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diff --git a/38304-8.txt b/38304-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5a7d75d --- /dev/null +++ b/38304-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,19506 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 12, Slice 6, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 6 + "Groups, Theory of" to "Gwyniad" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: December 14, 2011 [EBook #38304] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters and [Pd] for partial differential symbol. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE GUADALQUIVIR: "Here it forms two subsidiary channels, the + western 31 m., the eastern 12 m. long, which rejoin the main stream + on the borders of the province of Cadiz." 'm.' amended from 'M.'. + + ARTICLE GUANAJUATO: "... W. of Guanajuato in a rich mining + district; and Acambaro (8345), a prosperous town of the plain, 76 + m. S.S.E. of Guanajuato." 'Guanajuato' amended from 'Guanaiuato'. + + ARTICLE GUARANTEE: "The Egyptian codes sanction guarantees + expressly entered into 'in view of debtor's want of legal capacity' + to contract a valid principal obligation (Egyptian Codes, Mixed + Suits, 605; Native Tribunals, 496)." 'Egyptian' amended from + 'Egyptain'. + + ARTICLE GUINEA FOWL: "Allied to the genus Numida, but readily + distinguished form among other characters by the possession of + spurs and the absence of a helmet, are two very rare forms ..." + 'form' amended from 'thereform'. + + ARTICLE GUIPÚZCOA: "The principal industrial centres are Irun, + Renteria, Villabona, Vergara and Azpéitia for cotton and linen + stuffs; Zumarraga for osiers; Eibar, Plasencia and Elgoibar for + arms and cannon and gold incrustations; ..." 'osiers' amended from + 'osies'. + + ARTICLE GUTZKOW, KARL FERDINAND: "The success of Die Ritter vom + Geiste suggested to Gutzkow the establishment of a journal on the + model of Dickens' Household Words, entitled Unterhaltungen am + häuslichen Herd, which first appeared in 1852 and was continued + till 1862." "Dickens'" amended from "Dicken's". + + ARTICLE GUY OF WARWICK: "... The Tragical History, Admirable + Achievements and Curious Events of Guy, Earl of Warwick ..." + 'Achievements' amended from 'Atchievements'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XII, SLICE VI + + Groups, Theory of to Gwyniad + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + GROUPS, THEORY OF GUIDICCIONI, GIOVANNI + GROUSE GUIDO OF AREZZO + GROVE, SIR GEORGE GUIDO OF SIENA + GROVE, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT GUIDO RENI + GROVE GUIENNE + GROZNYI GUIGNES, JOSEPH DE + GRUB GUILBERT, YVETTE + GRUBER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED GUILDFORD + GRUMBACH, WILHELM VON GUILDHALL + GRUMENTUM GUILFORD, BARONS AND EARLS OF + GRÜN GUILFORD + GRÜNBERG GUILLAUME, JEAN BAPTISTE CLAUDE EUGÈNE + GRUNDTVIG, NIKOLAI SEVERIN GUILLAUME DE LORRIS + GRUNDY, SYDNEY GUILLAUME DE PALERME + GRUNDY, MRS GUILLAUME D'ORANGE + GRUNER, GOTTLIEB SIGMUND GUILLEMOT + GRÜNEWALD, MATHIAS GUILLOCHE + GRUTER, JAN GUILLON, MARIE NICOLAS SYLVESTRE + GRUYÈRE GUILLOTINE + GRYNAEUS, JOHANN JAKOB GUILT + GRYNAEUS, SIMON GUIMARÃES + GRYPHIUS, ANDREAS GUIMARD, MARIE MADELEINE + GUACHARO GUIMET, JEAN BAPTISTE + GUACO GUINEA (Africa) + GUADALAJARA (city of Mexico) GUINEA (gold coin) + GUADALAJARA (province of Spain) GUINEA FOWL + GUADALAJARA (city of Spain) GUINEA-WORM + GUADALQUIVIR GÜINES + GUADELOUPE GUINGAMP + GUADET, MARGUERITE ÉLIE GUINNESS + GUADIANA GUINOBATAN + GUADIX GUIPÚZCOA + GUADUAS GUIRAUD, ERNEST + GUAIACUM GUISBOROUGH + GUALDO TADINO GUISE + GUALEGUAY GUISE, HOUSE OF + GUALEGUAYCHÚ GUITAR + GUALO, CARDINAL GUITAR FIDDLE + GUAM GUITRY, LUCIEN GERMAIN + GUAN GUIZOT, FRANÇOIS PIERRE GUILLAUME + GUANABACOA GUJARAT + GUANACO GUJARATI and RAJASTHANI + GUANAJAY GUJRANWALA + GUANAJUATO (state of Mexico) GUJRAT + GUANAJUATO (city of Mexico) GULA + GUANCHES GULBARGA + GUANIDINE GULF STREAM + GUANO GULFWEED + GUANTA GULL, SIR WILLIAM WITHEY + GUANTÁNAMO GULL + GUARANA GULLY, JOHN + GUARANIS GULPÁÏGÁN + GUARANTEE GUM + GUARATINGUETÁ GÜMBEL, KARL WILHELM VON + GUARDA GUMBINNEN + GUARDI, FRANCESCO GUMBO + GUARDIAN GUMTI + GUARDS, and HOUSEHOLD TROOPS GUMULJINA + GUARD-SHIP GUMUS + GUÁRICO GÜMÜSH-KHANEH + GUARIENTO GUN + GUARINI, CAMILLO-GUARINO GUNA + GUARINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA GUNCOTTON + GUARINO GUNDULICH, IVAN + GUARINO [GUARINUS] DA VERONA GUNG'L, JOSEF + GUARNIERI GUNNER + GUASTALLA GUNNING, PETER + GUATEMALA (republic) GUNNY + GUATEMALA (city of Guatemala) GUNPOWDER + GUATOS GUNPOWDER PLOT + GUATUSOS GUN-ROOM + GUAVA GUNTER, EDMUND + GUAYAMA GÜNTHER, JOHANN CHRISTIAN + GUAYAQUIL GÜNTHER OF SCHWARZBURG + GUAYAS GUNTRAM + GUAYCURUS GUNTUR + GUAYMAS GUPTA + GUBBIO GURA, EUGEN + GUBEN GURDASPUR + GUBERNATIS, ANGELO DE GURGAON + GUDBRANDSDAL GURKHA + GUDE, MARQUARD GURNALL, WILLIAM + GUDEMAN, ALFRED GURNARD + GUDGEON GURNEY + GUDRUN GURNEY, EDMUND + GUÉBRIANT, JEAN BAPTISTE BUDES GURWOOD, JOHN + GUELDER ROSE GUSLA + GUELPH GUSTAVUS I. ERIKSSON + GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES GUSTAVUS II. ADOLPHUS + GUENEVERE GUSTAVUS III. + GUENON GUSTAVUS IV. + GUÉRET GUSTAVUS V. + GUEREZA GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS UNION + GUERICKE, HEINRICH FERDINAND GÜSTROW + GUERICKE, OTTO VON GUTENBERG, JOHANN + GUÉRIDON GÜTERSLOH + GUÉRIN, JEAN BAPTISTE PAULIN GUTHRIE, SIR JAMES + GUÉRIN, PIERRE NARCISSE GUTHRIE, THOMAS + GUÉRIN DU CAYLA, MAURICE DE GUTHRIE, THOMAS ANSTEY + GUERNIERI GUTHRIE + GUERNSEY GUTHRUM + GUERRAZZI, FRANCESCO DOMENICO GUTSCHMID, ALFRED + GUERRERO GUTS-MUTHS, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH + GUERRILLA