whole country of the five rivers. A mound near the
+modern village of Asarur has been identified as the site of the ancient
+capital. Until the Mahommedan invasions little is known of Gujranwala,
+except that Taki had fallen into oblivion and Lahore had become the
+chief city. Under Mahommedan rule the district flourished for a time;
+but a mysterious depopulation fell upon the tract, and the whole region
+seems to have been almost entirely abandoned. On the rise of Sikh power,
+the waste plains of Gujranwala were seized by various military
+adventurers. Charat Singh took-possession of the village of Gujranwala,
+and here his grandson the great Maharaja Ranjit Singh was born. The Sikh
+rule, which was elsewhere so disastrous, appears to have been an
+unmitigated benefit to this district. Ranjit Singh settled large
+colonies in the various villages, and encouraged cultivation throughout
+the depopulated plain. In 1847 the district came under British influence
+in connexion with the regency at Lahore; and in 1849 it was included in
+the territory annexed after the second Sikh war. A large export trade is
+carried on in cotton, wheat and other grains. The district is served by
+the main line and branches of the North-Western railway.
+
+
+
+
+GUJRAT, a town and district of British India, in the Rawalpindi division
+of the Punjab, lying on the south-western border of Kashmir. The town
+stands about 5 m. from the right bank of the river Chenab, 70 m. N. of
+Lahore by rail. Pop. (1901) 19,410. It is built upon an ancient site,
+formerly occupied, according to tradition, by two successive cities, the
+second of which is supposed to have been destroyed in 1303, the year of
+a Mongol invasion. More than 200 years later either Sher Shah or Akbar
+founded the existing town. Though standing in the midst of a Jat
+neighbourhood, the fort was first garrisoned by Gujars, and took the
+name of Gujrat. Akbar's fort, largely improved by Gujar Singh, stands in
+the centre of the town. The neighbouring shrine of the saint Shah Daula
+serves as a kind of native asylum for lunatics. The town has
+manufactures of furniture, inlaid work in gold and iron, brass-ware,
+boots, cotton goods and shawls.
+
+The DISTRICT OF GUJRAT comprises a narrow wedge of sub-Himalayan plain
+country, possessing few natural advantages. From the basin of the Chenab
+on the south the general level rises rapidly towards the interior,
+which, owing to the great distance of the water beneath the surface,
+assumes a dreary and desert aspect. A range of low hills, known as the
+Pabbi, traverses the northern angle of Gujrat. They are composed of a
+friable Tertiary sandstone and conglomerate, destitute of vegetation,
+and presenting a mere barren chaos of naked rock, deeply scored with
+precipitous ravines. Immediately below the Pabbi stretches a high
+plateau, terminating abruptly in a precipitous bluff some 200 ft. in
+height. At the foot of this plateau is a plain, which forms the actual
+valley of the Chenab and participates in the irrigation from the river
+bed.
+
+Numerous relics of antiquity stud the surface of the district. Mounds of
+ancient construction yield early coins, and bricks are found whose size
+and type prove them to belong to the prehistoric period. A mound now
+occupied by the village of Moga or Mong has been identified as the site
+of Nicaea, the city built by Alexander the Great on the field of his
+victory over Porus. The Delhi empire established its authority in this
+district under Bahlol Lodi (1451-1489). A century later it was visited
+by Akbar, who founded Gujrat as the seat of government. During the decay
+of the Mogul power, the Ghakkars of Rawalpindi overran this portion of
+the Punjab and established themselves in Gujrat about 1741. Meanwhile
+the Sikh power had been asserting itself in the eastern Punjab, and in
+1765 the Ghakkar chief was defeated by Sirdar Gujar Singh, chief of the
+Bhangi confederacy. On his death, his son succeeded him, but after a few
+months' warfare, in 1798, he submitted himself as vassal to the Maharaja
+Ranjit Singh. In 1846 Gujrat first came under the supervision of British
+officials. Two years later the district became the theatre for the
+important engagements which decided the event of the second Sikh war.
+After several bloody battles in which the British were unsuccessful, the
+Sikh power was irretrievably broken at the engagement which took place
+at Gujrat on the 22nd of February 1849. The Punjab then passed by
+annexation under British rule.
+
+The district comprises an area of 2051 sq. m. In 1901 the population was
+750,548, showing a decrease of 1%, compared with an increase of 10% in
+the previous decade. The district has a large export trade in wheat and
+other grains, oil, wool, cotton and hides. The main line and the
+Sind-Sagar branch of the North-Western railway traverse it.
+
+
+
+
+GULA, a Babylonian goddess, the consort of Ninib. She is identical with
+another goddess, known as Bau, though it would seem that the two were
+originally independent. The name Bau is more common in the oldest period
+and gives way in the post-Khammurabic age to Gula. Since it is probable
+that Ninib (q.v.) has absorbed the cults of minor sun-deities, the two
+names may represent consorts of different gods. However this may be, the
+qualities of both are alike, and the two occur as synonymous
+designations of Ninib's female consort. Other names borne by this
+goddess are Nin-Karrak, Ga-tum-dug and Nin-din-dug, the latter
+signifying "the lady who restores to life." The designation well
+emphasizes the chief trait of Bau-Gula which is that of healer. She is
+often spoken of as "the great physician," and accordingly plays a
+specially prominent role in incantations and incantation rituals
+intended to relieve those suffering from disease. She is, however, also
+invoked to curse those who trample upon the rights of rulers or those
+who do wrong with poisonous potions. As in the case of Ninib, the cult
+of Bau-Gula is prominent in Shirgulla and in Nippur. While generally in
+close association with her consort, she is also invoked by herself, and
+thus retains a larger measure of independence than most of the goddesses
+of Babylonia and Assyria. She appears in a prominent position on the
+designs accompanying the Kudurrus boundary-stone monuments of Babylonia,
+being represented by a statue, when other gods and goddesses are merely
+pictured by their shrines, by sacred animals or by weapons. In
+neo-Babylonian days her cult continues to occupy a prominent position,
+and Nebuchadrezzar II. speaks of no less than three chapels or shrines
+within the sacred precincts of E-Zida in the city of Borsippa, besides a
+temple in her honour at Babylon.     (M. Ja.)
+
+
+
+
+GULBARGA, an ancient city of India, situated in the Nizam's dominions,
+70 m. S.E. of Sholapur. Pop. (1901) 29,228. Originally a Hindu city, it
+was made the capital of the Bahmani kings when that dynasty established
+their independence in the Deccan in 1347, and it remained such until
+1422. The palaces, mosques and tombs of these kings still stand
+half-ruined. The most notable building is a mosque modelled after that
+of Cordova in Spain, covering an area of 38,000 sq. ft., which is
+almost unique in India as being entirely covered in. Since the opening
+of a station on the Great India Peninsula railway, Gulbarga has become a
+centre of trade, with cotton-spinning and weaving mills. It is also the
+headquarters of a district and division of the same name. The district,
+as recently reconstituted, has an area of 6004 sq. m.; pop. (1901),
+1,041,067.
+
+
+
+
+GULF STREAM,[1] the name properly applied to the stream current which
+issues from the Gulf of Mexico and flows north-eastward, following the
+eastern coast of North America, and separated from it by a narrow strip
+of cold water (the _Cold Wall_), to a point east of the Grand Banks off
+Newfoundland. The Gulf Stream is a narrow, deep current, and its
+velocity is estimated at about 80 m. a day. It is joined by, and often
+indistinguishable from, a large body of water which comes from outside
+the West Indies and follows the same course. The term was formerly
+applied to the drift current which carries the mixed waters of the Gulf
+Stream and the Labrador current eastwards across the Atlantic. This is
+now usually known as the "Gulf Stream drift," although the name is not
+altogether appropriate. See Atlantic.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The word "gulf," a portion of the sea partially enclosed by the
+    coast-line, and usually taken as referring to a tract of water larger
+    than a bay and smaller than a sea, is derived through the Fr.
+    _golfe_, from Late Gr. [Greek: kolphos], class. Gr. [Greek: kolpos],
+    bosom, hence bay, cf. Lat. sinus. In University slang, the term is
+    used of the position of those who fail to obtain a place in the
+    honours list at a public examination, but are allowed a "pass."
+
+
+
+
+GULFWEED, in botany, a popular name for the seaweed _Sargassum
+bacciferum_, one of the brown seaweeds (Phaeophyceae), large quantities
+of which are found floating in the Gulf of Mexico, whence it is carried
+northwards by the Gulf Stream, small portions sometimes being borne as
+far as the coasts of the British Isles. It was observed by Columbus, and
+is remarkable among seaweeds for its form, which resembles branches
+bearing leaves and berries; the latter, to which the species-name
+_bacciferum_ refers, are hollow floats answering the same purpose as the
+bladders in another brown seaweed, _Fucus vesiculosus_, which is common
+round the British Isles between high and low water.
+
+
+
+
+GULL, SIR WILLIAM WITHEY, 1st Bart. (1816-1890), English physician, was
+the youngest son of John Gull, a barge-owner and wharfinger of
+Thorpe-le-Soken, Essex, and was born on the 31st of December 1816 at
+Colchester. He began life as a schoolmaster, but in 1837 Benjamin
+Harrison, the treasurer of Guy's Hospital, who had noticed his ability,
+brought him up to London from the school at Lewes where he was usher,
+and gave him employment at the hospital, where he also gained permission
+to attend the lectures. In 1843 he was made a lecturer in the medical
+school of the hospital, in 1851 he was chosen an assistant physician,
+and in 1856 he became full physician. In 1847 he was elected Fullerian
+professor of physiology in the Royal Institution, retaining the post for
+the usual three years, and in 1848 he delivered the Gulstonian Lectures
+at the College of Physicians, where he filled every office of honour but
+that of president. He died in London on the 29th of January 1890 after a
+series of paralytic strokes, the first of which had occurred nearly
+three years previously. He was created a baronet in 1872, in recognition
+of the skill and care he had shown in attending the prince of Wales
+during his attack of typhoid in 1871. Sir William Gull's fame rested
+mainly on his success as a clinical practitioner; as he said himself, he
+was "a clinical physician or nothing." This success must be largely
+ascribed to his remarkable powers of observation, and to the great
+opportunities he enjoyed for gaining experience of disease. He was
+sometimes accused of being a disbeliever in drugs. That was not the
+case, for he prescribed drugs like other physicians when he considered
+them likely to be beneficial. He felt, however, that their
+administration was only a part of the physician's duties, and his mental
+honesty and outspokenness prevented him from deluding either himself or
+his patients with unwarranted notions of what they can do. But though he
+regarded medicine as primarily an art for the relief of physical
+suffering, he was far from disregarding the scientific side of his
+profession, and he made some real contributions to medical science. His
+papers were printed chiefly in _Guy's Hospital Reports_ and in the
+proceedings of learned societies: among the subjects he wrote about were
+cholera, rheumatic fever, taenia, paraplegia and abscess of the brain,
+while he distinguished for the first time (1873) the disease now known
+as myxoedema, describing it as a "cretinoid state in adults."
+
+
+
+
+GULL (Welsh _gwylan_, Breton, _goelann_, whence Fr. _goeland_), the name
+commonly adopted, to the almost entire exclusion of the O. Eng. MEW
+(Icel. _mafur_, Dan. _maage_, Swedish _mase_, Ger. _Meve_, Dutch
+_meeuw_, Fr. _mouette_), for a group of sea-birds widely and commonly
+known, all belonging to the genus _Larus_ of Linnaeus, which subsequent
+systematists have broken up in a very arbitrary and often absurd
+fashion. The family _Laridae_ is composed of two chief groups, _Larinae_
+and _Sterninae_--the gulls and the terns, though two other subfamilies
+are frequently counted, the skuas (_Stercorariinae_), and that formed by
+the single genus _Rhynchops_, the skimmers; but there seems no strong
+reason why the former should not be referred to the _Larinae_ and the
+latter to the _Sterninae_.
+
+Taking the gulls in their restricted sense, Howard Saunders, who has
+subjected the group to a rigorous revision (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1878,
+pp. 155-211), admits forty-nine species of them, which he places in five
+genera instead of the many which some prior investigators had sought to
+establish. Of the genera recognized by him, _Pagophila_ and
+_Rhodostethia_ have but one species each, _Rissa_ and _Xema_ two, while
+the rest belong to _Larus_. The _Pagophila_ is the so-called ivory-gull,
+_P. eburnea_, names which hardly do justice to the extreme whiteness of
+its plumage, to which its jet-black legs offer a strong contrast. The
+young, however, are spotted with black. An inhabitant of the most
+northern seas, examples, most commonly young birds of the year, find
+their way in winter to more temperate shores. Its breeding-place has
+seldom been discovered, and the first of its eggs ever seen by
+ornithologists was brought home by Sir L. M'Clintock in 1853 from Cape
+Krabbe (_Journ. R. Dubl. Society_, i. 60, pl. 1); others were
+subsequently obtained by Dr Malmgren in Spitsbergen. Of the species of
+_Rissa_, one is the abundant and well-known kittiwake, _R. tridactyla_,
+of circumpolar range, breeding, however, also in comparatively low
+latitudes, as on the coasts of Britain, and in winter frequenting
+southern waters. The other is _R. brevirostris_, limited to the North
+Pacific, between Alaska and Kamchatka. The singular fact requires to be
+noticed that in both these species the hind toe is generally deficient,
+but that examples of each are occasionally found in which this
+functionless member has not wholly disappeared. We have then the genus
+_Larus_, which ornithologists have attempted most unsuccessfully to
+subdivide. It contains the largest as well as the smallest of gulls. In
+some species the adults assume a dark-coloured head every
+breeding-season, in others any trace of dark colour is the mark of
+immaturity. The larger species prey fiercely on other kinds of birds,
+while the smaller content themselves with a diet of small animals, often
+insects and worms. But however diverse be the appearance, structure or
+habits of the extremities of the series of species, they are so closely
+connected by intermediate forms that it is hard to find a gap between
+them that would justify a generic division. Forty-three species of this
+genus are recognized by Saunders. About fifteen belong to Europe and
+fourteen to North America, of which (excluding stragglers) some five
+only are common to both countries. Our knowledge of the geographical
+distribution of several of them is still incomplete. Some have a very
+wide range, others very much the reverse, as witness _L. fuliginosus_,
+believed to be confined to the Galapagos, and _L. scopulinus_ and _L.
+bulleri_ to New Zealand,--the last indeed perhaps only to the South
+Island. The largest species of the group are the glaucous gull and
+greater black-backed gull, _L. glaucus_ and _L. marinus_, of which the
+former is circumpolar, and the latter nearly so--not being hitherto
+found between Labrador and Japan. The smallest species is the European
+_L. minutus_, though the North American _L. Philadelphia_ does not much
+exceed it in size. Many of the gulls congregate in vast numbers to
+breed, whether on rocky cliffs of the sea-coast or on healthy islands
+in inland waters. Some of the settlements of the black-headed or
+"peewit" gull, _L. ridibundus_, are a source of no small profit to their
+proprietors,--the eggs, which are rightly accounted a great delicacy,
+being taken on an orderly system up to a certain day, and the birds
+carefully protected. Ross's or the roseate gull, _Rhodostethia rosea_,
+forms a well-marked genus, distinguished not so much by the pink tint of
+its plumage (for that is found in other species) but by its small
+dove-like bill and wedge-shaped tail. It is an exceedingly scarce bird,
+and beyond its having an Arctic habitat, little has yet been ascertained
+about it. More rare still is one of the species of _Xema_, _X.
+furcatum_, of which only two specimens, both believed to have come from
+the Galapagos, have been seen. Its smaller congener Sabine's gull, _X.
+sabinii_, is more common, and has been found breeding both in Arctic
+America and in Siberia, and several examples, chiefly immature birds,
+have been obtained in the British islands. Both species of _Xema_ are
+readily distinguished from all other gulls by their forked tails.
+     (A. N.)
+
+
+
+
+GULLY, JOHN (1783-1863), English sportsman and politician, was born at
+Wick, near Bath, on the 21st of August 1783, the son of an innkeeper. He
+came into prominence as a boxer, and in 1805 he was matched against
+Henry Pearce, the "Game Chicken," before the duke of Clarence
+(afterwards William IV.) and numerous other spectators, and after
+fighting sixty-four rounds, which occupied an hour and seventeen
+minutes, was beaten. In 1807 he twice fought Bob Gregson, the Lancashire
+giant, for two hundred guineas a side, winning on both occasions. As the
+landlord of the "Plough" tavern in Carey Street, London, be retired from
+the ring in 1808, and took to horse-racing. In 1827 he lost L40,000 by
+backing his horse "Mameluke" (for which he had paid four thousand
+guineas) for the St Leger. In partnership with Robert Ridskale, in 1832,
+he made L85,000 by winning the Derby and St Leger with "St Giles" and
+"Margrave." In partnership with John Day he won the Two Thousand Guineas
+with "Ugly Buck" in 1844, and two years later he took the Derby and the
+Oaks with "Pyrrhus the First" and "Mendicant," in 1854 the Two Thousand
+Guineas with "Hermit," and in the same year, in partnership with Henry
+Padwick, the Derby with "Andover." Having bought Ackworth Park near
+Pontefract he was M.P. from December 1832 to July 1837. In 1862 he
+purchased the Wingate Grange estate and collieries. Gully was twice
+married and had twelve children by each wife. He died at Durham on the
+9th of March 1863. He appears to have been no relation of the subsequent
+Speaker, Lord Selby.
+
+
+
+
+GULPAIGAN (_Jerbadegan_ of the Arab geographers), a district and city in
+Central Persia, situated N.W. of Isfahan and S.E. of Irak. Together with
+Khunsar it forms a small province, paying a yearly revenue of about
+L6000. The city of Gulpaigan is situated 87 m. N.W. of Isfahan, at an
+elevation of 5875 ft. in 33 deg. 24' N. and 50 deg. 20' E., and has a
+population of about 5000. The district is fertile and produces much
+grain and some opium. Sometimes it is under the governor-general of the
+Isfahan province, at others it forms part of the province of Irak, and
+at times, as in 1906, is under a governor appointed from Teheran.
+
+
+
+
+GUM (Fr. _gomme_, Lat. _gommi_, Gr. [Greek: kommi], possibly a Coptic
+word; distinguish "gum," the fleshy covering of the base of a tooth, in
+O. Eng. _goma_, palate, cf. Ger. _Gaumen_, roof of the mouth; the
+ultimate origin is probably the root _gha_, to open wide, seen in Gr.
+[Greek: chainein], to gape, cf. "yawn"), the generic name given to a
+group of amorphous carbo-hydrates of the general formula (C6H10O5)_n,
+which exist in the juices of almost all plants, and also occur as
+exudations from stems, branches and fruits of plants. They are entirely
+soluble or soften in water, and form with it a thick glutinous liquid or
+mucilage. They yield mucic and oxalic acids when treated with nitric
+acid. In structure the gums are quite amorphous, being neither organized
+like starch nor crystallized like sugar. They are odourless and
+tasteless, and some yield clear aqueous solutions--the real gums--while
+others swell up and will not percolate filter paper--the vegetable
+mucilages. The acacias and the Rosaceae yield their gums most abundantly
+when sickly and in an abnormal state, caused by a fulness of sap in the
+young tissues, whereby the new cells are softened and finally
+disorganized; the cavities thus formed fill with liquid, which exudes,
+dries and constitutes the gum.
+
+_Gum arabic_ may be taken as the type of the gums entirely soluble in
+water. Another variety, obtained from the _Prosopis dulcis_, a
+leguminous plant, is called gum mesquite or mezquite; it comes from
+western Texas and Mexico, and is yellowish in colour, very brittle and
+quite soluble in water.
+
+  Gum arabic occurs in pieces of varying size, and some kinds are full
+  of minute cracks. The specific gravity of Turkey picked gum (the
+  purest variety) is 1.487, or, when dried at 100 deg. C., 1.525. It is
+  soluble in water to an indefinite extent; boiled with dilute sulphuric
+  acid it is converted into the sugar galactose. Moderately strong
+  nitric acid changes it into mucic, saccharic, tartaric and oxalic
+  acids. Under the influence of yeast it does not enter into the
+  alcoholic fermentation, but M. P. E. Berthelot, by digesting with
+  chalk and cheese, obtained from it 12% of its weight of alcohol, along
+  with calcium lactate, but no appreciable quantity of sugar. Gum arabic
+  may be regarded as a potassium and calcium salt of gummic or arabic
+  acid. T. Graham (_Chemical and Physical Researches_) recommended
+  dialysis as the best mode of preparing gummic acid, and stated that
+  the power of gum to penetrate the parchment septum is 400 times less
+  than that of sodium chloride, and, further, that by mixing the gum
+  with substances of the crystalloid class the diffusibility is lowered,
+  and may be even reduced to nothing. The mucilage must be acidulated
+  with hydrochloric acid before dialysing, to set free the gummic acid.
+  By adding alcohol to the solution, the acid is precipitated as a white
+  amorphous mass, which becomes glassy at 100 deg. Its formula is
+  (C6H10O5)2H2O, and it forms compounds with nearly all bases which are
+  easily soluble in water. Gummic acid reddens litmus, its reaction
+  being about equal to carbonic acid. When solutions of gum arabic and
+  gelatin are mixed, oily drops of a compound of the two are
+  precipitated, which on standing form a nearly colourless jelly,
+  melting at 25 deg. C., or by the heat of the hand. This substance can
+  be washed without decomposition. Gummic acid is soluble in water; when
+  well dried at 100 deg. C., it becomes transformed into metagummic
+  acid, which is insoluble, but swells up in water like gum tragacanth.
+
+  Gum arabic, when heated to 150 deg. C. with two parts of acetic
+  anhydride, swells up to a mass which, when washed with boiling water,
+  and then with alcohol, gives a white amorphous insoluble powder called
+  acetyl arabin C6H8(C2H3O)2O5. It is saponified by alkalies, with
+  reproduction of soluble gum. Gum arabic is not precipitated from
+  solution by alum, stannous chloride, sulphate or nitrate of copper, or
+  neutral lead acetate; with basic lead acetate it forms a white jelly,
+  with ferric chloride it yields a stiff clear gelatinoid mass, and its
+  solutions are also precipitated by borax.
+
+The finer varieties are used as an emollient and demulcent in medicine,
+and in the manufacture of confectionery; the commoner qualities are used
+as an adhesive paste, for giving lustre to crape, silk, &c., in cloth
+finishing to stiffen the fibres, and in calico-printing. For labels,
+&c., it is usual to mix sugar or glycerin with it to prevent it from
+cracking.
+
+Gum senegal, a variety of gum arabic produced by _Acacia Verek_, occurs
+in pieces generally rounded, of the size of a pigeon's egg, and of a
+reddish or yellow colour, and specific gravity 1.436. It gives with
+water a somewhat stronger mucilage than gum arabic, from which it is
+distinguished by its clear interior, fewer cracks and greater toughness.
+It is imported from the river Gambia, and from Senegal and Bathurst.
+
+Chagual gum, a variety brought from Santiago, Chile, resembles gum
+senegal. About 75% is soluble in water. Its solution is not thickened by
+borax, and is precipitated by neutral lead acetate; and dilute sulphuric
+acid converts it into _d_-glucose.
+
+_Gum tragacanth_, familiarly called gum dragon, exudes from the stem,
+the lower part especially, of the various species of _Astragalus_,
+especially _A. gummifer_, and is collected in Asia Minor, the chief port
+of shipment being Smyrna. Formerly only what exuded spontaneously was
+gathered; this was often of a brownish colour; but now the flow of the
+gum is aided by incisions cut near the root, and the product is the
+fine, white, flaky variety so much valued in commerce. The chief flow of
+gum takes place during the night, and hot and dry weather is the most
+favourable for its production.
+
+  In colour gum tragacanth is of a dull white; it occurs in horny,
+  flexible and tough, thin, twisted flakes, translucent, and with
+  peculiar wavy lines on the surface. When dried at temperatures under
+  100 deg. C. it loses about 14% of water, and is then easily powdered.
+  Its specific gravity is 1.384. With water it swells by absorption, and
+  with even fifty times its weight of that liquid forms a thick
+  mucilage. Part of it only is soluble in water, and that resembles
+  gummic acid in being precipitated by alcohol and ammonium oxalate, but
+  differs from it in giving a precipitate with neutral lead acetate and
+  none with borax. The insoluble part of the gum is a calcium salt of
+  bassorin (C12H20O10), which is devoid of taste and smell, forms a
+  gelatinoid mass with water, but by continued boiling is rendered
+  soluble.
+
+Gum tragacanth is used in calico-printing as a thickener of colours and
+mordants; in medicine as a demulcent and vehicle for insoluble powders,
+and as an excipient in pills; and for setting and mending beetles and
+other insect specimens. It is medicinally superior to gum acacia, as it
+does not undergo acetous fermentation. The best pharmacopeial
+preparation is the _Mucilago Tragacanthae_. The compound powder is a
+useless preparation, as the starch it contains is very liable to
+ferment.
+
+Gum kuteera resembles in appearance gum tragacanth, for which the
+attempt has occasionally been made to substitute it. It is said to be
+the product of _Sterculia urens_, a plant of the natural order
+Sterculiaceae.
+
+_Cherry tree gum_ is an exudation from trees of the genera _Prunus_ and
+_Cerasus_. It occurs in shiny reddish lumps, resembling the commoner
+kinds of gum arabic. With water, in which it is only partially soluble,
+it forms a thick mucilage. Sulphuric acid converts it into l-arabinose;
+and nitric acid oxidizes it to oxalic acid (without the intermediate
+formation of mucic acid as in the case of gum arabic).
+
+_Gum of Bassora_, from Bassora or Bussorah in Asia, is sometimes
+imported into the London market under the name of the hog tragacanth. It
+is insipid, crackles between the teeth, occurs in variable-sized pieces,
+is tough, of a yellowish-white colour, and opaque, and has properties
+similar to gum tragacanth. Its specific gravity is 1.36. It contains
+only 1% of soluble gum or arabin. Under the name of Caramania gum it is
+mixed with inferior kinds of gum tragacanth before exportation.
+
+_Mucilage._--Very many seeds, roots, &c., when infused in boiling water,
+yield mucilages which, for the most part, consist of bassorin. Linseed,
+quince seed and marshmallow root yield it in large quantity. In their
+reactions the different kinds of mucilage present differences; e.g.
+quince seed yields only oxalic acid when treated with nitric acid, and
+with a solution of iodine in zinc iodide it gives, after some time, a
+beautiful red tint. Linseed does not give the latter reaction; by
+treatment with boiling nitric acid it yields mucic and oxalic acids.
+
+  _Gum Resins._--This term is applied to the inspissated milky juices of
+  certain plants, which consist of gum soluble in water, resin and
+  essential oil soluble in alcohol, other vegetable matter and a small
+  amount of mineral matter. They are generally opaque and solid, and
+  often brittle. When finely powdered and rubbed down with water they
+  form emulsions, the undissolved resin being suspended in the gum
+  solution. Their chief uses are in medicine. Examples are ammoniacum,
+  asafetida, bdellium, euphorbium, gamboge, myrrh, sagapanum and
+  scammony.
+
+
+
+
+GUMBEL, KARL WILHELM VON, BARON (1823-1898), German geologist, was born
+at Dannenfels, in the Palatinate of the Rhine, on the 11th of February
+1823, and is known chiefly by his researches on the geology of Bavaria.
+He received a practical and scientific education in mining at Munich and
+Heidelberg, taking the degree of Ph.D. at Munich in 1862; and he was
+engaged for a time at the colliery of St Ingbert and as a surveyor in
+that district. In 1851, when the Geological Survey of Bavaria was
+instituted, Gumbel was appointed chief geologist; in 1863 he was made
+honorary professor of geognosy and surveying at the university of
+Munich, and in 1879, Oberberg director of the Bavarian mining department
+with which the Geological Survey was incorporated. His geological map of
+Bavaria appeared in 1858, and the official memoir descriptive of the
+detailed work, entitled _Geognostische Beschreibung des Konigreichs
+Bayern_ was issued in three parts (1861, 1868 and 1879). He subsequently
+published his _Geologie von Bayern_ in 2 vols. (1884-1894), an elaborate
+treatise on geology, with special reference to the geology of Bavaria.
+In the course of his long and active career he engaged in much
+palaeontological work: he studied the fauna of the Trias, and in 1861
+introduced the term Rhaetic for the uppermost division of that system;
+he supported at first the view of the organic nature of _Eozoon_ (1866
+and 1876), he devoted special attention to Foraminifera, and described
+those of the Eocene strata of the northern Alps (1868); he dealt also
+with Receptaculites (1875) which he regarded as a genus belonging to the
+Foraminifera. He died on the 18th of June 1898.
+
+
+
+
+GUMBINNEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of East Prussia,
+on the Pissa, an affluent of the Pregel, 22 m. by rail S.W. of
+Eydtkuhnen on the line to Konigsberg. Pop. (1905), 14,194. The
+surrounding country is pleasant and fruitful, and the town has spacious
+and regular streets shaded by linden trees. It has a Roman Catholic and
+three Evangelical churches, a synagogue, a gymnasium, two public
+schools, a public library, a hospital and an infirmary. In the market
+square there is a statue of the king of Prussia Frederick William I.,
+who in 1724 raised Gumbinnen to the rank of a town, and in 1732 brought
+to it a number of persons who had been driven from Salzburg by religious
+persecution. On the bridge over the Pissa a monument has been erected to
+the soldiers from the neighbourhood who fell in the Franco-German war of
+1870-71. Iron founding and the manufacture of machinery, wool, cotton,
+and linen weaving, stocking-making, tanning, brewing and distilling are
+the principal industries. There are horse and cattle markets, and some
+trade in corn and linseed.
+
+  See J. Schneider, _Aus Gumbinnens Vergangenheit_ (Gumbinnen, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+GUMBO, or OKRA, termed also _Okro, Ochro, Ketmia, Gubbo_ and Syrian
+mallow (Sans. _Tindisa_, Bengali _Dheras_, Pers. _Bamiyah_--the _Bammia_
+of Prosper Alpinus; Fr. _Gombaut_, or better _Gombo_, and _Ketmie
+comestible_), _Hibiscus esculentus_, a herbaceous hairy annual plant of
+the natural order _Malvaceae_, probably of African origin, and now
+naturalized or cultivated in all tropical countries. The leaves are
+cordate, and 3 to 5-lobed, and the flowers yellow, with a crimson
+centre; the fruit or pod, the _Bendi-Kai_ of the Europeans of southern
+India, is a tapering, 10-angled capsule, 4 to 10 in. in length, except
+in the dwarf varieties of the plant, and contains numerous oval
+dark-coloured seeds, hairy at the base. Three distinct varieties of the
+gumbo (_Quiabo_ and _Quimgombo_) in Brazil have been described by
+Pacheco. The unripe fruit is eaten either pickled or prepared like
+asparagus. It is also an ingredient in various dishes, e.g. the _gumbo_
+of the Southern United States and the _calalou_ of Jamaica; and on
+account of the large amount of mucilage it contains, it is extensively
+consumed, both fresh and in the form of the prepared powder, for the
+thickening of broths and soups. For winter use it is salted or sliced
+and dried. The fruit is grown on a very large scale in the vicinity of
+Constantinople. It was one of the esculents of Egypt in the time of
+Abul-Abbas el-Nebati, who journeyed to Alexandria in 1216 (Wustenfeld,
+_Gesch. d. arab. Arzte_, p. 118, Gott., 1840), and is still cultivated
+by the Egyptians, who called it _Bammge_.
+
+The seeds of the gumbo are used as a substitute for coffee. From their
+demulcent and emollient properties, the leaves and immature fruit have
+long been in repute in the East for the preparation of poultices and
+fomentations. Alpinus (1592) mentions the employment of their decoction
+in Egypt in ophthalmia and in uterine and other complaints.
+
+  The musk okra (Sans., _Latakasturika_, cf. the Gr. [Greek: kastor];
+  Bengali, _Latakasturi_; Ger. _Bisamkornerstrauch_; Fr. _Ketmie
+  musquee_), _Hibiscus Abelmoschus_ (_Abelmoschus moschatus_),
+  indigenous to India, and cultivated in most warm regions of the globe,
+  is a suffruticose plant, bearing a conical 5-ridged pod about 3 in. in
+  length, within which are numerous brown reniform seeds, smaller than
+  those of _H. esculentus._ The seeds possess a musky odour, due to an
+  oleo-resin present in the integument, and are known to perfumers under
+  the name of _ambrette_ as a substitute for musk. They are said to be
+  used by the Arabs for scenting coffee. The seeds (in the Fantee
+  language, _Incromahom_) are used in Africa as beads; and powdered and
+  steeped in rum they are valued in the West Indies as a remedy for
+  snakebites. The plant yields an excellent fibre, and, being rich in
+  mucilage, is employed in Upper India for the clarifying of sugar. The
+  best-perfumed seeds are reported to come from Martinique.
+
+  See P. Alpinus, _De plantis Aegypti_, cap. xxvii. p. 38 (Venice,
+  1592); J. Sontheimer's _Abd Allah ibn Ahmad_, &c., i. 118 (Stuttgart,
+  1840-1842); P. P. Pacheco, "La Ketmie potagere ou comestible," _La
+  Belgique horticole_, iv. 63 (1853); Della Sudda, "De l'emploi a
+  Constantinople de la racine de l'Hibiscus esculentus," _Repert. de
+  pharm._, January 1860, p. 229; E. J. Waring, _Pharm. of India_, p. 35
+  (1868); O. Popp, "Uber die Aschenbestandteile der Samen von Acacia
+  nilotica und Hibiscus esculentus in Agypten," _Arch. der Pharm._ cxcv.
+  p. 140 (1871); Drury, _The Useful Plants of India_, pp. 1, 2 (2nd ed.,
+  1873); U. C. Dutt, _The Mat. Med. of the Hindus_, pp. 123, 321 (1877);
+  Lanessan, _Hist. des drogues_, i. 181-184 (1878); G. Watt, _Dictionary
+  of the Economic Products of India_ (1890).
+
+
+
+
+GUMTI, a river of northern India. It rises in a depression in the
+Pilibhit district of the United Provinces, and after a sinuous but
+generally south-easterly course of 500 m. past Lucknow and Jaunpur joins
+the Ganges in Ghazipar district. At Jaunpur it is a fine stream, spanned
+by a 16th-century bridge of sixteen arches, and is navigable by vessels
+of 17 tons burden. There is also a small river of the same name in the
+Tippera district of eastern Bengal and Assam.
+
+
+
+
+GUMULJINA, or GUMURDJINA, a town of European Turkey, in the vilayet of
+Adrianople. Pop. (1905), about 8000, of whom three-fourths are Turks and
+the remainder Greeks, Jews or Armenians. Gumuljina is situated on the
+river Karaja-Su, south of the eastern extremity of the Rhodope range of
+mountains and 13 m. inland from the Aegean Sea. It has a station on the
+railway between Salonica and Dedeagatch. The district produces wheat,
+maize, barley and tobacco; sericulture and viticulture are both
+practised on a limited scale. A cattle fair is held annually on Greek
+Palm Sunday. Copper and antimony are found in the neighbourhood.
+
+
+
+
+GUMUS, or GUMZ, Negroes of the Shangalla group of tribes, dwelling in
+the mountainous district of Fazogli on the Sudan-Abyssinian frontier.
+They live in independent groups, some being mountaineers while others
+are settled on the banks of the Blue Nile. Gumz in the native tongue
+signifies "people," and the sub-tribes have distinctive names. The Gumus
+are nature-worshippers, God and the sun being synonymous. On ceremonial
+occasions they carry parasols of honour (see SHANGALLA).
+
+
+
+
+GUMUSH-KHANEH, the chief town of a sanjak of the same name in the
+Trebizond vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, situated on high ground (4400 ft.)
+in the valley of the Kharshut Su, about 1/2 m. to south of the
+Trebizond-Erzerum _chaussee_. The silver mines from which the place
+takes its name were noted in ancient times and are mentioned by Marco
+Polo. Pop. about 3000, chiefly Greeks, who are in the habit of
+emigrating to great distances to work in mines. They practically supply
+the whole lead and silver-mining labour in Asiatic Turkey, and in
+consequence the Greek bishop of Gumush-Khaneh has under his jurisdiction
+all the communities engaged in this particular class of mines.
+
+
+
+
+GUN, a general term for a weapon, tubular in form, from which a
+projectile is discharged by means of an explosive. When applied to
+artillery the word is confined to those pieces of ordnance which have a
+direct as opposed to a high-angle fire, in which case the terms
+"howitzer" and "mortar" are used (see ORDNANCE and MACHINE-GUN). "Gun"
+as applied to firearms which are carried in the hand and fired from the
+shoulder, the old "hand gun," is now chiefly used of the sporting
+shot-gun, with which this article mainly deals; in military usage this
+type of weapon, whether rifle, carbine, &c., is known collectively as
+"small arms" (see RIFLE and PISTOL). The origin of the word, which in
+Mid. Eng. is _gonne_ or _gunne_, is obscure, but it has been suggested
+by Professor W. W. Skeat that it conceals a female name, _Gunnilde_ or
+_Gunhilda_. The names, e.g. Mons Meg at Edinburgh Castle and _faule
+Grete_ (heavy Peg), known to readers of Carlyle's _Frederick the Great_,
+will be familiar parallelisms. "Gunne" would be a shortened "pet name"
+of Gunnhilde. The _New English Dictionary_ finds support for the
+suggestion in the fact that in Old Norwegian _gunne_ and _hilde_ both
+mean "war," and quotes an inventory of war material at Windsor Castle in
+1330-1331, where is mentioned "una magna balista de cornu quae vocatur
+Domina Gunilda." Another suggestion for the origin of the word is that
+the word represents a shortened form, _gonne_, of a supposed French
+_mangonne_, a mangonel, but the French word is _mangonneau_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Hand Gun.]
+
+Firearms are said to have been first used in European warfare in the
+14th century. The hand gun (see fig. 1) came into practical use in 1446
+and was of very rude construction. It consisted of a simple iron or
+brass tube with a touch-hole at the top fixed in a straight stock of
+wood, the end of which passed under the right armpit when the "gonne"
+was about to be fired. A similar weapon (see fig. 2) was also used by
+the horse-soldier, with a ring at the end of the stock, by which it was
+suspended by a cord round the neck; a forked rest, fitted by a ring to
+the saddlebow, served to steady the gun. This rest, when not in use,
+hung down in front of the right leg. A match was made of cotton or hemp
+spun slack, and boiled in a strong solution of saltpetre or in the lees
+of wine. The touch-hole was first placed on the top of the barrel, but
+afterwards at the side, with a small pan underneath to hold the priming,
+and guarded by a cover moving on a pivot.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Mounted Man with Hand Gun.]