GUTTA + GUERRINI, OLINDO GUTTA PERCHA + GUESDE, JULES BASILE GUTTER + GUEST, EDWIN GUTZKOW, KARL FERDINAND + GUEST GÜTZLAFF, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST + GUETTARD, JEAN ÉTIENNE GUY OF WARWICK + GUEUX, LES GUY, THOMAS + GUEVARA, ANTONIO DE GUYON, JEANNE BOUVIER DE LA MOTHE + GUEVARA, LUIS VELEZ DE GUYON, RICHARD DEBAUFRE + GUGLIELMI, PIETRO GUYOT, ARNOLD HENRY + GUIANA GUYOT, YVES + GUIART, GUILLAUME GUYTON DE MORVEAU, LOUIS BERNARD + GUIBERT (of Ravenna) GUZMICS, IZIDÓR + GUIBERT (of Nogent) GWADAR + GUIBERT, JACQUES HIPPOLYTE GWALIOR + GUICCIARDINI, FRANCESCO GWEEDORE + GUICHARD, KARL GOTTLIEB GWILT, JOSEPH + GUICHEN, LUC URBAIN DE BOUËXIC GWYN, NELL + GUIDE GWYNIAD + GUIDI, CARLO ALESSANDRO + + + + +GROUPS,[1] THEORY OF. The conception of an operation to be carried out +on some object or set of objects underlies all mathematical science. +Thus in elementary arithmetic there are the fundamental operations of +the addition and the multiplication of integers; in algebra a linear +transformation is an operation which may be carried out on any set of +variables; while in geometry a translation, a rotation, or a projective +transformation are operations which may be carried out on any figure. + +In speaking of an operation, an object or a set of objects to which it +may be applied is postulated; and the operation may, and generally will, +have no meaning except in regard to such a set of objects. If two +operations, which can be performed on the same set of objects, are such +that, when carried out in succession on any possible object, the result, +whichever operation is performed first, is to produce no change in the +object, then each of the operations is spoken of as a _definite_ +operation, and each of them is called the _inverse_ of the other. Thus +the operations which consist in replacing x by nx and by x/n +respectively, in any rational function of x, are definite inverse +operations, if n is any assigned number except zero. On the contrary, +the operation of replacing x by an assigned number in any rational +function of x is not, in the present sense, although it leads to a +unique result, a definite operation; there is in fact no unique inverse +operation corresponding to it. It is to be noticed that the question +whether an operation is a definite operation or no may depend on the +range of the objects on which it operates. For example, the operations +of squaring and extracting the square root are definite inverse +operations if the objects are restricted to be real positive numbers, +but not otherwise. + + If O, O´, O´´, ... is the totality of the objects on which a definite + operation S and its inverse S´ may be carried out, and if the result + of carrying out S on O is represented by O·S, then O.S.S´, O·S´.S, and + O are the same object whatever object of the set O may be. This will + be represented by the equations SS´ = S´S = 1. Now O·S·S´ has a + meaning only if O·S is an object on which S´ may be performed. Hence + whatever object of the set O may be, both O·S and O·S´ belong to the + set. Similarly O·S·S, O·S·S·S, ... are objects of the set. These will + be represented by O·S², O·S³, ... Suppose now that T is another + definite operation with the same set of objects as S, and that T´ is + its inverse operation. Then O·S·T is a definite operation of the set, + and therefore the result of carrying out S and then T on the set of + objects is some operation U with a unique result. Represent by U´ the + result of carrying out T´ and then S´. Then O·UU´ = O·S·T·T´·S´ = + O·SS´ = O, and O·U´U = O·T´·S´·S·T = O·T´T = O, whatever object O may + be. Hence UU´ = U´U = 1; and U, U´ are definite inverse operations. + + If S, U, V are definite operations, and if S´ is the inverse of S, + then + + SU = SV + + implies S´SU = S´SV, + + or U = V. + + Similarly US = VS + + implies U = V. + + + Definition of a group. + + Let S, T, U, ... be a set of definite operations, capable of being + carried out on a common object or set of objects, and let the set + contain-- + + (i.) the operation ST, S and T being any two operations of the set; + + (ii.) the inverse operation of S, S being any operation of the set; + the set of operations is then called a group. + + The number of operations in a group may be either finite or infinite. + When it is finite, the number is called the _order_ of the group, and + the group is spoken of as a _group of finite order_. If the number of + operations is infinite, there are three possible cases. When the group + is represented by a set of geometrical operations, for the + specification of an individual operation a number of measurements will + be necessary. In more analytical language, each operation will be + specified by the values of a set of parameters. If no one of these + parameters is capable of continuous variation, the group is called a + _discontinuous group_. If all the parameters are capable of continuous + variation, the group is called a _continuous group_. If some of the + parameters are capable of continuous variation and some are not, the + group is called a _mixed group_. + + If S' is the inverse operation of S, a group which contains S must + contain SS´, which produces no change on any possible object. This is + called the _identical operation_, and will always be represented by I. + Since S^pS^q = S^(p+q) when p and q are positive integers, and S^pS´ = + S^(p-1) while no meaning at present has been attached to S^q when q is + negative, S´ may be consistently represented by S^(-1). The set of + operations ..., S^(-2), S(-1), 1, S, S², ... obviously constitute a + group. Such a group is called a _cyclical_ group. + + + Subgroups, conjugate operations, isomorphism, &c. + + It will be convenient, before giving some illustrations of the general + group idea, to add a number of further definitions and explanations + which apply to all groups alike. If from among the set of operations + S, T, U, ... which constitute a group G, a smaller set S´, T´, U´, ... + can be chosen which themselves constitute a group H, the group H is + called a _subgroup_ of G. Thus, in particular, if S is an operation of + G, the cyclical group constituted by ..., S^(-2), S^(-1), 1, S, S², + ... is a subgroup of G, except in the special case when it coincides + with G itself. + + If S and T are any two operations of G, the two operations S and + T^(-1)ST are called _conjugate_ operations, and T^(-1)ST is spoken of + as the result of _transforming_ S by T. It is to be noted that since + ST = T^(-1), TS, T, ST and TS are always conjugate operations in any + group containing both S and T. If T transforms S into itself, that is, + if S = T^(-1)ST or TS = ST, S and T are called _permutable_ + operations. A group whose operations are all permutable with each + other is called an _Abelian_ group. If S is transformed into itself by + every operation of G, or, in other words, if it is permutable with + every operation of G, it is called a _self-conjugate_ operation of G. + + The conception of operations being conjugate to each other is extended + to subgroups. If S´, T´, U´, ... are the operations of a subgroup H, + and if R is any operation of G, then the operations R^(-1)S´R, + R^(-1)T´R, R^(-1)U´R, ... belong to G, and constitute a subgroup of G. + For if S´T´ = U´, then R^(-1)S´R·R^(-1)T´R = R^(-1)S´T´R = R^(-1)U´R. + This subgroup may be identical with H. In particular, it is + necessarily the same as H if R belongs to H. If it is not identical + with H, it is said to be _conjugate_ to H; and it is in any case + represented by the symbol R^(-1)HR. If H = R^(-1)HR, the operation R + is said to be permutable with the subgroup H. (It is to be noticed + that this does not imply that R is permutable with each operation of + H.) + + If H = R^(-1)HR, when for R is taken in turn each of the operations of + G, then H is called a _self-conjugate_ subgroup of G. + + A group is spoken of as _simple_ when it has no self-conjugate + subgroup other than that constituted by the identical operation alone. + A group which has a self-conjugate subgroup is called _composite_. + + Let G be a group constituted of the operations S, T, U, ..., and g a + second group constituted of s, t, u, ..., and suppose that to each + operation of G there corresponds a single operation of g in such a way + that if ST = U, then _st_ = u, where s, t, u are the operations + corresponding to S, T, U respectively. The groups are then said to be + _isomorphic_, and the correspondence between their operations is + spoken of as an _isomorphism_ between the groups. It is clear that + there may be two distinct cases of such isomorphism. To a single + operation of g there may correspond either a single operation of G or + more than one. In the first case the isomorphism is spoken of as + _simple_, in the second as _multiple_. + + Two simply isomorphic groups considered abstractly--that is to say, in + regard only to the way in which their operations combine among + themselves, and apart from any concrete representation of the + operations--are clearly indistinguishable. + + If G is multiply isomorphic with g, let A, B, C, ... be the operations + of G which correspond to the identical operation of g. Then to the + operations A^(-1) and AB of G there corresponds the identical + operation of g; so that A, B, C, ... constitute a subgroup H of G. + Moreover, if R is any operation of G, the identical operation of g + corresponds to every operation of R^(-1)HR, and therefore H is a + self-conjugate subgroup of G. Since S corresponds to s, and every + operation of H to the identical operation of g, therefore every + operation of the set SA, SB, SC, ..., which is represented by SH, + corresponds to s. Also these are the only operations that correspond + to s. The operations of G may therefore be divided into sets, no two + of which contain a common operation, such that the correspondence + between the operations of G and g connects each of the sets H, SH, TH, + UH, ... with the single operations 1, s, t, u, ... written below them. + The sets into which the operations of G are thus divided combine among + themselves by exactly the same laws as the operations of g. For if + st = u, then SH·TH = UH, in the sense that any operation of the set + SH followed by any operation of the set TH gives an operation of the + set UH. + + The group g, abstractly considered, is therefore completely defined by + the division of the operations of G into sets in respect of the + self-conjugate subgroup H. From this point of view it is spoken of as + the _factor-group_ of G in respect of H, and is represented by the + symbol G/H. Any composite group in a similar way defines abstractly a + factor-group in respect of each of its self-conjugate subgroups. + + It follows from the definition of a group that it must always be + possible to choose from its operations a set such that every operation + of the group can be obtained by combining the operations of the set + and their inverses. If the set is such that no one of the operations + belonging to it can be represented in terms of the others, it is + called a set of _independent generating_ operations. Such a set of + generating operations may be either finite or infinite in number. If + A, B, ..., E are the generating operations of a group, the group + generated by them is represented by the symbol {A, B, ..., E}. An + obvious extension of this symbol is used such that {A, H} represents + the