+
+[Illustration: From General Hardy de Perini's _Turenne et Conde
+1626-1675_.
+
+FIG. 3.--Musketeer, 1626.]
+
+An improvement in firearms took place in the first year of the reign of
+Henry VII., or at the close of Edward IV., by fixing a cock (Fr.
+_serpentine_) on the hand gun to hold the match, which was brought down
+to the priming by a trigger, whence the term matchlock. This weapon is
+still in use among the Chinese, Tatars, Sikhs, Persians and Turks. An
+improvement in the stock was also made during this period by forming it
+with a wide butt end to be placed against the right breast. Subsequently
+the stock was bent, a German invention, and the arm was called a
+hackbutt or hagbut, and the smaller variety a demihague. The arquebus
+and hackbutt were about a yard in length, including barrel and stock,
+and the demihague was about half the size and weight, the forerunner of
+the pistol. The arquebus was the standard infantry firearm in Europe
+from the battle of Pavia to the introduction of the heavier and more
+powerful musket. It did not as a rule require a rest, as did the musket.
+The wheel-lock, an improvement on the matchlock, was invented in
+Nuremberg in 1517; was first used at the siege of Parma in 1521; was
+brought to England in 1530, and continued in partial use there until the
+time of Charles II. This wheel-lock consisted of a fluted or grooved
+steel wheel which protruded into the priming pan, and was connected with
+a strong spring. The cock, also regulated by a spring, was fitted with a
+piece of iron pyrites. In order to discharge the gun the lock was wound
+up by a key, the cock was let down on the priming pan, the pyrites
+resting on the wheel; on the trigger being pressed the wheel was
+released and rapidly revolved, emitting sparks, which ignited the powder
+in the pan. The complicated and expensive nature of this lock, with its
+liability to injury, no doubt prevented its general adoption.
+
+[Illustration: From General Hardy de Perini's _Turenne et Conde,
+1626-1675_.
+
+FIGS. 4 and 5.--Musketeers, 1675.]
+
+About 1540 the Spaniards constructed a larger and heavier firearm
+(matchlock), carrying a ball of 10 to the pound, called a musket. This
+weapon was introduced into England before the middle of the 16th
+century, and soon came into general use throughout Europe. The snaphance
+was invented about this period in Germany, and from its comparative
+cheapness was much used in England, France and Holland. It held a flint
+instead of the pyrites of the wheel or firelock, which ignited the
+powder in the pan by striking on a piece of furrowed steel, when
+released by the trigger, and emitting sparks.
+
+As a sporting weapon the gun may be said to date from the invention of
+the wheel-lock in the beginning of the 16th century, though firearms
+were used for sporting purposes in Italy, Spain, Germany, and to some
+extent in France, in the 15th century. Before that period the longbow in
+England and the crossbow on the Continent were the usual weapons of the
+chase. In Great Britain little use appears to have been made of firearms
+for game shooting until the latter half of the 17th century, and the
+arms then used for the purpose were entirely of foreign make.
+
+The French gunmakers of St-Etienne claim for their town that it is the
+oldest centre of the firearms industry. They do not appear to have made
+more than the barrels of the finest sporting arms, and these even were
+sometimes made in Paris. The production of firearms by the artists of
+Paris reached its zenith about the middle of the 17th century. The
+Italian, German, Spanish and Russian gunsmiths also showed great skill
+in the elegance and design of their firearms, the Spaniards in
+particular being makers of fine barrels. The pistol (q.v.) is understood
+to have been made for the first time about 1540 at Pistoia in Italy.
+About 1635 the modern firelock or flint-lock was invented, which only
+differed from the snaphance by the cover of the pan forming part of the
+furrowed steel struck by the flint. Originally the priming was put into
+the pan from a flask containing a fine-grained powder called serpentine
+powder. Later the top of the cartridge was bitten off and the pan filled
+therefrom before loading. The mechanism of the flint-lock musket
+rendered all this unnecessary, as, in loading, a portion of the charge
+passed through the vent into the pan, where it was held by the cover or
+hammer. The matchlock, as a military weapon, gradually gave way to the
+firelock, which came into general use in the last half of the 17th
+century, and was the weapon of Marlborough's and Wellington's armies.
+This was the famous "Brown Bess" of the British army. The highest
+development of the flint-lock is found in the fowling-pieces of the end
+of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, particularly those made
+by Joseph Manton, the celebrated English gunsmith and inventor. The
+Napoleonic wars afforded English gunmakers an opportunity, which they
+fully utilized, of gaining the supremacy over their foreign competitors
+in the gunmaking trade. English gunmakers reduced the weight, improved
+the shooting powers, and perfected the lock mechanism of the sporting
+gun, and increased the range and efficiency of the rifle. This
+transference of the gunmaking craft from the Continent to England was
+also assisted by the tyranny of the foreign gunmaking gilds. In 1637 the
+London gunmakers obtained their charter of incorporation. The important
+gunmaking industry of Birmingham dates from 1603, and soon rivalled that
+of London. Double shot-guns do not appear to have been generally used
+until the 19th century. The first successful double guns were built with
+the barrels over and under, and not side by side, and were invented
+about 1616 by one Guilliano Bossi of Rome. In 1784 double shot guns were
+described as a novelty. Joseph Manton patented the elevated rib which
+rested on the barrels. The general success of the double gun was
+eventually due to the light weight which the better material and
+workmanship of the best gunmakers made possible, and to the quickness
+and certainty of ignition of the modern cartridge.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Moorish Flint-lock.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Indian Matchlock.]
+
+The objections to the flint-lock were that it did not entirely preserve
+the priming from wet, and that the flint sparks sometimes failed to
+ignite the charge. In 1807 the Rev. Alexander John Forsyth obtained a
+patent for priming with a fulminating powder made of chlorate of potash,
+sulphur and charcoal, which exploded by concussion. This important
+improvement in firearms was not recognized and adopted by the military
+authorities until more than thirty years later. In the meantime it was
+gradually developed, and the copper percussion cap invented, by various
+gunmakers and private individuals. Thomas Shaw of Philadelphia first
+used fulminate in a steel cap in 1814, which he changed to a copper cap
+in 1816. It was not until the introduction of the copper cap that the
+percussion gun could be considered in every way superior to the flint.
+In 1834, in the reign of William IV., Forsyth's invention was tested at
+Woolwich by firing 6000 rounds from six flint-lock muskets, and a
+similar number from six percussion muskets, in all weathers. This trial
+established the percussion principle. The shooting was found to be more
+accurate, the recoil less, the charge of powder having been reduced from
+6 to 4-1/2 drs., the rapidity of firing greater and the number of
+miss-fires much reduced, being as 1 to 26 nearly in favour of the
+percussion system. In consequence of this successful trial the military
+flint-lock in 1839 was altered to suit the percussion principle. This
+was easily accomplished by replacing the hammer and pan by a nipple with
+a hole through its centre to the vent or touch-hole, and by replacing
+the cock which held the flint by a smaller cock or hammer with a hollow
+to fit on the nipple when released by the trigger. On the nipple was
+placed the copper cap containing the detonating composition, now made of
+three parts of chlorate of potash, two of fulminate of mercury and one
+of powdered glass.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+In 1840 the Austrian army was supplied with the percussion musket, and
+in 1842 a new model percussion musket with a block or back-sight for 150
+yds. was issued to the British army, 11 lb. 6 oz. in weight, 4 ft. 6-3/4
+in. in length without bayonet, 6 ft. with bayonet and with a barrel 3
+ft. 3 in. in length, firing a bullet of 14-1/2 to the lb. with 4-1/2
+drs. of powder. This musket was larger in bore than that of France,
+Belgium, Russia and Austria, and thus had the advantage of being able to
+fire their balls, while the English balls could not be fired from their
+barrels. But the greater weight and momentum of the English ball was
+counteracted by the excess of windage. This percussion musket of 1842,
+the latest development of the renowned Brown Bess, continued in use in
+the British army until partially superseded in 1851 by the Minie rifle,
+and altogether by the Enfield rifle in 1855. For further information as
+to the history and development of military, target and sporting rifles
+see RIFLE.
+
+  Illustrations are given herewith of a German carbine of the 16th
+  century, with double wheel-lock (fig. 8); a snaphance (fig. 9);
+  several forms of the Brown Bess or flint-lock military musket
+  (English, William III., fig. 10; George II., fig. 11; George III.,
+  fig. 12; French, Napoleon, fig. 13); and of the percussion musket
+  adopted in the British service in 1839 (fig. 14). Examples of
+  non-European firearms are shown in figs. 6 and 7, representing a
+  Moorish flint-lock and an Indian matchlock respectively. Figs. 15-18
+  represent various carbines, musketoons and blunderbusses, fig. 15
+  showing a small blunderbuss or musketoon of the early 18th century,
+  fig. 16 a large blunderbuss of 1750, fig. 17 a flint-lock cavalry
+  carbine of about 1825 and fig. 18 a percussion carbine of 1830. All
+  these are drawn from arms in the museum of the Royal United Service
+  Institution, London.
+
+_Modern Shot Guns._--The modern sporting breech-loaders may be said to
+have originated with the invention of the cartridge-case containing its
+own means of ignition. The breech-loading mechanism antedated the
+cartridge by many years, the earliest breech-loading hand guns dating
+back to 1537. Another distinct type of breech-loader was invented in
+France about the middle of the 17th century. During the 17th and 18th
+centuries breech-loading arms were very numerous and of considerable
+variety. The original cartridge, a charge of powder and bullet in a
+paper envelope, dates from 1586. These were used with muzzle-loaders,
+the base of the cartridge being ripped or bitten off by the soldier
+before placing in the barrel. It was only when the detonating cap came
+into use that the paper cartridge answered well in breech-loaders. The
+modern breech-loader has resulted from a gradual series of improvements,
+and not from any one great invention. Its essential feature is the
+prevention of all escape of gas at the breech when the gun is fired by
+means of an expansive cartridge-case containing its own means of
+ignition. The earlier breech-loaders were not gas-tight, because the
+cartridge-cases were either consumable or the load was placed in a
+strong non-expansive breech-plug. The earliest efficient modern
+cartridge-case was the pin-fire, patented by Houiller, a Paris gunsmith,
+in 1847, with a thin weak shell which expanded by the force of the
+explosion, fitted perfectly in the barrel, and thus formed an efficient
+gas check. Probably no invention connected with firearms has wrought
+such changes in the principle of gun-construction as those effected by
+the expansive cartridge-case. This invention has completely
+revolutionized the art of gunmaking, has been successfully applied to
+all descriptions of firearms, and has produced a new and important
+industry--that of cartridge manufacture.
+
+About 1836, C. Lefaucheux, a Paris gunsmith, improved the old Pauly
+system of breech-loading, but its breech action was a crude mechanism,
+with single grip worked by a bottom lever. The double grip for the
+barrels was the subsequent invention of a Birmingham gunmaker. The
+central-fire cartridge, practically as now in use, was introduced into
+England in 1861 by Daw. It is said to have been the invention of Pottet,
+of Paris, improved upon by Schneider, and gave rise to considerable
+litigation in respect of its patent rights. Daw, who controlled the
+English patents, was the only exhibitor of central-fire guns and
+cartridges at the International Exhibition of 1862. In his system the
+barrels work on a hinge joint, the bottom lever withdraws the
+holding-down bolt; the cartridge is of the modern type, the cap being
+detonated by a striker passing through the standing breech to the inner
+face. The cartridge-case is withdrawn by a sliding extractor fitted to
+the breech ends of the barrels. Daw was subsequently defeated in his
+control of the patents by Eley Bros., owing to the patent not having
+been kept in force in France. The modern breech-loading gun has been
+gradually and steadily improved since 1860. Westley Richards adopted and
+improved Matthews' top-lever mechanism. About 1866 the rebounding lock
+was introduced, and improved in 1869. The treble wedge-fast mechanism
+for holding down the barrels was originated by W. W. Greener in 1865,
+and perfected in 1873. A very important improvement was the introduction
+of the hammerless gun, in which the mechanism for firing is placed
+entirely within the gun. This was made possible by the introduction of
+the central-fire cartridge. In 1862 Daw, and in 1866 Green, introduced
+hammerless guns in which the cocking was effected by the under lever.
+These guns did not attain popularity. In 1871 T. Murcott patented a
+hammerless gun, the first to obtain distinct success. This also was a
+lever-cocking gun. About the same time Needham introduced the principle
+of utilizing the weight of the barrels to assist in cocking. In 1875
+Anson and Deeley utilized the fore-end attached to the barrels to cock
+the locks. From this date hammerless guns became really popular.
+Subsequently minor improvements were made by many other gun-makers,
+including alternative movements introduced by Purdey and Rogers.
+Improvements were also introduced by Westley Richards, Purdey and
+others, including cocking by means of the mainspring. In 1874 J. Needham
+introduced the ejector mechanism, by which each empty cartridge-case is
+separately and automatically thrown out of the gun when the breech is
+opened, the necessary force being provided by the mainspring of the
+lock. W. W. Greener and some other gunmakers have since introduced minor
+modifications and improvements of this mechanism. Next in turn came
+Perks and other inventors, who separated the ejector mechanism from the
+lock work. This very decided improvement is universal to-day. A later
+innovation in the modern breech-loader is the single trigger mechanism
+introduced by some of the leading English gun-makers, by which both
+barrels can be fired in succession by a single trigger. This improvement
+enables both barrels to be rapidly fired without altering the grip of
+the right hand, but deprives the shooter of the power of selecting his
+barrel.
+
+Repeating or magazine shot-guns on the principle of the repeating rifle,
+with a magazine below the single firing barrel, are also made by some
+American and continental gun-makers, but as yet have not come into
+general use, being comparatively cumbersome and not well balanced. The
+difficulty of a shifting balance as each cartridge is fired has also yet
+to be overcome. Several varieties of a combination rifle and shot-gun
+are also made, for a description of which see RIFLE.
+
+The chief purposes for which modern shot-guns are required are
+game-shooting, trap-shooting at pigeons and wild-fowling. The game gun
+may be any bore from 32 to 10 gauge. The usual standard bore is 12 gauge
+unless it be for a boy, when it is 20 gauge. The usual weight of the
+12-bore double-barrelled game gun is from 6 to 7 lb. with barrels 30 in.
+long, there, however, being a present tendency to barrels of a shorter
+length. These barrels are made of steel, as being a stronger and more
+homogeneous material than the barrels formerly produced, which were
+mostly of Damascus pattern, a mixture of iron and steel. Steel barrels,
+drilled from the solid block, were originally produced by Whitworth.
+To-day the makers of steel for this purpose are many. The standard
+charge for the 12-bore is 42 grains of smokeless powder and 1 oz. to
+1-1/8th oz. of shot. Powder of a lighter gravimetric density is
+occasionally employed, when the weight of the charge is reduced to 33
+grains. This charge of powder corresponds to the 3 drams of black powder
+formerly used. The ordinary game gun should have a killing circle of 30
+in. at 30 yds. with the first barrel and at 40 yds. with the second.
+Improved materials and methods of manufacture, and what is known as
+"choke" boring of the barrels, have enabled modern gun-makers to
+regulate the shooting of guns to a nicety. Choke-boring is the
+constriction of the diameter of the barrel near the muzzle, and was
+known in America in the early part of the 19th century. In 1875 Pape of
+Newcastle was awarded a prize for the invention of choke-boring, there
+being no other claimant. The methods of choke-boring have since been
+varied and improved by the leading English gun-makers. The pigeon gun is
+usually heavier than the game gun and more choked. It generally weighs
+from 7 to 8 lb. Its weight, by club rules, is frequently restricted to
+7-1/2 lb. and its bore to 12 gauge. The standard wild-fowling gun is a
+double 8-bore with 30-in. barrels weighing 15 lb. and firing a charge of
+7 drams of powder and 2-3/4 to 3 oz. of shot. These guns are also made in
+both smaller and larger varieties, including a single barrel 4-bore,
+which is the largest gun that can be used from the shoulder, and single
+barrel punt guns of 1-1/2-in. bore, weighing 100 lb. While no conspicuous
+advance in improved gun-mechanism and invention has been made during the
+last few years, the materials and methods of manufacture, and the
+quality and exactitude of the gun-maker's work, have continued gradually
+and steadily to improve. English, and particularly London-made, guns
+stand pre-eminent all over the world.     (H. S.-K.)
+
+
+
+
+GUNA, a town and military station in Central India, in the state of
+Gwalior. Pop. (1901) 11,452. After the Mutiny, it became the
+headquarters of the Central India Horse, whose commanding officer acts
+as ex-officio assistant to the resident of Gwalior; and its trade has
+developed rapidly since the opening of a station on a branch of the
+Great Indian Peninsula railway in 1899.
+
+
+
+
+GUNCOTTON, an explosive substance produced by the action of strong
+nitric acid on cellulose at the ordinary temperature; chemically it is a
+nitrate of cellulose, or a mixture of nitrates, according to some
+authorities. The first step in the history of guncotton was made by T.
+J. Pelouze in 1838, who observed that when paper or cotton was immersed
+in cold concentrated nitric acid the materials, though not altered in
+physical appearance, became heavier, and after washing and drying were
+possessed of self-explosive properties. At the time these products were
+thought to be related to the nitrated starch obtained a little
+previously by Henri Braconnot and called _xyloidin_; they are only
+related in so far as they are nitrates. C. F. Schonbein of Basel
+published his discovery of guncotton in 1846 (_Phil. Mag._ [3], 31, p.
+7), and this was shortly after followed by investigations by R. R.
+Bottger of Frankfort and Otto and Knop, all of whom added to our
+knowledge of the subject, the last-named introducing the use of
+sulphuric along with nitric acid in the nitration process. The chemical
+composition and constitution of guncotton has been studied by a
+considerable number of chemists and many divergent views have been put
+forward on the subject. W. Crum was probably the first to recognize that
+some hydrogen atoms of the cellulose had been replaced by an oxide of
+nitrogen, and this view was supported more or less by other workers,
+especially Hadow, who appears to have distinctly recognized that at
+least three compounds were present, the most violently explosive of
+which constituted the main bulk of the product commonly obtained and
+known as guncotton. This particular product was insoluble in a mixture
+of ether and alcohol, and its composition could be expressed by the term
+tri-nitrocellulose. Other products were soluble in the ether-alcohol
+mixture: they were less highly nitrated, and constituted the so-called
+collodion guncotton.
+
+The smallest empirical formula for cellulose (q.v.) may certainly be
+written C6H10O5. How much of the hydrogen and oxygen are in the
+hydroxylic (OH) form cannot be absolutely stated, but from the study of
+the acetates at least three hydroxyl groups may be assumed. The oldest
+and perhaps most reasonable idea represents guncotton as cellulose
+trinitrate, but this has been much disputed, and various formulae, some
+based on cellulose as C12H20O10, others on a still more complex
+molecule, have been proposed. The constitution of guncotton is a
+difficult matter to investigate, primarily on account of the very
+insoluble nature of cellulose itself, and also from the fact that
+comparatively slight variations in the concentration and temperature of
+the acids used produce considerable differences in the products. The
+nitrates are also very insoluble substances, all the so-called solvents
+merely converting them into jelly. No method has yet been devised by
+which the molecular weight can be ascertained.[1] The products of the
+action of nitric acid on cellulose are not nitro compounds in the sense
+that picric acid is, but are nitrates or nitric esters.
+
+Guncotton is made by immersing cleaned and dried cotton waste in a
+mixture of strong nitric and sulphuric acids. The relative amounts of
+the acids in the mixture and the time of duration of treatment of the
+cotton varies somewhat in different works, but the underlying idea is
+the same, viz. employing such an excess of sulphuric over nitric that
+the latter will be rendered anhydrous or concentrated and maintained as
+such in solution in the sulphuric acid, and that the sulphuric acid
+shall still be sufficiently strong to absorb and combine with the water
+produced during the actual formation of the guncotton. In the recent
+methods the cotton remains in contact with the acids for two to four
+hours at the ordinary air temperature (15 deg. C.), in which time it is
+almost fully nitrated, the main portion, say 90%, having a composition
+represented by the formula[2] C6H7O2(NO3)3, the remainder consisting of
+lower nitrated products, some oxidation products and traces of unchanged
+cellulose and cellulose sulphates. The acid is then slowly run out by an
+opening in the bottom of the pan in which the operation is conducted,
+and water distributed carefully over its surface displaces it in the
+interstices of the cotton, which is finally subjected to a course of
+boiling and washing with water. This washing is a most important part of
+the process. On its thoroughness depends the removal of small quantities
+of products other than the nitrates, for instance, some sulphates and
+products from impurities contained in the original cellulose. Cellulose
+sulphates are one, and possibly the main, cause of instability in
+guncotton, and it is highly desirable that they should be completely
+hydrolysed and removed in the washing process. The nitrated product
+retains the outward form of the original cellulose. In the course of the
+washing, according to a method introduced by Sir F. Abel, the cotton is
+ground into a pulp, a process which greatly facilitates the complete
+removal of acids, &c. This pulp is finally drained, and is then either
+compressed, while still moist, into slabs or blocks when required for
+blasting purposes, or it is dried when required for the manufacture of
+propellants. Sometimes a small quantity of an alkali (e.g. sodium
+carbonate) is added to the final washing water, so that quantities of
+this alkaline substance ranging from 0.5% to a little over 1% are
+retained by the guncotton. The idea is that any traces of acid not
+washed away by the washing process or produced later by a slow
+decomposition of the substance will be thereby neutralized and rendered
+harmless. Guncotton in an air-dry state, whether in the original form or
+after grinding to pulp and compressing, burns with very great rapidity
+but does not detonate unless confined.
+
+Immediately after the discovery of guncotton Schonbein proposed its
+employment as a substitute for gunpowder, and General von Lenk carried
+out a lengthy and laborious series of experiments intending to adapt it
+especially for artillery use. All these and many subsequent attempts to
+utilize it, either loose or mechanically compressed in any way, signally
+failed. However much compressed by mechanical means it is still a porous
+mass, and when it is confined as in a gun the flame and hot gases from
+the portion first ignited permeate the remainder, generally causing it
+actually to detonate, or to burn so rapidly that its action approaches
+detonation. The more closely it is confined the greater is the pressure
+set up by a small part of the charge burning, and the more completely
+will the explosion of the remainder assume the detonating form. The
+employment of guncotton as a propellant was possible only after the
+discovery that it could be gelatinized or made into a colloid by the
+action of so-called solvents, e.g. ethylacetate and other esters,
+acetone and a number of like substances (see CORDITE).
+
+  When quite dry guncotton is easily detonated by a blow on an anvil or
+  hard surface. If dry and warm it is much more sensitive to percussion
+  or friction, and also becomes electrified by friction under those
+  conditions. The amount of contained moisture exerts a considerable
+  effect on its sensitiveness. With about 2% of moisture it can still be
+  detonated on an anvil, but the action is generally confined to the
+  piece struck. As the quantity of contained water increases it becomes
+  difficult or even impossible to detonate by an ordinary blow.
+  Compressed dry guncotton is easily detonated by an initiative
+  detonator such as mercuric fulminate. Guncotton containing more than
+  15% of water is uninflammable, may be compressed or worked without
+  danger and is much more difficult to detonate by a fulminate
+  detonator than when dry.[3] A small charge of dry guncotton will,
+  however, detonate the wet material, and this peculiarity is made use
+  of in the employment of guncotton for blasting purposes. A charge of
+  compressed wet guncotton may be exploded, even under water, by the
+  detonation of a small primer of the dry and waterproofed material,
+  which in turn can be started by a small fulminate detonator. The
+  explosive wave from the dry guncotton primer is in fact better
+  responded to by the wet compressed material than the dry, and its
+  detonation is somewhat sharper than that of the dry. It is not
+  necessary for the blocks of wet guncotton to be actually in contact if
+  they be under water, and the peculiar explosive wave can also be
+  conveyed a little distance by a piece of metal such as a railway rail.
+  The more nearly the composition of guncotton approaches that
+  represented by C6H7O2(NO3)3, the more stable is it as regards storing
+  at ordinary temperatures, and the higher the igniting temperature.
+  Carefully prepared guncotton after washing with alcohol-ether until
+  nothing more dissolves may require to be heated to 180-185 deg. C.
+  before inflaming. Ordinary commercial guncottons, containing from 10
+  to 15% of lower nitrated products, will ignite as a rule some 20-25
+  deg. lower.
+
+  Assuming the above formula to represent guncotton, there is sufficient
+  oxygen for internal combustion without any carbon being left. The
+  gaseous mixture obtained by burning guncotton in a vacuum vessel
+  contains steam, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, nitric
+  oxide, and methane. When slowly heated in a vacuum vessel until
+  ignition takes place, some nitrogen dioxide, NO2, is also produced.
+  When kept for some weeks at a temperature of 100 deg. in steam, a
+  considerable number of fatty acids, some bases, and glucose-like
+  substances result. Under different pressures the relative amounts of
+  the combustion products vary considerably. Under very great pressures
+  carbon monoxide, steam and nitrogen are the main products, but nitric
+  oxide never quite disappears.
+
+  Dilute mineral acids have little or no action on guncotton. Strong
+  sulphuric acid in contact with it liberates first nitric acid and
+  later oxides of nitrogen, leaving a charred residue or a brown
+  solution according to the quantity of acid. It sometimes fires on
+  contact with strong sulphuric acid, especially when slightly warmed.
+  The alkali hydroxides (e.g. sodium hydroxide) will in a solid state
+  fire it on contact. Strong or weak solutions of these substances also
+  decompose it, producing some alkali nitrate and nitrite, the cellulose
+  molecule being only partially restored, some quantity undergoing
+  oxidation. Ammonia is also active, but not quite in the same manner as
+  the alkali hydroxides. Dry guncotton heated in ammonia gas detonates
+  at about 70 deg., and ammonium hydroxide solutions of all strengths
+  slowly decompose it, yielding somewhat complex products. Alkali
+  sulphohydrates reduce guncotton, or other nitrated celluloses,
+  completely to cellulose. The production of the so-called "artificial
+  silk" depends on this action.
+
+  A characteristic difference between guncotton and collodion cotton is
+  the insolubility of the former in ether or alcohol or a mixture of
+  these liquids. The so-called collodion cottons are nitrated
+  celluloses, but of a lower degree of nitration (as a rule) than
+  guncotton. They are sometimes spoken of as "lower" or "soluble"
+  cottons or nitrates. The solubility in ether-alcohol may be owing to a
+  lower degree of nitration, or to the temperature conditions under
+  which the process of manufacture has been carried on. If guncotton be
+  correctly represented by the formula C6H7O2(NO3)3, it should contain a
+  little more than 14% of nitrogen. Guncottons are examined for degree
+  of nitration by the nitrometer, in which apparatus they are decomposed
+  by sulphuric acid in contact with mercury, and all the nitrogen is
+  evolved as nitric oxide, NO, which is measured and the weight of its
+  contained nitrogen calculated. Ordinary guncottons seldom contain more
+  than 13% of nitrogen, and in most cases the amount does not exceed
+  12.5%. Generally speaking, the lower the nitrogen content of a
+  guncotton, as found by the nitrometer, the higher the percentage of
+  matters soluble in a mixture of ether-alcohol. These soluble matters
+  are usually considered as "lower" nitrates.
+
+  Guncottons are usually tested by the Abel heat test for stability (see
+  CORDITE). Another heat test, that of Will, consists in heating a
+  weighed quantity of the guncotton in a stream of carbon dioxide to
+  130 deg. C., passing the evolved gases over some red-hot copper, and
+  finally collecting them over a solution of potassium hydroxide which
+  retains the carbon dioxide and allows the nitrogen, arising from the
+  guncotton decomposition, to be measured. This is done at definite time
+  intervals so that the _rate_ of decomposition can be followed. The
+  relative stability is then judged by the amount of nitrogen gas
+  collected in a certain time. Several modifications of this and of the
+  Abel heat test are also in use. (See EXPLOSIVES.)     (W. R. E. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The composition of the cellulose nitrates was reviewed by G.
+    Lunge (_Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc._, 1901, 23, p. 527), who, assuming the
+    formula C24H40O20 for cellulose, showed how the nitrocelluloses
+    described by different chemists may be expressed by the formula
+    C24H_(46-x)O20(NO2)_x, where x has the values 4, 5, 6, ... 12.
+
+  [2] This formula is retained mainly on account of its simplicity. It
+    also expresses all that is necessary in this connexion.
+
+  [3] Air-dried guncotton will contain 2% or less of moisture.
+
+
+
+
+GUNDULICH, IVAN (1588-1638), known also as Giovanni Gondola, Servian
+poet, was born at Ragusa on the 8th of January 1588. His father, Franco
+Gundulich, once the Ragusan envoy to Constantinople and councillor of
+the republic, gave him an excellent education. He studied the
+"humanities" with the Jesuit, Father Muzzi, and philosophy with Father
+Ricasoli. After that he studied Roman law and jurisprudence in general.
+He was member of the Lower Council and once served as the chief
+magistrate of the republic. He died on the 8th of December 1638. A born
+poet, he admired much the Italian poets of his time, from whom he made
+many translations into Servian. It is believed that he so translated
+Tasso's _Gerusalemme liberata_. He is known to have written eighteen
+works, of which eleven were dramas, but of these only three have been
+fully preserved, others having perished during the great earthquake and
+fire in 1667. Most of those dramas were translations from the Italian,
+and were played, seemingly with great success, by the amateurs furnished
+by the noble families of Ragusa. But his greatest and justly celebrated
+work is an epic, entitled _Osman_, in twenty cantos. It is the first
+political epic on the Eastern Question, glorifying the victory of the
+Poles over Turks and Tatars in the campaign of 1621, and encouraging a
+league of the Christian nations, under the guidance of Vladislaus, the
+king of Poland, for the purpose of driving away the Turks from Europe.
+The fourteenth and fifteenth cantos are lost. It is generally believed
+that the Ragusan government suppressed them from consideration for the
+Sultan, the protector of the republic, those two cantos having been
+violently anti-Turkish.
+
+  _Osman_ was printed for the first time in Ragusa in 1826, the two
+  missing cantos being replaced by songs written by Pietro Sorgo (or
+  Sorkochevich). From this edition the learned Italian, Francesco
+  Appendini, made an Italian translation published in 1827. Since that
+  time several other editions have been made. The best are considered to
+  be the edition of the South Slavonic Academy in Agram (1877) and the
+  edition published in Semlin (1889) by Professor Yovan Boshkovich. In
+  the edition of 1844 (Agram) the last cantos, fourteen and fifteen,
+  were replaced by very fine compositions of the Serbo-Croatian poet,
+  Mazhuranich (Mazuranic). The complete works of Gundulich have been
+  published in Agram, 1847, by V. Babukich and by the South Slavonic
+  Academy of Agram in 1889.     (C. Mi.)
+
+
+
+
+GUNG'L, JOSEF (1810-1889), Hungarian composer and conductor, was born on
+the 1st of December 1810, at Zsambek, in Hungary. After starting life as
+a school-teacher, and learning the elements of music from Ofen, the
+school-choirmaster, he became first oboist at Graz, and, at twenty-five,
+bandmaster of the 4th regiment of Austrian artillery. His first
+composition, a Hungarian march, written in 1836, attracted some notice,
+and in 1843 he was able to establish an orchestra in Berlin. With this
+band he travelled far, even (in 1849) to America. It is worth recording
+that Mendelssohn's complete _Midsummer Night's Dream_ music is said to
+have been first played by Gung'l's band. In 1853 he became bandmaster to
+the 23rd Infantry Regiment at Brunn, but in 1864 he lived at Munich, and
+in 1876 at Frankfort, after (in 1873) having conducted with great
+success a series of promenade concerts at Covent Garden, London. From
+Frankfort Gung'l went to Weimar to live with his daughter, a well-known
+German opera singer and local prima donna. There he died, on the 31st of
+January 1889. Gung'l's dances number over 300, perhaps the most popular
+being the "Amoretten," "Hydropaten," "Casino," "Dreams on the Ocean"
+waltzes; "In Stiller Mitternacht" polka, and "Blue Violets" mazurka. His
+Hungarian march was transcribed by Liszt. His music is characterized by
+the same easy flowing melodies and well-marked rhythm that distinguish
+the dances of Strauss, to whom alone he can be ranked second in this
+kind of composition.
+
+
+
+
+GUNNER, or MASTER GUNNER, in the navy, the warrant officer who has
+charge of the ordnance and ammunition, and of the training of the men at
+gun drill. His functions in this respect are of less relative importance
+than they were in former times, when specially trained corps of seamen
+gunners had not been formed.
+
+
+
+
+GUNNING, PETER (1614-1684), English divine, was born at Hoo, in Kent,
+and educated at the King's School, Canterbury, and Clare College,
+Cambridge, where he became a fellow in 1633. Having taken orders, he
+advocated the royalist cause from the pulpit with much eloquence. In
+1644 he retired to Oxford, and held a chaplaincy at New College until
+the city surrendered to the parliamentary forces in 1646. Subsequently
+he was chaplain, first to the royalist Sir Robert Shirley of Eatington
+(1629-1656), and then at the Exeter House chapel. After the Restoration
+in 1660 he returned to Clare College as master, and was appointed Lady
+Margaret professor of divinity. He also received the livings of
+Cottesmore, Rutlandshire, and Stoke Bruerne, Northamptonshire. In 1661
+he became head of St John's College, Cambridge, and was elected Regius
+professor of divinity. He was consecrated bishop of Chichester in 1669,
+and was translated to the see of Ely in 1674-1675. Holding moderate
+religious views, he deprecated alike the extremes represented by
+Puritanism and Roman Catholicism.
+
+  His works are chiefly reports of his disputations, such as that which
+  appears in the _Scisme Unmask't_ (Paris, 1658), in which the
+  definition of a schism is discussed with two Romanist opponents.
+
+
+
+
+GUNNY, a sort of cloth, the name of which is supposed to be derived from
+_ganga_ or _gania_ of Rumphius, or from _gonia_, a vernacular name of
+the _Crotolaria juncea_--a plant common in Madras. One of the first
+notices of the term itself is to be found in Knox's _Ceylon_, in which
+he says: "The filaments at the bottom of the stem (coir from the
+coco-nut husk, _Cocos nucifera_) may be made into a coarse cloth called
+gunny, which is used for bags and similar purposes."
+
+Warden, in _The Linen Trade_, says:
+
+  "A very large proportion of the jute grown in Bengal is made into
+  cloth in the districts where it is cultivated, and this industry forms
+  the grand domestic manufacture of all the populous eastern districts
+  of Bengal. It pervades all classes, and penetrates into every
+  household, almost every one, man, woman and child, being in some way
+  engaged in it. Boatmen, husbandmen, palankeen carriers, domestic
+  servants, everyone, in fact, being Hindu--for Mussulmans spin cotton
+  only--pass their leisure moments, distaff in hand, spinning gunny
+  twist. It is spun by the takur and dhara, the former being a kind of
+  spindle, which is turned upon the thigh or the sole of the foot, and
+  the latter a reel, on which the thread, when sufficiently twisted, is
+  wound up. Another kind of spinning machine, called a ghurghurea, is
+  occasionally used. A bunch of the raw material is hung up in every
+  farmer's house, or on the protruding stick of a thatched roof, and
+  every one who has leisure forms with these spindles some coarse
+  pack-thread, of which ropes are twisted for the use of the farm. The
+  lower Hindu castes, from this pack-thread, spin a finer thread for
+  being made into cloth, and, there being a loom in nearly every house,
+  very much of it is woven by the women of the lower class of people. It
+  is especially the employment of the Hindu widow, as it enables her to
+  earn her bread without being a burden on her family. The cloth thus
+  made is of various qualities, such as clothing for the family
+  (especially the women, a great proportion of whom on all the eastern
+  frontier wear almost nothing else), coarse fabrics, bedding, rice and
+  sugar bags, sacking, pack-sheet, &c. Much of it is woven into short
+  lengths and very narrow widths, two or three of which are sometimes
+  sewed into one piece before they are sold. That intended for rice and
+  sugar bags is made about 6 feet long, and from 24 to 27 inches wide,
+  and doubled. A considerable quantity of jute yarn is dyed and woven
+  into cloth for various local purposes, and some of it is also sent out
+  of the district. The principal places where chotee, or jute cloth for
+  gunny bags, is made are within a radius of perhaps 150 to 200 miles
+  around Dacca, and there both labour and land are remarkably cheap. The
+  short, staple, common jute is generally consumed in the local
+  manufacture, the finer and long stapled being reserved for the export
+  trade. These causes enable gunny cloth and bags to be sold almost as
+  cheaply as the raw material, which creates an immense demand for them
+  in nearly every market of the world."
+
+Such appeared to be the definition of gunny cloth at the time the above
+was written--between 1850 and 1860. Most of the Indian cloth for gunny
+bags is now made by power, and within about 20 m. of Calcutta. In many
+respects the term gunny cloth is still applied to all and sundry, but
+there is no doubt that the original name was intended for cloth which
+was similar to what is now known as "cotton bagging." This particular
+type of cloth is still largely made in the hand loom, even in Dundee,
+this method of manufacture being considered, for certain reasons, more
+satisfactory than the power loom method (see JUTE and BAGGING).
+
+
+
+
+GUNPOWDER, an explosive composed of saltpetre, charcoal and sulphur.
+Very few substances have had a greater effect on civilization than
+gunpowder. Its employment altered the whole art of war, and its
+influence gradually and indirectly permeated and affected the whole
+fabric of society. Its direct effect on the arts of peace was but
+slight, and had but a limited range, which could not be compared to the
+modern extended employment of high explosives for blasting in mining and
+engineering work.
+
+It is probably quite incorrect to speak of the _discovery_ of gunpowder.
+From modern researches it seems more likely and more just to think of it
+as a thing that has developed, passing through many stages--mainly of
+improvement, but some undoubtedly retrograde. There really is not
+sufficient solid evidence on which to pin down its invention to one man.