group generated by combining an operation A with every operation + of a group H; {H1, H2} represents the group obtained by combining in + all possible ways the operations of the groups H1 and H2; and so on. + The independent generating operations of a group may be subject to + certain relations connecting them, but these must be such that it is + impossible by combining them to obtain a relation expressing one + operation in terms of the others. For instance, AB = BA is a relation + conditioning the group {A, B}; it does not, however, enable A to be + expressed in terms of B, so that A and B are independent generating + operations. + + + Transitivity and primitivity. + + Let O, O´, O´´, ... be a set of objects which are interchanged among + themselves by the operations of a group G, so that if S is any + operation of the group, and O any one of the objects, then O·S is an + object occurring in the set. If it is possible to find an operation S + of the group such that O·S is any assigned one of the set of objects, + the group is called _transitive_ in respect of this set of objects. + When this is not possible the group is called _intransitive_ in + respect of the set. If it is possible to find S so that any + arbitrarily chosen n objects of the set, O1, O2, ..., O_n are changed + by S into O´1, O´2, ..., O´n respectively, the latter being also + arbitrarily chosen, the group is said to be n-ply transitive. + + If O, O´, O´´, ... is a set of objects in respect of which a group G + is transitive, it may be possible to divide the set into a number of + subsets, no two of which contain a common object, such that every + operation of the group either interchanges the objects of a subset + among themselves, or changes them all into the objects of some other + subset. When this is the case the group is called _imprimitive_ in + respect of the set; otherwise the group is called _primitive_. A group + which is doubly-transitive, in respect of a set of objects, obviously + cannot be imprimitive. + + + Illustrations of the group idea. + + The foregoing general definitions and explanations will now be + illustrated by a consideration of certain particular groups. To begin + with, as the operations involved are of the most familiar nature, the + group of rational arithmetic may be considered. The fundamental + operations of elementary arithmetic consist in the addition and + subtraction of integers, and multiplication and division by integers, + division by zero alone omitted. Multiplication by zero is not a + definite operation, and it must therefore be omitted in dealing with + those operations of elementary arithmetic which form a group. The + operation that results from carrying out additions, subtractions, + multiplications and divisions, of and by integers a finite number of + times, is represented by the relation x´ = ax + b, where a and b are + rational numbers of which a is not zero, x is the object of the + operation, and x´ is the result. The totality of operations of this + form obviously constitutes a group. + + If S and T represent respectively the operations x´ = ax + b and x´ = + cx + d, then T^(-1)ST represents x´ = ax + d - ad + bc. When a and b + are given rational numbers, c and d may be chosen in an infinite + number of ways as rational numbers, so that d - ad + bc shall be any + assigned rational number. Hence the operations given by x' = ax + b, + where a is an assigned rational number and b is any rational number, + are all conjugate; and no two such operations for which the a's are + different can be conjugate. If a is unity and b zero, S is the + identical operation which is necessarily self-conjugate. If a is unity + and b different from zero, the operation x´ = x + b is an addition. + The totality of additions forms, therefore, a single conjugate set of + operations. Moreover, the totality of additions with the identical + operation, i.e. the totality of operations of the form x´ = x + b, + where b may be any rational number or zero, obviously constitutes a + group. The operations of this group are interchanged among themselves + when transformed by any operation of the original group. It is + therefore a self-conjugate subgroup of the original group. + + The totality of multiplications, with the identical operation, i.e. + all operations of the form x´ = ax, where a is any rational number + other than zero, again obviously constitutes a group. This, however, + is not a self-conjugate subgroup of the original group. In fact, if + the operations x´ = ax are all transformed by x´ = cx + d, they give + rise to the set x´ = ax + d(1 - a). When d is a given rational number, + the set constitutes a subgroup which is conjugate to the group of + multiplications. It is to be noticed that the operations of this + latter subgroup may be written in the form x´ - d = a(x - d). + + The totality of rational numbers, including zero, forms a set of + objects which are interchanged among themselves by all operations of + the group. + + If x1 and x2 are any pair of distinct rational numbers, and y1 and y2 + any other pair, there is just one operation of the group which changes + x1 and x2 into y1 and y2 respectively. For the equations y1 = ax1 + b, + y1 = ax2 + b determine a and b uniquely. The group is therefore doubly + transitive in respect of the set of rational numbers. If H is the + subgroup that leaves unchanged a given rational number x1, and S an + operation changing x1 into x2, then every operation of S^(-1)HS leaves + x2 unchanged. The subgroups, each of which leaves a single rational + number unchanged, therefore form a single conjugate set. The group of + multiplications leaves zero unchanged; and, as has been seen, this is + conjugate with the subgroup formed of all operations x´ - d = a(x - + d), where d is a given rational number. This subgroup leaves d + unchanged. + + The group of multiplications is clearly generated by the operations x´ + = px, where for p negative unity and each prime is taken in turn. + Every addition is obtained on transforming x´ = x + 1 by the different + operations of the group of multiplications. Hence x´ = x + 1, and x´ = + px, (p = -1, 3, 5, 7, ...), form a set of independent generating + operations of the group. It is a discontinuous group. + + As a second example the group of motions in three-dimensional space + will be considered. The totality of motions, i.e. of space + displacements which leave the distance of every pair of points + unaltered, obviously constitutes a set of operations which satisfies + the group definition. From the elements of kinematics it is known that + every motion is either (i.) a translation which leaves no point + unaltered, but changes each of a set of parallel lines into itself; or + (ii.) a rotation which leaves every point of one line unaltered and + changes every other point and line; or (iii.) a twist which leaves no + point and only one line (its axis) unaltered, and may be regarded as a + translation along, combined with a rotation round, the axis. Let S be + any motion consisting of a translation l along and a rotation a round + a line AB, and let T be any other motion. There is some line CD into + which T changes AB; and therefore T^(-1)ST leaves CD unchanged. + Moreover, T^(-1)ST clearly effects the same translation along and + rotation round CD that S effects for AB. Two motions, therefore, are + conjugate if and only if the amplitudes of their translation and + rotation components are respectively equal. In particular, all + translations of equal amplitude are conjugate, as also are all + rotations of equal amplitude. Any two translations are permutable with + each other, and give when combined another translation. The totality + of translations constitutes, therefore, a subgroup of the general + group of motions; and this subgroup is a self-conjugate subgroup, + since a translation is always conjugate to a translation. + + All the points of space constitute a set of objects which are + interchanged among themselves by all operations of the group of + motions. So also do all the lines of space and all the planes. In + respect of each of these sets the group is simply transitive. In fact, + there is an infinite number of motions which change a point A to A´, + but no motion can change A and B to A´ and B´ respectively unless the + distance AB is equal to the distance A´B´. + + The totality of motions which leave a point A unchanged forms a + subgroup. It is clearly constituted of all possible rotations about + all possible axes through A, and is known as the group of rotations + about a point. Every motion can be represented as a rotation about + some axis through A followed by a translation. Hence if G is the group + of motions and H the group of translations, G/H is simply isomorphic + with the group of rotations about a point. + + The totality of the motions which bring a given solid to congruence + with itself again constitutes a subgroup of the group of motions. This + will in general be the trivial subgroup formed of the identical + operation above, but may in the case of a symmetrical body be more + extensive. For a sphere or a right circular cylinder the subgroups are + those that leave the centre and the axis respectively unaltered. For a + solid bounded by plane faces the subgroup is clearly one of finite + order. In particular, to each of the regular solids there corresponds + such a group. That for the tetrahedron has 12 for its order, for the + cube (or octahedron) 24, and for the icosahedron (or dodecahedron) 60. + + The determination of a particular operation of the group of motions + involves six distinct measurements; namely, four to give the axis of + the twist, one for the magnitude of the translation along the axis, + and one for the magnitude of the rotation about it. Each of the six + quantities involved may have any value whatever, and the group of + motions is therefore a continuous group. On the other hand, a subgroup + of the group of motions which leaves a line or a plane unaltered is a + mixed group. + +We shall now discuss (i.) continuous groups, (ii.) discontinuous groups +whose order is not finite, and (iii.) groups of finite order. For proofs +of the statements, and the general theorems, the reader is referred to +the bibliography. + + +_Continuous Groups._ + +The determination of a particular operation of a given continuous group +depends on assigning special values to each one of a set of parameters +which are capable of continuous variation. The first distinction regards +the number of these parameters. If this number is finite, the group is +called a _finite_ continuous group; if infinite, it is called an +_infinite_ continuous group. In the latter case arbitrary functions must +appear in the equations defining the operations of the group when these +are reduced to an analytical form. The theory of infinite continuous +groups is not yet so completely developed as that of finite continuous +groups. The latter theory will mainly occupy us here. + +Sophus Lie, to whom the foundation and a great part of the development +of the theory of continuous groups are due, undoubtedly approached the +subject from a geometrical standpoint. His conception of an operation is +to regard it as a geometrical transformation, by means of which each +point of (n-dimensional) space is changed into some other definite +point. + + The representation of such a transformation in analytical form + involves a system