+As Lieutenant-Colonel H. W. L. Hime (_Gunpowder and Ammunition_, 1904)
+says, the invention of gunpowder was impossible until the properties of
+nearly pure saltpetre had become known. The honour, however, has been
+associated with two names in particular, Berthold Schwartz, a German
+monk, and Friar Roger Bacon. Of the former Oscar Guttmann writes
+(_Monumenta pulveris pyrii_, 1904, p. 6): "Berthold Schwartz was
+generally considered to be the inventor of gunpowder, and only in
+England has Roger Bacon's claim been upheld, though there are English
+writers who have pleaded in favour of Schwartz. Most writers are agreed
+that Schwartz invented the first firearms, and as nothing was known of
+an inventor of gunpowder, it was perhaps considered justifiable to give
+Schwartz the credit thereof. There is some ambiguity as to when Schwartz
+lived. The year 1354 is sometimes mentioned as the date of his invention
+of powder, and this is also to be inferred from an inscription on the
+monument to him in Freiburg. But considering there can be no doubt as to
+the manufacture in England of gunpowder and cannon in 1344, that we have
+authentic information of guns in France in 1338 and in Florence in 1326,
+and that the Oxford MS. _De officiis regum_ of 1325 gives an
+illustration of a gun, Berthold Schwartz must have lived long before
+1354 to have been the inventor of gunpowder or guns." In Germany also
+there were powder-works at Augsburg in 1340, in Spandau in 1344, and
+Liegnitz in 1348.
+
+Roger Bacon, in his _De mirabili potestate artis et naturae_ (1242),
+makes the most important communication on the history of gunpowder.
+Reference is made to an explosive mixture as known before his time and
+employed for "diversion, producing a noise like thunder and flashes like
+lightning." In one passage Bacon speaks of saltpetre as a violent
+explosive, but there is no doubt that he knew it was not a
+self-explosive substance, but only so when mixed with other substances,
+as appears from the statement in _De secretis operibus artis et
+naturae_, printed at Hamburg in 1618, that "from saltpetre and other
+ingredients we are able to make a fire that shall burn at any distance
+we please." A great part of his three chapters, 9, 10, 11, long appeared
+without meaning until the anagrammatic nature of the sentences was
+realized. The words of this anagram are (chap. 11): "Item ponderis totum
+30 sed tamen salis petrae _luru vopo vir can utri_[1] et sulphuris; et
+sic facies tonitruum et coruscationem, si scias artificium. Videas tamen
+utrum loquar aenigmate aut secundum veritatem." Hime, in his chapter on
+the origin of gunpowder, discusses these chapters at length, and gives,
+omitting the anagram, the translation: "Let the total weight of the
+ingredients be 30, however, of saltpetre ... of sulphur; and with such a
+mixture you will produce a bright flash and a thundering noise, if you
+know the trick. You may find (by actual experiment) whether I am writing
+riddles to you or the plain truth." The anagram reads, according to
+Hime, "salis petrae r(ecipe) vii part(es), v nov(ellae) corul(i), v et
+sulphuris" (take seven parts of saltpetre, five of young hazel-wood, and
+five of sulphur). Hime then goes on to show that Bacon was in possession
+of an explosive which was a considerable advance on mere incendiary
+compositions. Bacon does not appear to have been aware of the projecting
+power of gunpowder. He knew that it exploded and that perhaps people
+might be blown up or frightened by it; more cannot be said. The
+behaviour of small quantities of any explosive is hardly ever indicative
+of its behaviour in large quantities and especially when under
+confinement. Hime is of opinion that Bacon blundered upon gunpowder
+whilst playing with some incendiary composition, such as those mentioned
+by Marcus Graecus and others, in which he employed his comparatively
+pure saltpetre instead of crude nitrum. It has been suggested that Bacon
+derived his knowledge of these fiery mixtures from the MS. _Liber
+ignium_, ascribed to Marcus Graecus, in the National Library in Paris
+(Dutens, _Enquiry into Origin of Discoveries attributed to Moderns_).
+Certainly this Marcus Graecus appears to have known of some incendiary
+composition containing the gunpowder ingredients, but it was not
+gunpowder. Hime seems to doubt the existence of any such person as
+Marcus Graecus, as he says: "The _Liber ignium_ was written from first
+to last in the period of literary forgeries and pseudographs ... and we
+may reasonably conclude that Marcus Graecus is as unreal as the
+imaginary Greek original of the tract which bears his name." Albertus
+Magnus in the _De mirabilibus mundi_ repeats some of the receipts given
+in Marcus Graecus, and several other writers give receipts for Greek
+fire, rockets, &c. Dutens gives many passages in his work, above-named,
+from old authors in support of his view that a composition of the nature
+of gunpowder was not unknown to the ancients. Hime's elaborate arguments
+go to show that these compositions could only have been of the
+incendiary type and not real explosives. His arguments seem to hold good
+as regards not only the Greeks but also the Arabs, Hindus and Chinese
+(see also FIREWORKS).
+
+There seems no doubt that incendiary compositions, some perhaps
+containing nitre, mostly, however, simply combustible substances as
+sulphur, naphtha, resins, &c., were employed and projected both for
+defence and offence, but they were projected or blown by engines and not
+by themselves. It is quite inconceivable that a real propelling
+explosive should have been known in the time of Alexander or much later,
+and not have immediately taken its proper place. In a chapter discussing
+this question of explosives amongst the Hindus, Hime says: "It is
+needless to enlarge the list of quotations: incendiaries pursued much
+the same course in Upper India as in Greece and Arabia." No trustworthy
+evidence of an explosive in India is to be found until the 21st of April
+1526, the date of the decisive battle of Panipat, in which Ibrahim,
+sultan of Delhi, was killed and his army routed by Baber the Mogul, who
+possessed both great and small firearms.
+
+As regards also the crusader period (1097-1291), so strange and deadly
+an agent of destruction as gunpowder could not possibly have been
+employed in the field without the full knowledge of both parties, yet no
+historian, Christian or Moslem, alludes to an explosive of any kind,
+while all of them carefully record the use of incendiaries. The
+employment of rockets and "wildfire" incendiary composition seems
+undoubtedly of very old date in India, but the names given to pieces of
+artillery under the Mogul conqueror of Hindustan point to a European, or
+at least to a Turkish origin, and it is quite certain that Europeans
+were retained in the service of Akbar and Aurangzeb. The composition of
+present day Chinese gunpowder is almost identical with that employed in
+Europe, so that in all probability the knowledge of it was obtained from
+Western sources.
+
+In the writings of Bacon there is no mention of guns or the use of
+powder as a propellant, but merely as an explosive and destructive
+power. Owing perhaps to this obscurity hanging over the early history of
+gunpowder, its employment as a propelling agent has been ascribed to the
+Moors or Saracens. J. A. Conde (_Historia de la dominacion de los Arabes
+en Espana_) states that Ismail Ben Firaz, king of Granada, who in 1325
+besieged Boza, had among his machines "some that cast globes of fire,"
+but there is not the least evidence that these were guns. The first
+trustworthy document relative to the use of gunpowder in Europe, a
+document still in existence, and bearing date February 11, 1326, gives
+authority to the council of twelve of Florence and others to appoint
+persons to superintend the manufacture of cannons of brass and iron
+balls, for the defence of the territory, &c., of the republic. John
+Barbour, archdeacon of Aberdeen, writing in 1375, states that cannons
+(crakys of war) were employed in Edward III.'s invasion of Scotland in
+1327. An indenture first published by Sir N. H. Nicolas in his _History
+of the Royal Navy_ (London, 1846), and again by Lieutenant-Colonel H.
+Brackenbury (_Proc. R.A. Inst._, 1865), stated to be 1338, contains
+references to small cannon as among the stores of the Tower, and also
+mentions "un petit barrell de gonpoudre le quart' plein." If authentic,
+this is possibly the first mention of gunpowder as such in England, but
+some doubts have been thrown upon the date of this MS. From a
+contemporary document in the National Library in Paris it seems that in
+the same year (1338) there existed in the marine arsenal at Rouen an
+iron weapon called _pot de feu_, for propelling bolts, together with
+some saltpetre and sulphur to make powder for the same. Preserved in the
+Record Office in London are trustworthy accounts from the year 1345 of
+the purchase of ingredients for making powder, and of the shipping of
+cannon to France. In 1346 Edward III. appears to have ordered all
+available saltpetre and sulphur to be bought up for him. In the first
+year of Richard II. (1377) Thomas Norbury was ordered to buy, amongst
+other munitions, sulphur, saltpetre and charcoal, to be sent to the
+castle of Brest. In 1414 Henry V. ordered that no gunpowder should be
+taken out of the kingdom without special licence, and in the same year
+ordered twenty pipes of willow charcoal and other articles for the use
+of the guns.
+
+The manufacture of gunpowder seems to have been carried on as a crown
+monopoly about the time of Elizabeth, and regulations respecting
+gunpowder and nitre were made about 1623 (James I.). Powder-mills were
+probably in existence at Waltham Abbey about the middle or towards the
+end of the 16th century.
+
+  _Ingredients and their Action._--Roger Bacon in his anagram gives the
+  first real recipe for gunpowder, viz. (according to Hime, ch. xii.)
+  saltpetre 41.2, charcoal 29.4, sulphur 29.4. Dr John Arderne of
+  Newark, who began to practise about 1350 and was later surgeon to
+  Henry IV., gives a recipe (Sloane MSS. 335, 795), saltpetre 66.6,
+  charcoal 22.2, sulphur 11.1, "which are to be thoroughly mixed on a
+  marble and then sifted through a cloth." This powder is nominally of
+  the same composition as one given in a MS. of Marcus Graecus, but the
+  saltpetre of this formula by Marcus Graecus was undoubtedly answerable
+  for the difference in behaviour of the two compositions. Roger Bacon
+  had not only refined and obtained pure nitre, but had appreciated the
+  importance of thoroughly mixing the components of the powder. Most if
+  not all the early powder was a "loose" mixture of the three
+  ingredients, and the most important step in connexion with the
+  development of gunpowder was undoubtedly the introduction of wet
+  mixing or "incorporating." Whenever this was done, the improvement in
+  the product must have been immediately evident. In the damp or wetted
+  state pressure could be applied with comparative safety during the
+  mixing. The loose powder mixture came to be called "serpentine"; after
+  wet mixing it was more or less granulated or corned and was known as
+  "corned" powder. Corned powder seems to have been gradually
+  introduced. It is mentioned in the _Fire Book_ of Conrad von Schongau
+  (in 1429), and was used for hand-guns in England long before 1560. It
+  would seem that corned powder was used for hand-guns or small arms in
+  the 15th century, but cannon were not made strong enough to withstand
+  its explosion for quite another century (Hime). According to the same
+  writer, in the period 1250-1450, when serpentine only was used, one
+  powder could differ from another in the proportions of the
+  ingredients; in the modern period--say 1700-1886--the powders in use
+  (in each state) differed only as a general rule in the size of the
+  grain, whilst during the transition period--1450-1700--they generally
+  differed both in composition and size of grain.
+
+  Corned or grained powder was adopted in France in 1525, and in 1540
+  the French utilized an observation that large-grained powder was the
+  best for cannon, and restricted the manufacture to three sizes of
+  grain or corn, possibly of the same composition. Early in the 18th
+  century two or three sizes of grain and powder of one composition
+  appear to have become common. The composition of English powder seems
+  to have settled down to 75 nitre, 15 charcoal, and 10 sulphur,
+  somewhere about the middle of the 18th century.
+
+  The composition of gunpowders used in different countries at different
+  times is illustrated in the following tables:--
+
+  _English Powders (Hime)._
+
+    +-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+--------+
+    |           | 1250.| 1350.| 1560.| 1647.| 1670.| 1742.|  1781. |
+    +-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+--------+
+    | Saltpetre | 41.2 | 66.6 | 50.0 | 66.6 | 71.4 | 75.0 | 75.0   |
+    | Charcoal  | 29.4 | 22.2 | 33.3 | 16.6 | 14.3 | 12.5 | 15.0   |
+    | Sulphur   | 29.4 | 11.1 | 16.6 | 16.6 | 14.3 | 12.5 | 10.0[2]|
+    +-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+--------+
+
+  _Foreign Powders (Hime)._
+
+    +-----------+-------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+
+    |           |France.|Sweden.|Germany.|Denmark.|France.|Sweden.|Germany.|
+    +-----------+-------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+
+    |           | 1338. | 1560. |  1595. |  1608. | 1650. | 1697. |  1882. |
+    +-----------+-------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+
+    | Saltpetre |  50   |  66.6 |  52.2  |  68.3  |  75.6 |   73  |  78    |
+    | Charcoal  |   ?   |  16.6 |  26.1  |  23.2  |  13.6 |   17  |  19    |
+    | Sulphur   |  25   |  16.6 |  21.7  |   8.5  |  10.8 |   10  |   3[3] |
+    +-----------+-------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+
+
+  When reasonably pure, none of the ingredients of gunpowder absorbs any
+  material quantity of moisture from the atmosphere, and the nitre only
+  is a soluble substance. It seems extremely probable that for a long
+  period the three substances were simply mixed dry, indeed sometimes
+  kept separate and mixed just before being required; the consequence
+  must have been that, with every care as to weighing out, the
+  proportions of any given quantity would alter on carriage. Saltpetre
+  is considerably heavier than sulphur or charcoal, and would tend to
+  separate out towards the bottom of the containing vessel if subjected
+  to jolting or vibration. When pure there can only be one kind of
+  saltpetre or sulphur, because they are chemical individuals, but
+  charcoal is not. Its composition, rate of burning, &c., depend not
+  only on the nature of the woody material from which it is made, but
+  quite as much on the temperature and time of heating employed in the
+  making. The woods from which it is made contain carbon, hydrogen and
+  oxygen, and the two latter are never thoroughly expelled in
+  charcoal-making. If they were, the resulting substance would be of no
+  use for gunpowder. 1-3% of hydrogen and 8-15% of oxygen generally
+  remain in charcoals suitable for gunpowder. A good deal of the
+  fieriness and violence of explosion of a gunpowder depends on the mode
+  of burning of the charcoal as well as on the wood from which it is
+  made.
+
+  _Properties of Ingredients._--Charcoal is the chief combustible in
+  powder. It must burn freely, leaving as little ash or residue as
+  possible; it must be friable, and grind into a non-gritty powder. The
+  sources from which powder charcoal is made are dogwood (_Rhamnus
+  frangula_), willow (_Salix alba_), and alder (_Betula alnus_). Dogwood
+  is mainly used for small-arm powders. Powders made from dogwood
+  charcoal burn more rapidly than those from willow, &c. The wood after
+  cutting is stripped of bark and allowed to season for two or three
+  years. It is then picked to uniform size and charred in cylindrical
+  iron cases or slips, which can be introduced into slightly larger
+  cylinders set in a furnace. The slips are provided with openings for
+  the escape of gases. The rate of heating as well as the absolute
+  temperature attained have an effect on the product, a slow rate of
+  heating yielding more charcoal, and a high temperature reducing the
+  hydrogen and oxygen in the final product. When heated for seven hours
+  to about 800 deg. C. to 900 deg. C. the remaining hydrogen and oxygen
+  amount to about 2% and 12% respectively. The time of charring is as a
+  rule from 5 to 7 hours. The slips are then removed from the furnace
+  and placed in a larger iron vessel, where they are kept comparatively
+  air-tight until quite cold. The charcoal is then sorted, and stored
+  for some time before grinding. The charcoal is ground, and the powder
+  sifted on a rotating reel or cylinder of fine mesh copper-wire gauze.
+  The sifted powder is again stored for some time before use in closed
+  iron vessels.
+
+  Sicilian sulphur is most generally employed for gunpowder, and for
+  complete purification is first distilled and then melted and cast into
+  moulds. It is afterwards ground into a fine powder and sifted as in
+  the case of the charcoal.
+
+  Potassium nitrate is eminently suitable as an oxygen-provider, not
+  being deliquescent. Nitrates are continually being produced in surface
+  soils, &c., by the oxidation of nitrogenous substances. Nitric and
+  nitrous acids are also produced by electric discharges through the
+  atmosphere, and these are found eventually as nitrates in soils, &c.
+  Nitre is soluble in water, and much more so in hot than in cold. Crude
+  nitre, obtained from soils or other sources, is purified by
+  recrystallization. The crude material is dissolved almost to
+  saturation in boiling water: on filtering and then cooling this liquor
+  to about 30 deg. C. almost pure nitre crystallizes out, most of the
+  usual impurities still remaining in solution. By rapidly cooling and
+  agitating the nitre solution crystals are obtained of sufficient
+  fineness for the manufacture of powder without special grinding. Nitre
+  contains nearly 48% of oxygen by weight, five-sixths of which is
+  available for combustion purposes. Nearly all the gases of the powder
+  explosion are derived from the nitre. The specific gravity of nitre is
+  2.2 : 200 grams will therefore occupy about 100 cubic centimetres
+  volume. This quantity on its decomposition by heat alone yields 28
+  grams or 22,400 c.c. of nitrogen, and 80 grams or 56,000 c.c. of
+  oxygen as gases, and 94 grams of potassium oxide, a fusible solid
+  which vaporizes at a very high temperature.
+
+  _Incorporation._--The materials are weighed out separately, mixed by
+  passing through a sieve, and then uniformly moistened with a certain
+  quantity of water, whilst on the bed of the incorporating mill. This
+  consists of two heavy iron wheels mounted so as to run in a circular
+  bed. The incorporation requires about four hours. The mechanical
+  action of rollers on the powder paste is a double one: not only
+  crushing but mixing by pushing forwards and twisting sideways. The
+  pasty mass is deflected so that it repeatedly comes under first one
+  roller and then the next by scrapers, set at an angle to the bed,
+  which follow each wheel.
+
+  Although the charge is wet it is possible for it to be fired either by
+  the heat developed by the roller friction, by sparks from foreign
+  matters, as bits of stone, &c., or possibly by heat generated by
+  oxidation of the materials. The mills are provided with a drenching
+  apparatus so arranged that in case of one mill firing it and its
+  neighbours will be drowned by water from a cistern or tank immediately
+  above the mill. The product from the incorporation is termed
+  "mill-cake."
+
+  After this incorporation in the damp state the ingredients never
+  completely separate on drying, however much shaken, because each
+  particle of nitre is surrounded by a thin layer of water containing
+  nitre in solution in which the particles of charcoal and sulphur are
+  entangled and retained. After due incorporation, powders are pressed
+  to a certain extent whilst still moist. The density to which a powder
+  is pressed is an important matter in regard to the rate of burning.
+  The effect of high density is to slow down the initial rate of
+  burning. Less dense powders burn more rapidly from the first and tend
+  to put a great strain on the gun. Fouling is usually less with denser
+  powders; and, as would be expected, such powders bear transport better
+  and give less dust than light powders. Up to a certain pressure,
+  hardness, density, and size of grain of a powder have an effect on the
+  rate of burning and therefore on pressure. Glazing or polishing powder
+  grains, also exerts a slight retarding action on burning and enables
+  the powders to resist atmospheric moisture better. Excess of moisture
+  in gunpowder has a marked effect in reducing the explosiveness. All
+  powders are liable to absorb moisture, the quality and kind of
+  charcoal being the main determinant in this respect; hard burnt black
+  charcoal is least absorbent. The material employed in brown powders
+  absorbs moisture somewhat readily. Powder kept in a very damp
+  atmosphere, and especially in a changeable one, spoils rapidly, the
+  saltpetre coming to the surface in solution and then crystallizing
+  out. The pieces also break up owing to the formation of large crystals
+  of nitre in the mass. After the pressing of the incorporated powder
+  into a "press-cake," it is broken up or granulated by suitable
+  machines, and the resulting grains separated and sorted by sifting
+  through sieves of determined sizes of mesh. Some dust is formed in
+  this operation, which is sifted away and again worked up under the
+  rollers (for sizes of grains see fig. 1). These grains, cubes, &c.,
+  are then either polished by rotating in drums alone or with graphite,
+  which adheres to and coats the surfaces of the grains. This process is
+  generally followed with powders intended for small-arms or moderately
+  small ordnance.
+
+  _Shaped Powders._--Prisms or prismatic powder are made by breaking up
+  the press-cake into a moderately fine state, whilst still moist, and
+  pressing a certain quantity in a mould. The moulds generally employed
+  consist of a thick plate of bronze in which are a number of hexagonal
+  perforations. Accurately fitting plungers are so applied to these that
+  one can enter at the top and the other at the bottom. The lower
+  plunger being withdrawn to the bottom of the plate the hexagonal hole
+  is charged with the powder and the two plungers set in motion, thus
+  compressing the powder between them. After the desired pressure has
+  been applied the top plunger is withdrawn, and the lower one pushed
+  upward to eject the prism of powder. The axial perforations in prism
+  powders are made by small bronze rods which pass through the lower
+  plunger and fit into corresponding holes in the upper one. If these
+  prisms are made by a steadily applied pressure a density throughout of
+  about 1.78 may be obtained. Further to regulate the rate of burning so
+  that it shall be slow at first and more rapid as the powder is
+  consumed, another form of machine was devised, the cam press, in which
+  the pressure is applied very rapidly to the powder. It receives in
+  fact one blow, which compresses the powder to the same dimensions, but
+  the density of the outer layers of substance of the prism is much
+  greater than in the interior.
+
+  The leading idea in connexion with all shaped powder grains, and with
+  the very large sizes, was to regulate the rate of burning so as to
+  avoid extreme pressure when first ignited and to keep up the pressure
+  in the gun as more space was provided in the chamber or tube by the
+  movement of the shot towards the muzzle. In the perforated prismatic
+  powder the ignition is intended to proceed through the perforations;
+  since in a charge the faces of the prisms fit pretty closely together,
+  it was thought that this arrangement would prevent unburnt cores or
+  pieces of powder from being blown out. These larger grain powders
+  necessitated a lengthened bore to take advantage of the slower
+  production of gases and complete combustion of the powder. General T.
+  J. Rodman first suggested and employed the perforated cake cartridge
+  in 1860, the cake having nearly the diameter of the bore and a
+  thickness of 1 to 2 in. with perforations running parallel with the
+  gun axis. The burning would then start from the comparatively small
+  surfaces of the perforations, which would become larger as the powder
+  burnt away. Experiments bore out this theory perfectly. It was found
+  that small prisms were more convenient to make than large disks, and
+  as the prisms practically fit together into a disk the same result was
+  obtained. This effect of mechanical density on rate of burning is good
+  only up to a certain pressure, above which the gases are driven
+  through the densest form of granular material. After granulating or
+  pressing into shapes, all powders must be dried. This is done by
+  heating in specially ventilated rooms heated by steam pipes. As a rule
+  this drying is followed by the finishing or polishing process. Powders
+  are finally blended, i.e. products from different batches or "makes"
+  are mixed so that identical proof results are obtained.
+
+  _Sizes and Shapes of Powders._--In fig. 1, _a_ to _k_ show the
+  relative sizes and shapes of grain as formerly employed for military
+  purposes, except that the three largest powders, _e-f-g_ and _h_ are
+  figured half-size to save space, whereas the remainder indicate the
+  actual dimensions of the grains. _a_ is for small-arms, all the others
+  are for cannon of various sizes.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+  _Proof of Powder._--In addition to chemical examination powder is
+  passed through certain mechanical tests:--
+
+  1. _For colour, glaze, texture and freedom from dust._
+
+  2. _For proper incorporation._
+
+  3. _For shape, size and proportion of the grains._--The first is
+  judged by eye, and grains of the size required are obtained by the use
+  of sieves of different sizes.
+
+  4. _Density._--The density is generally obtained in some form of
+  mercury densimeter, the powder being weighed in air and then under
+  mercury. In some forms of the instrument the air can be pumped out so
+  that the weighing takes place _in vacuo_.
+
+  5. _Moisture and absorption of moisture._--The moisture and
+  hygroscopic test consists in weighing a sample, drying at 100 deg. C.
+  for a certain time, weighing again, &c., until constant. The dried
+  weighed sample can then be exposed to an artificial atmosphere of
+  known moisture and temperature, and the gain in weight per hour
+  similarly ascertained by periodic weighings.
+
+  6. _Firing proof._--The nature of this depends upon the purpose for
+  which the powder is intended. For sporting powders it consists in the
+  "pattern" given by the shot upon a target at a given distance, or, if
+  fired with a bullet, upon the "figure of merit," or mean radial
+  deviation of a certain number of rounds; also upon the penetrative
+  power. For military purposes the "muzzle" velocity produced by a
+  powder is ascertained by a chronograph which measures the exact time
+  the bullet or other projectile takes to traverse a known distance
+  between two wire screens. By means of "crusher gauges" the exact
+  pressure per square inch upon certain points in the interior of the
+  bore can be found.
+
+  In the chemical examination of gunpowder the points to be ascertained
+  are, in addition to moisture, freedom from chlorides or sulphates, and
+  correct proportion of nitre and sulphur to charcoal.
+
+  _Products of Fired Powder and Changes taking place on
+  Explosion._--With a mixture of the complexity of gunpowder it is quite
+  impossible to say beforehand what will be the relative amounts of
+  products. The desired products are nitrogen and carbon dioxide as
+  gases, and potassium sulphate and carbonate as solids. But the
+  ingredients of the mixture are not in any simple chemical proportion.
+  Burning in contact with air under one atmosphere pressure, and burning
+  in a closed or partially closed vessel under a considerable number of
+  atmospheres pressure, may produce quite different results. The
+  temperature of a reaction always rises with increased pressure.
+  Although the main function of the nitre is to give up oxygen and
+  nitrogen, of the charcoal to produce carbon dioxide and most of the
+  heat, and of the sulphur by vaporizing to accelerate the rate of
+  burning, it is quite impossible to represent the actions taking place
+  on explosion by any simple or single chemical equation. Roughly
+  speaking, the gases from black powder burnt in a closed vessel have a
+  volume at 0 deg. C. and 760 mm. pressure of about 280 times that of
+  the original powder. The temperature produced under one atmosphere is
+  above 2000 deg. C., and under greater pressures considerably higher.
+
+  Experiments have been made by Benjamin Robins (1743), Charles Hutton
+  (1778), Count Rumford (1797), Gay-Lussac (1823), R. Bunsen and L.
+  Schiskoff (1857), T. J. Rodman (1861), C. Karolyi (1863), and later
+  many researches by Sir Andrew Noble and Sir F. A. Abel, and by H.
+  Debus and others, all with the idea of getting at the precise
+  mechanism of the explosion. Debus (_Ann._, 1882, vols. 212, 213; 1891,
+  vol. 265) discussed at great length the results of researches by
+  Bunsen, Karolyi, Noble and Abel, and others on the combustion of
+  powder in closed vessels in such manner that all the products could be
+  collected and examined and the pressures registered. A Waltham Abbey
+  powder, according to an experiment by Noble and Abel, gave when fired
+  in a closed vessel the following quantities of products calculated
+  from one gram of powder:--
+
+                         Fractions of    Fractions of a
+                            a gram.     molecule or atom.
+
+    Potassium carbonate     .2615       .00189 molecule
+    Potassium sulphate      .1268       .00072    "
+        "     thiosulphate  .1666       .00087    "
+        "     sulphide      .0252       .00017    "
+    Sulphur                 .0012       .00004 atom
+    Carbon dioxide          .2678       .00608 molecule
+    Carbon monoxide         .0339       .00121    "
+    Nitrogen                .1071       .00765 atom
+    Hydrogen                .0008       .0008   "
+    Hydrogen sulphide       .0080       .00023 molecule
+    Potassium thiocyanate   .0004
+    Nitre                   .0005
+    Ammonium carbonate      .0002
+
+  From this, and other results, Debus concluded that Waltham Abbey
+  powder could be represented by the formula 16KNO3+21.18C+6.63S and
+  that on combustion in a closed vessel the end results could be fairly
+  expressed (rounding off fractions) by 16KNO3+21C+5S = 5K2CO3 +
+  K2SO4+2K2S2+13CO2+3CO+8N2. Some of the sulphur is lost, part combining
+  with the metal of the apparatus and part with hydrogen in the
+  charcoal. The military powders of most nations can be represented by
+  the formula 16KNO3+21.2C+6.6S, proportions which are reasonably near
+  to a theoretical mixture, that is one giving most complete combustion,
+  greatest gas volume and temperature. The combustion of powder consists
+  of two processes: (i.) oxidation, during which potassium carbonate and
+  sulphate, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are mainly formed, and (ii.) a
+  reduction process in which free carbon acts on the potassium sulphate
+  and free sulphur on the potassium carbonate, producing potassium
+  sulphide and carbon monoxide respectively. Most powders contain more
+  carbon and sulphur than necessary, hence the second stage. In this
+  second stage heat is lost. The potassium sulphide is also the most
+  objectionable constituent as regards fouling.
+
+  The energy of a powder is given, according to Berthelot, by
+  multiplying the gas volume by the heat (in calories) produced during
+  burning; Debus shows that a powder composed of 16KNO3 to 8C and 8S
+  would have the least, and one of composition 16KNO3+24C+16S the
+  greatest, when completely burnt. The greatest capability with the
+  lowest proportion of carbon and sulphur to nitre would be obtained
+  from the mixture /16KNO3+22C+8S.
+
+  Smokeless and even noiseless powders seem to have been sought for
+  during the whole gunpowder period. In 1756 one was experimented with
+  in France, but was abandoned owing to difficulties in manufacture.
+  Modern smokeless powders are certainly less noisy than the black
+  powders, mainly because of the absence of metallic salts which
+  although they may be gaseous whilst in the gun are certainly ejected
+  as solids or become solids at the moment of contact with air.
+
+  _Brown Powders._--About the middle of the 19th century guns and
+  projectiles were made much larger and heavier than previously, and it
+  was soon found that the ordinary black powders of the most dense form
+  burnt much too rapidly, straining or bursting the pieces. Powders were
+  introduced containing about 3% sulphur and 17-19% of a special form of
+  charcoal made from slightly charred straw, or similar material. This
+  "brown charcoal" contains a considerable amount of the hydrogen and
+  oxygen of the original plant substance. The mechanical processes of
+  manufacture of these brown powders is the same as for black. They,
+  however, differ from black by burning very slowly, even under
+  considerable pressure. This comparative slowness is caused by (1) the
+  presence of a small amount of water even when air-dry; (2) the fact
+  that the brown charcoal is practically very slightly altered
+  cellulosic material, which before it can burn completely must undergo
+  a little further resolution or charring at the expense of some heat
+  from the portion of charge first ignited; and (3) the lower content of
+  sulphur. An increase of a few per cent in the sulphur of black powder
+  accelerates its rate of burning, and it may become almost a blasting
+  powder. A decrease in sulphur has the reverse effect. It is really the
+  sulphur vapour that in the early period of combustion spreads the
+  flame through the charge.
+
+  Many other powders have been made or proposed in which nitrates or
+  chlorates of the alkalis or of barium, &c., are the oxygen providers
+  and substances as sugar, starch, and many other organic compounds as
+  the combustible elements. Some of these compositions have found
+  employment for blasting or even as sporting powders, but in most cases
+  their objectionable properties of fouling, smoke and mode of exploding
+  have prevented their use for military purposes. The adoption by the
+  French government of the comparatively smokeless nitrocellulose
+  explosive of Paul Vieille in 1887 practically put an end to the old
+  forms of gunpowders. The first smokeless powder was made in 1865 by
+  Colonel E. Schultze (_Ding. Pol. Jour._ 174, p. 323; 175, p. 453) by
+  nitrating wood meal and adding potassium and barium nitrates. It is
+  somewhat similar in composition to the E. C. sporting powder. F.
+  Uchatius, in Austria, proposed a smokeless powder made from nitrated
+  starch, but it was not adopted owing to its hygroscopic nature and
+  also its tendency to detonate.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Vanucchio Biringuccio, _De la pirotechnia_ (Venice,
+  1540); Tartaglia, _Quesiti e invenzioni diversi_ (lib. iii.) (Venice,
+  1546); Peter Whitehorne, _How to make Saltpetre, Gunpowder, &c._
+  (London, 1573); Nic. Macchiavelli, _The Arte of Warre_, trans. by
+  Whitehorne (London, 1588); Hanzelet, _Recueil de plusiers machines
+  militaires_ (Paris, 1620); Boillet Langrois, _Modelles artifices de
+  feu_ (1620); Kruger, _Chemical Meditations on the Explosion of
+  Gunpowder_ (in Latin) (1636); Collado, _On the Invention of Gunpowder_
+  (Spanish) (1641); _The True Way to make all Sorts of Gunpowder and
+  Matches_ (1647); Hawksbee, _On Gunpowder_ (1686); Winter, _On
+  Gunpowder_ (in Latin); Robins, _New Principles of Gunnery_ (London,
+  1742) (new ed. by Hutton, 1805); D'Antoni, _Essame della polvere_
+  (Turin, 1765) (trans. by Captain Thomson, R. A., London, 1787); Count
+  Rumford, "Experiments on Fired Gunpowder," _Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc._
+  (1797); Charles Hutton, _Mathematical Tracts_, vol. iii. (1812); Sir
+  W. Congreve, _A Short Account of Improvements in Gunpowder made by_
+  (London, 1818); Bunsen and Schiskoff, "On the Chemical Theory of
+  Gunpowder," _Pogg. Ann._, 1857, vol. cii.; General Rodman,
+  _Experiments on Metal for Cannon, and Qualities of Cannon Powder_
+  (Boston, 1861); Napoleon III., _Etudes sur le passe et l'avenir de
+  l'artillerie_, vol. iii. (Paris, 1862); Von Karolyi, "On the Products
+  of the Combustion of Gun Cotton and Gunpowder," _Phil. Mag._ (October
+  1863); Captain F. M. Smith, _Handbook of the Manufacture and Proof of
+  Gunpowder at Waltham Abbey_ (London, 1870); Noble and Abel, _Fired
+  Gunpowder_ (London, 1875, 1880); Noble, _Artillery and Explosives_
+  (1906); H. W. L. Hime, _Gunpowder and Ammunition, their Origin and
+  Progress_ (1904); O. Guttmann, _The Manufacture of Explosives_ (1895),
+  _Monumenta pulveris pyrii_ (1906); _Notes on Gunpowder and Gun
+  Cotton_, published by order of the secretary of state for war (London,
+  1907). (See also EXPLOSIVES.)     (W. R. E. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] These words were emended by some authors to read _luru mope can
+    ubre_, the letters of which can be arranged to give _pulvere
+    carbonum_.
+
+  [2] This represents the composition of English powder at present, and
+    no doubt it has remained the same for a longer time than the above
+    date indicates.
+
+  [3] Brown or coco-powder for large charges in guns. The charcoal is
+    not burnt black but roasted until brown, and is made from some
+    variety of straw, not wood.
+
+
+
+
+GUNPOWDER PLOT, the name given to a conspiracy for blowing up King James
+I. and the parliament on the 5th of November 1605.
+
+To understand clearly the nature and origin of the famous conspiracy, it
+is necessary to recall the political situation and the attitude of the
+Roman Catholics towards the government at the accession of James I. The
+Elizabethan administration had successfully defended its own existence
+and the Protestant faith against able and powerful antagonists, but this
+had not been accomplished without enforcing severe measures of
+repression and punishment upon those of the opposite faith. The
+beginning of a happier era, however, was expected with the opening of
+the new reign. The right of James to the crown could be more readily
+acknowledged by the Romanists than that of Elizabeth: Pope Clement VIII.
+appeared willing to meet the king half-way. James himself was by nature
+favourable to the Roman Catholics and had treated the Roman Catholic
+lords in Scotland with great leniency, in spite of their constant plots
+and rebellions. Writing to Cecil before his accession he maintained, "I
+am so far from any intention of persecution as I protest to God I
+reverence their church as our mother church, although clogged with many
+infirmities and corruptions, besides that I did ever hold persecution as
+one of the infallible notes of a false church." He declared to
+Northumberland, the kinsman and master of Thomas Percy, the conspirator,
+"as for the Catholics, I will neither persecute any that will be quiet
+and give but an outward obedience to the law, neither will I spare to
+advance any of them that will be of good service and worthily deserved."
+It is probable that these small but practical concessions would have
+satisfied the lay Roman Catholics and the secular priests, but they were
+very far from contenting the Jesuits, by whom the results of such
+leniency were especially feared: "What rigour of laws would not compass
+in so many years," wrote Henry Tichborne, the Jesuit, in 1598, "this
+liberty and lenity will effectuate in 20 days, to wit the disfurnishing
+of the seminaries, the disanimating of men to come and others to return,
+the expulsion of the society and confusion as in Germany, extinction of
+zeal and favour, disanimation of princes from the hot pursuit of the
+enterprise.... We shall be left as a prey to the wolves that will
+besides drive our greatest patron [the king of Spain] to stoop to a
+peace which will be the utter ruin of our edifice, this many years in
+building." Unfortunately, about this time the Jesuits, who thus thrived
+on political intrigue, and who were deeply implicated in treasonable
+correspondence with Spain, had obtained a complete ascendancy over the
+secular priests, who were for obeying the civil government as far as
+possible and keeping free from politics. The time, therefore, as far as
+the Roman Catholics themselves were concerned, was not a propitious one
+for introducing the moderate concessions which alone James had promised:
+James, too, on his side, found that religious toleration, though clearly
+sound in principle, was difficult in practice. During the first few
+months of the reign all went well. In July 1603 the fines for recusancy
+were remitted. In January 1604 peaceable Roman Catholics could live
+unmolested and "serve God according to their consciences without any
+danger." But James's expectations that the pope would prevent dangerous
+and seditious persons from entering the country were unfulfilled and the
+numbers of the Jesuits and the Roman Catholics greatly increased.
+Rumours of plots came to hand. Cecil, though like his master naturally
+in favour of toleration, with his experience gained in the reign of
+Elizabeth, was alarmed at the policy pursued and its results, and great
+anxiety was aroused in the government and nation, which was in the end
+shared by the king. It was determined finally to return to the earlier
+policy of repression. On the 22nd of February 1604 a proclamation was
+issued banishing priests; on the 28th of November 1604, recusancy fines
+were demanded from 13 wealthy persons, and on the 10th of February 1605
+the penal laws were ordered to be executed. The plot, however, could not
+have been occasioned by these measures, for it had been already
+conceived in the mind of Robert Catesby. It was aimed at the repeal of
+the whole Elizabethan legislation against the Roman Catholics and
+perhaps derived some impulse at first from the leniency lately shown by
+the administration, afterwards gaining support from the opposite cause,
+the return of the government to the policy of repression.
+
+It was in May 1603 that Catesby told Percy, in reply to the latter's
+declaration of his intention to kill the king, that he was "thinking of
+a most sure way." Subsequently, about the 1st of November 1603, Catesby
+sent a message to his cousin Robert Winter at Huddington, near
+Worcester, to come to London, which the latter refused. On the arrival
+of a second urgent summons shortly afterwards he obeyed, and was then at
+a house at Lambeth, probably in January 1604, initiated by Catesby
+together with John Wright into the plot to blow up the parliament house.
+Before putting this plan into execution, however, it was decided to try
+a "quiet way"; and Winter was sent over to Flanders to obtain the good
+offices of Juan de Velasco, duke of Frias and constable of Castile, who
+had arrived there to conduct the negotiations for a peace between
+England and Spain, in order to obtain the repeal of the penal laws.
+Winter, having secured nothing but vain promises from the constable,
+returned to England about the end of April, bringing with him Guy
+Fawkes, a man devoted to the Roman Catholic cause and recommended for
+undertaking perilous adventures. Subsequently the three and Thomas
+Percy, who joined the conspiracy in May, met in a house behind St
+Clement's and, having taken an oath of secrecy together, heard Mass and
+received the Sacrament in an adjoining apartment from a priest stated by
+Fawkes to have been Father Gerard. Later several other persons were
+included in the plot, viz. Winter's brother Thomas, John Grant, Ambrose
+Rokewood, Robert Keyes, Sir Everard Digby, Francis Tresham, a cousin of
+Catesby and Thomas Bates Catesby's servant, all, with the exception of
+the last, being men of good family and all Roman Catholics. Father
+Greenway and Father Garnet, the Jesuits, were both cognisant of the plot
+(see GARNET, HENRY). On the 24th of May 1604 a house was hired in
+Percy's name adjoining the House of Lords, from the cellar of which they
+proposed to work a mine. They began on the 11th of December 1604, and by
+about March had got half-way through the wall. They then discovered that
+a vault immediately under the House of Lords was available. This was at
+once hired by Percy, and 36 barrels of gunpowder, amounting to about 1
+ton and 12 cwt., were brought in and concealed under coal and faggots.
+The preparations being completed in May the conspirators separated.
+Fawkes was despatched to Flanders, where he imparted the plot to Hugh
+Owen, a zealous Romanist intriguer. Sir Edmund Baynham was sent on a
+mission to Rome to be at hand when the news came to gain over the pope
+to the cause of the successful conspirators. An understanding was
+arrived at with several officers levied for the service of the archduke,
+that they should return at once to England when occasion arose of
+defending the Roman Catholic cause. A great hunting match was organized
+at Danchurch in Warwickshire by Digby, to which large numbers of the
+Roman Catholic gentry were invited, who were to join the plot after the
+successful accomplishment of the explosion of the 5th of November, the
+day fixed for the opening of parliament, and get possession of the
+princess Elizabeth, then residing in the neighbourhood; while Percy was
+to seize the infant prince Charles and bring him on horseback to their
+meeting-place. Guy Fawkes himself was to take ship immediately for
+Flanders, spread the news on the continent and get supporters. The
+conspirators imagined that a terrorized and helpless government would
+readily agree to all their demands. Hitherto the secret had been well
+kept and the preparations had been completed with extraordinary success
+and without a single drawback; but a very serious difficulty now
+confronted the conspirators as the time for action arrived, and
+disturbed their consciences. The feelings of ordinary humanity shrunk
+from the destruction of so many persons guiltless of any offence. But in
+addition, among the peers to be assassinated were included many Roman
+Catholics and some lords nearly connected in kinship or friendship with
+the plotters themselves. Several appeals, however, made to Catesby to
+allow warning to be given to certain individuals were firmly rejected.
+
+On the 26th of October Lord Monteagle, a brother-in-law of Francis
+Tresham, who had formerly been closely connected with some of the other
+conspirators and had engaged in Romanist plots against the government,
+but who had given his support to the new king, unexpectedly ordered
+supper to be prepared at his house at Haxton, from which he had been
+absent for more than a year. While at supper about 6 o'clock an
+anonymous letter was brought by an unknown messenger which, having
+glanced at, he handed to Ward, a gentleman of his service and an
+intimate friend of Winter, the conspirator, to be read aloud. The
+celebrated letter ran as follows:--
+
+  "My lord, out of the love I bear to some of your friends, I have a
+  care for your preservation. Therefore I would advise you, as you
+  tender your life, to devise some excuse to shift of your attendance
+  of this Parliament, for God and man hath concurred to punish the
+  wickedness of this time. And think not slightly of this advertisement,
+  but retire yourself into your country, where you may expect the event
+  in safety, for though there be no appearance of any stir, yet I say
+  they shall receive a terrible blow the Parliament, and yet they shall
+  not see who hurts them. This counsel is not to be contemned, because
+  it may do you good and can do you no harm, for the danger is past as
+  soon as you have burnt the letter: and I hope God will give you the
+  grace to make good use of it, to whose holy protection I commend you."
+
+The authorship of the letter has never been disclosed or proved, but all
+evidence seems to point to Tresham, and to the probability that he had
+some days before warned Monteagle and agreed with him as to the best
+means of making known the plot and preventing its execution, and at the
+same time of giving the conspirators time to escape (see TRESHAM,
+FRANCIS).
+
+Monteagle at once started for Whitehall, found Salisbury and other
+ministers about to sit down to supper, and showed the letter, whereupon
+it was decided to search the cellar under the House of Lords before the
+meeting of parliament, but not too soon, so that the plot might be ripe
+and be fully disclosed. Meanwhile Ward, on the 27th of October, as had
+evidently been intended, informed Winter that the plot was known, and on
+the 28th Winter informed Catesby and begged him to give up the whole
+project. Catesby, however, after some hesitation, finding from Fawkes
+that nothing had been touched in the cellar, and prevailed upon by
+Percy, determined to stand firm, hoping that the government had put no
+credence in Monteagle's letter, and Fawkes returned to the cellar to
+keep guard as before. On the 4th the king, having been shown the letter,
+ordered the earl of Suffolk, as lord chamberlain, to examine the
+buildings. He was accompanied by Monteagle. On arriving at the cellar,
+the door was opened to him by Fawkes. Seeing the enormous piles of
+faggots he asked the name of their owner, to which Fawkes replied that
+they belonged to Percy. His name immediately aroused suspicions, and
+accordingly it was ordered that a further search should be made by
+Thomas Knyvett, a Westminster magistrate who, coming with his men at
+night, discovered the gunpowder and arrested Fawkes on the threshold.
+
+The opinion that the whole plot was the work of Salisbury, that he acted
+as an _agent provocateur_ and lured on his victims to destruction,
+repeated by some contemporary and later writers and recently formulated
+and urged with great ability, has no solid foundation. Nor is it even
+probable that he was aware of its existence till he received Monteagle's
+letter. Even after its reception complete belief was not placed in the
+warning. A search was made only to make sure that nothing was wrong and
+guided only by Monteagle's letter, while no attempt was made to seize
+the conspirators. The steps taken by Salisbury after the discovery of
+the gunpowder do not show the possession of any information of the plot
+or of the persons who were its chief agents outside Fawkes's first
+statement, and his knowledge is seen to develop according to the
+successive disclosures and confessions of the latter. Thus on the 7th of
+November he had no knowledge of the _mine_, and it is only after
+Fawkes's examination by torture on the 9th, when the names of the
+conspirators were drawn from him, that the government was able to
+classify them according to their guilt and extent of their
+participation. The inquiry was not conducted by Salisbury alone, but by
+several commissioners, some of whom were Roman Catholics, and many
+rivals and secret enemies. To conceal his intrigue from all these would
+have been impossible, and that he should have put himself in their power
+to such an extent is highly improbable. Again, the plan agreed upon for
+disclosing the plot was especially designed to allow the conspirators to
+escape, and therefore scarcely a method which would have been arranged
+with Salisbury. Not one of the conspirators, even when all hope of
+saving life was gone, made any accusation against Salisbury or the
+government and all died expressing contrition for their crime. Lastly
+Salisbury had no conceivable motive in concocting a plot of this
+description. His political power and position in the new reign had been
+already secured and by very different methods. He was now at the height
+of his influence, having been created Viscount Cranborne in August 1604
+and earl of Salisbury in May 1605; and James had already, more than 16
+months before the discovery of the plot, consented to return to the
+repressive measures against the Romanists. The success with which the
+conspirators concealed their plot from Salisbury's spies is indeed
+astonishing, but is probably explained by its very audacity and by the
+absence of incriminating correspondence, the medium through which the
+minister chiefly obtained his knowledge of the plans of his enemies.
+
+On the arrest of Fawkes the other conspirators, except Tresham, fled in
+parties by different ways, rejoining each other in Warwickshire, as had
+been agreed in case the plot had been successful. Catesby, who with some
+others had covered the distance of 80 m. between London and his mother's
+house at Ashby St Legers in eight hours, informed his friends in
+Warwickshire, who had been awaiting the issue of the plot, of its
+failure, but succeeded in persuading Sir Everard Digby, by an
+unscrupulous falsehood, to further implicate himself in his hopeless
+cause by assuring him that both James and Salisbury were dead; and,
+according to Father Garnet, this was not the first time that Catesby had
+been guilty of lies in order to draw men into the plot. He pushed on the
+same day with his companions in the direction of Wales, where, it was
+hoped, they would be joined by bands of insurgents. They arrived at
+Huddington at 2 in the afternoon. On the morning of the 7th the band,
+numbering about 36 persons, confessed and heard Mass, and then rode away
+to Holbeche, 2 m. from Stourbridge, in Staffordshire, the house of
+Stephen Littleton, who had been present at the hunting at Danchurch (see
+DIGBY, EVERARD), where they arrived at 10 o'clock at night, having on
+their way broken into Lord Windsor's house at Hewell Grange and taken
+all the armour they found there. Their case was now desperate. None had
+joined them: "Not one came to take our part," said Sir Everard Digby,
+"though we had expected so many." They were being followed by the
+sheriff and all the forces of the county. All spurned them from their
+doors when they applied for succour. One by one their followers fled
+from the house in which the last scene was to be played out. They now
+began to feel themselves abandoned not only by man but by God; for an
+explosion of some of their gunpowder, on the morning of the 8th, by
+which Catesby and some others were scorched, struck terror into their
+hearts as a judgment from heaven. The assurance of innocence and of a
+just cause which till now had alone supported them was taken away. The
+greatness of their crime, its true nature, now struck home to them, and
+the few moments which remained to them of life were spent in prayer and
+in repentance. The supreme hour had now arrived. About 11 o'clock the
+sheriff and his men came up and immediately began firing into the house.
+Catesby, Percy and the two Wrights were killed, Winter and Rokewood
+wounded and taken prisoners with the men who still adhered to them. In
+all eight of the conspirators, including the two Winters, Digby, Fawkes,
+Rokewood, Keyes and Bates, were executed, while Tresham died in the
+Tower. Of the priests involved, Garnet was tried and executed, while
+Greenway and Gerard succeeded in escaping.
+
+So ended the strange and famous Gunpowder Plot. However atrocious its
+conception and its aims, it is impossible not to feel, together with
+horror for the deed, some pity and admiration for the guilty persons who
+took part in it. "Theirs was a crime which it would never have entered
+into the heart of any man to commit who was not raised above the lowness
+of the ordinary criminal." They sinned not against the light but in the
+dark. They erred from ignorance, from a perverted moral sense rather
+than from any mean or selfish motive, and exhibited extraordinary
+courage and self-sacrifice in the pursuit of what seemed to them the
+cause of God and of their country. Their punishment was terrible. Not
+only had they risked and lost all in the attempt and drawn upon
+themselves the frightful vengeance of the state, but they saw themselves
+the means of injuring irretrievably the cause for which they felt such
+devotion. Nothing could have been more disastrous to the cause of the
+Roman Catholics than their crime. The laws against them were immediately
+increased in severity, and the gradual advance towards religious
+toleration was put back for centuries. In addition a new, increased and
+long-enduring hostility was aroused in the country against the adherents
+of the old faith, not unnatural in the circumstances, but unjust and
+undiscriminating, because while some of the Jesuits were no doubt
+implicated, the secular priests and Roman Catholic laity as a whole had
+taken no part in the conspiracy.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The recent controversy concerning the nature and origin
+  of the plot can be followed in _What was the Gunpowder Plot?_ by John
+  Gerard, S.J. (1897); _What Gunpowder Plot was_, by S. R. Gardiner (a
+  rejoinder) (1897); _The Gunpowder Plot ... in reply to Professor
+  Gardiner_, by John Gerard, S.J. (1897); _Thomas Winter's Confession
+  and the Gunpowder Plot_, by John Gerard, S.J. (with facsimiles of his
+  writing) (1898); _Eng. Hist. Rev._ iii. 510 and xii. 791; _Edinburgh
+  Review_, clxxxv. 183; _Athenaeum_ 1897, ii. 149, 785, 855; 1898, i.
+  23, ii. 352, 420; _Academy_, vol. 52 p. 84; _The Nation_, vol. 65 p.
+  400. A considerable portion of the controversy centres round the
+  question of the authenticity of Thomas Winter's confession, the MS. of
+  which is at Hatfield, supported by Professor Gardiner, but denied by
+  Father Gerard principally on account of the document having been
+  signed "Winter" instead of "Wintour," the latter apparently being the
+  conspirator's usual style of signature. The document was deposited by
+  the 3rd Marquess of Salisbury for inspection at the Record Office, and
+  was pronounced by two experts, one from the British Museum and another
+  from the Record Office, to be undoubtedly genuine. The cause of the
+  variation in the signature still remains unexplained, but ceases to
+  have therefore any great historical importance. The bibliography of
+  the contemporary controversy is given in the article on Henry Garnet
+  in the _Dictionary of National Biography_ and in _The Gunpowder Plot_
+  by David Jardine (1857), the latter work still remaining the principal
+  authority on the subject; add to these Gardiner's _Hist. of England_,
+  i., where an excellent account is given; _History of the Jesuits in
+  England_, by Father Ethelred Taunton (1901); Father Gerard's
+  _Narrative in Condition of the Catholics under James I._ (1872), and
+  Father Greenway's Narrative in _Troubles of our Catholic Forefathers_,
+  1st series (1872), interesting as contemporary accounts, but not to be
+  taken as complete or infallible authorities, of the same nature being
+  _Historia Provinciae Anglicanae Societatis Jesu_, by Henry More, S.J.
+  (1660), pp. 309 et seq.; also History of Great Britain, by John Speed
+  (1611), pp. 839 et seq.; _Archaeologia_, xii. 200, xxviii. 422, xxix.
+  80; _Harleian Miscellany_ (1809), iii. 119-135, or _Somers Tracts_
+  (1809), ii. 97-117; M. A. Tierney's ed. of _Dodd's Church History_,
+  vol. iv. (1841); _Treason and Plot_, by Martin Hume (1901); _Notes and
+  Queries_, 7 ser. vi., 8 ser. iv. 408, 497, v. 55, xii. 505, 9 ser. xi.
+  115; _Add. MSS. Brit. Mus._ 6178; _State Trials_, ii.; _Calendar of
+  State Pap. Dom._ (1603-1610), and the official account, _A True and
+  Perfect Relation of the Whole Proceedings against the late most
+  Barbarous Traitors_ (1606), a neither true nor complete narrative
+  however, now superseded as an authority, reprinted as _The Gunpowder
+  Treason ..._ with additions in 1679 by Thomas Barlow, bishop of
+  Lincoln. A large number of letters and papers in the State Paper
+  Office relating to the plot were collected in one volume in 1819,
+  called the _Gunpowder Plot Book_; these are noted in their proper
+  place in the printed calendars of State Papers, Domestic Series; see
+  also articles on FAWKES, GUY; TRESHAM, FRANCIS; MONTEAGLE, WILLIAM
+  PARKER, 4TH BARON; PERCY, THOMAS; CATESBY, ROBERT; GARNET, HENRY;
+  DIGBY, SIR EVERARD.     (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+
+
+GUN-ROOM, a ship cabin occupied by the officers below the rank of
+lieutenant, but who are not warrant officers of the class of the
+boatswain, gunner or carpenter. In the wooden sailing ships it was on
+the lower deck, and was originally the quarters of the gunner.
+
+
+
+
+GUNTER, EDMUND (1581-1626), English mathematician, of Welsh extraction,
+was born in Hertfordshire in 1581. He was educated at Westminster
+school, and in 1599 was elected a student of Christ Church, Oxford. He
+took orders, became a preacher in 1614, and in 1615 proceeded to the
+degree of bachelor in divinity. Mathematics, however, which had been his
+favourite study in youth, continued to engross his attention, and on the
+6th of March 1619 he was appointed professor of astronomy in Gresham
+College, London. This post he held till his death on the 10th of
+December 1626. With Gunter's name are associated several useful
+inventions, descriptions of which are given in his treatises on the
+_Sector, Cross-staff, Bow, Quadrant and other Instruments_. He contrived
+his sector about the year 1606, and wrote a description of it in Latin,
+but it was more than sixteen years afterwards before he allowed the book
+to appear in English. In 1620 he published his _Canon triangulorum_ (see
+LOGARITHMS). There is reason to believe that Gunter was the first to
+discover (in 1622 or 1625) that the magnetic needle does not retain the
+same declination in the same place at all times. By desire of James I.
+he published in 1624 _The Description and Use of His Majestie's Dials in
+Whitehall Garden_, the only one of his works which has not been
+reprinted. He introduced the words cosine and cotangent, and he
+suggested to Henry Briggs, his friend and colleague, the use of the
+arithmetical complement (see Brigg's _Arithmetica Logarithmica_, cap.
+xv.). His practical inventions are briefly noticed below:
+
+  _Gunter's Chain_, the chain in common use for surveying, is 22 yds.
+  long and is divided into 100 links. Its usefulness arises from its
+  decimal or centesimal division, and the fact that 10 square chains
+  make an acre.
+
+  _Gunter's Line_, a logarithmic line, usually laid down upon scales,
+  sectors, &c. It is also called _the line of lines_ and _the line of
+  numbers_, being only the logarithms graduated upon a ruler, which
+  therefore serves to solve problems instrumentally in the same manner
+  as logarithms do arithmetically.
+
+  _Gunter's Quadrant_, an instrument made of wood, brass or other
+  substance, containing a kind of stereographic projection of the sphere
+  on the plane of the equinoctial, the eye being supposed to be placed
+  in one of the poles, so that the tropic, ecliptic, and horizon form
+  the arcs of circles, but the hour circles are other curves, drawn by
+  means of several altitudes of the sun for some particular latitude
+  every year. This instrument is used to find the hour of the day, the
+  sun's azimuth, &c., and other common problems of the sphere or globe,
+  and also to take the altitude of an object in degrees.
+
+  _Gunter's Scale_ (generally called by seamen the _Gunter_) is a large
+  plane scale, usually 2 ft. long by about 1-1/2 in. broad, and engraved
+  with various lines of numbers. On one side are placed the natural
+  lines (as the line of chords, the line of sines, tangents, rhumbs,
+  &c.), and on the other side the corresponding artificial or
+  logarithmic ones. By means of this instrument questions in navigation,
+  trigonometry, &c., are solved with the aid of a pair of compasses.
+
+
+
+
+GUNTHER, JOHANN CHRISTIAN (1695-1723), German poet, was born at Striegau
+in Lower Silesia on the 8th of April 1695. After attending the gymnasium
+at Schweidnitz, he was sent in 1715 by his father, a country doctor, to
+study medicine at Wittenberg; but he was idle and dissipated, had no
+taste for the profession chosen for him, and came to a complete rupture
+with his family. In 1717 he went to Leipzig, where he was befriended by
+J. B. Mencke (1674-1732), who recognized his genius; and there he
+published a poem on the peace of Passarowitz (concluded between the
+German emperor and the Porte in 1718) which acquired him reputation. A
+recommendation from Mencke to Frederick Augustus II. of Saxony, king of
+Poland, proved worse than useless, as Gunther appeared at the audience
+drunk. From that time he led an unsettled and dissipated life, sinking
+ever deeper into the slough of misery, until he died at Jena on the 15th
+of March 1723, when only in his 28th year. Goethe pronounces Gunther to
+have been a poet in the fullest sense of the term. His lyric poems as a
+whole give evidence of deep and lively sensibility, fine imagination,
+clever wit, and a true ear for melody and rhythm; but an air of cynicism
+is more or less present in most of them, and dull or vulgar witticisms
+are not infrequently found side by side with the purest inspirations of
+his genius.
+
+  Gunther's collected poems were published in four volumes (Breslau,
+  1723-1735). They are also included in vol. vi. of Tittmann's _Deutsche
+  Dichter des 17ten Jahrh._ (Leipzig, 1874), and vol. xxxviii. of
+  Kurschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_ (1883). A pretended
+  autobiography of Gunther appeared at Schweidnitz in 1732, and a life
+  of him by Siebrand at Leipzig in 1738. See Hoffmann von Fallersleben,
+  _J. Ch. Gunther_ (Breslau, 1833); O. Roquette, _Leben und Dichten J.
+  Ch. Gunthers_ (Stuttgart, 1860); M. Kalbeck, _Neue Beitrage zur
+  Biographie des Dichters C. Gunther_ (Breslau, 1879).
+
+
+
+
+GUNTHER OF SCHWARZBURG (1304-1349), German king, was a descendant of the
+counts of Schwarzburg and the younger son of Henry VII., count of
+Blankenburg. He distinguished himself as a soldier, and rendered good
+service to the emperor Louis IV., on whose death in 1347 he was offered
+the German throne, after it had been refused by Edward III., king of
+England. He was elected German king at Frankfort on the 30th of January
+1349 by four of the electors, who were partisans of the house of
+Wittelsbach and opponents of Charles of Luxemburg, afterwards the
+emperor Charles IV. Charles, however, won over many of Gunther's
+adherents, defeated him at Eltville, and Gunther, who was now seriously
+ill, renounced his claims for the sum of 20,000 marks of silver. He died
+three weeks afterwards at Frankfort, and was buried in the cathedral of
+that city, where a statue was erected to his memory in 1352.
+
+  See Graf L. Utterodt zu Scharffenberg, _Gunther, Graf von Schwarzburg,
+  erwahlter deutscher Konig_ (Leipzig, 1862); and K. Janson, _Das
+  Konigtum Gunthers von Schwarzburg_ (Leipzig, 1880).
+
+
+
+
+GUNTRAM, or GONTRAN (561-592), king of Burgundy, was one of the sons of
+Clotaire I. On the death of his father (561) he and his three brothers
+divided the Frankish realm between them, Guntram receiving as his share
+the valleys of the Saone and Rhone, together with Berry and the town of
+Orleans, which he made his capital. On the death of Charibert (567), he
+further obtained the _civitates_ of Saintes, Angouleme and Perigueux.
+During the civil war which broke out between the kings of Neustria and
+Austrasia, his policy was to try to maintain a state of equilibrium.
+After the assassination of Sigebert (575), he took the youthful
+Childebert II. under his protection, and, thanks to his assistance
+against the intrigues of the great lords, the latter was able to
+maintain his position in Austrasia. After the death of Chilperic (584)
+he protected the young Clotaire II. in the same way, and prevented
+Childebert from seizing his dominions. His course was rendered easier by
+the fact that his own sons had died; consequently, having an inheritance
+at his disposal, he was able to offer it to whichever of his nephews he
+wished. The danger to the Frankish realm caused by the expedition of
+Gundobald (585), and the anxiety which was caused him by the revolts of
+the great lords in Austrasia finally decided him in favour of
+Childebert. He adopted him as his son, and recognized him as his heir at
+the treaty of Andelot (587); he also helped him to crush the great
+lords, especially Ursion and Berthefried, who were conquered in la
+Woevre. From this time on he ceased to play a prominent part in the
+affairs of Austrasia. He died in 592, and Childebert received his
+inheritance without opposition. Gregory of Tours is very indulgent to
+Guntram, who showed himself on occasions generous towards the church; he
+almost always calls him "good king Guntram," and in his writings are to
+be found such phrases as "good king Guntram took as his servant a
+concubine Veneranda" (iv. 25); but Guntram was really no better than the
+other kings of his age; he was cruel and licentious, putting his
+_cubicularius_ Condo to death, for instance, because he was suspected of
+having killed a buffalo in the Vosges. He was moreover a coward, and
+went in such constant terror of assassination that he always surrounded
+himself with a regular bodyguard.
+
+  See Krusch, "Zur Chronologie der merowingischen Konige," in the
+  _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, xxii. 451-490; Ulysse
+  Chevalier, _Bio-bibliographie_ (2nd ed.), s.v. "Guntram."     (C. Pf.)
+
+
+
+
+GUNTUR, a town and district of British India, in the Madras presidency.
+The town (pop. in 1901, 30,833) has a station on the Bellary-Bezwada
+branch of the Southern Mahratta railway. It is situated east of the
+Kondavid hills, and is very healthy. It appears to have been founded in
+the 18th century by the French. At the time of the cession of the
+Circars to the English in 1765, Guntur was specially exempted during the
+life of Basalat Jang, whose personal _jagir_ it was. In 1788 it came
+into British possession, the cession being finally confirmed in 1823. It
+has an important trade in cotton, with presses and ginning factories.
+There is a second-grade college supported by the American Lutheran
+Mission. Until 1859, Guntur was the headquarters of a district of the
+same name, and in 1904 a new DISTRICT OF GUNTUR was constituted,
+covering territory which till then had been divided between Kistna and
+Nellore. Area, 5733 sq. m. The population on this area in 1901 was
+1,490,635. The district is bounded on the E. and N. by the river Kistna;
+in the W. a considerable part of the boundary is formed by the
+Gundlakamma river. The greater part consists of a fertile plain
+irrigated by canals from the Kistna, and producing cotton, rice and
+other crops.
+
+
+
+
+GUPTA, an empire and dynasty of northern India, which lasted from about
+A.D. 320 to 480. The dynasty was founded by Chandragupta I., who must
+not be confounded with his famous predecessor Chandragupta Maurya. He
+gave his name to the Gupta era, which continued in use for several
+centuries, dating from the 26th of February, A.D. 320. Chandragupta was
+succeeded by Samudragupta (c. A.D. 326-375), one of the greatest of
+Indian kings, who conquered nearly the whole of India, and whose
+alliances extended from the Oxus to Ceylon; but his name was at one time
+entirely lost to history, and has only been recovered of recent years
+from coins and inscriptions. His empire rivalled that of Asoka,
+extending from the Hugli on the east to the Jumna and Chambal on the
+west, and from the foot of the Himalayas on the north to the Nerbudda on
+the south. His son Chandragupta II. (c. A.D. 375-413) was also known as
+Vikra-Maditya (q.v.), and seems to have been the original of the
+mythical Hindu king of that name. About 388 he conquered the Saka satrap
+of Surashtra (Kathiawar) and penetrated to the Arabian Sea. His
+administration is described in the work of Fa-hien, the earliest Chinese
+pilgrim, who visited India in A.D. 405-411. Pataliputra was the capital
+of the dynasty, but Ajodhya seems to have been sometimes used by both
+Samudragupta and Chandragupta II. as the headquarters of government. The
+Gupta dynasty appears to have fostered a revival of Brahmanism at the
+expense of Buddhism, and to have given an impulse to art and literature.
+The golden age of the empire lasted from A.D. 330 to 455, beginning to
+decline after the latter date. When Skandagupta came to the throne in
+455, India was threatened with an irruption of the White Huns, on whom
+he inflicted a severe defeat, thus saving his kingdom for a time; but
+about 470 the White Huns (see EPHTHALITES) returned to the attack, and
+the empire was gradually destroyed by their repeated inroads. When
+Skandagupta died about 480, the Gupta empire came to an end, but the
+dynasty continued to rule in the eastern provinces for several
+generations. The last known prince of the imperial line of Guptas was
+Kamaragupta II. (c. 535), after whom it passed "by an obscure
+transition" into a dynasty of eleven Gupta princes, known as "the later
+Guptas of Magadha," who seem for the most part to have been merely local
+rulers of Magadha. One of them, however, Adityasena, after the death of
+the paramount sovereign in 648, asserted his independence. The last
+known Gupta king was Jivitagupta II., who reigned early in the 8th
+century. About the middle of the century Magadha passed under the sway
+of the Pal kings of Bengal.
+
+  See J. F. Fleet, _Gupta Inscriptions_ (1888); and Vincent A. Smith,
+  _The Early History of India_ (2nd ed., Oxford, 1908), pp. 264-295.
+
+
+
+
+GURA, EUGEN (1842-1906), German singer, was born near Saatz in Bohemia,
+and educated at first for the career of a painter at Vienna and Munich;
+but later, developing a fine baritone voice, he took up singing and
+studied it at the Munich Conservatorium. In 1865 he made his debut at
+the Munich opera, and in the following years he gained the highest
+reputation in Germany, being engaged principally at Leipzig till 1876
+and then at Hamburg till 1883. He sang in 1876 in the _Ring_ at
+Bayreuth, and was famous for his Wagnerian roles; and his Hans Sachs in
+_Meistersinger_, as performed in London in 1882, was magnificent. In
+later years he showed the perfection of art in his singing of German
+_Lieder_. He died in Bavaria on the 26th of August 1906.
+
+
+
+
+GURDASPUR, a town and district of British India, in the Lahore division
+of the Punjab. The town had a population in 1901 of 5764. It has a fort
+(now containing a Brahman monastery) which was famous for the siege it
+sustained in 1712 from the Moguls. The Sikh leader, Banda, was only
+reduced by starvation, when he and his men were tortured to death after
+capitulating.
+
+The DISTRICT comprises an area of 1889 sq. m. It is bounded on the N. by
+the native states of Kashmir and Chamba, on the E. by Kangra district
+and the river Beas, on the S.W. by Amritsar district, and on the W. by
+Sialkot, and occupies the submontane portion of the Bari Doab, or tract
+between the Beas and the Ravi. An intrusive spur of the British
+dominions runs northward into the lower Himalayan ranges, to include the
+mountain sanatorium of Dalhousie, 7687 ft. above sea-level. This
+station, which has a large fluctuating population during the warmer
+months, crowns the most westerly shoulder of a magnificent snowy range,
+the Dhaoladhar, between which and the plain two minor ranges intervene.
+Below the hills stretches a picturesque and undulating plateau covered
+with abundant timber, made green by a copious rainfall, and watered by
+the streams of the Bari Doab, which, diverted by dams and embankments,
+now empty their waters into the Beas directly, in order that their
+channels may not interfere with the Bari Doab canal. The district
+contains several large _jhils_ or swampy lakes, and is famous for its
+snipe-shooting. It is historically important in connexion with the rise
+of the Sikh confederacy. The whole of the Punjab was then distributed
+among the Sikh chiefs who triumphed over the imperial governors. In the
+course of a few years, however, the maharaja Ranjit Singh acquired all
+the territory which those chiefs had held. Pathankot and the
+neighbouring villages in the plain, together with the whole hill portion
+of the district, formed part of the area ceded by the Sikhs to the
+British after the first Sikh war in 1846. In 1862, after receiving one
+or two additions, the district was brought into its present shape. In
+1901 the population was 940,334, showing a slight decrease, compared
+with an increase of 15% in the previous decade. A branch of the
+North-Western railway runs through the district. The largest town and
+chief commercial centre is Batala. There are important woollen mills at
+Dhariwal, and besides their products the district exports cotton, sugar,
+grain and oil-seeds.
+
+
+
+
+GURGAON, a town and district of British India, in the Delhi division of
+the Punjab. The town (pop. in 1901, 4765) is the headquarters of the
+district, but is otherwise unimportant. The district has an area of 1984
+sq. m. It is bounded on the N. by Rohtak, on the W. and S.W. by portions
+of the Alwar, Nabha and Jind native states, on the S. by the Muttra
+district of the United Provinces, on the E. by the river Jumna and on
+the N.E. by Delhi. It comprises the southernmost corner of the Punjab
+province, stretching away from the level plain towards the hills of
+Rajputana. Two low rocky ranges enter its borders from the south and run
+northward in a bare and unshaded mass toward the plain country. East of
+the western ridge the valley is wide and open, extending to the banks of
+the Jumna. To the west lies the subdivision of Rewari, consisting of a
+sandy plain dotted with isolated hills. Numerous torrents carry off the
+drainage from the upland ranges, and the most important among them empty
+themselves at last into the Najafgarh _jhil_. This swampy lake lies to
+the east of the civil station of Gurgaon, and stretches long arms into
+the neighbouring districts of Delhi and Rohtak. Salt is manufactured in
+wells at several villages. The mineral products are iron ore, copper
+ore, plumbago and ochre.
+
+In 1803 Gurgaon district passed into the hands of the British after Lord
+Lake's conquests. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in May 1857, the nawab
+of Farukhnagar, the principal feudatory of the district, rose in
+rebellion. The Meos and many Rajput families followed his example. A
+faithful native officer preserved the public buildings and records at
+Rewari from destruction; but with this exception, British authority
+became extinguished for a time throughout Gurgaon. After the fall of the
+rebel capital, a force marched into the district and either captured or
+dispersed the leaders of rebellion. The territory of the nawab was
+confiscated on account of his participation in the Mutiny. Civil
+administration was resumed under orders from the Punjab government, to
+which province the district was formally annexed on the final
+pacification of the country. The population in 1901 was 746,208, showing
+an increase of 11% in the decade. The largest town and chief trade
+centre is Rewari. The district is now traversed by several lines of
+railway, and irrigation is provided by the Agra canal. The chief trade
+is in cereals, but hardware is also exported.
+
+
+
+
+GURKHA (pronounced _goorka_; from Sans. _gau_, a cow, and _raks_, to
+protect), the ruling Hindu race in Nepal (q.v.). The Gurkhas, or
+Gurkhalis, claim descent from the rajas of Chitor in Rajputana. When
+driven out of their own country by the Mahommedan invasion, they took
+refuge in the hilly districts about Kumaon, whence they gradually
+invaded the country to the eastward as far as Gurkha, Noakote and
+ultimately to the valley of Nepal and even Sikkim. They were stopped by
+the English in an attempt to push south, and the treaty of Segauli,
+which ended the Gurkha War of 1814, definitely limited their
+territorial growth. The Gurkhas of the present day remain Hindus by
+religion, but show in their appearance a strong admixture of Mongolian
+blood. They make splendid infantry soldiers, and by agreement with their
+government about 20,000 have been recruited for the Gurkha regiments of
+the Indian army. As a rule they are bold, enduring, faithful, frank,
+independent and self-reliant. They despise other Orientals, but admire
+and fraternize with Europeans, whose tastes in sport and war they share.
+They strongly resemble the Japanese, but are of a sturdier build. Their
+national weapon is the _kukri_, a heavy curved knife, which they use for
+every possible purpose.
+
+  See Capt. Eden Vansittart, _Notes on the Gurkhas_ (1898); and P. D.
+  Bonarjee, _The Fighting Races of India_ (1899).
+
+
+
+
+GURNALL, WILLIAM (1617-1679), English author, was born in 1617 at King's
+Lynn, Norfolk. He was educated at the free grammar school of his native
+town, and in 1631 was nominated to the Lynn scholarship in Emmanuel
+College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1635 and M.A. in 1639. He
+was made rector of Lavenham in Suffolk in 1644; and before he received
+that appointment he seems to have officiated, perhaps as curate, at
+Sudbury. At the Restoration he signed the declaration required by the
+Act of Uniformity, and on this account he was the subject of a libellous
+attack, published in 1665, entitled _Covenant-Renouncers Desperate
+Apostates_. He died on the 12th of October 1679. Gurnall is known by his
+_Christian in Complete Armour_, published in three volumes, dated 1655,
+1658 and 1662. It consists of a series of sermons on the latter portion
+of the 6th chapter of Ephesians, and is described as a "magazine from
+whence the Christian is furnished with spiritual arms for the battle,
+helped on with his armour, and taught the use of his weapon; together
+with the happy issue of the whole war." The work is more practical than
+theological; and its quaint fancy, graphic and pointed style, and its
+fervent religious tone render it still popular with some readers.
+
+  See also _An Inquiry into the Life of the Rev. W. Gurnall_, by H.
+  M'Keon (1830), and a biographical introduction by Bishop Ryle to the
+  _Christian in Complete Armour_ (1865).
+
+
+
+
+GURNARD (_Trigla_), a genus of fishes forming a group of the family of
+"mailed cheeks" (_Triglidae_), and easily recognized by three detached
+finger-like appendages in front of the pectoral fins, and by their
+large, angular, bony head, the sides of which are protected by strong,
+hard and rough bones. The pectoral appendages are provided with strong
+nerves, and serve not only as organs of locomotion when the fish moves
+on the bottom, but also as organs of touch, by which it detects small
+animals on which it feeds. Gurnards are coast-fishes, generally
+distributed over the tropical and temperate areas; of the forty species
+known six occur on the coast of Great Britain, viz. the red gurnard (_T.
+pini_), the streaked gurnard (_T. lineata_), the sapphirine gurnard (_T.
+hirundo_), the grey gurnard (_T. gurnardus_), the piper (_T. lyra_) and
+the long-finned gurnard (_T. obscura_ or _T. lucerna_). Although never
+found very far from the coast, gurnards descend to depths of several
+hundred fathoms; and as they are bottom-fish they are caught chiefly by
+means of the trawl. Not rarely, however, they may be seen floating on
+the surface of the water, with their broad, finely coloured pectoral
+fins spread out like fans. In very young fishes, which abound in certain
+localities on the coast in the months of August and September, the
+pectorals are comparatively much longer than in the adult, extending to
+the end of the body; they are beautifully coloured and kept expanded,
+the little fishes looking like butterflies. When caught and taken out of
+the water, gurnards emit a grunting noise, which is produced by the
+vibrations of a diaphragm situated transversely across the cavity of the
+bladder and perforated in the centre. This grunting noise gave rise to
+the name "gurnard," which is probably an adaptation or variation of the
+Fr. _grognard_, grumbler, cf. the Fr. _grondin_, gurnard, from
+_gronder_, and Ger. _Knurrfisch_. Their flesh is very white, firm and
+wholesome.
+
+[Illustration: _Trigla pleuracanthica_.]
+
+
+
+
+GURNEY, the name of a philanthropic English family of bankers and
+merchants, direct descendants of Hugh de Gournay, lord of Gournay, one
+of the Norman noblemen who accompanied William the Conqueror to England.