of equations, + + x'_s = [f]_s(x1, x2, ..., x_n), (s = 1, 2, ..., n), + + expressing x´1, x´2, ..., x´_n, the co-ordinates of the transformed + point in terms of x1, x2, ..., x_n, the co-ordinates of the original + point. In these equations the functions [f]_s are analytical functions + of their arguments. Within a properly limited region they must be + one-valued, and the equations must admit a unique solution with + respect to x1, x2, ..., x_n, since the operation would not otherwise + be a definite one. + + From this point of view the operations of a continuous group, which + depends on a set of r parameters, will be defined analytically by a + system of equations of the form + + x´_s = [f]_s(x1, x2, ..., x_n; a1, a2, ..., a_r), (s = 1, 2, ..., n), + (i.) + + where a1, a2, ..., a_r represent the parameters. If this operation be + represented by A, and that in which b1, b2, ..., b_r are the + parameters by B, then the operation AB is represented by the + elimination (assumed to be possible) of x´1, x´2, ..., x´_n between + the equations (i.) and the equations + + x´´_s = [f]_s(x´1, x´2, ..., x´_n; b1, b2, ..., b_r), + (s = 1, 2, ..., n). + + Since AB belongs to the group, the result of the elimination must be + + x´´_s = [f]_s(x1, x2, ..., x_n; c1, c2, ..., c_r), + + where c1, c2, ..., c_r represent another definite set of values of the + parameters. Moreover, since A^(-1) belongs to the group, the result of + solving equations (i.) with respect to x1, x2, ..., x_n must be + + x_s = [f]_s(x´1, x´2, ..., x´_n; d1, d2, ..., d_r), + (s = 1, 2, ..., n). + + Conversely, if equations (i.) are such that these two conditions are + satisfied, they do in fact define a finite continuous group. + + + Infinitesimal operation of a continuous group. + + It will be assumed that the r parameters which enter in equations (i.) + are independent, i.e. that it is impossible to choose r´ (< r) + quantities in terms of which a1, a2, ..., a_r can be expressed. Where + this is the case the group will be spoken of as a "group of order r." + Lie uses the term "_r-gliedrige Gruppe_." It is to be noticed that the + word order is used in quite a different sense from that given to it in + connexion with groups of finite order. + + In regard to equations (i.), which define the general operation of the + group, it is to be noticed that, since the group contains the + identical operation, these equations must for some definite set of + values of the parameters reduce to x´1 = x1, x´2 = x2, ..., x´_n = + x_n. This set of values may, without loss of generality, be assumed to + be simultaneous zero values. For if i1, i2, ..., i_r be the values of + the parameters which give the identical operation, and if we write + + a_s = i_s + a, (s = 1, 2, ..., r), + + then zero values of the new parameters a1, a2, ..., a_r give the + identical operation. + + To infinitesimal values of the parameters, thus chosen, will + correspond operations which cause an infinitesimal change in each of + the variables. These are called infinitesimal operations. The most + general infinitesimal operation of the group is that given by the + system + + [Pd][f]_s [Pd][f]_s [Pd][f]_s + x´_s - x_s = [delta]x_s = --------- [delta]a1 + --------- [delta]a2 + ... + --------- [delta]a_r, (s = 1, 2, ..., n), + [Pd]a1 [Pd]a2 [Pd]a_r + + where, in [Pd][f]_s/[Pd]a_i, zero values of the parameters are to be + taken. Since a1, a2, ..., a_r are independent, the ratios of + [delta]a1, [delta]a2, ..., [delta]a_r are arbitrary. Hence the most + general infinitesimal operation of the group may be written in the + form + + / [Pd][f]_s [Pd][f]_s [Pd][f]_s\ + [delta]x_s = ( e1--------- + e2--------- + ... + e_r--------- ) [delta]t, (s = 1, 2, ..., n), + \ [Pd]a1 [Pd]a2 [Pd]a_r / + + where e1, e2, ..., e_r are arbitrary constants, and [delta]t is an + infinitesimal. + + If F(x1, x2, ..., x_n) is any function of the variables, and if an + infinitesimal operation of the group be carried out on the variables + in F, the resulting increment of F will be + + [Pd]F [Pd]F [Pd]F + ------[delta]x1 + ------[delta]x2 + ... + -------[delta]x_n. + [Pd]x1 [Pd]x2 [Pd]x_n + + If the differential operator + + [Pd][f]1 [Pd] [Pd][f]2 [Pd] [Pd][f]_n [Pd] + -------- ------ + -------- ------ + ... + --------- ------- + [Pd]a_i [Pd]x1 [Pd]a_i [Pd]x2 [Pd]a_i [Pd]x_n + + be represented by X_i, (i = 1, 2, ..., r), then the increment of F is + given by + + (e1X1 + e2X2 + ... + e_rX_r)F[delta]t. + + When the equations (i.) defining the general operation of the group + are given, the coefficients [Pd][f]_s/[Pd]a_i, which enter in these + differential operators are functions of the variables which can be + directly calculated. + + The differential operator e1X1 + e2X2 + ... + e_rX_r may then be + regarded as defining the most general infinitesimal operation of the + group. In fact, if it be for a moment represented by X, then (1 + + [delta]tX)F is the result of carrying out the infinitesimal operation + on F; and by putting x1, x2, ..., x_n in turn for F, the actual + infinitesimal operation is reproduced. By a very convenient, though + perhaps hardly justifiable, phraseology this differential operator is + itself spoken of as the general infinitesimal operation of the group. + The sense in which this phraseology is to be understood will be made + clear by the foregoing explanations. + + We suppose now that the constants e1, e2, ..., e_r have assigned + values. Then the result of repeating the particular infinitesimal + operation e1X1 + e2X2 + ... + e_rX_r or X an infinite number of times + is some finite operation of the group. The effect of this finite + operation on F may be directly calculated. In fact, if [delta]t is the + infinitesimal already introduced, then + + dF d²F + -- = X·F, --- = X·X·F, ... + dt dt² + + Hence + + dF t² d²F + F´ = F + t-- + --- --- + ... + dt 1·2 dt² + + t² + = F + tX·F + --- X·X·F + ... + 1·2 + + It must, of course, be understood that in this analytical + representation of the effect of the finite operation on F it is + implied that t is taken sufficiently small to ensure the convergence + of the (in general) infinite series. + + When x1, x2, ... are written in turn for F, the system of equations + + t² + x´_s = (1 + tX + --- X·X + ...)x_s, (s = 1, 2, ..., n) (ii.) + 1.2 + + represent the finite operation completely. If t is here regarded as a + parameter, this set of operations must in themselves constitute a + group, since they arise by the repetition of a single infinitesimal + operation. That this is really the case results immediately from + noticing that the result of eliminating F´ between + + t² + F´ = F + tX·F + --- X·X·F + ... + 1.2 + + and + + t´² + F´´ = F´ + t´X·F´ + --- X·X·F´ + ... + 1·2 + + is + + (t + t´)² + F´´ = F + (t + t´) X·F + --------- X·X·F + ... + 1·2 + + The group thus generated by the repetition of an infinitesimal + operation is called a _cyclical_ group; so that a continuous group + contains a cyclical subgroup corresponding to each of its + infinitesimal operations. + + The system of equations (ii.) represents an operation of the group + whatever the constants e1, e2, ..., e_r may be. Hence if e1t, e2t, + ..., e_rt be replaced by a1, a2, ..., a_r the equations (ii.) + represent a set of operations, depending on r parameters and belonging + to the group. They must therefore be a form of the general equations + for any operation of the group, and are equivalent to the equations + (i.). The determination of the finite equations of a cyclical group, + when the infinitesimal operation which generates it is given, will + always depend on the integration of a set of simultaneous ordinary + differential equations. As a very simple example we may consider the + case in which the infinitesimal operation is given by X = + x²[Pd]/[Pd]x, so that there is only a single variable. The relation + between x´ and t is given by dx´/dt = x´², with the condition that x´ + = x when t = 0. This gives at once x´ = x/(1 - tx), which might also + be obtained by the direct use of (ii.). + + + Relations between the infinitesimal operations of a finite continuous + group. + + When the finite equations (i.) of a continuous group of order r are + known, it has now been seen that the differential operator which + defines the most general infinitesimal operation of the group can be + directly constructed, and that it contains r arbitrary constants. This + is equivalent to saying that the group contains r linearly independent + infinitesimal operations; and that the most general infinitesimal + operation is obtained by combining these linearly with constant + coefficients. Moreover, when any r independent infinitesimal + operations of the group are known, it has been seen how the general + finite operation of the group may be calculated. This obviously + suggests that it must be possible to define the group by means of its + infinitesimal operations alone; and it is clear that such a definition + would lend itself more readily to some applications (for instance, to + the theory of differential equations) than the definition by means of + the finite equations. + + On the other hand, r arbitrarily given linear differential operators + will not, in general, give rise to a finite continuous group of order + r; and the question arises as to what conditions such a set of + operators must satisfy in order that they may, in fact, be the + independent infinitesimal operations of such a group. + + If X, Y are two linear differential operators, XY - YX is also a + linear differential operator. It is called the "combinant" of X and Y + (Lie uses the expression _Klammerausdruck_) and is denoted by (XY). If + X, Y, Z are any three linear differential operators the identity + (known as Jacobi's) + + (X(YZ)) + (Y(ZX)) + (Z(XY)) = 0 + + holds between them. Now it may be shown that any continuous group of + which X, Y are infinitesimal operations contains also (XY) among its + infinitesimal operations. Hence if r linearly independent operations + X1, X2, ..., X_r give rise to a finite continuous group of order r, + the combinant of each pair must be expressible linearly in terms of + the r operations themselves: that is, there must be a system of + relations + + __k=r + (X_iX_j) = \ c_(ijk)X_k, + /__k=1 + + where the c's are constants. Moreover, from Jacobi's identity and the + identity (XY) + (YX) = 0 it follows that the c's are subject to the + relations + + c_(ijt) + c_(jit) = 0, \ + | + and > + | + [Sigma][s](c_(jks)c_(ist) + c_(kis)c_(jst) + c_(ijs)c_(kst)) = 0 / + (iii.) + + for all values of i, j, k and t. + + + Determination of the distinct types of continuous groups of a given + order. + + The fundamental theorem of the theory of finite continuous groups is + now that these conditions, which are necessary in order that X1, X2, + ..., X_r may generate, as infinitesimal operations, a continuous group + of order r, are also sufficient. + + For the proof of this fundamental theorem see Lie's works (cf. + Lie-Engel, i. chap. 9; iii. chap. 25). + + If two continuous groups of order r are such that, for each, a set of + linearly independent infinitesimal operations X1, X2, ..., X_r and Y1, + Y2, ..., Y_r can be chosen, so that in the relations + + (X_iX_j) = [Sigma]c_(ijs)X_s, (Y_iY_j) = [Sigma]d_(ijs)Y_s, + + the constants c_(ijs) and d_(ijs) are the same for all values of i, j + and s, the two groups are simply isomorphic, X_s and Y_s being + corresponding infinitesimal operations. + + Two continuous