+Large grants of land were made to Hugh de Gournay in Norfolk and
+Suffolk, and Norwich has since that time been the headquarters of the
+family, the majority of whom were Quakers. Here in 1770 the brothers
+John and Henry Gurney founded a banking-house, the business passing in
+1779 to Henry's son, Bartlett Gurney. On the death of Bartlett Gurney in
+1802 the bank became the property of his three cousins, of whom JOHN
+GURNEY (1750-1809) was the most remarkable. One of his daughters was
+Elizabeth Fry; another married Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton. Of his sons one
+was Joseph JOHN GURNEY (1788-1847), a well-known philanthropist of the
+day; another, SAMUEL GURNEY (1786-1856) assumed on his father's death
+the control of the Norwich bank. Samuel Gurney also took over about the
+same time the control of the London bill-broking business of Richardson,
+Overend & Company, in which he was already a partner. This business had
+been founded in 1800 by Thomas Richardson, clerk to a London
+bill-discounter, and John Overend, chief clerk in the bank of Smith,
+Payne & Company at Nottingham, the Gurneys supplying the capital. At
+that time bill-discounting was carried on in a spasmodic fashion by the
+ordinary merchant in addition to his regular business, but Richardson
+considered that there was room for a London house which should devote
+itself entirely to the trade in bills. This, at that time, novel idea
+proved an instant success. The title of the firm was subsequently
+changed to Overend, Gurney & Company, and for forty years it was the
+greatest discounting-house in the world. During the financial crisis of
+1825 Overend, Gurney & Company were able to make short loans to many
+other bankers. The house indeed became known as "the bankers' banker,"
+and secured many of the previous clients of the Bank of England. Samuel
+Gurney died in 1856. He was a man of very charitable disposition, and
+during the latter years of his life charitable and philanthropic
+undertakings almost monopolized his attention. In 1865 the business of
+Overend, Gurney & Company, which had come under less competent control,
+was converted into a joint stock company, but in 1866 the firm suspended
+payment with liabilities amounting to eleven millions sterling.
+
+
+
+
+GURNEY, EDMUND (1847-1888), English psychologist, was born at Hersham,
+near Walton-on-Thames, on the 23rd of March 1847. He was educated at
+Blackheath and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took a high place
+in the classical tripos and obtained a fellowship. His work for the
+schools was done, says his friend F. W. H. Myers, "in the intervals of
+his practice on the piano." Dissatisfied with his own executive skill as
+a musician, he wrote _The Power of Sound_ (1880), an essay on the
+philosophy of music. He then studied medicine with no intention of
+practising, devoting himself to physics, chemistry and physiology. In
+1880 he passed the second M.B. Cambridge examination in the science of
+the healing profession. These studies, and his great logical powers and
+patience in the investigation of evidence, he devoted to that outlying
+field of psychology which is called "Psychical Research." He asked
+whether, as universal tradition declares, there is an unexplored region
+of human faculty transcending the normal limitations of sensible
+knowledge. That there is such a region it was part of the system of
+Hegel to declare, and the subject had been metaphysically treated by
+Hartmann, Schopenhauer, Du Prel, Hamilton and others, as the philosophy
+of the Unconscious or Subconscious. But Gurney's purpose was to
+approach the subject by observation and experiment, especially in the
+hypnotic field, whereas vague and ill-attested anecdotes had hitherto
+been the staple of the evidence of metaphysicians. The tendency of his
+mind was to investigate whatever facts may give a colour of truth to the
+ancient belief in the persistence of the conscious human personality
+after the death of the body. Like Joseph Glanvill's, the natural bent of
+Gurney's mind was sceptical. Both thought the current and traditional
+reports of supernormal occurrences suggestive and worth investigating by
+the ordinary methods of scientific observation, and inquisition into
+evidence at first hand. But the method of Gurney was, of course, much
+more strict than that of the author of _Sadducismus Triumphatus_, and it
+included hypnotic and other experiments unknown to Glanvill. Gurney
+began at what he later saw was the wrong end by studying, with Myers,
+the "seances" of professed spiritualistic "mediums" (1874-1878). Little
+but detection of imposture came of this, but an impression was left that
+the subject ought not to be abandoned. In 1882 the Society for Psychical
+Research was founded. (See PSYCHICAL RESEARCH.) Paid mediums were
+discarded, at least for the time, and experiments were made in
+"thought-transference" and hypnotism. Personal evidence as to uninduced
+hallucinations was also collected. The first results are embodied in the
+volumes of _Phantasms of the Living_, a vast collection (Podmore, Myers
+and Gurney), and in Gurney's remarkable essay, _Hallucinations_. The
+chief consequence was to furnish evidence for the process called
+"telepathy," involving the provisional hypothesis that one human mind
+can affect another through no recognized channel of sense. The fact was
+supposed to be established by the experiments chronicled in the
+_Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research_, and it was argued
+that similar experiences occurred spontaneously, as, for example, in the
+many recorded instances of "deathbed wraiths" among civilized and savage
+races. (Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, i. chapter xi., especially pp.
+449-450, 1873. Lang, _Making of Religion_, pp. 120-124, 1898.) The dying
+man is supposed to convey the hallucination of his presence as one
+living person experimentally conveys his thought to another, by
+"thought-transference." Gurney's hypnotic experiments, marked by great
+exactness, patience and ingenuity, were undertaken in 1885-1888. Their
+tendency was, in Myers's words, "to prove--so far as any one operator's
+experience in this protean subject can be held to prove anything--that
+there is sometimes, in the induction of hypnotic phenomena, some agency
+at work which is neither ordinary nervous stimulation (monotonous or
+sudden) nor suggestion conveyed by any ordinary channel to the subject's
+mind." These results, if accepted, of course corroborate the idea of
+telepathy. (See Gurney, "Hypnotism and Telepathy," _Proceedings S. P.
+R._ vol. iv.) Experiments by MM. Gibert, Janet, Richet, Hericourt and
+others are cited as tending in the same direction. Other experiments
+dealt with "the relation of the memory in the hypnotic state to the
+memory in another hypnotic state, and of both to the normal or waking
+memory." The result of Gurney's labours, cut short by his early death,
+was to raise and strengthen the presumption that there exists an
+unexplored region of human faculty which ought not to be neglected by
+science as if the belief in it were a mere survival of savage
+superstition. Rather, it appears to have furnished the experiences
+which, misinterpreted, are expressed in traditional beliefs. That Gurney
+was credulous and easily imposed upon those who knew him, and knew his
+penetrating humour, cannot admit; nor is the theory likely to be
+maintained by those whom bias does not prevent from studying with care
+his writings. In controversy "he delighted in replying with easy
+courtesy to attacks envenomed with that _odium plus quam theologicum_
+which the very allusion to a ghost or the human soul seems in some
+philosophers to inspire." In discussion of themes unpopular and obscure
+Gurney displayed the highest tact, patience, good temper, humour and
+acuteness. There never was a more disinterested student. In addition to
+his work on music and his psychological writings, he was the author of
+_Tertium Quid_ (1887), a collection of essays, on the whole a protest
+against one-sided ideas and methods of discussion. He died at Brighton
+on 23rd June 1888, from the effects of an overdose of narcotic medicine.
+     (A. L.)
+
+
+
+
+GURWOOD, JOHN (1790-1845), British soldier, began his career in a
+merchant's office, but soon obtained an ensigncy in the 52nd (1808).
+With his regiment he served in the "Light Division" of Wellington's army
+throughout the earlier Peninsular campaigns, and at Ciudad Rodrigo (19th
+Jan. 1812) he led one of the forlorn hopes and was severely wounded. For
+his gallant conduct on this occasion Wellington presented Gurwood with
+the sword of the French governor of Ciudad Rodrigo. A little later,
+transferring to the 9th Light Dragoons, he was made brigade-major to the
+Guards' cavalry which had just arrived in the Peninsula. In the latter
+part of the war he served as brigade-major to Lambert's brigade of the
+sixth infantry division, and was present at the various actions in which
+that division played a conspicuous part--the Nivelle, the Nive, Orthes
+and Toulouse. At Waterloo Captain Gurwood was for the third time
+severely wounded. In the first twelve years of the peace he was promoted
+up to the grade of lieut.-colonel, and in 1841 became brevet-colonel. He
+was for many years the duke of Wellington's private secretary, and was
+entrusted by him with the collection and editing of the _Wellington
+Despatches_, which occupied Gurwood from 1837 to the end of his life.
+This work is a monument of industrious skill, and earned its author a
+Civil List Pension of L200. But overwork and the effects of his wounds
+had broken his health, and he committed suicide on Christmas day 1845.
+He was a C.B. and deputy-lieutenant of the Tower.
+
+
+
+
+GUSLA, or GUSLI, an ancient stringed instrument still in use among the
+Slavonic races. The modern Servian gusla is a kind of tanbur (see
+Pandura), consisting of a round, concave body covered with a parchment
+soundboard; there is but one horse-hair string, and the peg for tuning
+it is inserted in oriental fashion in the back of the head. The gusla is
+played with a primitive bow called _goudalo_. The _gouslars_ or blind
+bards of Servia and Croatia use it to accompany their chants. C. G.
+Anton[1] mentions an instrument of that name in the shape of a half-moon
+strung with eighteen strings in use among the Tatars. Prosper Merimee[2]
+has taken the _gusla_ as the title for a book of Servian poems, which
+are supposed to have been collected by him among the peasants, but which
+are thought to have been inspired by the _Viaggio in Dalmazia_ of
+Albarto Fortis.
+
+Among the Russians, the gusli is an instrument of a different type, a
+kind of psaltery having five or more strings stretched across a flat,
+shallow sound-chest in the shape of a wing. In the gusli the strings, of
+graduated length, are attached to little nails or pins at one end, and
+at the other they are wound over a rod having screw attachments for
+increasing and slackening the tension. There is no bridge to determine
+the vibrating length of the strings. The body of the instrument is
+shaped roughly like the tail of the grand piano, following the line of
+the strings; the longest being at the left of the instrument. Matthew
+Guthrie gives an illustration of the gusli.[3]     (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Erste Linien eines Versuchs uber den Ursprung der alten Slaven_
+    (Leipzig, 1783-1789), p. 145.
+
+  [2] _La Guzla, ou choix de poesies lyriques recueillies dans la
+    Dalmatie, la Bosnie, la Croatie, &c._ (Paris, 1827).
+
+  [3] _Dissertations sur les antiquites de Russie_ (St Petersburg,
+    1795), pl. ii. No. 9, p. 31.
+
+
+
+
+GUSTAVUS I. ERIKSSON (1496-1560), king of Sweden, was born at his
+mother's estate at Lindholm on Ascension Day 1496. He came of a family
+which had shone conspicuously in 15th-century politics, though it
+generally took the anti-national side. His father, Erik Johansson of
+Rydboholm, "a merry and jocose gentleman," but, like all the Swedish
+Vasas, liable to sudden fierce gusts of temper, was one of the senators
+who voted for the deposition of Archbishop Trolle, at the _riksdag_ of
+1517 (see SWEDEN, _History_), for which act of patriotism he lost his
+head. Gustavus's mother, Cecilia Mansdatter, was closely connected by
+marriage with the great Sture family. Gustavus's youthful experiences
+impressed him with a life-long distrust of everything Danish. In his
+eighteenth year he was sent to the court of his cousin Sten Sture. At
+the battle of Brannkyrka, when Sture defeated Christian II. of Denmark,
+the young Gustavus bore the governor's standard, and in the same year
+(1518) he was delivered with five other noble youths as a hostage to
+King Christian, who treacherously carried him prisoner to Denmark. He
+was detained for twelve months in the island fortress of Kalo, on the
+east coast of Jutland, but contrived to escape to Lubeck in September
+1519. There he found an asylum till the 20th of May 1520, when he
+chartered a ship to Kalmar, one of the few Swedish fortresses which held
+out against Christian II.
+
+It was while hunting near Lake Malar that the news of the Stockholm
+massacre was brought to him by a peasant fresh from the capital, who
+told him, at the same time, that a price had been set upon his head. In
+his extremity, Gustavus saw only one way of deliverance, an appeal for
+help to the sturdy yeomen of the dales. How the dalesmen set Gustavus on
+the throne and how he and they finally drove the Danes out of Sweden
+(1521-1523) is elsewhere recorded (see SWEDEN: _History_). But his worst
+troubles only began after his coronation on the 6th of June 1523. The
+financial position of the crown was the most important of all the
+problems demanding solution, for upon that everything else depended. By
+releasing his country from the tyranny of Denmark, Gustavus had made the
+free independent development of Sweden a possibility. It was for him to
+realize that possibility. First of all, order had to be evolved from the
+chaos in which Sweden had been plunged by the disruption of the Union;
+and the shortest, perhaps the only, way thereto was to restore the royal
+authority, which had been in abeyance during ninety years. But an
+effective reforming monarchy must stand upon a sound financial basis;
+and the usual revenues of the crown, always inadequate, were so
+diminished that they did not cover half the daily expenses of
+government. New taxes could only be imposed with extreme caution, while
+the country was still bleeding from the wounds of a long war. And men
+were wanted even more than money. The lack of capable, trustworthy
+administrators in Sweden was grievous. The whole burden of government
+weighed exclusively on the shoulders of the new king, a young man of
+seven and twenty. Half his time was taken up in travelling from one end
+of the kingdom to the other, and doing purely clerical work for want of
+competent assistance. We can form some idea of his difficulties when we
+learn that, in 1533, he could not send an ambassador to Lubeck because
+not a single man in his council, except himself, knew German. It was
+this lack of native talent which compelled Gustavus frequently to employ
+the services of foreign adventurers like Berent von Mehlen, John von
+Hoja, Konrad von Pyhy and others.
+
+It was not the least of Gustavus's many anxieties that he had constantly
+to be on the watch lest a formidable democratic rival should encroach on
+his prerogative. That rival was the Swedish peasantry. He succeeded
+indeed in putting down the four formidable rebellions which convulsed
+the realm from 1525 to 1542, but the consequent strain upon his
+resources was very damaging, and more than once he was on the point of
+abdicating and emigrating, out of sheer weariness. Moreover he was in
+constant fear of the Danes. Necessity compelled him indeed (1534-1536)
+to take part in _Grevens fejde_ (Counts' War) (see DENMARK, _History_),
+as the ally of Christian III., but his exaggerated distrust of the Danes
+was invincible. "We advise and exhort you," he wrote to the governor of
+Kalmar, "to put no hope or trust in the Danes, or in their sweet
+scribbling, inasmuch as they mean nothing at all by it except how best
+they may deceive and betray us Swedes." Such instructions were not
+calculated to promote confidence between Swedish and Danish negotiators.
+A fresh cause of dispute was generated in 1548, when Christian III.'s
+daughter was wedded to Duke Augustus of Saxony. On that occasion,
+apparently by way of protest against the decree of the diet of Vesteras
+(15th of January 1544), declaring the Swedish crown hereditary in
+Gustavus's family, the Danish king caused to be quartered on his
+daughter's shield not only the three Danish lions and the Norwegian lion
+with the axe of St Olaf, but also "the three crowns" of Sweden.
+Gustavus, naturally suspicious, was much perturbed by the innovation,
+and warned all his border officials to be watchful and prepare for the
+worst. In 1557 he even wrote to the Danish king protesting against the
+placing of "the three crowns" in the royal Danish seal beneath the arms
+of Denmark. Christian III. replied that "the three crowns" signified not
+Sweden in especial, but the three Scandinavian kingdoms, and that their
+insertion in the Danish shield was only a reminiscence of the union of
+Kalmar. But Gustavus was not satisfied, and this was the beginning of
+"the three crowns" dispute which did so much damage to both kingdoms.
+
+The events which led to the rupture of Gustavus with the Holy See are
+set forth in the proper place (see SWEDEN: _History_). Here it need only
+be added that it was a purely political act, as Gustavus, personally,
+had no strong dogmatic leanings either way. He not unnaturally expressed
+his amazement when that very juvenile reformer Olavus Petri confidently
+informed him that the pope was antichrist. He consulted the older and
+graver Laurentius Andreae, who told him how "Doctor Martinus had clipped
+the wings of the pope, the cardinals and the big bishops," which could
+not fail to be pleasing intelligence to a monarch who was never an
+admirer of episcopacy, while the rich revenues of the church,
+accumulated in the course of centuries, were a tempting object to the
+impecunious ruler of an impoverished people. Subsequently, when the
+Protestant hierarchy was forcibly established in Sweden, matters were
+much complicated by the absolutist tendencies of Gustavus. The incessant
+labour, the constant anxiety, which were the daily portion of Gustavus
+Vasa during the seven and thirty years of his reign, told at last even
+upon his magnificent constitution. In the spring of 1560, conscious of
+an ominous decline of his powers, Gustavus summoned his last diet, to
+give an account of his stewardship. On the 16th of June 1560 the
+assembly met at Stockholm. Ten days later, supported by his sons,
+Gustavus greeted the estates in the great hall of the palace, when he
+took a retrospect of his reign, reminding them of the misery of the
+kingdom during the union and its deliverance from "that unkind tyrant,
+King Christian." Four days later the diet passed a resolution confirming
+the hereditary right of Gustavus's son, Prince Eric, to the throne. The
+old king's last anxieties were now over and he could die in peace. He
+expired on the 29th of September 1560.
+
+Gustavus was thrice married. His first wife, Catherine, daughter of
+Magnus I., duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, bore him in 1533 his eldest son Eric.
+This union was neither long nor happy, but the blame for its infelicity
+is generally attributed to the lady, whose abnormal character was
+reflected and accentuated in her unhappy son. Much more fortunate was
+Gustavus's second marriage, a year after the death of his first consort,
+with his own countrywoman, Margaret Lejonhufvud, who bore him five sons
+and five daughters, of whom three sons, John, Magnus and Charles, and
+one daughter, Cecilia, survived their childhood. Queen Margaret died in
+1551; and a twelvemonth later Gustavus wedded her niece, Catharine
+Stenbock, a handsome girl of sixteen, who survived him more than sixty
+years.
+
+Gustavus's outward appearance in the prime of life is thus described by
+a contemporary: "He was of the middle height, with a round head, light
+yellow hair, a fine long beard, sharp eyes, a ruddy countenance ... and
+a body as fitly and well proportioned as any painter could have painted
+it. He was of a sanguine-choleric temperament, and when untroubled and
+unvexed, a bright and cheerful gentleman, easy to get on with, and
+however many people happened to be in the same room with him, he was
+never at a loss for an answer to every one of them." Learned he was not,
+but he had naturally bright and clear understanding, an unusually good
+memory, and a marvellous capacity for taking pains. He was also very
+devout, and his morals were irreproachable. On the other hand, Gustavus
+had his full share of the family failings of irritability and
+suspiciousness, the latter quality becoming almost morbid under the
+pressure of adverse circumstances. His energy too not infrequently
+degenerated into violence, and when crossed he was apt to be tyrannical.
+
+  See A. Alberg, _Gustavus Vasa and his Times_ (London, 1882); R. N.
+  Bain, _Scandinavia_, chaps. iii. and v. (Cambridge, 1905); P. B.
+  Watson, _The Swedish Revolution under Gustavus Vasa_ (London, 1889);
+  O. Sjogren, _Gustaf Vasa_ (Stockholm, 1896); C. M. Butler, _The
+  Reformation in Sweden_ (New York, 1883); _Sveriges Historia_
+  (Stockholm, 1877-1881); J. Weidling, _Schwedische Geschichte im
+  Zeitalter der Reformation_ (Gotha, 1882).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GUSTAVUS II. ADOLPHUS (1594-1632), king of Sweden, the eldest son of
+Charles IX. and of Christina, daughter of Adolphus, duke of
+Holstein-Gottorp, was born at Stockholm castle on the 9th of December
+1594. From the first he was carefully nurtured to be the future prop of
+Protestantism by his austere parents. Gustavus was well grounded in the
+classics, and his linguistic accomplishments were extraordinary. He may
+be said to have grown up with two mother-tongues, Swedish and German; at
+twelve he had mastered Latin, Italian and Dutch; and he learnt
+subsequently to express himself in Spanish, Russian and Polish. But his
+practical father took care that he should grow up a prince, not a
+pedant. So early as his ninth year he was introduced to public life; at
+thirteen he received petitions and conversed officially with the foreign
+ministers; at fifteen he administered his duchy of Vestmanland and
+opened the Orebro diet with a speech from the throne; indeed from 1610
+he may be regarded as his father's co-regent. In all martial and
+chivalrous accomplishments he was already an adept; and when, a year
+later, he succeeded to supreme power, his superior ability was as
+uncontested as it was incontestable.
+
+The first act of the young king was to terminate the fratricidal
+struggle with Denmark by the peace of Knared (28th of January 1613).
+Simultaneously, another war, also an heritage from Charles IX., had been
+proceeding in the far distant regions round lakes Ilmen, Peipus and
+Ladoga, with Great Novgorod as its centre. It was not, however, like the
+Danish War, a national danger, but a political speculation meant to be
+remunerative and compensatory, and was concluded very advantageously for
+Sweden by the peace of Stolbova on the 27th of February 1617 (see
+SWEDEN: _History_). By this peace Gustavus succeeded in excluding
+Muscovy from the Baltic. "I hope to God," he declared to the Stockholm
+diet in 1617, when he announced the conclusion of peace, "that the
+Russians will feel it a bit difficult to skip over _that_ little brook."
+The war with Poland which Gustavus resumed in 1621 was a much more
+difficult affair. It began with an attack upon Riga as the first step
+towards conquering Livonia. Riga was invested on the 13th of August and
+surrendered on the 15th of September; on the 3rd of October Mitau was
+occupied; but so great were the ravages of sickness during the campaign
+that the Swedish army had to be reinforced by no fewer than 10,000 men.
+A truce was thereupon concluded and hostilities were suspended till the
+summer of 1625, in the course of which Gustavus took Kokenhusen and
+invaded Lithuania. In January 1626 he attacked the Poles at Walhof and
+scattered the whole of their army after slaying a fifth part of it. This
+victory, remarkable besides as Gustavus's first pitched battle,
+completed the conquest of Livonia. As, however, it became every year
+more difficult to support an army in the Dvina district, Gustavus now
+resolved to transfer the war to the Prussian provinces of Poland with a
+view to securing the control of the Vistula, as he had already secured
+the control of the Dvina. At the end of 1626, the Swedish fleet, with
+14,000 men on board, anchored in front of the chain of sand-dunes which
+separates the Frische-Haff from the Baltic. Pillau, the only Baltic port
+then accessible to ships of war, was at once occupied, and Konigsberg
+shortly afterwards was scared into an unconditional neutrality. July was
+passed in conquering the bishopric of Ermeland. The surrender of Elbing
+and Marienburg placed Gustavus in possession of the fertile and easily
+defensible delta of the Vistula, which he treated as a permanent
+conquest, making Axel Oxenstjerna its first governor-general.
+Communications between Danzig and the sea were cut off by the erection
+of the first of Gustavus's famous entrenched camps at Dirschau. From the
+end of August 1626 the city was blockaded, and in the meantime Polish
+irregulars, under the capable Stanislaus Koniecpolski, began to harass
+the Swedes. But the object of the campaign, a convenient basis of
+operations, was won; and in October the king departed to Sweden to get
+reinforcements. He returned in May 1627 with 7000 men, which raised his
+forces to 14,000, against which Koniecpolski could only oppose 9000.
+But his superior strategy frustrated all the efforts of the Swedish
+king, who in the course of the year was twice dangerously wounded and so
+disabled that he could never wear armour again. Gustavus had made
+extensive preparations for the ensuing campaign and took the field with
+32,000 men. But once again, though far outnumbered, and unsupported by
+his own government, the Polish grand-hetman proved more than a match for
+Gustavus, who, on the 10th of September, broke up his camp and returned
+to Prussia; the whole autumn campaign had proved a failure and cost him
+5000 men. During the ensuing campaign of 1629 Gustavus had to contend
+against the combined forces of Koniecpolski and 10,000 of Wallenstein's
+mercenaries. The Polish commander now showed the Swedes what he could do
+with adequate forces. At Stuhm, on the 29th of June, he defeated
+Gustavus, who lost most of his artillery and narrowly escaped capture.
+The result of the campaign was the conclusion of the six years' truce of
+Altmark, which was very advantageous to Sweden.
+
+And now Gustavus turned his attention to Germany. The motives which
+induced the Swedish king to intervene directly in the Thirty Years' War
+are told us by himself in his correspondence with Oxenstjerna. Here he
+says plainly that it was the fear lest the emperor should acquire the
+Baltic ports and proceed to build up a sea-power dangerous to
+Scandinavia. For the same reason, the king rejected the chancellor's
+alternative of waging a simply defensive war against the emperor by
+means of the fleet, with Stralsund as his base. He was convinced by the
+experience of Christian IV. of Denmark that the enemies' harbours could
+be wrested from them only by a successful offensive war on land; and,
+while quite alive to the risks of such an enterprise in the face of two
+large armies, Tilly's and Wallenstein's, each of them larger than his
+own, he argued that the vast extent of territory and the numerous
+garrisons which the enemy was obliged to maintain, more than neutralized
+his numerical superiority. Merely to blockade all the German ports with
+the Swedish fleet was equally impossible. The Swedish fleet was too weak
+for that; it would be safer to take and fortify the pick of them. In
+Germany itself, if he once got the upper hand, he would not find himself
+without resources. It is no enthusiastic crusader, but an anxious and
+farseeing if somewhat speculative statesman who thus opens his mind to
+us. No doubt religious considerations largely influenced Gustavus. He
+had the deepest sympathy for his fellow-Protestants in Germany; he
+regarded them as God's peculiar people, himself as their divinely
+appointed deliverer. But his first duty was to Sweden; and, naturally
+and rightly, he viewed the whole business from a predominantly Swedish
+point of view. Lutherans and Calvinists were to be delivered from a
+"soul-crushing tyranny"; but they were to be delivered by a foreign if
+friendly power; and that power claimed as her reward the hegemony of
+Protestant Europe and all the political privileges belonging to that
+exalted position.
+
+On the 19th of May 1630 Gustavus solemnly took leave of the estates of
+the realm assembled at Stockholm. He appeared before them holding in his
+arms his only child and heiress, the little princess Christina, then in
+her fourth year, and tenderly committed her to the care of his loyal and
+devoted people. Then he solemnly took the estates to witness, as he
+stood there "in the sight of the Almighty," that he had begun
+hostilities "out of no lust for war, as many will certainly devise and
+imagine," but in self-defence and to deliver his fellow-Christians from
+oppression. On the 7th of June 1630 the Swedish fleet set sail, and two
+days after midsummer day, the whole army, 16,000 strong, was disembarked
+at Peenemunde. Gustavus's plan was to take possession of the mouths of
+the Oder Haff, and, resting upon Stralsund in the west and Prussia in
+the east, penetrate into Germany. In those days rivers were what
+railways now are, the great military routes; and Gustavus's German war
+was a war waged along river lines. The opening campaign was to be fought
+along the line of the Oder. Stettin, the capital of Pomerania, and the
+key of the Oder line, was occupied and converted into a first-class
+fortress. He then proceeded to clear Pomerania of the piebald imperial
+host composed of every nationality under heaven, and officered by
+Italians, Irishmen, Czechs, Croats, Danes, Spaniards and Walloons.
+Gustavus's army has often been described by German historians as an army
+of foreign invaders; in reality it was far more truly Teutonic than the
+official defenders of Germany at that period. Gustavus's political
+difficulties (see SWEDEN: _History_) chained him to his camp for the
+remainder of the year. But the dismissal of Wallenstein and the
+declaration in Gustavus's favour of Magdeburg, the greatest city in the
+Lower Saxon Circle, and strategically the strongest fortress of North
+Germany, encouraged him to advance boldly. But first, honour as well as
+expediency moved him to attempt to relieve Magdeburg, now closely
+invested by the imperialists, especially as his hands had now been
+considerably strengthened by a definite alliance with France (treaty of
+Barwalde, 13th of January 1631). Magdeburg, therefore, became the focus
+of the whole campaign of 1631; but the obstructive timidity of the
+electors of Brandenburg and Saxony threw insuperable obstacles in his
+way, and, on the very day when John George I. of Saxony closed his gates
+against Gustavus the most populous and prosperous city in North Germany
+became a heap of smoking ruins (20th of May). Gustavus, still too weak
+to meet the foe, entrenched himself at Werben, at the confluence of the
+Havel and Elbe. Only on the 12th of September did the elector of Saxony,
+alarmed for the safety of his own states, now invaded by the emperor,
+place himself absolutely at the disposal of Gustavus; and, five days
+later, at the head of the combined Swedish-Saxon army, though the Swedes
+did all the fighting, Gustavus routed Tilly at the famous battle of
+Breitenfeld, north of Leipzig.
+
+The question now was: In what way should Gustavus utilize his advantage?
+Should he invade the Austrian crown lands, and dictate peace to
+Ferdinand II. at the gates of Vienna? Or should he pursue Tilly
+westwards and crush the league at its own hearth and home? Oxenstjerna
+was the first alternative, but Gustavus decided in favour of the second.
+His decision has been greatly blamed. More than one modern historian has
+argued that if Gustavus had done in 1631 what Napoleon did in 1805 and
+1809, there would have been a fifteen instead of a thirty years' war.
+But it should be borne in mind that, in the days of Gustavus, Vienna was
+by no means so essential to the existence of the Habsburg monarchy as it
+was in the days of Napoleon; and even Gustavus could not allow so
+dangerous an opponent as Tilly time to recover himself. Accordingly, he
+set out for the Rhine, taking Marienberg and Frankfort on his way, and
+on the 20th of December entered Mainz, where he remained throughout the
+winter of 1631-1632. At the beginning of 1632, in order to bring about
+the general peace he so earnestly desired, he proposed to take the field
+with an overwhelming numerical majority. The signal for Gustavus to
+break up from the Rhine was the sudden advance of Tilly from behind the
+Danube. Gustavus pursued Tilly into Bavaria, forced the passage of the
+Danube at Donauworth and the passage of the Lech, in the face of Tilly's
+strongly entrenched camp at Rain, and pursued the flying foe to the
+fortress of Ingolstadt where Tilly died of his wounds a fortnight later.
+Gustavus then liberated and garrisoned the long-oppressed Protestant
+cities of Augsburg and Ulm, and in May occupied Munich. The same week
+Wallenstein chased John George from Prague and manoeuvred the Saxons
+out of Bohemia. Then, armed as he was with plenipotentiary power, he
+offered the elector of Saxony peace on his own terms. Gustavus suddenly
+saw himself exposed to extreme peril. If Tilly had made John George such
+an offer as Wallenstein was now empowered to make, the elector would
+never have become Gustavus's ally; would he remain Gustavus's ally now?
+Hastily quitting his quarters in Upper Swabia, Gustavus hastened towards
+Nuremberg on his way to Saxony, but finding that Wallenstein and
+Maximilian of Bavaria had united their forces, he abandoned the attempt
+to reach Saxony, and both armies confronted each other at Nuremberg
+which furnished Gustavus with a point of support of the first order. He
+quickly converted the town into an entrenched and fortified camp.
+Wallenstein followed the king's example, and entrenched himself on the
+western bank of the Regnitz in a camp twelve English miles in
+circumference. His object was to pin Gustavus fast to Nuremberg and cut
+off his retreat northwards. Throughout July and August the two armies
+faced each other immovably. On the 24th of August, after an unsuccessful
+attempt to storm Alte Veste, the key of Wallenstein's position, the
+Swedish host retired southwards.
+
+Towards the end of October, Wallenstein, after devastating Saxony, was
+preparing to go into winter quarters at Lutzen, when the king surprised
+him as he was crossing the Rippach (1st of November) and a rearguard
+action favourable to the Swedes ensued. Indeed, but for nightfall,
+Wallenstein's scattered forces might have been routed. During the night,
+however, Wallenstein re-collected his host for a decisive action, and at
+daybreak on the 6th of November, while an autumn mist still lay over the
+field, the battle began. It was obviously Gustavus's plan to drive
+Wallenstein away from the Leipzig road, north of which he had posted
+himself, and thus, in case of success, to isolate, and subsequently,
+with the aid of the Saxons in the Elbe fortresses, annihilate him. The
+king, on the Swedish right wing, succeeded in driving the enemy from the
+trenches and capturing his cannon. What happened after that is mere
+conjecture, for a thick mist now obscured the autumn sun, and the battle
+became a colossal melee the details of which are indistinguishable. It
+was in the midst of that awful obscurity that Gustavus met his
+death--how or where is not absolutely certain; but it would seem that he
+lost his way in the darkness while leading the Smaland horse to the
+assistance of his infantry, and was despatched as he lay severely
+wounded on the ground by a hostile horseman.
+
+By his wife, Marie Eleonora, a sister of the elector of Brandenburg,
+whom he married in 1620, Gustavus Adolphus had one daughter, Christina,
+who succeeded him on the throne of Sweden.
+
+  See _Sveriges Historia_ (Stockholm, 1877, 81), vol. iv.; A.
+  Oxenstjerna, _Skrifter och Brefvexling_ (Stockholm, 1900, &c.); G.
+  Bjorlen, _Gustaf Adolf_ (Stockholm, 1890); R. N. Bain, _Scandinavia_
+  (Cambridge, 1905); C. R. L. Fletcher, _Gustavus Adolphus_ (London,
+  1892); J. L. Stevens, _History of Gustavus Adolphus_ (London, 1885);
+  J. Mankell, _Om Gustaf II. Adolfs politik_ (Stockholm, 1881); E.
+  Bluemel, _Gustav Adolf, Konig von Schweden_ (Eisleben, 1894); A.
+  Rydfors, _De diplomatiska forbindelserna mellan Sverige och England
+  1624-1630_ (Upsala, 1890).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GUSTAVUS III. (1746-1792), king of Sweden, was the eldest son of
+Adolphus Frederick, king of Sweden, and Louisa Ulrica of Prussia, sister
+of Frederick the Great, and was born on the 24th of January 1746.
+Gustavus was educated under the care of two governors who were amongst
+the most eminent Swedish statesmen of the day, Carl Gustaf Tessin and
+Carl Scheffer; but he owed most perhaps to the poet and historian Olof
+von Dalin. The interference of the state with his education, when he was
+quite a child, was, however, doubly harmful, as his parents taught him
+to despise the preceptors imposed upon him by the diet, and the
+atmosphere of intrigue and duplicity in which he grew up made him
+precociously experienced in the art of dissimulation. But even his most
+hostile teachers were amazed by the brilliance of his natural gifts,
+and, while still a boy, he possessed that charm of manner which was to
+make him so fascinating and so dangerous in later life, coupled with the
+strong dramatic instinct which won for him his honourable place in
+Swedish literature. On the whole, Gustavus cannot be said to have been
+well educated, but he read very widely; there was scarce a French author
+of his day with whose works he was not intimately acquainted; while his
+enthusiasm for the new French ideas of enlightenment was as sincere as,
+if more critical than, his mother's. On the 4th of November 1766,
+Gustavus married Sophia Magdalena, daughter of Frederick V. of Denmark.
+The match was an unhappy one, owing partly to incompatibility of temper,
+but still more to the mischievous interference of the jealous
+queen-mother.
+
+Gustavus first intervened actively in politics in 1768, at the time of
+his father's interregnum, when he compelled the dominant Cap faction to
+summon an extraordinary diet from which he hoped for the reform of the
+constitution in a monarchical direction. But the victorious Hats refused
+to redeem the pledges which they had given before the elections. "That
+we should have lost the constitutional battle does not distress us so
+much," wrote Gustavus, in the bitterness of his heart; "but what does
+dismay me is to see my poor nation so sunk in corruption as to place its
+own felicity in absolute anarchy." From the 4th of February to the 25th
+of March 1771, Gustavus was at Paris, where he carried both the court
+and the city by storm. The poets and the philosophers paid him
+enthusiastic homage, and all the distinguished women of the day
+testified to his superlative merits. With many of them he maintained a
+lifelong correspondence. But his visit to the French capital was no mere
+pleasure trip; it was also a political mission. Confidential agents from
+the Swedish court had already prepared the way for him, and the duc de
+Choiseul, weary of Swedish anarchy, had resolved to discuss with him the
+best method of bringing about a revolution in Sweden. Before he
+departed, the French government undertook to pay the outstanding
+subsidies to Sweden unconditionally, at the rate of one and a half
+million livres annually; and the comte de Vergennes, one of the great
+names of French diplomacy, was transferred from Constantinople to
+Stockholm. On his way home Gustavus paid a short visit to his uncle,
+Frederick the Great, at Potsdam. Frederick bluntly informed his nephew
+that, in concert with Russia and Denmark, he had guaranteed the
+integrity of the existing Swedish constitution, and significantly
+advised the young monarch to play the part of mediator and abstain from
+violence.
+
+On his return to Sweden Gustavus made a sincere and earnest attempt to
+mediate between the Hats and Caps who were ruining the country between
+them (see SWEDEN: _History_). On the 21st of June 1771 he opened his
+first parliament in a speech which awakened strange and deep emotions in
+all who heard it. It was the first time for more than a century that a
+Swedish king had addressed a Swedish diet from the throne in its native
+tongue. The orator laid especial stress on the necessity of the
+sacrifice of all party animosities to the common weal, and volunteered,
+as "the first citizen of a free people," to be the mediator between the
+contending factions. A composition committee was actually formed, but it
+proved illusory from the first, the patriotism of neither of the
+factions being equal to the puniest act of self-denial. The subsequent
+attempts of the dominant Caps still further to limit the prerogative,
+and reduce Gustavus to the condition of a _roi faineant_, induced him at
+last to consider the possibility of a revolution. Of its necessity there
+could be no doubt. Under the sway of the Cap faction, Sweden, already
+the vassal, could not fail to become the prey of Russia. She was on the
+point of being absorbed in that northern system, the invention of the
+Russian vice-chancellor, Count Nikita Panin, which that patient
+statesman had made it the ambition of his life to realize. Only a swift
+and sudden _coup d'etat_ could save the independence of a country
+isolated from the rest of Europe by a hostile league. At this juncture
+Gustavus was approached by Jakob Magnus Sprengtporten, a Finnish
+nobleman of determined character, who had incurred the enmity of the
+Caps, with the project of a revolution. He undertook to seize the
+fortress of Sveaborg by a _coup de main_, and, Finland once secured,
+Sprengtporten proposed to embark for Sweden, meet the king and his
+friends near Stockholm, and surprise the capital by a night attack, when
+the estates were to be forced, at the point of the bayonet, to accept a
+new constitution from the untrammelled king. The plotters were at this
+juncture reinforced by an ex-ranger from Scania (Skane), Johan
+Kristoffer Toll, also a victim of Cap oppression. Toll proposed that a
+second revolt should break out in the province of Scania, to confuse the
+government still more, and undertook personally to secure the southern
+fortress of Kristianstad. After some debate, it was finally arranged
+that, a few days after the Finnish revolt had begun, Kristianstad should
+openly declare against the government. Prince Charles, the eldest of the
+king's brothers, was thereupon hastily to mobilize the garrisons of all
+the southern fortresses, for the ostensible purpose of crushing the
+revolt at Kristianstad; but on arriving before the fortress he was to
+make common cause with the rebels, and march upon the capital from the
+south, while Sprengtporten attacked it simultaneously from the east. On
+the 6th of August 1772 Toll succeeded, by sheer bluff, in winning the
+fortress of Kristianstad. On the 16th Sprengtporten succeeded in
+surprising Sveaborg. But contrary winds prevented him from crossing to
+Stockholm, and in the meanwhile events had occurred which made his
+presence there unnecessary.
+
+On the 16th of August the Cap leader, Ture Rudbeck, arrived at Stockholm
+with the news of the insurrection in the south, and Gustavus found
+himself isolated in the midst of enemies. Sprengtporten lay
+weather-bound in Finland, Toll was five hundred miles away, the Hat
+leaders were in hiding. Gustavus thereupon resolved to strike the
+decisive blow without waiting for the arrival of Sprengtporten. He acted
+with military promptitude. On the evening of the 18th all the officers
+whom he thought he could trust received secret instructions to assemble
+in the great square facing the arsenal on the following morning. At ten
+o'clock on the 19th Gustavus mounted his horse and rode straight to the
+arsenal. On the way his adherents joined him in little groups, as if by
+accident, so that by the time he reached his destination he had about
+two hundred officers in his suite. After parade he reconducted them to
+the guard-room of the palace and unfolded his plans to them. He then
+dictated a new oath of allegiance, and every one signed it without
+hesitation. It absolved them from their allegiance to the estates, and
+bound them solely to obey their lawful king, Gustavus III. Meanwhile the
+senate and the governor-general, Rudbeck, had been arrested and the
+fleet secured. Then Gustavus made a tour of the city and was everywhere
+received by enthusiastic crowds, who hailed him as a deliverer. On the
+evening of the 20th heralds perambulated the streets proclaiming that
+the estates were to meet in the Rikssaal on the following day; every
+deputy absenting himself would be regarded as the enemy of his country
+and his king. On the 21st, a few moments after the estates had
+assembled, the king in full regalia appeared, and taking his seat on the
+throne, delivered that famous philippic, one of the masterpieces of
+Swedish oratory, in which he reproached the estates for their
+unpatriotic venality and licence in the past. A new constitution was
+recited by the estates and accepted by them unanimously. The diet was
+then dissolved.
+
+Gustavus was inspired by a burning enthusiasm for the greatness and
+welfare of Sweden, and worked in the same reformatory direction as the
+other contemporary sovereigns of the "age of enlightenment." He took an
+active part in every department of business, but relied far more on
+extra-official counsellors of his own choosing than upon the senate. The
+effort to remedy the frightful corruption which had been fostered by the
+Hats and Caps engaged a considerable share of his time and he even found
+it necessary to put the whole of a supreme court of justice (_Gota
+Hofratt_) on its trial. Measures were also taken to reform the
+administration and the whole course of judicial procedure, and torture
+as an instrument of legal investigation was abolished. In 1774 an
+ordinance providing for the liberty of the press was even issued. The
+national defences were at the same time developed on a "Great Power"
+scale, and the navy was so enlarged as to become one of the most
+formidable in Europe. The dilapidated finances were set in good order by
+the "currency realization ordinance" of 1777. Gustavus also introduced
+new national economic principles. In 1775 free trade in corn was
+promoted and a number of oppressive export-tolls were abolished. The
+poor law was also amended, absolute religious liberty was proclaimed,
+and he even succeeded in inventing and popularizing a national costume
+which was in general use from 1778 till his death. His one great
+economic blunder was the attempt to make the sale of spirits a
+government monopoly, which was an obvious infringement upon the
+privileges of the estates. His foreign policy, on the other hand, was at
+first both wise and wary. Thus, when the king summoned the estates to
+assemble at Stockholm on the 3rd of September 1778, he could give a
+brilliant account of his six years' stewardship. Never was a parliament
+more obsequious or a king more gracious. "There was no room for a single
+No during the whole session." Yet, short as the session was, it was
+quite long enough to open the eyes of the deputies to the fact that
+their political supremacy had departed. They had changed places with
+the king. He was now indeed their sovereign lord; and, for all his
+gentleness, the jealousy with which he guarded, the vigour with which he
+enforced the prerogative, plainly showed that he meant to remain so.
+Even the few who were patriotic enough to acquiesce in the change by no
+means liked it. The diet of 1778 had been obsequious; the diet of 1786
+was mutinous. The consequence was that nearly all the royal propositions
+were either rejected outright or so modified that Gustavus himself
+withdrew them.
+
+The diet of 1786 marks a turning-point in Gustavus's history. Henceforth
+we observe a determination on his part to rule without a parliament; a
+passage, cautious and gradual, yet unflinching, from
+semi-constitutionalism to semi-absolutism. His opportunity came in 1788,
+when the political complications arising out of his war with Catherine
+II. of Russia enabled him by the Act of Unity and Security (on the 17th
+of February 1789) to override the opposition of the rebellious and
+grossly unpatriotic gentry, and, with the approbation of the three lower
+estates, establish a new and revolutionary constitution, in which,
+though the estates still held the power of the purse, the royal
+authority largely predominated. Throughout 1789 and 1790 Gustavus, in
+the national interests, gallantly conducted the unequal struggle with
+Russia, finally winning in the Svensksund (9th-10th July) the most
+glorious naval victory ever gained by the Swedish arms, the Russians
+losing one-third of their fleet and 7000 men. A month later, on the 14th
+of August 1790, peace was signed between Russia and Sweden at Varala.
+Only eight months before, Catherine had haughtily declared that "the
+odious and revolting aggression" of the king of Sweden would be
+"forgiven" only if he "testified his repentance" by agreeing to a peace
+granting a general and unlimited amnesty to all his rebels, and
+consenting to a guarantee by the Swedish diet ("as it would be imprudent
+to confide in his good faith alone") for the observance of peace in the
+future. The peace of Varala saved Sweden from any such humiliating
+concession, and in October 1791 Gustavus took the bold but by no means
+imprudent step of concluding an eight years' defensive alliance with the
+empress, who thereby bound herself to pay her new ally annual subsidies
+amounting to 300,000 roubles.
+
+Gustavus now aimed at forming a league of princes against the Jacobins,
+and every other consideration was subordinated thereto. His profound
+knowledge of popular assemblies enabled him, alone among contemporary
+sovereigns, accurately to gauge from the first the scope and bearing of
+the French Revolution. But he was hampered by poverty and the jealousy
+of the other European Powers, and, after showing once more his
+unrivalled mastery over masses of men at the brief Gefle diet (22nd of
+January-24th of February 1792), he fell a victim to a widespread
+aristocratic conspiracy. Shot in the back by Anckarstrom at a midnight
+masquerade at the Stockholm opera-house, on the 16th of March 1792, he
+expired on the 29th.
+
+Although he may be charged with many foibles and extravagances, Gustavus
+III. was indisputably one of the greatest sovereigns of the 18th
+century. Unfortunately his genius never had full scope, and his
+opportunity came too late. Gustavus was, moreover, a most distinguished
+author. He may be said to have created the Swedish theatre, and some of
+the best acting dramas in the literature are by his hand. His historical
+essays, notably the famous anonymous eulogy on Torstenson crowned by the
+Academy, are full of feeling and exquisite in style,--his letters to his
+friends are delightful. Every branch of literature and art interested
+him, every poet and artist of his day found in him a most liberal and
+sympathetic protector.
+
+  See R. N. Bain, _Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries_ (London, 1904);
+  E. G. Geijer, _Konung Gustaf III.'s efterlemnade papper_ (Upsala,
+  1843-1845); C. T. Odhner, _Sveriges politiska historia under Konung
+  Gustaf III.'s regering_ (Stockholm, 1885-1896); B. von Beskow, _Om
+  Gustaf III. sasom Konung och manniska_ (Stockholm, 1860-1861); O.
+  Levertin, _Gustaf III. som dramatisk forfattare_ (Stockholm, 1894);
+  _Gustaf III.'s bref till G. M. Armfelt_ (Fr.) (Stockholm, 1883); Y. K.
+  Grot, _Catharine II. and Gustavus III._ (Russ.) (St Petersburg, 1884).
+       (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+
+GUSTAVUS IV. (1778-1837), king of Sweden, the son of Gustavus III. and
+Queen Sophia Magdalena, was born at Stockholm on the 1st of November
+1778. Carefully educated under the direction of Nils von Rosenstein, he
+grew up serious and conscientious. In August 1796 his uncle the regent
+Charles, duke of Sudermania, visited St Petersburg for the purpose of
+arranging a marriage between the young king and Catherine II.'s
+granddaughter, the grand-duchess Alexandra. The betrothal was actually
+fixed for the 22nd of September, when the whole arrangement foundered on
+the obstinate refusal of Gustavus to allow his destined bride liberty of
+worship according to the rites of the Greek Orthodox Church--a rebuff
+which undoubtedly accelerated the death of the Russian empress. Nobody
+seems to have even suspected at the time that serious mental derangement
+lay at the root of Gustavus's abnormal piety. On the contrary, there
+were many who prematurely congratulated themselves on the fact that
+Sweden had now no disturbing genius, but an economical, God-fearing,
+commonplace monarch to deal with. Gustavus's prompt dismissal of the
+generally detested Gustaf Reuterholm added still further to his
+popularity. On the 31st of October 1797 Gustavus married Frederica
+Dorothea, daughter of Charles Frederick, grand-duke of Baden, a marriage
+which might have led to a war with Russia but for the fanatical hatred
+of the French republic shared by the emperor Paul and Gustavus IV.,
+which served as a bond of union between them. Indeed the king's horror
+of Jacobinism was morbid in its intensity, and drove him to adopt all
+sorts of reactionary measures and to postpone his coronation for some
+years, so as to avoid calling together a diet; but the disorder of the
+finances, caused partly by the continental war and partly by the almost
+total failure of the crops in 1798 and 1799, compelled him to summon the
+estates to Norrkoping in March 1800, and on the 3rd of April Gustavus
+was crowned. The notable change which now took place in Sweden's foreign
+policy and its fatal consequences to the country are elsewhere set forth
+(see SWEDEN, _History_). By the end of 1808 it was obvious to every
+thinking Swede that the king was insane. His violence had alienated his
+most faithful supporters, while his obstinate incompetence paralysed the
+national efforts. To remove a madman by force was the one remaining
+expedient; and this was successfully accomplished by a conspiracy of
+officers of the western army, headed by Adlersparre, the Anckarsvards,
+and Adlercreutz, who marched rapidly from Skane to Stockholm. On the
+13th of March 1809 seven of the conspirators broke into the royal
+apartments in the palace unannounced, seized the king, and conducted him
+to the chateau of Gripsholm; Duke Charles was easily persuaded to accept
+the leadership of a provisional government, which was proclaimed the
+same day; and a diet, hastily summoned, solemnly approved of the
+revolution. On the 29th of March Gustavus, in order to save the crown
+for his son, voluntarily abdicated; but on the 10th of May the estates,
+dominated by the army, declared that not merely Gustavus but his whole
+family had forfeited the throne. On the 5th of June the duke regent was
+proclaimed king under the title of Charles XIII., after accepting the
+new liberal constitution, which was ratified by the diet the same day.
+In December Gustavus and his family were transported to Germany.
+Gustavus now assumed the title of count of Gottorp, but subsequently
+called himself Colonel Gustafsson, under which pseudonym he wrote most
+of his works. He led, separated from his family, an erratic life for
+some years; was divorced from his consort in 1812; and finally settled
+at St Gall in Switzerland in great loneliness and indigence. He died on
+the 7th of February 1837, and, at the suggestion of King Oscar II. his
+body was brought to Sweden and interred in the Riddarholmskyrka. From
+him descend both the Baden and the Oldenburg princely houses on the
+female side.
+
+  See H. G. Trolle-Wachtmeister, _Anteckningar och minnen_ (Stockholm,
+  1889); B. von Beskow, _Lefnadsminnen_ (Stockholm, 1870); K. V.
+  Key-Aberg, _De diplomatiska forbindelserna mellan Sverige och
+  Storbrittannien under Gustaf IV.'s Krig emot Napoleon_ (Upsala, 1890);
+  Colonel Gustafsson, _La Journee du treize mars_, &c. (St Gall, 1835);
+  _Memorial des Obersten Gustafsson_ (Leipzig, 1829).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GUSTAVUS V. (1858-   ), king of Sweden, son of Oscar II., king of Sweden
+and Norway, and Queen Sophia Wilhelmina, was born at Drottningholm on
+the 16th of June 1858. He entered the army, and was, like his father, a
+great traveller. As crown prince he held the title of duke of Warmland.
+He married in 1881 Victoria (b. 1862), daughter of Frederick William
+Louis, grand duke of Baden, and of Louise, princess of Prussia. The
+duchess of Baden was the granddaughter of Sophia, princess of Sweden,
+and the marriage of the crown prince thus effected a union between the
+Bernadotte dynasty and the ancient Swedish royal house of Vasa. During
+the absence or illness of his father Gustavus repeatedly acted as
+regent, and was therefore already thoroughly versed in public affairs
+when he succeeded to the Swedish throne on the 8th of December 1907, the
+crown of Norway having been separated from that of Sweden in 1905. He
+took as his motto "With the people for the Fatherland."
+
+The crown prince, Oscar Frederick William Gustavus Adolphus, duke of
+Scania (b. 1882), married in 1905 Princess Margaret of Connaught (b.
+1882), niece of King Edward VII. A son was born to them at Stockholm on
+the 22nd of April 1906, and another son in the following year. The
+king's two younger sons were William, duke of Sudermania (b. 1884), and
+Eric, duke of Westmanland (b. 1889).
+
+
+
+
+GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS UNION (GUSTAV-ADOLF-STIFTUNG, GUSTAV-ADOLF-VEREIN,
+EVANGELISCHER VEREIN DER GUSTAV-ADOLF-STIFTUNG), a society formed of
+members of the Evangelical Protestant churches of Germany, which has for
+its object the aid of feeble sister churches, especially in Roman Catholic
+countries. The project of forming such a society was first broached in
+connexion with the bicentennial celebration of the battle of Lutzen on the
+6th of November 1832; a proposal to collect funds for a monument to
+Gustavus Adolphus having been agreed to, it was suggested by
+Superintendent Grossmann that the best memorial to the great champion of
+Protestantism would be the formation of a union for propagating his ideas.
+For some years the society was limited in its area and its operations,
+being practically confined to Leipzig and Dresden, but at the Reformation
+festival in 1841 it received a new impulse through the energy and
+eloquence of Karl Zimmermann (1803-1877), court preacher at Darmstadt, and
+in 1843 a general meeting was held at Frankfort-on-the-Main, where no
+fewer than twenty-nine branch associations belonging to all parts of
+Germany except Bavaria and Austria were represented. The want of a
+positive creed tended to make many of the stricter Protestant churchmen
+doubtful of the usefulness of the union, and the stricter Lutherans have
+always held aloof from it. On the other hand, its negative attitude in
+relation to Roman Catholicism secured for it the sympathy of the masses.
+At a general convention held in Berlin in September 1846 a keen dispute
+arose about the admission of the Konigsberg delegate, Julius Rupp
+(1809-1884), who in 1845 had been deprived for publicly repudiating the
+Athanasian Creed and became one of the founders of the "Free
+Congregations"; and at one time it seemed likely that the society would be
+completely broken up. Amid the political revolutions of the year 1848 the
+whole movement fell into stagnation; but in 1849 another general
+convention (the seventh), held at Breslau, showed that, although the
+society had lost both in membership and income, it was still possessed of
+considerable vitality. From that date the Gustav-Adolf-Verein has been
+more definitely "evangelical" in its tone than formerly; and under the
+direction of Karl Zimmermann it greatly increased both in numbers and in
+wealth. It has built over 2000 churches and assisted with some two million
+pounds over 5000 different communities. Apart from its influence in
+maintaining Protestantism in hostile areas, there can be no doubt that the
+union has had a great effect in helping the various Protestant churches of
+Germany to realize the number and importance of their common interests.
+
+  See K. Zimmermann, _Geschichte des Gustav-Adolf-Vereins_ (Darmstadt,
+  1877).
+
+
+
+
+GUSTROW, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
+on the Nebel and the railway from Lubeck to Stettin, 20 m. S. of
+Rostock. Pop. (1875), 10,923; (1905) 17,163. The principal buildings are
+the castle, erected in the middle of the 16th century and now used as a
+workhouse; the cathedral, dating from the 13th century and restored in
+1868, containing many fine monuments and possessing a square tower 100
+ft. high; the Pfarrkirche, with fine altar-paintings; the town hall
+(Rathaus), dating from the 16th century; the music hall, and the
+theatre. Among the educational establishments are the ducal gymnasium,
+which possesses a library of 15,000 volumes, a modern and a commercial
+school. The town is one of the most prosperous in the duchy, and has
+machine works, foundries, tanneries, sawmills, breweries, distilleries,
+and manufactories of tobacco, glue, candles and soap. There is also a
+considerable trade in wool, corn, wood, butter and cattle, and an annual
+cattle show and horse races are held.
+
+Gustrow, capital of the Mecklenburg duchy of that name, or of the Wend
+district, was a place of some importance as early as the 12th century,
+and in 1219 it became the residence of Henry Borwin II., prince of
+Mecklenburg, from whom it received Schwerin privileges. From 1316 to
+1436 the town was the residence of the princes of the Wends, and from
+1556 to 1695 of the dukes of Mecklenburg-Gustrow. In 1628 it was
+occupied by the imperial troops, and Wallenstein resided in it during
+part of the years 1628 and 1629.
+
+
+
+
+GUTENBERG, JOHANN (c. 1398-1468), German printer, is supposed to have
+been born c. 1398-1399 at Mainz of well-to-do parents, his father being
+Friele zum Gensfleisch and his mother Elsgen Wyrich (or, from her
+birthplace, zu Gutenberg, the name he adopted). He is assumed to be
+mentioned under the name of "Henchen" in a copy of a document of 1420,
+and again in a document of c. 1427-1428, but it is not stated where he
+then resided. On January 16, 1430, his mother arranged with the city of
+Mainz about an annuity belonging to him; but when, in the same year,
+some families who had been expelled a few years before were permitted to
+return to Mainz, Gutenberg appears not to have availed himself of the
+privilege, as he is described in the act of reconciliation (dated March
+28) as "not being in Mainz." It is therefore assumed that the family had
+taken refuge in Strassburg, where Gutenberg was residing later. There he
+is said to have been in 1434, and to have seized and imprisoned the town
+clerk of Mainz for a debt due to him by the corporation of that city,
+releasing him, however, at the representations of the mayor and
+councillors of Strassburg, and relinquishing at the same time all claims
+to the money (310 Rhenish guilders = about 2400 mark).[1] Between 1436
+and 1439 certain documents represent him as having been engaged there
+in some experiments requiring money, with Andreas Dritzehn, a
+fellow-citizen, who became not only security for him but his partner to
+carry out Gutenberg's plan for polishing stones and the manufacture of
+looking-glasses, for which a lucrative sale was expected at the
+approaching pilgrimage of 1440 (subsequently postponed, according to the
+documents, although there is no evidence for this postponement) to
+Aix-la-Chapelle. Money was lent for this purpose by two other friends.
+In 1438 another partnership was arranged between Gutenberg, Andreas
+Dritzehn, and Andreas and Anton Heilmann, and that this had in view the
+art of printing has been inferred from the word "drucken" used by one of
+the witnesses in the law proceedings which soon after followed. An
+action was brought, after the death of Dritzehn, by his two brothers to
+force Gutenberg to accept them as partners in their brother's place, but
+the decision was in favour of the latter. In 1441 Gutenberg became
+surety to the St Thomas Chapter at Strassburg for Johann Karle, who
+borrowed 100 guilders (about L16) from the chapter, and on November 17,
+1442, he himself borrowed 80 livres through Martin Brechter (or Brehter)
+from the same chapter. Of his whereabouts from the 12th of March 1444
+(when he paid a tax at Strassburg) to the 17th of October 1448 nothing
+certain is known. But on the latter date we find him at Mainz, borrowing
+150 gold guilders of his kinsman, Arnold Gelthus, against an annual
+interest of 7-1/2 gold guilders. We do not know whether the interest on
+this debt has ever been paid, but the debt itself appears never to have
+been paid off, as the contract of this loan was renewed (_vidimused_) on
+August 23, 1503, for other parties. It is supposed that soon afterwards
+Gutenberg must have been able to show some convincing results of his
+work, for it appears that about 1450 Johann Fust (q.v.) advanced him 800
+guilders to promote it, on no security except that of "tools" still to
+be made. Fust seems also to have undertaken to advance him 300 guilders
+a year for expenses, wages, house-rent, parchment, paper, ink, &c., but
+he does not appear to have ever done so. If at any time they disagreed,
+Gutenberg was to return the 800 guilders, and the "tools" were to cease
+to be security. It is not known to what purpose Gutenberg devoted the
+money advanced to him. In the minutes of the law-suit of 1455 he himself
+says that he had to make his "tools" with it. But he is presumed to have
+begun a large folio Latin Bible, and to have printed during its progress
+some smaller books[2] and likewise the Letter of Indulgence (granted on
+the 12th of April 1451 by Pope Nicholas V. in aid of John II., king of
+Cyprus, against the Turks), of 31 lines, having the earliest printed
+date 1454, of which several copies are preserved in various European
+libraries. A copy of the 1455 issue of the same Indulgence is in the
+Rylands Library at Manchester (from the Althorp Library).
+
+It is not known whether any books were printed while this partnership
+between Gutenberg and Fust lasted. Trithemius (_Ann. Hirsaug._ ii. 421)
+says they first printed, from wooden blocks, a vocabulary called
+_Catholicon_, which cannot have been the _Catholicon_ of Johannes de
+Janua, a folio of 748 pages in two columns of 66 lines each, printed in
+1460, but was perhaps a small glossary now lost.[3] The Latin _Bible of
+42 lines_, a folio of 1282 printed pages, in two columns with spaces
+left for illuminated initials (so called because each column contains 42
+lines, and also known as the _Mazarin Bible_, because the first copy
+described was found in the library of Cardinal Mazarin), was finished
+before the 15th of August 1456;[4] German bibliographers now claim this
+Bible for Gutenberg, but, according to bibliographical rules, it must be
+ascribed to Peter Schoffer, perhaps in partnership with Fust. It is in
+smaller type than the _Bible of 36 lines_, which latter is called either
+(a) the _Bamberg Bible_, because nearly all the known copies were found
+in the neighbourhood of Bamberg, or (b) _Schelhorn's Bible_, because J.
+G. Schelhorn was the first who described it in 1760, or (c) _Pfister's
+Bible_, because its printing is ascribed to Albrecht Pfister of Bamberg,
+who used the same type for several small German books, the chief of
+which is Boner's _Edelstein_ (1461, 4to), 88 leaves, with 85 woodcuts, a
+book of fables in German rhyme. Some bibliographers believe this 36-line
+Bible to have been begun, if not entirely printed, by Gutenberg during
+his partnership with Fust, as its type occurs in the 31-line Letters of
+Indulgence of 1454, was used for the 27-line Donatus (of 1451?), and,
+finally, when found in Pfister's possession in 1461, appears to be old
+and worn, except the additional letters k, w, z required for German,
+which are clear and sharp like the types used in the Bible. Again,
+others profess to prove (Dziatzko, _Gutenberg's fruheste Druckerpraxis_)
+that B^36 was a reprint of B^42.
+
+Gutenberg's work, whatever it may have been, was not a commercial
+success, and in 1452 Fust had to come forward with another 800 guilders
+to prevent a collapse. But some time before November 1455 the latter
+demanded repayment of his advances (see the Helmasperger Notarial
+Document of November 6, 1455, in Dziatzko's _Beitrage zur
+Gutenbergfrage_, Berlin, 1889), and took legal proceedings against
+Gutenberg. We do not know the end of these proceedings, but if Gutenberg
+had prepared any printing materials it would seem that he was compelled
+to yield up the whole of them to Fust; that the latter removed them to
+his own house at Mainz, and there, with the assistance of Peter
+Schoffer, issued various books until the sack of the city in 1462 by
+Adolphus II. caused a suspension of printing for three years, to be
+resumed again in 1465.
+
+We have no Information as to Gutenberg's activity, and very little of
+his whereabouts, after his separation from Fust. In a document dated
+June 21, 1457, he appears as witness on behalf of one of his relatives,
+which shows that he was then still at Mainz. Entries in the registers of
+the St Thomas Church at Strassburg make it clear that the annual
+interest on the money which Gutenberg on the 17th of November 1442 (see
+above) had borrowed from the chapter of that church was regularly paid
+till the 11th of November 1457, either by himself or by his surety,
+Martin Brechter. But the payment due on the latter date appears to have
+been delayed, as an entry in the register of that year shows that the
+chapter had incurred expenses in taking steps to have both Gutenberg and
+Brechter arrested. This time the difficulties seem to have been removed,
+but on and after the 11th of November 1458 Gutenberg and Brechter
+remained in default. The chapter made various efforts, all recorded in
+their registers, to get their money, but in vain. Every year they
+recorded the arrears with the expenses to which they were put in their
+efforts to arrest the defaulters, till at last in 1474 (six years after
+Gutenberg's death) their names are no longer mentioned.
+
+Meantime Gutenberg appears to have been _printing_, as we learn from a
+document dated February 26, 1468, that a syndic of Mainz, Dr Conrad
+Homery (who had formerly been in the service of the elector Count
+Diether of Ysenburg), had at one time supplied him, not with money, but
+with some formes, types, tools, implements and other things belonging to
+printing, which Gutenberg had left after his death, and which had, and
+still, belonged to him (Homery); this material had come into the hands
+of Adolf, the archbishop of Mainz, who handed or sent it back to Homery,
+the latter undertaking to use it in no other town but Mainz, nor to sell
+it to any person except a citizen of Mainz, even if a stranger should
+offer him a higher price for the things. This material has never yet
+been identified, so that we do not know what types Gutenberg may have
+had at his disposal; they could hardly have included the types of the
+_Catholicon_ of 1460, as is suggested, this work being probably executed
+by Heinrich Bechtermunze (d. 1467), who afterwards removed to Eltville,
+or perhaps by Peter Schoffer, who, about 1470, advertises the book as
+his property (see K. Burger, _Buchhandler-Anzeigen_). It is uncertain
+whether Gutenberg remained in Mainz or removed to the neighbouring town
+of Eltville, where he may have been engaged for a while with the
+brothers Bechtermunze, who printed there for some time with the types of
+the 1460 _Catholicon_. On the 17th of January 1465 he accepted the post
+of salaried courtier from the archbishop Adolf, and in this capacity
+received annually a suit of livery together with a fixed allowance of
+corn and wine. Gutenberg seems to have died at Mainz at the beginning of
+1468, and was, according to tradition, buried in the Franciscan church
+in that city. His relative Arnold Gelthus erected a monument to his
+memory near his supposed grave, and forty years afterwards Ivo Wittig
+set up a memorial tablet at the legal college at Mainz. No books bearing
+the name of Gutenberg as printer are known, nor is any genuine portrait
+of him known, those appearing upon medals, statues or engraved plates
+being all fictitious.
+
+In 1898 the firm of L. Rosenthal, at Munich, acquired a _Missale
+speciale_ on paper, which Otto Hupp, in two treatises published in 1898
+and 1902, asserts to have been printed by Gutenberg about 1450, seven
+years before the 1457 Psalter. Various German bibliographers, however,
+think that it could not have been printed before 1480, and, judging from
+the facsimiles published by Hupp, this date seems to be approximately
+correct.
+
+On the 24th of June 1900 the five-hundredth anniversary of Gutenberg's
+birth was celebrated in several German cities, notably in Mainz and
+Leipzig, and most of the recent literature on the invention of printing
+dates from that time.
+
+So we may note that in 1902 a vellum fragment of an Astronomical
+Kalendar was discovered by the librarian of Wiesbaden, Dr G. Zedler
+(_Die alteste Gutenbergtype_, Mainz, 1902), apparently printed in the
+36-line Bible type, and as the position of the sun, moon and other
+planets described in this document suits the years 1429, 1448 and 1467,
+he ascribes the printing of this Kalendar to the year 1447. A paper
+fragment of a poem in German, entitled _Weltgericht_, said to be printed
+in the 36-line Bible type, appears to have come into the possession of
+Herr Eduard Beck at Mainz in 1892, and was presented by him in 1903 to
+the Gutenberg Museum in that city. Zedler published a facsimile of it in
+1904 (for the _Gutenberg Gesellschaft_), with a description, in which he
+places it before the 1447 _Kalendar_, c. 1444-1447. Moreover, fragments
+of two editions of Donatus different from that of 1451 (?) have recently
+been found; see Schwenke in _Centralbl. fur Bibliothekwesen_ (1908).
+
+  The recent literature upon Gutenberg's life and work and early
+  printing in general includes the following: A. von der Linde,
+  _Geschichte und Erdichtung_ (Stuttgart, 1878); _id. Geschichte der
+  Buchdruckerkunst_ (Berlin, 1886); J. H. Hessels, _Gutenberg, Was he
+  the Inventor of Printing?_ (London, 1882); _id. Haarlem, the
+  Birthplace of Printing, not Mentz_ (London, 1886); O. Hartwig,
+  _Festschrift zum funfhundertjahrigen Geburtstag von Johann Gutenberg_
+  (Leipzig, 1900), which includes various treatises by Schenk zu
+  Schweinsberg, K. Schorbach, &c.; P. Schwenke, _Untersuchungen zur
+  Geschichte des ersten Buchdrucks_ (Berlin, 1900); A. Borckel,
+  _Gutenberg, sein Leben_, &c. (Giessen, 1897); _id. Gutenberg und seine
+  beruhmten Nachfolger im ersten Jahrhundert der Typographie_
+  (Frankfort, 1900); F. Schneider, _Mainz und seine Drucker_ (1900); G.
+  Zedler, _Gutenberg-Forschungen_ (Leipzig, 1901); J. H. Hessels, _The
+  so-called Gutenberg Documents_ (London, 1910). For other works on the
+  subject see TYPOGRAPHY.     (J. H. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] It is difficult to know which of the Gutenberg documents can be
+    trusted and which not. Schorbach, in his recent biography of
+    Gutenberg, accepts and describes 27 of them (_Festschrift_, 1900, p.
+    163 sqq.), 17 of which are known only from (not always accurate)
+    copies or transcripts. Under ordinary circumstances history might be
+    based on them. But it is certain that some so-called Gutenberg
+    documents, not included in the above 27, are forgeries. Fr. J.
+    Bodmann (1754-1820), for many years professor and librarian at Mainz,
+    forged at least two; one (dated July 20, 1459) he even provided with
+    four forged seals; the other (dated Strassburg, March 24, 1424)
+    purported to be an autograph letter of Gutenberg to a fictitious
+    sister of his named Bertha. Of these two documents French and German
+    texts were published about 1800-1802; the forger lived for twenty
+    years afterwards but never undeceived the public. He enriched the
+    Gutenberg literature with other fabrications. In fact Bodmann had
+    trained himself for counterfeiting MSS. and documents; he openly
+    boasted of his abilities in this respect, and used them, sometimes to
+    amuse his friends who were searching for Gutenberg documents,
+    sometimes for himself to fill up gaps in Gutenberg's life. (For two
+    or three more specimens of his capacities see A. Wyss in _Zeitschr.
+    fur Altert. u. Gesch. Schlesiens_, xv. 9 sqq.) To one of his friends
+    (Professor Gotthelf Fischer, who preceded him as librarian of Mainz)
+    one or two other fabrications may be ascribed. There are, moreover,
+    serious misgivings as to documents said to have been _discovered_
+    about 1740 (when the citizens of Strassburg claimed the honour of the
+    invention for their city) by Jacob Wencker (the then archivist of
+    Strassburg) and J. D. Schoepflin (professor and canon of St Thomas's
+    at Strassburg). For instance, of the above document of 1434 no
+    original has ever come to light; while the draft of the transaction,
+    alleged to have been written at the time in a register of contracts,
+    and to have been found about 1740 by Wencker, has also disappeared
+    with the register itself. The document (now only known from a copy
+    said to have been taken by Wencker from the draft) is upheld as
+    genuine by Schorbach, who favours an invention of printing at
+    Strassburg, but Bockenheimer, though supporting Gutenberg and Mainz,
+    declares it to be a fiction (_Gutenberg-Feier_, Mainz, 1900, pp.
+    24-33). Again, suspicions are justified with respect to the documents
+    recording Gutenberg's lawsuit of 1439 at Strassburg. Bockenheimer
+    explains at great length (_l.c._ pp. 41-72) that they are forgeries.
+    He even explains (_ibid._ pp. 97-107) that the so-called Helmasperger
+    document of November 6, 1455, may be a fabrication of the Faust von
+    Aschaffenburg family, who endeavoured to claim Johann Fust as their
+    ancestor. There are also (1) a fragment of a fictitious "press," said
+    to have been constructed by Gutenberg in 1441, and to have been
+    discovered (!) at Mainz in 1856; (2) a forged imprint with the date
+    1458 in a copy of Pope Gregory's _Dialogues_, really printed at
+    Strassburg about 1470; (3) a forged rubric in a copy of the
+    _Tractatus de celebratione missarum_, from which it would appear that
+    Johann Gutenberg and Johann Nummeister had presented it on June 19,
+    1463, to the Carthusian monastery near Mainz: (4) four forged copies
+    of the Indulgence of 1455, in the Culemann Collection in the Kastner
+    Museum at Hanover, &c. (see further, Hessels, "The so-called
+    Gutenberg Documents," in _The Library_, 1909).
+
+  [2] Among these were perhaps (1) one or two editions of the work of
+    Donatus, _De octo partibus orationis_, 27 lines to a page, of one of
+    which two leaves, now in the Paris National Library, were discovered
+    at Mainz in the original binding of an account book, one of them
+    having, but in a later hand, the year 1451 (?); (2) the
+    _Turk-Kalendar_ for 1455 (preserved in the Hof-Bibliothek at Munich);
+    (3) the _Cisianus_ (preserved in the Cambridge Univ. Libr.), and
+    perhaps others now lost.
+
+  [3] Ulric Zell states, in the Cologne Chronicle of 1499, that
+    Gutenberg and Fust printed a Bible in large type like that used in
+    missals. It has been said that this description applies to the
+    42-line Bible, as its type is as large as that of most missals
+    printed before 1500, and that the size now called missal type (double
+    pica) was not used in missals until late in the 16th century. This is
+    no doubt true of the smaller missals printed before 1500, some of
+    which are in even smaller type than the 42-line Bible. But many of
+    the large folio missals, as that printed at Mainz by Peter Schoffer
+    in 1483, the Carthusian missal printed at Spires by Peter Drach about
+    1490, and the Dominican missal printed by Andrea de Torresanis at
+    Venice in 1496, are in as large type as the 36-line Bible. Peter
+    Schoffer (1425-1502) of Gernsheim, between Mainz and Mannheim, who
+    was a copyist in Paris in 1449, and whom Fust called his servant
+    (_famulus_), is said by Trithemius to have discovered an easier way
+    of founding characters, whence Lambinet and others concluded that
+    Schoffer invented the punch. Schoffer himself, in the colophon of the
+    Psalter of 1457, a work which some suppose to have been planned and
+    partly printed by Gutenberg, claims only the mode of printing rubrics
+    and coloured capitals.
+
+  [4] The Leipzig copy of this Bible (which formerly belonged to Herr
+    Klemm of Dresden) has at the end the MS. year 1453 in old Arabic
+    numerals. But certain circumstances connected with this date make it
+    look very suspicious.
+
+
+
+
+GUTERSLOH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, 11
+m. S.W. from Bielefeld by the railway to Dortmund. Pop. (1905), 7375. It
+is a seat of silk and cotton industries, and has a large trade in
+Westphalian hams and sausages. Printing, brewing and distilling are also
+carried on, and the town is famous for its rye-bread (_Pumpernickel_).
+Gutersloh has two Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, a
+synagogue, a school and other educational establishments.
+
+  See Eickhoff, _Geschichte der Stadt und Gemeinde Gutersloh_
+  (Gutersloh, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+GUTHRIE, SIR JAMES (1859-   ), Scottish painter, and one of the leaders
+of the so-called Glasgow school of painters, was born at Greenock. Though
+in his youth he was influenced by John Pettie in London, and
+subsequently studied in Paris, his style, which is remarkable for grasp
+of character, breadth and spontaneity, is due to the lessons taught him
+by observation of nature, and to the example of Crawhall, by which he
+benefited in Lincolnshire in the early 'eighties of the last century. In
+his early works, such as "The Gipsy Fires are Burning, for Daylight is
+Past and Gone" (1882), and the "Funeral Service in the Highlands," he
+favoured a thick impasto, but with growing experience he used his colour
+with greater economy and reticence. Subsequently he devoted himself
+almost exclusively to portraiture. Sir James Guthrie, like so many of
+the Glasgow artists, achieved his first successes on the Continent, but
+soon found recognition in his native country. He was elected associate
+of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1888, and full member in 1892,
+succeeded Sir George Reid as president of the Royal Scottish Academy in
+1902, and was knighted in 1903. His painting "Schoolmates" is at the
+Ghent Gallery. Among his most successful portraits are those of his
+mother, Mr R. Garroway, Major Hotchkiss, Mrs Fergus, Professor Jack, and
+Mrs Watson.
+
+
+
+
+GUTHRIE, THOMAS (1803-1873), Scottish divine, was born at Brechin,
+Forfarshire, on the 12th of July 1803. He entered the university of
+Edinburgh at the early age of twelve, and continued to attend classes
+there for more than ten years. On the 2nd of February 1825 the
+presbytery of Brechin licensed him as a preacher in connexion with the
+Church of Scotland, and in 1826 he was in Paris studying natural
+philosophy, chemistry, and comparative anatomy. For two years he acted
+as manager of his father's bank, and in 1830 was inducted to his first
+charge, Arbirlot, in Forfarshire, where he adopted a vivid dramatic
+style of preaching adapted to his congregation of peasants, farmers and
+weavers. In 1837 he became the colleague of John Sym in the pastorate of
+Old Greyfriars, Edinburgh, and at once attracted notice as a great
+pulpit orator. Towards the close of 1840 he became minister of St John's
+church, Victoria Street, Edinburgh. He declined invitations both from
+London and from India. He was an enthusiastic supporter of the movement
+which led to the Disruption of 1843; and his name is thenceforth
+associated with the Free Church, for which he collected L116,000 from
+July 1845 to June 1846 to provide manses for the seceding ministers. In
+1844 he became a teetotaller. In 1847 he began the greatest work of his
+life by the publication of his first "Plea for Ragged Schools." This
+pamphlet elicited a beautiful and sympathetic letter from Lord Jeffrey.
+A Ragged School was opened on the Castle Hill, which has been the parent
+of many similar institutions elsewhere, though Guthrie's relation to the
+movement is best described as that of an apostle rather than a founder.
+He insisted on bringing up all the children in his school as
+Protestants; and he thus made his schools proselytizing as well as
+educational institutions. This interference with religious liberty led
+to some controversy; and ultimately those who differed from Guthrie
+founded the United Industrial School, giving combined secular and
+separate religious instruction. In April 1847 the degree of D.D. was
+conferred on Guthrie by the university of Edinburgh; and in 1850 William
+Hanna (1808-1882), the biographer and son-in-law of Thomas Chalmers, was
+inducted as his colleague in Free St John's Church.
+
+In 1850 Guthrie published _A Plea on behalf of Drunkards and against
+Drunkenness_, which was followed by _The Gospel in Ezekiel_ (1855); _The
+City: its Sins and Sorrows_ (1857); _Christ and the Inheritance of the
+Saints_ (1858); _Seedtime and Harvest of Ragged Schools_ (1860),
+consisting of his three _Pleas for Ragged Schools_. These works had an
+enormous sale, and portions of them were translated into French and
+Dutch. His advocacy of temperance had much to do with securing the
+passing of the Forbes Mackenzie Act, which secured Sunday closing and
+shortened hours of sale for Scotland. Mr Gladstone specially quoted him
+in support of the Light Wines Bill (1860). In 1862 he was moderator of
+the Free Church General Assembly; but he seldom took a prominent part in
+the business of the church courts. His remarkable oratorical talents,
+rich humour, genuine pathos and inimitable power of story-telling,
+enabled him to do good service to the total abstinence movement. He was
+one of the vice-presidents of the Evangelical Alliance. In 1864, his
+health being seriously impaired, he resigned public work as pastor of
+Free St John's (May 17), although his nominal connexion with the
+congregation ceased only with his death. Guthrie had occasionally
+contributed papers to _Good Words_, and, about the time of his
+retirement from the ministry, he became first editor of the _Sunday
+Magazine_, himself contributing several series of papers which were
+afterwards published separately. In 1865 he was presented with L5000 as
+a mark of appreciation from the public. His closing years were spent
+mostly in retirement; and after an illness of several months' duration
+he died at St Leonards-on-Sea on the 24th of February 1873.
+
+  In addition to the books mentioned above he published a number of
+  books which had a remarkable circulation in England and America, such
+  as _Speaking to the Heart_ (1862); _The Way to Life_ (1862); _Man and
+  the Gospel_ (1865); _The Angel's Song_ (1865); _The Parables_ (1866);
+  _Our Father's Business_ (1867); _Out of Harness_ (1867); _Early Piety_
+  (1868); _Studies of Character from the Old Testament_ (1868-1870);
+  _Sundays Abroad_ (1871).
+
+  See _Autobiography of Thomas Guthrie, D.D., and Memoir_, by his sons
+  (2 vols., London, 1874-1875).
+
+
+
+
+GUTHRIE, THOMAS ANSTEY (1856-   ), known by the pseudonym of F. Anstey,
+English novelist, was born in Kensington, London, on the 8th of August
+1856. He was educated at King's College, London, and at Trinity Hall,
+Cambridge, and was called to the bar in 1880. But the popular success of
+his story _Vice-Versa_ (1882) with its topsy-turvy substitution of a
+father for his schoolboy son, at once made his reputation as a humorist
+of an original type. He published in 1883 a serious novel, _The Giant's
+Robe_; but, in spite of its excellence, he discovered (and again in 1889
+with _The Pariah_) that it was not as a serious novelist but as a
+humorist that the public insisted on regarding him. As such his
+reputation was further confirmed by _The Black Poodle_ (1884), _The
+Tinted Venus_ (1885), _A Fallen Idol_ (1886), and other works. He became
+an important member of the staff of _Punch_, in which his "Voces populi"
+and his humorous parodies of a reciter's stock-piece ("Burglar Bill,"
+&c.) represent his best work. In 1901 his successful farce _The Man from
+Blankley's_, based on a story which originally appeared in _Punch_, was
+first produced at the Prince of Wales's Theatre, in London.
+
+
+
+
+GUTHRIE, the capital of Oklahoma, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Logan
+county, extending on both sides of Cottonwood creek, and lying one mile
+south of the Cimarron river. Pop. (1890) 5333, (1900) 10,006, (1907)
+11,652 (2871 negroes); (1910) 11,654. It is served by the Atchison,
+Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Missouri,
+Kansas & Texas, the Fort Smith & Western, and the St Louis, El Reno &
+Western railways. The city is situated about 940 ft. above the sea, in a
+prairie region devoted largely to stock-raising and the cultivation of
+Indian corn, wheat, cotton and various fruits, particularly peaches.
+Guthrie is one of the headquarters of the Federal courts in the state,
+the other being Muskogee. The principal public buildings at Guthrie are
+the state Capitol, the Federal building, the City hall, the Carnegie
+library, the Methodist hospital and a large Masonic temple. Among the
+schools are St Joseph's Academy and a state school for the deaf and
+dumb. Guthrie has a considerable trade with the surrounding country and
+has cotton gins, a cotton compress, and foundries and machine shops;
+among its manufactures are cotton-seed oil, cotton goods, flour,
+cereals, lumber, cigars, brooms and furniture. The total value of the
+factory product in 1905 was $1,200,662. The municipality owns and
+operates the waterworks. The city was founded in 1889, when Oklahoma was
+opened for settlement; in 1890 it was made the capital of the Territory,
+and in 1907 when Oklahoma was made a state, it became the state capital.
+
+
+
+
+GUTHRUM (GODRUM) (d. 890), king of East Anglia, first appears in the
+_English Annals_ in the year 875, when he is mentioned as one of three
+Danish kings who went with the host to Cambridge. He was probably
+engaged in the campaigns of the next three years, and after Alfred's
+victory at Edington in 878, Guthrum met the king at Aller in
+Somersetshire and was baptized there under the name of Aethelstan. He
+stayed there for twelve days and was greatly honoured by his godfather
+Alfred. In 890 Guthrum-Aethelstan died: he is then spoken of as "se
+nor[Pd]erna cyning" (probably) "the Norwegian king," referring to the
+ultimate origin of his family, and we are told that he was the first
+(Scandinavian) to settle East Anglia. Guthrum is perhaps to be
+identified with Gormr (= Guthrum) hinn heimski or hinn riki of the
+Scandinavian sagas, the foster-father of Hor[Pd]aknutr, the father of
+Gorm the old. There is a treaty known as the peace of Alfred and
+Guthrum.
+
+
+
+
+GUTSCHMID, ALFRED, BARON VON (1835-1887), German historian and
+Orientalist, was born on the 1st of July at Loschwitz (Dresden). After
+holding chairs at Kiel (1866), Konigsberg (1873), and Jena (1876), he
+was finally appointed professor of history at Tubingen, where he died on
+the 2nd of March 1887. He devoted himself to the study of Eastern
+language and history in its pre-Greek and Hellenistic periods and
+contributed largely to the literature of the subject.
+
+  WORKS.--_Uber die Fragmente des Pompeius Trogus_ (supplementary vol.
+  of _Jahrbucher fur klass. Phil._, 1857); _Die makedonische Anagraphe_
+  (1864); _Beitrage zur Gesch. des alten Orients_ (Leipzig, 1858); _Neue
+  Beitrage zur Gesch. des alt. Or._, vol. i., _Die Assyriologie in
+  Deutschland_ (Leipzig, 1876); _Die Glaubwurdigkeit der armenischen
+  Gesch. des Moses von Khoren_ (1877); _Untersuchungen uber die syrische
+  Epitome des eusebischen Canones_ (1886); _Untersuch. uber die Gesch.
+  des Konigreichs Osraene_ (1887); _Gesch. Irans_ (Alexander the Great
+  to the fall of the Arsacidae) (Tubingen, 1887). He wrote on Persia and
+  Phoenicia in the 9th edition of the Ency. Brit. A collection of minor
+  works entitled _Kleine Schriften_ was published by F. Ruhl at Leipzig
+  (1889-1894, 5 vols.), with complete list of his writings. See article
+  by Ruhl in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, xlix. (1904).
+
+
+
+
+GUTS-MUTHS, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH (1759-1839), German teacher and
+the principal founder of the German school system of gymnastics, was
+born at Quedlinburg on the 9th of August 1759. He was educated at the
+gymnasium of his native town and at Halle University; and in 1785 he
+went to Schnepfenthal, where he taught geography and gymnastics. His
+method of teaching gymnastics was expounded by him in various handbooks;
+and it was chiefly through them that gymnastics very soon came to occupy
+such an important position in the school system of Germany. He also did
+much to introduce a better method of instruction in geography. He died
+on the 21st of May 1839.
+
+  His principal works are _Gymnastik fur die Jugend_ (1793); _Spiele zur
+  Ubung und Erholung des Korpers und Geistes fur die Jugend_ (1796);
+  _Turnbuch_ (1817); _Handbuch der Geographie_ (1810); and a number of
+  books constituting a _Bibliothek fur Padagogik, Schulwesen, und die
+  gesammte padagogische Literatur Deutschlands_. He also contributed to
+  the _Vollstandiges Handbuch der neuesten Erdbeschreibung_, and along
+  with Jacobi published _Deutsches Land und deutsches Volk_, the first
+  part, _Deutsches Land_, being written by him.
+
+
+
+
+GUTTA (Latin for "drop"), an architectural term given to the small
+frusta of conical or cylindrical form carved below the triglyph and
+under the regula of the entablature of the Doric Order. They are
+sometimes known as "trunnels," a corruption of "tree-nail," and resemble
+the wooden pins which in framed timber work or in joinery are employed
+to fasten together the pieces of wood; these are supposed to be derived
+from the original timber construction of the Doric temple, in which the
+pins, driven through the regula, secured the latter to the taenia, and,
+according to C. Chipiez and F. A. Choisy, passed through the taenia to
+hold the triglyphs in place. In the earliest examples of the Doric Order
+at Corinth and Selinus, the guttae are completely isolated from the
+architrave, and in Temple C. at Selinus the guttae are 3 or 4 in. in
+front of it, as if to enable the pin to be driven in more easily. In
+later examples they are partly attached to the architrave. Similar
+guttae are carved under the mutules of the Doric cornice, representing
+the pins driven through the mutules to secure the rafters. In the
+temples at Bassae, Paestum and Selinus, instances have been found where
+the guttae had been carved separately and sunk into holes cut in the
+soffit of the mutules and the regula. Their constant employment in the
+Doric temples suggests that, although originally of constructive origin,
+they were subsequently employed as decorative features.
+
+
+
+
+GUTTA PERCHA, the name applied to the evaporated milky fluid or latex
+furnished by several trees chiefly found in the islands of the Malay
+Archipelago. The name is derived from two Malay words, _getah_ meaning
+gum, and _pertja_ being the name of the tree--probably a Bassia--from
+which the gum was (erroneously) supposed to be obtained.
+
+_Botanical Origin and Distribution._--The actual tree is known to the
+Malays as taban, and the product as _getah taban_. The best gutta percha
+of Malaya is chiefly derived from two trees, and is known as _getah
+taban merah_ (red) or _getah taban sutra_ (silky). The trees in
+question, which belong to the natural order Sapotaceae, have now been
+definitely identified, the first as _Dichopsis gutta_ (Bentham and
+Hooker), otherwise _Isonandra gutta_ (Hooker) or _Palaquium gutta_
+(Burck), and the second as _Dichopsis oblongifolia_ (Burck). Allied
+trees of the same genus and of the same natural order yield similar but
+usually inferior products. Among them may be mentioned species of
+_Payena_ (_getah soondie_).
+
+Gutta percha trees often attain a height of 70 to 100 ft. and the trunk
+has a diameter of from 2 to 3 ft. They are stated to be mature when
+about thirty years old. The leaves of _Dichopsis_, which are
+obovate-lanceolate, with a distinct pointed apex, occur in clusters at
+the end of the branches, and are bright green and smooth on the upper
+surface but on the lower surface are yellowish-brown and covered with
+silky hairs. The leaves are usually about 6 in. long and about 2 in.
+wide at the centre. The flowers are white, and the seeds are contained
+in an ovoid berry about 1 in. long.
+
+  The geographical distribution of the gutta percha tree is almost
+  entirely confined to the Malay Peninsula and its immediate
+  neighbourhood. It includes a region within 6 degrees north and south
+  of the equator and 93 deg.-119 deg. longitude, where the temperature
+  ranges from 66 deg. to 90 deg. F. and the atmosphere is exceedingly
+  moist. The trees may be grown from seeds or from cuttings. Some
+  planting has taken place in Malaya, but little has so far been done to
+  acclimatize the plant in other regions. Recent information seems to
+  point to the possibility of growing the tree in Ceylon and on the west
+  coast of Africa.
+
+_Preparation of Gutta Percha._--The gutta is furnished by the greyish
+milky fluid known as the latex, which is chiefly secreted in cylindrical
+vessels or cells situated in the cortex, that is, between the bark and
+the wood (or cambium). Latex also occurs in the leaves of the tree to
+the extent of about 9% of the dried leaves, and this may be removed from
+the powdered leaves by the use of appropriate solvents, but the process
+is not practicable commercially. The latex flows slowly where an
+incision is made through the bark, but not nearly so freely, even in the
+rainy season, as the india-rubber latex. On this account the Malays
+usually fell the tree in order to collect the latex, which is done by
+chopping off the branches and removing circles of the bark, forming
+cylindrical channels about an inch wide at various points about a foot
+apart down the trunk. The latex exudes and fills these channels, from
+which it is removed and converted into gutta by boiling in open vessels
+over wood fires. The work is usually carried on in the wet season when
+the latex is more fluid and more abundant. Sometimes when the latex is
+thick water is added to it before boiling.
+
+The best results are said to be obtained from mature trees about thirty
+years old, which furnish about 2 to 3 lb. of gutta. Older trees do not
+appear to yield larger amounts of gutta, whilst younger trees are said
+to furnish less and of inferior quality. The trees have been so
+extensively felled for the gutta that there has been a great diminution
+in the total number during recent years, which has not been compensated
+for by the new plantations which have been established.
+
+_Uses of Gutta Percha._--The Chinese and Malays appear to have been
+acquainted with the characteristic property of gutta percha of softening
+in warm water and of regaining its hardness when cold, but this plastic
+property seems to have been only utilized for ornamental purposes, the
+construction of walking-sticks and of knife handles and whips, &c.
+
+The brothers Tradescant brought samples of the curious material to
+Europe about the middle of the 17th century. It was then regarded as a
+form of wood, to which the name of "mazer" wood was given on account of
+its employment in making mazers or goblets. A description of it is given
+in a book published by John Tradescant in 1656 entitled _Musaeum
+Tradescantianum or a Collection of Rarities preserved at South Lambeth
+near London_. Many of the curiosities collected from all parts of the
+world by the Tradescants subsequently formed the nucleus of the
+Ashmolean Museum at Oxford which was opened in 1683, but the specimen of
+"mazer wood" no longer exists.
+
+In 1843 samples of the material were sent to London by Dr William
+Montgomerie of Singapore, and were exhibited at the Society of Arts, and
+in the same year Dr Jose d'Almeida sent samples to the Royal Asiatic
+Society. Gutta percha was also exhibited at the Great Exhibition of
+1851.
+
+Dr Montgomerie's communication to the Society of Arts led to many
+experiments being made with the material. Casts of medals were
+successfully produced, and Sir William Siemens, in conjunction with
+Werner von Siemens, then made the first experiments with the material as
+an insulating covering for cable and telegraph wires, which led to the
+discovery of its important applications in this connexion and to a
+considerable commercial demand for the substance.
+
+The value of gutta percha depends chiefly on its quality, that is its
+richness in true gutta and freedom from resin and other impurities which
+interfere with its physical characters, and especially its insulating
+power or inability to conduct electricity.
+
+The chief use of gutta percha is now for electrical purposes. Other
+minor uses are in dentistry and as a means of taking impressions of
+medals, &c. It has also found application in the preparation of belting
+for machinery, as well as for the construction of the handles of knives
+and surgical instruments, whilst the inferior qualities are used for
+waterproofing.
+
+_Commercial Production._--The amount of gutta percha exported through
+Singapore from British and Dutch possessions in the East is subject to
+considerable fluctuation, depending chiefly on the demand for cable and
+telegraph construction. In 1886 the total export from Singapore was
+40,411 cwt., of which Great Britain took 31,666 cwt.; in 1896 the export
+was 51,982 cwt. of which 29,722 cwt. came to Great Britain; while in
+1905, 42,088 cwt. were exported (19,517 cwt. to Great Britain). It has
+to be remembered that the official returns include not only gutta
+percha of various grades of quality but also other inferior products
+sold under the name of gutta percha, some of which are referred to below
+under the head of substitutes. The value of gutta percha cannot
+therefore be correctly gauged from the value of the imports. In the ten
+years 1896-1906 the best qualities of gutta percha fetched from 4s. to
+about 7s. per lb. Gutta percha, however, is used for few and special
+purposes, and there is no free market, the price being chiefly a matter
+of arrangement between the chief producers and consumers.
+
+  _Characters and Properties._--Gutta percha appears in commerce in the
+  form of blocks or cakes of a dirty greyish appearance, often
+  exhibiting a reddish tinge, and just soft enough to be indented by the
+  nail. It is subject to considerable adulteration, various materials,
+  such as coco-nut oil, being added by the Malays to improve its
+  appearance. The solid, which is fibrous in texture, hard and inelastic
+  but not brittle at ordinary temperature, becomes plastic when immersed
+  in hot water or if otherwise raised to a temperature of about 65
+  deg.-66 deg. C. in the case of gutta of the first quality, the
+  temperature of softening being dependent on the quality of the gutta
+  employed. In this condition it can be drawn out into threads, but is
+  still inelastic. On cooling again the gutta resumes its hardness
+  without becoming brittle. In this respect gutta percha differs from
+  india-rubber or caoutchouc, which does not become plastic and unlike
+  gutta percha is elastic. This property of softening on heating and
+  solidifying when cooled again, without change in its original
+  properties, enables gutta percha to be worked into various forms,
+  rolled into sheets or drawn into ropes. The specific gravity of the
+  best gutta percha lies between 0.96 and 1. Gutta percha is not
+  dissolved by most liquids, although some remove resinous constituents;
+  the best solvents are oil of turpentine, coal-tar oil, carbon
+  bisulphide and chloroform, and light petroleum when hot. Gutta percha
+  is not affected by alkaline solutions or by dilute acids. Strong
+  sulphuric acid chars it when warm, and nitric acid effects complete
+  oxidation.
+
+  When exposed to air and light, gutta percha rapidly deteriorates,
+  oxygen being absorbed, producing a brittle resinous material.
+
+  _Chemical Composition._--Chemically, gutta percha is not a single
+  substance but a mixture of several constituents. As the proportions of
+  these constituents in the crude material are not constant, the
+  properties of gutta percha are subject to variation. For electrical
+  purposes it should have a high insulating power and dielectric
+  strength and a low inductive capacity; the possession of these
+  properties is influenced by the resinous constituents present.
+
+  The principal constituent of the crude material is the pure gutta, a
+  hydrocarbon of the empirical formula C10H16. It is therefore isomeric
+  with the hydrocarbon of caoutchouc and with that of oil of turpentine.
+  Accompanying this are at least two oxygenated resinous
+  constituents--albane C10H16O and fluavil C20H32O--which can be
+  separated from the pure gutta by the use of solvents. Pure gutta is
+  not dissolved by ether and light petroleum in the cold, whereas the
+  resinous constituents are removed by these liquids. The true gutta
+  exhibits in an enhanced degree the valuable properties of gutta
+  percha, and the commercial value of the raw material is frequently
+  determined by ascertaining the proportion of true gutta present, the
+  higher the proportion of this the more valuable is the gutta percha.
+  The following are the results of analyses of gutta percha from trees
+  of the genus _Dichopsis_ or _Palaquium_:--
+
+    +--------------------------------------+-----------+----------+
+    |                                      |   Gutta   |   Resin  |
+    |                                      | per cent. | per cent.|
+    +--------------------------------------+-----------+----------+
+    |Dichopsis (or Palaquium) oblongifolia |    88.8   |   11.2   |
+    |    "      "      "      gutta        |    82.0   |   18.0   |
+    |    "      "      "      polyantha    |    49.3   |   50.7   |
+    |    "      "      "      pustulata    |    47.8   |   52.2   |
+    |    "      "      "      Maingayi     |    24.4   |   75.6   |
+    +--------------------------------------+-----------+----------+
+
+  The hydrocarbon of gutta percha, gutta, is closely related in chemical
+  constitution to caoutchouc. When distilled at a high temperature both
+  are resolved into a mixture of two simpler hydrocarbons, isoprene
+  (C5H8) and caoutchoucine or dipentene (C10H16), and the latter by
+  further heating can be resolved into isoprene, a hydrocarbon of known
+  constitution which has been produced synthetically and spontaneously
+  reverts to caoutchouc. The precise relationship of isoprene to gutta
+  has not been ascertained, but recently Harries has further elucidated
+  the connexion between gutta and caoutchouc by showing that under the
+  action of ozone both break up into laevulinic aldehyde and hydrogen
+  peroxide, but differ in the proportions of these products they
+  furnish. The two materials must therefore be regarded as very closely
+  related in chemical constitution. Like caoutchouc, gutta percha is
+  able to combine with sulphur, and this vulcanized product has found
+  some commercial applications.
+
+  _Manufacture of Gutta Percha._--Among the earliest patents taken out
+  for the manufacture of gutta percha were those of Charles Hancock, the
+  first of which is dated 1843.
+
+  Before being used for technical purposes the raw gutta percha is
+  cleaned by machinery whilst in the plastic state. The chopped or
+  sliced material is washed by mechanical means in hot water and forced
+  through a sieve or strainer of fine wire gauze to remove dirt. It is
+  then kneaded or "masticated" by machinery to remove the enclosed
+  water, and is finally transferred whilst still hot and plastic to the
+  rolling-machine, from which it emerges in sheets of different
+  thickness. Sometimes chemical treatment of the crude gutta percha is
+  resorted to for the purpose of removing the resinous constituents by
+  the action of alkaline solutions or of light petroleum.
+
+  _Substitutes for Gutta Percha._--For some purposes natural and
+  artificial substitutes for gutta percha have been employed. The
+  similar products furnished by other plants than those which yield
+  gutta percha are among the more important of the natural substitutes,
+  of which the material known as "balata" or "Surinam gutta percha," is
+  the most valuable. This is derived from a tree, _Mimusops balata_
+  (bullet tree), belonging to the same natural order as gutta percha
+  trees, viz. Sapotaceae. It is a large tree, growing to a height of 80
+  to 100 ft. or more, which occurs in the West Indies, in South America,
+  and is especially abundant in Dutch and British Guiana. The latex
+  which furnishes balata is secreted in the cortex between the bark and
+  wood of the tree. As the latex flows freely the trees are tapped by
+  making incisions in the same fashion as in india-rubber trees, and the
+  balata is obtained by evaporating the milky fluid. Crude balata varies
+  in composition. It usually contains nearly equal proportions of resin
+  and true gutta. The latter appears to be identical with the chief
+  constituent of gutta percha. The properties of balata correspond with
+  its composition, and it may therefore be classed as an inferior gutta
+  percha. Balata fetches from 1s. 6d. to 2s. 8d. per lb.
+
+  Among the inferior substitutes for gutta percha may be mentioned the
+  evaporated latices derived from _Butyrospermum Parkii_ (shea-butter
+  tree of West Africa or karite of the Sudan), _Calotropis gigantea_
+  (Madar tree of India), and _Dyera costulata_ of Malaya and Borneo,
+  which furnishes the material known as "Pontianac." All these contain a
+  small amount of gutta-like material associated with large quantities
+  of resinous and other constituents. They fetch only a few pence per
+  lb., and are utilized for waterproofing purposes.
+
+  Various artificial substitutes for gutta percha have been invented
+  chiefly for use as insulating materials. These often consist of
+  mixtures of bitumen with linseed and other oils, resins, &c., in some
+  cases incorporated with inferior grades of gutta percha.
+
+  For further information respecting gutta percha, and for figures of
+  the trees, the following works may be consulted: Jumelle, _Les Plantes
+  a caoutchouc et a gutta_ (Paris, Challamel, 1903); Obach, "Cantor
+  Lectures on Gutta Percha," _Journal of the Society of Arts_, 1898.
+       (W. R. D.)
+
+
+
+
+GUTTER (O. Fr. _goutiere_, mod. _gouttiere_, from Lat. _gutta_, drop),
+in architecture, a horizontal channel or trough contrived to carry away
+the water from a flat or sloping roof to its discharge down a vertical
+pipe or through a spout or gargoyle; more specifically, but loosely, the
+similar channel at the side of a street, below the pavement. In Greek
+and Roman temples the cymatium of the cornice was the gutter, and the
+water was discharged through the mouths of lions, whose heads were
+carved on the same. Sometimes the cymatium was not carried along the
+flanks of a temple, in which case the rain fell off the lower edge of
+the roof tiles. In medieval work the gutter rested partly on the top of
+the wall and partly on corbel tables, and the water was discharged
+through gargoyles. Sometimes, however, a parapet or pierced balustrade
+was carried on the corbel table enclosing the gutter. In buildings of a
+more ordinary class the parapet is only a continuation of the wall
+below, and the gutter is set back and carried in a trough resting on the
+lower end of the roof timbers. The safest course is to have an eaves
+gutter which projects more or less in front of the wall and is secured
+to and carried by the rafters of the roof. In Renaissance architecture
+generally the pierced balustrade of the Gothic and transition work was
+replaced by a balustrade with vertical balusters. In France a compromise
+was effected, whereby instead of the horizontal coping of the ordinary
+balustrade a richly carved cresting was employed, of which the earliest
+example is in the first court of the Louvre by Pierre Lescot. This
+exists throughout the French Renaissance, and it is one of its chief
+characteristic features.
+
+
+
+
+GUTZKOW, KARL FERDINAND (1811-1878), German novelist and dramatist, was
+born on the 17th of March 1811 at Berlin, where his father held a
+clerkship in the war office. After leaving school he studied theology
+and philosophy at the university of his native town, and while still a
+student, began his literary career by the publication in 1831 of a
+periodical entitled _Forum der Journalliteratur_. This brought him to
+the notice of Wolfgang Menzel, who invited him to Stuttgart to assist
+in the editorship of the _Literaturblatt_. At the same time he continued
+his university studies at Jena, Heidelberg and Munich. In 1832 he
+published anonymously at Hamburg _Briefe eines Narren an eine Narrin_,
+and in 1833 appeared at Stuttgart _Maha-Guru, Geschichte eines Gottes_,
+a fantastic and satirical romance. In 1835 he went to Frankfort, where
+he founded the _Deutsche Revue_. In the same year appeared _Wally, die
+Zweiflerin_, from the publication of which may be said to date the
+school of writers who, from their opposition to the literary, social and
+religious traditions of romanticism, received the name of "Young
+Germany." The work was directed specially against the institution of
+marriage and the belief in revelation; and whatever interest it might
+have attracted from its own merits was enhanced by the action of the
+German federal diet, which condemned Gutzkow to three months'
+imprisonment, decreed the suppression of all he had written or might yet
+write, and prohibited him from exercising the functions of editor within
+the German confederation. During his term of imprisonment at Mannheim,
+Gutzkow employed himself in the composition of his treatise _Zur
+Philosophie der Geschichte_ (1836). On obtaining his freedom he returned
+to Frankfort, whence he went in 1837 to Hamburg. Here he inaugurated a
+new epoch of his literary activity by bringing out his tragedy _Richard
+Savage_ (1839), which immediately made the round of all the German
+theatres. Of his numerous other plays the majority are now neglected;
+but a few have obtained an established place in the repertory of the
+German theatre--especially the comedies _Zopf und Schwert_ (1844), _Das
+Urbild des Tartuffe_ (1847), _Der Konigsleutnant_ (1849) and the blank
+verse tragedy, _Uriel Acosta_ (1847). In 1847 Gutzkow went to Dresden,
+where he succeeded Tieck as literary adviser to the court theatre.
+Meanwhile he had not neglected the novel. _Seraphine_ (1838) was
+followed by _Blasedow und seine Sohne_, a satire on the educational
+theories of the time. Between 1850 and 1852 appeared _Die Ritter vom
+Geiste_, which may be regarded as the starting-point for the modern
+German social novel. _Der Zauberer von Rom_ is a powerful study of Roman
+Catholic life in southern Germany. The success of _Die Ritter vom
+Geiste_ suggested to Gutzkow the establishment of a journal on the model
+of Dickens' _Household Words_, entitled _Unterhaltungen am hauslichen
+Herd_, which first appeared in 1852 and was continued till 1862. In 1864
+he had an epileptic fit, and his productions show henceforth decided
+traces of failing powers. To this period belong the historical novels
+_Hohenschwangau_ (1868) and _Fritz Ellrodt_ (1872), _Lebensbilder_
+(1870-1872), consisting of autobiographic sketches, and _Die Sohne
+Pestalozzis_ (1870), the plot of which is founded on the story of Kaspar
+Hauser. On account of a return of his nervous malady, Gutzkow in 1873
+made a journey to Italy, and on his return took up his residence in the
+country near Heidelberg, whence he removed to Frankfort-on-Main, dying
+there on the 16th of December 1878. With the exception of one or two of
+his comedies, Gutzkow's writings have fallen into neglect. But he
+exerted a powerful influence on the opinions of modern Germany; and his
+works will always be of interest as the mirror in which the intellectual
+and social struggles of his time are best reflected.
+
+  An edition of Gutzkow's collected works appeared at Jena (1873-1876,
+  new ed., 1879). E. Wolff has published critical editions of Gutzkow's
+  _Meisterdramen_ (1892) and _Wally die Zweiflerin_ (1905). His more
+  important novels have been frequently reprinted. For Gutzkow's life
+  see his various autobiographical writings such as _Aus der Knabenzeit_
+  (1852), _Ruckblicke auf mein Leben_ (1876), &c. For an estimate of his
+  life and work see J. Proelss, _Das junge Deutschland_ (1892); also H.
+  H. Houben, _Studien uber die Dramen Gutzkows_ (1898) and
+  _Gutzkow-Funde_ (1901).
+
+
+
+
+GUTZLAFF, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1803-1851), German missionary to China,
+was born at Pyritz in Pomerania on the 8th of July 1803. When still
+apprenticed to a saddler in Stettin, he made known his missionary
+inclinations to the king of Prussia, through whom he went to the
+Padagogium at Halle, and afterwards to the mission institute of Janike
+in Berlin. In 1826, under the auspices of the Netherlands Missionary
+Society, he went to Java, where he was able to learn Chinese. Leaving
+the society in 1828, he went to Singapore, and in August of the same
+year removed to Bangkok, where he translated the Bible into Siamese. In
+1829 he married an English lady, who aided him in the preparation of a
+dictionary of Cochin Chinese, but she died in August 1831 before its
+completion. Shortly after her death he sailed to Macao in China, where,
+and subsequently at Hong Kong, he worked at a translation of the Bible
+into Chinese, published a Chinese monthly magazine, and wrote in Chinese
+various books on subjects of useful knowledge. In 1834 he published at
+London a _Journal of Three Voyages along the Coast of China in 1831,
+1832 and 1833_. He was appointed in 1835 joint Chinese secretary to the
+English commission, and during the opium war of 1840-42 and the
+negotiations connected with the peace that followed he rendered valuable
+service by his knowledge of the country and people. The Chinese
+authorities refusing to permit foreigners to penetrate into the
+interior, Gutzlaff in 1844 founded an institute for training native
+missionaries, which was so successful that during the first four years
+as many as forty-eight Chinese were sent out from it to work among their
+fellow-countrymen. He died at Hong Kong on the 9th of August 1851.
+
+  Gutzlaff also wrote _A Sketch of Chinese History, Ancient and Modern_
+  (London, 1834), and a similar work published in German at Stuttgart in
+  1847; China Opened (1838); and the _Life of Taow-Kwang_ (1851; German
+  edition published at Leipzig in 1852). A complete collection of his
+  Chinese writings is contained in the library at Munich.
+
+
+
+
+GUY OF WARWICK, English hero of romance. Guy, son of Siward or Seguard
+of Wallingford, by his prowess in foreign wars wins in marriage Felice
+(the Phyllis of the well-known ballad), daughter and heiress of Roalt,
+earl of Warwick. Soon after his marriage he is seized with remorse for
+the violence of his past life, and, by way of penance, leaves his wife
+and fortune to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. After years of
+absence he returns in time to deliver Winchester for King Aethelstan
+from the invading northern kings, Anelaph (Anlaf or Olaf) and Gonelaph,
+by slaying in single fight their champion the giant Colbrand. Local
+tradition fixes the duel at Hyde Mead near Winchester. Making his way to
+Warwick he becomes one of his wife's bedesmen, and presently retires to
+a hermitage in Arden, only revealing his identity at the approach of
+death. The versions of the Middle English romance of Guy which we
+possess are adaptations from the French, and are cast in the form of a
+_roman d'aventures_, opening with a long recital of Guy's wars in
+Lombardy, Germany and Constantinople, and embellished with fights with
+dragons and surprising feats of arms. The kernel of the tradition
+evidently lies in the fight with Colbrand, which represents, or at least
+is symbolic[1] of an historical fact. The religious side of the legend
+finds parallels in the stories of St Eustachius and St Alexius,[2] and
+makes it probable that the Guy-legend, as we have it, has passed through
+monastic hands. Tradition seems to be at fault in putting Guy's
+adventures under Aethelstan. The Anlaf of the story is probably Olaf
+Tryggvason, who, with Sweyn of Denmark, harried the southern counties of
+England in 993 and pitched his winter quarters in Southampton.
+Winchester was saved, however, not by the valour of an English champion,
+but by the payment of money. This Olaf was not unnaturally confused with
+Anlaf Cuaran or Havelok (i.e.).
+
+The name Guy (perhaps a Norman form of A. S. _wig_ = war) may be fairly
+connected with the family of Wigod, lord of Wallingford under Edward the
+Confessor, and a Filicia, who belongs to the 12th century and was
+perhaps the Norman poet's patroness, occurs in the pedigree of the
+Ardens, descended from Thurkill of Warwick and his son Siward. Guy's
+Cliffe, near Warwick, where in the 14th century Richard de Beauchamp,
+earl of Warwick, erected a chantry, with a statue of the hero, does not
+correspond with the site of the hermitage as described in the romance.
+The bulk of the legend is obviously fiction, even though it may be
+vaguely connected with the family history of the Ardens and the
+Wallingford family, but it was accepted as authentic fact in the
+chronicle of Pierre de Langtoft (Peter of Langtoft) written at the end
+of the 13th century. The adventures of Reynbrun, son of Guy, and his
+tutor Heraud of Arden, who had also educated Guy, have much in common
+with his father's history, and form an interpolation sometimes treated
+as a separate romance. There is a certain connexion between Guy and
+Count Guido of Tours (fl. 800), and Alcuin's advice to the count is
+transferred to the English hero in the _Speculum Gy of Warewyke_ (_c_.
+1327), edited for the Early English Text Society by G. L. Morrill, 1898.
+
+  The French romance (Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 3775) has not been printed,
+  but is described by Emile Littre in _Hist. litt. de la France_ (xxii.,
+  841-851, 1852). A French prose version was printed in Paris, 1525, and
+  subsequently (see G. Brunet, _Manuel du libraire_, _s.v._ "Guy de
+  Warvich"); the English metrical romance exists in four versions,
+  dating from the early 14th century; the text was edited by J. Zupitza
+  (1875-1876) for the E.E.T.S. from Cambridge University Lib. Paper MS.
+  Ff. 2, 38, and again (3 pts. 1883-1891, extra series, Nos. 42, 49,
+  59), from the Auchinleck and Caius College MSS. The popularity of the
+  legend is shown by the numerous versions in English: _Guy of Warwick_,
+  translated from the Latin of Girardus Cornubiensis (fl. 1350) into
+  English verse by John Lydgate between 1442 and 1468; _Guy of Warwick_,
+  a poem (written in 1617 and licensed, but not printed) by John Lane,
+  the MS. of which (Brit. Mus.) contains a sonnet by John Milton, father
+  of the poet; _The Famous Historie of Guy, Earl of Warwick_ (c. 1607),
+  by Samuel Rowlands; _The Booke of the Moste Victoryous Prince Guy of
+  Warwicke_ (William Copland, no date); other editions by J. Cawood and
+  C. Bates; chapbooks and ballads of the 17th and 18th centuries: _The
+  Tragical History, Admirable Achievements and Curious Events of Guy,
+  Earl of Warwick_, a tragedy (1661) which may possibly be identical
+  with a play on the subject Written by John Day and Thomas Dekker, and
+  entered at Stationers' Hall on the 15th of January 1618/19; three
+  verse fragments are printed by Hales and Furnivall in their edition of
+  the Percy Folio MS. vol. ii.; an early French MS. is described by J.
+  A. Herbert (_An Early MS. of Gui de Warwick_, London, 1905).
+
+  See also M. Weyrauch _Die mittelengl. Fassungen der Sage von Guy_ (2
+  pts., Breslau, 1899 and 1901); J. Zupitza in _Silzungsber. d.
+  phil.-hist. Kl. d. kgl. Akad. d. Wiss._ (vol. lxxiv., Vienna, 1874),
+  and _Zur Literaturgeschichte des Guy von Warwick_ (Vienna, 1873); a
+  learned discussion of the whole subject by H. L. Ward, _Catalogue of
+  Romances_ (i. 471-501, 1883); and an article by S. L. Lee in the
+  _Dictionary of National Biography_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Some writers have supposed that the fight with Colbrand
+    symbolizes the victory of Brunanburh. Anelaph and Gonelaph would then
+    represent the cousins Anlaf Sihtricson and Anlaf Godfreyson (see
+    HAVELOK).
+
+  [2] See the English legends in C. Horstmann, _Altenglische Legenden_,
+    Neue Folge (Heilbronn, 1881).
+
+
+
+
+GUY, THOMAS (1644-1724), founder of Guy's Hospital, London, was the son
+of a lighterman and coal-dealer at Southwark. After serving an
+apprenticeship of eight years with a bookseller, he in 1668 began
+business on his own account. He dealt largely in Bibles, which had for
+many years been poorly and incorrectly printed in England. These he at
+first imported from Holland, but subsequently obtained from the
+university of Oxford the privilege of printing. Thus, and by an
+extremely thrifty mode of life, and more particularly by investment in
+government securities, the subscription of these into the South Sea
+Company, and the subsequent sale of his stock in 1720, he became master
+of an immense fortune. He died unmarried on the 17th of December 1724.
+In 1707 he built three wards of St Thomas's Hospital, which institution
+he otherwise subsequently benefited; and at a cost of L18,793, 16s. he
+erected Guy's Hospital, leaving for its endowment L219,499; he also
+endowed Christ's Hospital with L400 a year, and in 1678 endowed
+almshouses at Tamworth, his mother's birthplace, which was represented
+by him in parliament from 1695 to 1707. The residue of his estate, which
+went to distant relatives, amounted to about L80,000.
+
+  See _A True Copy of the Last Will and Testament of Thomas Guy, Esq._
+  (London, 1725); J. Noorthouck, _A New Hist. of London_, bk. iii. ch.
+  i. p. 684 (1773); Nichols, _Literary Anecdotes_, iii. 599 (1812);
+  Charles Knight, _Shadows of the Old Booksellers_, pp. 3-23 (1865); and
+  _A Biographical History of Guy's Hospital_, by S. Wilkes and G. T.
+  Bettany (1892).
+
+
+
+
+GUYON, JEANNE MARIE BOUVIER DE LA MOTHE (1648-1717), French quietist
+writer, was born at Montargis, where her family were persons of
+consequence, on the 13th of April 1648. If her somewhat hysterical
+autobiography may be trusted she was much neglected in her youth; most
+of her time was spent as a boarder in various convent schools. Here she
+went through all the religious experiences common to neurotic young
+women; these were turned in a definitely mystical direction by the
+duchesse de Bethune, daughter of the disgraced minister, Fouquet, who
+spent some years at Montargis after her father's fall. In 1664 Jeanne
+Marie was married to a rich invalid of the name of Guyon, many years her
+senior. Twelve years later he died, leaving his widow with three small
+children and a considerable fortune. All through her unhappy married
+life the mystical attraction had grown steadily in violence; it now
+attached itself to a certain Father Lacombe, a Barnabite monk of weak
+character and unstable intellect. In 1681 she left her family and joined
+him; for five years the two rambled about together in Savoy and the
+south-east of France, spreading their mystical ideas. At last they
+excited the suspicion of the authorities; in 1686 Lacombe was recalled
+to Paris, put under surveillance, and finally sent to the Bastille in
+the autumn of 1687. He was presently transferred to the castle of
+Lourdes, where he developed softening of the brain and died in 1715.
+Meanwhile Madame Guyon had been arrested in January 1688, and been shut
+up in a convent as a suspected heretic. Thence she was delivered in the
+following year by her old friend, the duchesse de Bethune, who had
+returned from exile to become a power in the devout court-circle
+presided over by Madame de Maintenon. Before long Madame Guyon herself
+was introduced into this pious assemblage. Its members were far from
+critical; they were intensely interested in religion; and even Madame
+Guyon's bitterest critics bear witness to her charm of manner, her
+imposing appearance, and the force and eloquence with which she
+explained her mystical ideas. So much was Madame de Maintenon impressed,
+that she often invited Madame Guyon to give lectures at her girls'
+school of St Cyr. But by far the greatest of her conquests was Fenelon,
+now a rising young director of consciences, much in favour with
+aristocratic ladies. Dissatisfied with the formalism of average Catholic
+piety, he was already thinking out a mystical theory of his own; and
+between 1689 and 1693 they corresponded regularly. But as soon as ugly
+reports about Lacombe began to spread, he broke off all connexion with
+her. Meanwhile the reports had reached the prudent ears of Madame de
+Maintenon. In May 1693 she asked Madame Guyon to go no more to St Cyr.
+In the hope of clearing her orthodoxy, Madame Guyon appealed to Bossuet,
+who decided that her books contained "much that was intolerable, alike
+in form and matter." To this judgment Madame Guyon submitted, promised
+to "dogmatize no more," and disappeared into the country (1693). In the
+next year she again petitioned for an inquiry, and was eventually sent,
+half as a prisoner, half as a penitent, to Bossuet's cathedral town of
+Meaux. Here she spent the first half of 1695; but in the summer she
+escaped without his leave, bearing with her a certificate of orthodoxy
+signed by him. Bossuet regarded this flight as a gross act of
+disobedience; in the winter Madame Guyon was arrested and shut up in the
+Bastille. There she remained till 1703. In that year she was liberated,
+on condition she went to live on her son's estate near Blois, under the
+eye of a stern bishop. Here the rest of her life was spent in charitable
+and pious exercises; she died on the 9th of June 1717. During these
+latter years her retreat at Blois became a regular place of pilgrimage
+for admirers, foreign quite as often as French. Indeed, she is one of
+the many prophetesses whose fame has stood highest out of their own
+country. French critics of all schools of thought have generally
+reckoned her an hysterical degenerate; in England and Germany she has as
+often roused enthusiastic admiration.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Vie de Madame Guyon, ecrite par elle-meme_ (really a
+  compilation made from various fragments) (3 vols., Paris, 1791). There
+  is a life in English by T. C. Upham (New York, 1854); and an elaborate
+  study by L. Guerrier (Paris, 1881). For a remarkable review of this
+  latter work see Brunetiere, _Nouvelles Etudes critiques_, vol. ii. The
+  complete edition of Madame Guyon's works, including the autobiography
+  and five volumes of letters, runs to forty volumes (1767-1791); the
+  most important works are published separately, _Opuscules spirituels_
+  (2 vols., Paris, 1790). They have been several times translated into
+  English. See also the literature of the article on QUIETISM; and H.
+  Delacroix, _Etudes sur le mysticisme_ (Paris, 1908).     (St C.)
+
+
+
+
+GUYON, RICHARD DEBAUFRE (1803-1856), British soldier, general in the
+Hungarian revolutionary army and Turkish pasha, was born at Walcot, near
+Bath, in 1803. After receiving a military education in England and in
+Austria he entered the Hungarian hussars in 1823, in which he served
+until after his marriage with a daughter of Baron Spleny, a general
+officer in the imperial service. At the outbreak of the Hungarian War in
+1848, he re-entered active service as an officer of the Hungarian
+Honveds, and he won great distinction in the action of Sukoro (September
+29, 1848) and the battle of Schwechat (October 30). He added to his
+reputation as a leader in various actions in the winter of 1848-1849,
+and after the battle of Kapolna was made a general officer. He served in
+important and sometimes independent commands to the end of the war,
+after which he escaped to Turkey. In 1852 he entered the service of the
+sultan. He was made a pasha and lieutenant-general without being
+required to change his faith, and rendered distinguished service in the
+campaign against the Russians in Asia Minor (1854-55). General Guyon
+died of cholera at Scutari on the 12th of October 1856.
+
+  See A. W. Kinglake, _The Patriot and the Hero General Guyon_ (1856).
+
+
+
+
+GUYOT, ARNOLD HENRY (1807-1884), Swiss-American geologist and
+geographer, was born at Boudevilliers, near Neuchatel, Switzerland, on
+the 28th of September 1807. He studied at the college of Neuchatel and
+in Germany, where he began a lifelong friendship with Louis Agassiz. He
+was professor of history and physical geography at the short-lived
+Neuchatel "Academy" from 1839 to 1848, when he removed, at Agassiz's
+instance, to the United States, settling in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
+For several years he was a lecturer for the Massachusetts State Board of
+Education, and he was professor of geology and physical geography at
+Princeton from 1854 until his death there on the 8th of February 1884.
+He ranked high as a geologist and meteorologist. As early as 1838, he
+undertook, at Agassiz's suggestion, the study of glaciers, and was the
+first to announce, in a paper submitted to the Geological Society of
+France, certain important observations relating to glacial motion and
+structure. Among other things he noted the more rapid flow of the centre
+than of the sides, and the more rapid flow of the top than of the bottom
+of glaciers; described the laminated or "ribboned" structure of the
+glacial ice, and ascribed the movement of glaciers to a gradual
+molecular displacement rather than to a sliding of the ice mass as held
+by de Saussure. He subsequently collected important data concerning
+erratic boulders. His extensive meteorological observations in America
+led to the establishment of the United States Weather Bureau, and his
+_Meteorological and Physical Tables_ (1852, revised ed. 1884) were long
+standard. His graded series of text-books and wall-maps were important
+aids in the extension and popularization of geological study in America.
+In addition to text-books, his principal publications were: _Earth and
+Man, Lectures on Comparative Physical Geography in its Relation to the
+History of Mankind_ (translated by Professor C. C. Felton, 1849); _A
+Memoir of Louis Agassiz_ (1883); and _Creation, or the Biblical
+Cosmogony in the Light of Modern Science_ (1884).
+
+  See James D. Dana's "Memoir" in the _Biographical Memoirs of the
+  National Academy of Science_, vol. ii. (Washington, 1886).
+
+
+
+
+GUYOT, YVES (1843-   ), French politician and economist, was born at
+Dinan on the 6th of September 1843. Educated at Rennes, he took up the
+profession of journalism, coming to Paris in 1867. He was for a short
+period editor-in-chief of _L'Independant du midi_ of Nimes, but joined
+the staff of _La Rappel_ on its foundation, and worked subsequently on
+other journals. He took an active part in municipal life, and waged a
+keen campaign against the prefecture of police, for which he suffered
+six months' imprisonment. He entered the chamber of deputies in 1885 as
+representative of the first arrondissement of Paris and was _rapporteur
+general_ of the budget of 1888. He became minister of public works under
+the premiership of P. E. Tirard in 1889, retaining his portfolio in the
+cabinet of C. L. de Freycinet until 1892. Although of strong liberal
+views, he lost his seat in the election of 1893 owing to his militant
+attitude against socialism. An uncompromising free-trader, he published
+_La Comedie protectionniste_ (1905; Eng. trans. _The Comedy of
+Protection_); _La Science economique_ (1st ed. 1881; 3rd ed. 1907); _La
+Prostitution_ (1882); _La Tyrannie socialiste_ (1893), all three
+translated into English; _Les Conflits du travail et leur solution_
+(1903); _La Democratie individualiste_ (1907).
+
+
+
+
+GUYTON DE MORVEAU, LOUIS BERNARD, BARON (1737-1816), French chemist, was
+born on the 4th of January 1737, at Dijon, where his father was
+professor of civil law at the university. As a boy he showed remarkable
+aptitude for practical mechanics, but on leaving school he studied law
+in the university of Dijon, and in his twenty-fourth year became
+advocate-general in the parlement of Dijon. This office he held till
+1782. Devoting his leisure to the study of chemistry, he published in
+1772 his _Digressions academiques_, in which he set forth his views on
+phlogiston, crystallization, &c., and two years later he established in
+his native town courses of lectures on materia medica, mineralogy and
+chemistry. An essay on chemical nomenclature, which he published in the
+_Journal de physique_ for May 1782, was ultimately developed with the
+aid of A. L. Lavoisier, C. L. Berthollet and A. F. Fourcroy, into the
+_Methode d'une nomenclature chimique_, published in 1787, the principles
+of which were speedily adopted by chemists throughout Europe. Constantly
+in communication with the leaders of the Lavoisierian school, he soon
+became a convert to the anti-phlogistic doctrine; and he published his
+reasons in the first volume of the section "Chymie, Pharmacie et
+Metallurgie" of the _Encyclopedie methodique_ (1786), the chemical
+articles in which were written by him, as well as some of those in the
+second volume (1792). In 1794 he was appointed to superintend the
+construction of balloons for military purposes, being known as the
+author of some aeronautical experiments carried out at Dijon some ten
+years previously. In 1791 he became a member of the Legislative
+Assembly, and in the following year of the National Convention, to which
+he was re-elected in 1795, but he retired from political life in 1797.
+In 1798 he acted as provisional director of the Polytechnic School, in
+the foundation of which he took an active part, and from 1800 to 1814 he
+held the appointment of master of the mint. In 1811 he was made a baron
+of the French Empire. He died in Paris on the 2nd of January 1816.
+
+  Besides being a diligent contributor to the scientific periodicals of
+  the day, Guyton wrote _Memoire sur l'education publique_ (1762); a
+  satirical poem entitled _Le Rat iconoclaste, ou le Jesuite croque_
+  (1763); _Discours publics et eloges_ (1775-1782); _Plaidoyers sur
+  plusieurs questions de droit_ (1785); and _Traite des moyens de
+  desinfecter l'air_ (1801), describing the disinfecting powers of
+  chlorine, and of hydrochloric acid gas which he had successfully used
+  at Dijon in 1773. With Hugues Maret (1726-1785) and Jean Francois
+  Durande (d. 1794) he also published the _Elemens de chymie theorique
+  et pratique_ (1776-1777).
+
+
+
+
+GUZMICS, IZIDOR (1786-1839). Hungarian theologian, was born on the 7th
+of April 1786 at Vamos-Csalad, in the county of Sopron. At Sopron
+(Oedenburg) he was instructed in the art of poetry by Paul Horvath. In
+October 1805 he entered the Benedictine order, but left it in August of
+the following year, only again to assume the monastic garb on the 10th
+of November 1806. At the monastery of Pannonhegy he applied himself to
+the study of Greek under Farkas Toth and in 1812 he was sent to Pesth to
+study theology. Here he read the best German and Hungarian authors, and
+took part in the editorship of the _Nemzeti_ (National) _Plutarkus_, and
+in the translation of Johann Hubner's _Lexicon_. On obtaining the degree
+of doctor of divinity in 1816, he returned to Pannonhegy, where he
+devoted himself to dogmatic theology and literature, and contributed
+largely to Hungarian periodicals. The most important of his theological
+works are: _A kath. anyaszentegyhaznak hitbeli tanitasa_ (The Doctrinal
+Teaching of the Holy Catholic Church), and _A keresztenyeknek vallasbeli
+egyesulesokrol_ (On Religious Unity among Christians), both published at
+Pesth in 1822; also a Latin treatise entitled _Theologia Christiana
+fundamentalis et theologia dogmatica_ (4 vols., Gyor, 1828-1829). His
+translation of Theocritus in hexameters was published in 1824. His
+versions of the _Oedipus_ of Sophocles and of the _Iphigenia_ of
+Euripides were rewarded by the Hungarian Academy, of which in 1838 he
+was elected honorary member. In 1832 he was appointed abbot of the
+wealthy Benedictine house at Bakonybel, a village in the county of
+Veszprem. There he built an asylum for 150 children, and founded a
+school of harmony and singing. He died on the 1st of September 1839.
+
+
+
+
+GWADAR, a port on the Makran coast of Baluchistan, about 290 m. W. of
+Karachi. Pop. (1903), 4350. In the last half of the 18th century it was
+handed over by the khan of Kalat to the sultan of Muscat, who still
+exercises sovereignty over the port, together with about 300 sq. m. of
+the adjoining country. It is a place of call for the steamers of the
+British India Navigation Company.
+
+
+
+
+GWALIOR, a native state of India, in the Central India agency, by far
+the largest of the numerous principalities comprised in that area. It is
+the dominion of the Sindhia family. The state consists of two
+well-defined parts which may roughly be called the northern and the
+southern. The former is a compact mass of territory, bounded N. and N.W.
+by the Chambal river, which separates it from the British districts of
+Agra and Etawah, and the native states of Dholpur, Karauli and Jaipur of
+Rajputana; E. by the British districts of Jalaun, Jhansi, Lalitpur and
+Saugor; S. by the states of Bhopal, Tonk, Khilchipur and Rajgarh; and W.
+by those of Jhalawar, Tonk and Kotah of Rajputana. The southern, or
+Malwa, portion is made up of detached or semi-detached districts,
+between which are interposed parts of other states, which again are
+mixed up with each other in bewildering intricacy. The two portions
+together have a total area of 25,041 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 2,933,001,
+showing a decrease of 13% in the decade.
+
+The state may be naturally divided into plain, plateau and hilly
+country. The plain country extends from the Chambal river in the extreme
+southwards for about 80 m., with a maximum width from east to west of
+about 120 m. This plain, though broken in its southern portion by low
+hills, has generally an elevation of only a few hundred feet above
+sea-level. In the summer season the climate is very hot, the shade
+temperature rising frequently to 112 deg. F., but in the winter months
+(from November to February inclusive) it is usually temperate and for
+short periods extremely cold. The average rainfall is 30 in., but the
+period 1891-1901 was a decade of low rainfall, and distress was caused
+by famine. South of this tract there is a gradual ascent to the Central
+India plateau, and at Sipri the general level is 1500 ft. above the sea.
+On this plateau lies the remainder of the state, with the exception of
+the small district of Amjhera in the extreme south. The elevation of
+this region gives it a moderate climate during the summer as compared
+with the plain country, while the winter is warmer and more equable. The
+average rainfall is 28 in. The remaining portion of the state, classed
+as hilly, comprises only the small district of Amjhera. This is known as
+the Bhil country, and lies among the Vindhya mountains with a mean
+elevation of about 1800 ft. The rainfall averages 23 in. In the two
+years 1899 and 1900 the monsoon was very weak, the result being a severe
+famine which caused great mortality among the Bhil population. Of these
+three natural divisions the plateau possesses the most fertile soil,
+generally of the kind known as "black cotton," but the low-lying plain
+has the densest population. The state is watered by numerous rivers. The
+Nerbudda, flowing west, forms the southern boundary. The greater part of
+the drainage is discharged into the Chambal, which forms the
+north-western and northern and eastern boundary. The Sind, with its
+tributaries the Kuwari, Asar and Sankh, flows through the northern
+division. The chief products are wheat, millets, pulses of various
+kinds, maize, rice, linseed and other oil-seeds; poppy, yielding the
+Malwa opium; sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, indigo, garlic, turmeric and
+ginger. About 60% of the population are employed in agricultural and
+only 15% in industrial occupations, the great majority of the latter
+being home workers. There is a leather-factory at Morar; cotton-presses
+at Morena, Baghana and Ujjain; ginning factories at Agar, Nalkhera,
+Shajapur and Sonkach; and a cotton-mill at Ujjain. The cotton industry
+alone shows possibilities of considerable development, there being
+55,000 persons engaged in it at the time of the census of 1901.
+
+The population is composed of many elements, among which Brahmans and
+Rajputs are specially numerous. The prevailing religion is Hinduism, 84%
+of the people being Hindus and only 6% Mahommedans. The revenue of the
+state is about one million sterling; and large reserves have been
+accumulated, from which two millions were lent to the government of
+India in 1887, and later on another million for the construction of the
+Gwalior-Agra and Indore-Neemuch railways. The railways undertaken by the
+state are: (1) from Bina on the Indian Midland to Goona; (2) an
+extension of this line to Baran, opened in 1899; (3) from Bhopal to
+Ujjain; (4) two light railways, from Gwalior to Sipri and Gwalior to
+Bhind, which were opened by the viceroy in November 1899. On the same
+occasion the viceroy opened the Victoria College, founded to commemorate
+the Diamond Jubilee; and the Memorial Hospital, built in memory of the
+maharaja's father. British currency has been introduced instead of
+Chandori rupees, which were much depreciated. The state maintains three
+regiments of Imperial Service cavalry, two battalions of infantry and a
+transport corps.
+
+_History._--The Sindhia family, the rulers of the Gwalior state, belong
+to the Mahratta nation and originally came from the neighbourhood of
+Poona. Their first appearance in Central India was early in the 18th
+century in the person of Ranoji (d. 1745), a scion of an impoverished
+branch of the family, who began his career as the peshwa's
+slipper-carrier and rose by his military abilities to be commander of
+his bodyguard. In 1726, together with Malhar Rao Holkar, the founder of
+the house of Indore, he was authorized by the peshwa to collect tribute
+(_chauth_) in the Malwa districts. He established his headquarters at
+Ujjain, which thus became the first capital of Sindhia's dominions.
+
+Ranoji's son and successor, Jayapa Sindhia, was killed at Nagaur in
+1759, and was in his turn succeeded by his son Jankoji Sindhia. But the
+real founder of the state of Gwalior was Mahadji Sindhia, a natural son
+of Ranoji, who, after narrowly escaping with his life from the terrible
+slaughter of Panipat in 1761 (when Jankoji was killed), obtained with
+some difficulty from the peshwa a re-grant of his father's possessions
+in Central India (1769). During the struggle which followed the death of
+Madhu Rao Peshwa in 1772 Mahadji seized every occasion for extending his
+power and possessions. In 1775, however, when Raghuba Peshwa threw
+himself on the protection of the British, the reverses which Mahadji
+encountered at their hands--Gwalior being taken by Major Popham in
+1780--opened his eyes to their power. By the treaty of Salbai (1782) it
+was agreed that Mahadji should withdraw to Ujjain, and the British
+retire north of the Jumna. Mahadji, who undertook to open negotiations
+with the other belligerents, was recognized as an independent ruler, and
+a British resident was established at his court. Mahadji, aided by the
+British policy of neutrality, now set to work to establish his supremacy
+over Hindustan proper. Realizing the superiority of European methods of
+warfare, he availed himself of the services of a Savoyard soldier of
+fortune, Benoit de Boigne, whose genius for military organization and
+command in the field was mainly instrumental in establishing the
+Mahratta power. Mahadji's disciplined troops made him invincible. In
+1785 he re-established Shah Alam on the imperial throne at Delhi, and as
+his reward obtained for the peshwa the title of _vakil-ul-mutlak_ or
+vicegerent of the empire, contenting himself with that of his deputy. In
+1788 he took advantage of the cruelties practised by Ghulam Kadir on
+Shah Alam, to occupy Delhi, where he established himself as the
+protector of the aged emperor. Though nominally a deputy of the peshwa
+he was now ruler of a vast territory, including the greater part of
+Central India and Hindustan proper, while his lieutenants exacted
+tribute from the chiefs of Rajputana. There can be no doubt that he
+looked with apprehension on the growing power of the British; but he
+wisely avoided any serious collision with them.
+
+Mahadji died in 1794, and was succeeded by his adopted son, Daulat Rao
+Sindhia, a grandson of his brother Tukoji. When, during the period of
+unrest that followed the deaths of the peshwa, Madhu Rao II., in 1795
+and of Tukoji Holkar in 1797, the Mahratta leaders fought over the
+question of supremacy, the peshwa, Baji Rao II., the titular head of the
+Mahratta confederation, fled from his capital and placed himself under
+British protection by the treaty of Bassein (December 31, 1802). This
+interposition of the British government was resented by the confederacy,
+and it brought on the Mahratta War of 1803. In the campaign that
+followed a combined Mahratta army, in which Daulat Rao's troops
+furnished the largest contingent, was defeated by General Arthur
+Wellesley at Assaye and Argaum in Central India; and Lord Lake routed
+Daulat Rao's European-trained battalions in Northern India at Agra,
+Aligarh and Laswari. Daulat Rao was then compelled to sign the treaty of
+Sarji Anjangaon (December 30, 1803), which stripped him of his
+territories between the Jumna and Ganges, the district of Broach in
+Gujarat and other lands in the south. By the same treaty he was deprived
+of the forts of Gwalior and Gohad; but these were restored by Lord
+Cornwallis in 1805, when the Chambal river was made the northern
+boundary of the state. By a treaty signed at Burhanpur in 1803 Daulat
+Rao further agreed to maintain a subsidiary force, to be paid out of the
+revenues of the territories ceded under the treaty of Sarji Anjangaon.
+When, however, in 1816 he was called upon to assist in the suppression
+of the Pindaris, though by the treaty of Gwalior (1817) he promised his
+co-operation, his conduct was so equivocal that in 1818 he was forced to
+sign a fresh treaty by which he ceded Ajmere and other lands.
+
+Daulat Rao died without issue in 1827, and his widow, Baiza Bai (d.
+1862), adopted Mukut Rao, a boy of eleven belonging to a distant branch
+of the family, who succeeded as Jankoji Rao Sindhia. His rule was weak;
+the state was distracted by interminable palace intrigues and military
+mutinies, and affairs went from bad to worse when, in 1843, Jankoji Rao,
+who left no heir, was succeeded by another boy, adopted by his widow,
+Tara Bai, under the name of Jayaji Rao Sindhia. The growth of turbulence
+and misrule now induced Lord Ellenborough to interpose, and a British
+force under Sir Hugh Gough advanced upon Gwalior (December 1843). The
+Mahratta troops were defeated simultaneously at Maharajpur and Punniar
+(December 29), with the result that the Gwalior government signed a
+treaty ceding territory with revenue sufficient for the maintenance of a
+contingent force to be stationed at the capital, and limiting the future
+strength of the Gwalior army, while a council of regency was appointed
+during the minority to act under the resident's advice. In 1857 the
+Gwalior contingent joined the mutineers; but the maharaja himself
+remained loyal to the British, and fled from his capital until the place
+was retaken and his authority restored by Sir Hugh Rose (Lord
+Strathnairn) on the 19th of June 1858. He was rewarded with the
+districts of Neemuch and Amjhera, but Gwalior fort was occupied by
+British troops and was only restored to his son in 1886 by Lord
+Dufferin. Jayaji Rao, who died in 1886, did much for the development of
+his state. He was created a G.C.S.I in 1861, and subsequently became a
+counsellor of the empress, a G.C.B. and C.I.E.
+
+His son, the maharaja, Madhava Rao Sindhia, G.C.S.I., was born in 1877.
+During his minority the state was administered for eight years by a
+council of regency. He was entrusted with ruling powers in 1894, and in
+all respects continued the reforming policy of the council, while paying
+personal attention to every department, being a keen soldier, an
+energetic administrator, and fully alive to the responsibilities
+attaching to his position. He was created an honorary aide-de-camp to
+the king-emperor and an honorary colonel in the British army. He went to
+China as orderly officer to General Gaselee in 1901, and provided the
+expedition with a hospital ship at his own expense, while his Imperial
+Service Transport Corps proved a useful auxiliary to the British army in
+the Chitral and Tirah expeditions.
+
+The CITY OF GWALIOR is 76 m. by rail S. of Agra, and had a population in
+1901 of 119,433. This total includes the new town of Lashkar or "the
+Camp" which is the modern capital of the state and old Gwalior. The old
+town has a threefold interest: first as a very ancient seat of Jain
+worship; secondly for its example of palace architecture of the best
+Hindu period (1486-1516); and thirdly as an historic fortress. There are
+several remarkable Hindu temples within the fort. One, known as the _Sas
+Bahu_, is beautifully adorned with bas-reliefs. It was finished in A.D.
+1093, and, though much dilapidated, still forms a most picturesque
+fragment. An older Jain temple has been used as a mosque. Another temple
+in the fortress of Gwalior is called the _Teli-Mandir_, or "Oilman's
+Temple." This building was originally dedicated to Vishnu, but
+afterwards converted to the worship of Siva. The most striking part of
+the Jain remains at Gwalior is a series of caves or rock-cut sculptures,
+excavated in the rock on all sides, and numbering nearly a hundred,
+great and small. Most of them are mere niches to contain statues, though
+some are cells that may have been originally intended for residences.
+One curious fact regarding them is that, according to inscriptions, they
+were all excavated within the short period of about thirty-three years,
+between 1441 and 1474. Some of the figures are of colossal size; one,
+for instance, is 57 ft. high, which is taller than any other in northern
+India.
+
+The palace built by Man Singh (1486-1516) forms the most interesting
+example of early Hindu work of its class in India. Another palace of
+even greater extent was added to this in 1516; both Jehangir and Shah
+Jahan added palaces to these two--the whole making a group of edifices
+unequalled for picturesqueness and interest by anything of their class
+in Central India. Among the apartments in the palace was the celebrated
+chamber, named the _Baradari_, supported on 12 columns, and 45 ft.
+square, with a stone roof, forming one of the most beautiful
+palace-halls in the world. It was, besides, singularly interesting from
+the expedients to which the Hindu architect was forced to resort to
+imitate the vaults of the Moslems. Of the buildings, however, which so
+excited the admiration of the emperor Baber, probably little now
+remains. The fort of Gwalior, within which the above buildings are
+situated, stands on an isolated rock. The face is perpendicular and
+where the rock is naturally less precipitous it has been scarped. Its
+greatest length from north-east to south-west is a mile and a half, and
+the greatest breadth 900 yds. The rock attains its maximum height of 342
+ft. at the northern end. A rampart, accessible by a steep road, and
+farther up by huge steps cut out of the rock, surrounds the fort. The
+citadel stands at the north-eastern corner of the enclosure, and
+presents a very picturesque appearance. The old town of Gwalior, which
+is of considerable size, but irregularly built, and extremely dirty,
+lies at the eastern base of the rock. It contains the tomb of Mahommed
+Ghaus, erected during the early part of Akbar's reign. The fort of
+Gwalior was traditionally built by one Surya Sen, the raja of the
+neighbouring country. In 1196 Gwalior was captured by Mahommed Ghori; it
+then passed into the hands of several chiefs until in 1559 Akbar gained
+possession of it, and made it a state prison for captives of rank. On
+the dismemberment of the Delhi empire, Gwalior was seized by the Jat
+rana of Gohad. Subsequently it was garrisoned by Sindhia, from whom it
+was wrested in 1780 by the forces of the East India Company, and to whom
+it was finally restored by the British in 1886. The modern town contains
+the palace of the chief, a college, a high school, a girls' school, a
+service school to train officials, a law school, hospitals for men and
+for women, a museum, paper-mills, and a printing-press issuing a state
+gazette.
+
+GWALIOR RESIDENCY, an administrative unit in the Central India agency,
+comprises Gwalior state and eleven smaller states and estates. Its total
+area is 17,825 sq. m., and its population in 1901 was 2,187,612. Of the
+area, 17,020 sq. m. belong to Gwalior State, and the agency also
+includes the small states of Raghugarh, Khaniadhana, Paron, Garha, Umri
+and Bhadaura, with the Chhabra _pargana_ of Tonk.
+
+
+
+
+GWEEDORE, a hamlet and tourist resort of Co. Donegal, Ireland, on the
+Londonderry & Lough Swilly & Letterkenny railway. The river Clady,
+running past the village from the Nacung Loughs, affords salmon and
+trout fishing. The fine surrounding scenery culminates to the east in
+the wild mountain Errigal (2466 ft.) at the upper end of the loughs. The
+place owes its popularity as a resort to Lord George Hill (d. 1879), who
+also laboured for the amelioration of the conditions of the peasantry on
+his estate, and combated the Rundale system of minute repartition of
+property. In 1889, during the troubles which arose out of evictions,
+Gweedore was the headquarters of the Irish constabulary, when District
+Inspector Martin was openly murdered on attempting to arrest a priest on
+his way to Mass.
+
+
+
+
+GWILT, JOSEPH (1784-1863), English architect and writer, was the younger
+son of George Gwilt, architect surveyor to the county of Surrey, and was
+born at Southwark on the 11th of January 1784. He was educated at St
+Paul's school, and after a short course of instruction in his father's
+office was in 1801 admitted a student of the Royal Academy, where in the
+same year he gained the silver medal for his drawing of the tower and
+steeple of St Dunstan-in-the-East. In 1811 he published a _Treatise on
+the Equilibrium of Arches_, and in 1815 he was elected F.S.A. After a
+visit to Italy in 1816, he published in 1818 _Notitia architectonica
+italiana, or Concise Notices of the Buildings and Architects of Italy_.
+In 1825 he published an edition of Sir William Chambers's _Treatise on
+Civil Architecture_; and among his other principal contributions to the
+literature of his profession are a translation of the _Architecture of
+Vitruvius_ (1826), a _Treatise on the Rudiments of Architecture,
+Practical and Theoretical_ (1826), and his valuable _Encyclopaedia of
+Architecture_ (1842), which was published with additions by Wyatt
+Papworth in 1867. In recognition of Gwilt's advocacy of the importance
+to architects of a knowledge of mathematics, he was in 1833 elected a
+member of the Royal Astronomical Society. He took a special interest in
+philology and music, and was the author of _Rudiments of the Anglo-Saxon
+Tongue_ (1829), and of the article "Music" in the _Encyclopaedia
+metropolitana_. His principal works as a practical architect were
+Markree Castle near Sligo in Ireland, and St Thomas's church at Charlton
+in Kent. He died on the 14th of September 1863.
+
+
+
+
+GWYN, NELL [ELEANOR] (1650-1687), English actress, and mistress of
+Charles II., was born on the 2nd of February 1650/1, probably in an
+alley off Drury Lane, London, although Hereford also claims to have been
+her birthplace. Her father, Thomas Gwyn, appears to have been a
+broken-down soldier of a family of Welsh origin. Of her mother little is
+known save that she lived for some time with her daughter, and that in
+1679 she was drowned, apparently when intoxicated, in a pond at Chelsea.
+Nell Gwyn, who sold oranges in the precincts of Drury Lane Theatre,
+passed, at the age of fifteen, to the boards, through the influence of
+the actor Charles Hart and of Robert Duncan or Dungan, an officer of the
+guards who had interest with the management. Her first recorded
+appearance on the stage was in 1665 as Cydaria, Montezuma's daughter, in
+Dryden's _Indian Emperor_, a serious part ill-suited to her. In the
+following year she was Lady Wealthy in the Hon. James Howard's comedy
+_The English Monsieur_. Pepys was delighted with the playing of "pretty,
+witty Nell," but when he saw her as Florimel in Dryden's _Secret Love,
+or the Maiden Queen_, he wrote "so great a performance of a comical part
+was never, I believe, in the world before" and, "so done by Nell her
+merry part as cannot be better done in nature" (_Diary_, March 25,
+1667). Her success brought her other leading roles--Bellario, in
+Beaumont and Fletcher's _Philaster_; Flora, in Rhodes's _Flora's
+Vagaries_; Samira, in Sir Robert Howard's _Surprisal_; and she remained
+a member of the Drury Lane company until 1669, playing continuously save
+for a brief absence in the summer of 1667 when she lived at Epsom as the
+mistress of Lord Buckhurst, afterwards 6th earl of Dorset (q.v.). Her
+last appearance was as Almahide to the Almanzor of Hart, in Dryden's
+_The Conquest of Granada_ (1670), the production of which had been
+postponed some months for her return to the stage after the birth of her
+first son by the king.
+
+As an actress Nell Gwyn was largely indebted to Dryden, who seems to
+have made a special study of her airy, irresponsible personality, and
+who kept her supplied with parts which suited her. She excelled in the
+delivery of the risky prologues and epilogues which were the fashion,
+and the poet wrote for her some specially daring examples. It was,
+however, as the mistress of Charles II. that she endeared herself to the
+public. Partly, no doubt, her popularity was due to the disgust inspired
+by her rival, Louise de Keroualle, duchess of Portsmouth, and to the
+fact that, while the Frenchwoman was a Catholic, she was a Protestant.
+But very largely it was the result of exactly those personal qualities
+that appealed to the monarch himself. She was _piquante_ rather than
+pretty, short of stature, and her chief beauty was her reddish-brown
+hair. She was illiterate, and with difficulty scrawled an awkward E. G.
+at the bottom of her letters, written for her by others. But her frank
+recklessness, her generosity, her invariable good temper, her ready wit,
+her infectious high spirits and amazing indiscretions appealed
+irresistibly to a generation which welcomed in her the living antithesis
+of Puritanism. "A true child of the London streets," she never pretended
+to be superior to what she was, nor to interfere in matters outside the
+special sphere assigned her; she made no ministers, she appointed to no
+bishoprics, and for the high issues of international politics she had no
+concern. She never forgot her old friends, and, as far as is known,
+remained faithful to her royal lover from the beginning of their
+intimacy to his death, and, after his death, to his memory.
+
+Of her two sons by the king, the elder was created Baron Hedington and
+earl of Burford and subsequently duke of St Albans; the younger, James,
+Lord Beauclerk, died in 1680, while still a boy. The king's death-bed
+request to his brother, "Let not poor Nelly starve," was faithfully
+carried out by James II., who paid her debts from the Secret Service
+fund, provided her with other moneys, and settled on her an estate with
+reversion to the duke of St Albans. But she did not long survive her
+lover's death. She died in November 1687, and was buried on the 17th,
+according to her own request, in the church of St Martin-in-the-Fields,
+her funeral sermon being preached by the vicar, Thomas Tenison,
+afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, who said "much to her praise."
+Tradition credits the foundation of Chelsea Hospital to her influence
+over the king.
+
+  See Peter Cunningham, _The Story of Nell Gwyn_, edited by Gordon
+  Goodwin (1903); Waldron's edition of John Downes's _Roscius
+  Anglicanus_ (1789); Osmund Airy, _Charles II._ (1904); Pepys, _Diary_;
+  Evelyn, _Diary and Correspondence_; _Origin and Early History of the
+  Royal Hospital at Chelsea_, edited by Major-General G. Hutt (1872);
+  _Memoirs of the Life of Eleanor Gwinn_ (1752); Burnet, _History of My
+  Own Time_, part i., edited by Osmund Airy (Oxford, 1897); _Louise de
+  Keroualle, Duchess of Portsmouth_, by H. Forneron, translated by Mrs
+  Crawford (1887).
+
+
+
+
+GWYNIAD, the name given to a fish of the genus _Coregonus_ or White fish
+(_C. clupeoides_), inhabiting the large lakes of North Wales and the
+north of England. At Ullswater it is known by the name of "schelly," at
+Loch Lomond by that of "powen." It is tolerably abundant in Lake Bala,
+keeping to the deepest portion of the lake for the greater part of the
+year, but appearing in shoals near the shores at certain seasons. It is
+well flavoured, like all the species of _Coregonus_, but scarcely
+attains to the weight of a pound. The name gwyniad is a Welsh word, and
+signifies "shining"; and it is singular that a similar fish in British
+Columbia, also belonging to the family of Salmonoids, is called by the
+natives "quinnat," from the silvery lustre of its scales, the word
+having in their language the same meaning as the Welsh "gwyniad."
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 12, Slice 6, by Various
+
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