groups of order r, whose infinitesimal operations obey + the same system of equations (iii.), may be of very different _form_; + for instance, the number of variables for the one may be different + from that for the other. They are, however, said to be of the same + _type_, in the sense that the laws according to which their operations + combine are the same for both. + + The problem of determining all distinct types of groups of order r is + then contained in the purely algebraical problem of finding all the + systems of r³ quantities c_(ijs) which satisfy the relations + + c_(ijt) + c_(ijt) = 0, + + [Sigma] [c_(ijs)c_(skt) + c_(jks)c_(sit) + c_(kis)c_(sjt)] = 0. + s + + for all values of i, j, k and t. To two distinct solutions of the + algebraical problem, however, two distinct types of group will not + necessarily correspond. In fact, X1, X2, ..., X_r may be replaced by + any r independent linear functions of themselves, and the c's will + then be transformed by a linear substitution containing r² independent + parameters. This, however, does not alter the type of group + considered. + + For a single parameter there is, of course, only one type of group, + which has been called cyclical. + + For a group of order two there is a single relation + + (X1X2) = [alpha]X1 + ßX2. + + If [alpha] and ß are not both zero, let [alpha] be finite. The + relation may then be written ([alpha]X1 + ßX2, [alpha]^(-1)X2) = + [alpha]X1 + ßX2. Hence if [alpha]X1 + ßX2 = X´1, and [alpha]^(-1)X2 = + X´2, then (X´1X´2) = X´1. There are, therefore, just two types of + group of order two, the one given by the relation last written, and + the other by (X1X2) = 0. + + Lie has determined all distinct types of continuous groups of orders + three or four; and all types of non-integrable groups (a term which + will be explained immediately) of orders five and six (cf. Lie-Engel, + iii. 713-744). + + + Self-conjugate subgroups. Integrable groups. + + A problem of fundamental importance in connexion with any given + continuous group is the determination of the self-conjugate subgroups + which it contains. If X is an infinitesimal operation of a group, and + Y any other, the general form of the infinitesimal operations which + are conjugate to X is + + t² + X + t(XY) + --- ((XY)Y) + .... + 1.2 + + Any subgroup which contains all the operations conjugate to X must + therefore contain all infinitesimal operations (XY), ((XY)Y), ..., + where for Y each infinitesimal operation of the group is taken in + turn. Hence if X´1, X´2, ..., X´_s are s linearly independent + operations of the group which generate a self-conjugate subgroup of + order s, then for _every_ infinitesimal operation Y of the group + relations of the form + + __e=1 + (X´_iY) = \ a_(ie)X'_e, (i = 1, 2, ..., s) + /__e=s + + must be satisfied. Conversely, if such a set of relations is + satisfied, X´1, X´2, ..., X´_s generate a subgroup of order s, which + contains every operation conjugate to each of the infinitesimal + generating operations, and is therefore a self-conjugate subgroup. + + A specially important self-conjugate subgroup is that generated by the + combinants of the r infinitesimal generating operations. That these + generate a self-conjugate subgroup follows from the relations (iii.). + In fact, + + ((X_iX_j)X_k) = [Sigma] c_(ijs)(X_sX_k). + s + + Of the ½r(r - 1) combinants not more than r can be linearly + independent. When exactly r of them are linearly independent, the + self-conjugate group generated by them coincides with the original + group. If the number that are linearly independent is less than r, the + self-conjugate subgroup generated by them is actually a subgroup; i.e. + its order is less than that of the original group. This subgroup is + known as the derived group, and Lie has called a group _perfect_ when + it coincides with its derived group. A simple group, since it contains + no self-conjugate subgroup distinct from itself, is necessarily a + perfect group. + + If G is a given continuous group, G1 the derived group of G, G2 that + of G1, and so on, the series of groups G, G1, G2, ... will terminate + either with the identical operation or with a perfect group; for the + order of G_(s+1) is less than that of G_s unless G_s is a perfect + group. When the series terminates with the identical operation, G is + said to be an _integrable_ group; in the contrary case G is called + _non-integrable_. + + If G is an integrable group of order r, the infinitesimal operations + X1, X2, ..., X_r which generate the group may be chosen so that X1, + X2, ..., X_(r1), (r1 < r) generate the first derived group, X1, X2, + ..., X_(r2), (r2 < r1) the second derived group, and so on. When they + are so chosen the constants c_(ijs) are clearly such that if r_p < i + <= r_(p+1), r_q < j <= r_(q+1), p >= q, then c_(ijs) vanishes unless + s <= r_(p+1). + + In particular the generating operations may be chosen so that c_(ijs) + vanishes unless s is equal to or less than the smaller of the two + numbers i, j; and conversely, if the c's satisfy these relations, the + group is integrable. + + + Simple groups. + + A simple group, as already defined, is one which has no self-conjugate + subgroup. It is a remarkable fact that the determination of all + distinct types of simple continuous groups has been made, for in the + case of discontinuous groups and groups of finite order this is far + from being the case. Lie has demonstrated the existence of four great + classes of simple groups:-- + + (i.) The groups simply isomorphic with the general projective group in + space of n dimensions. Such a group is defined analytically as the + totality of the transformations of the form + + a_s, _1x1 + a_s, _2x2 + ... + a_s, _nx_n + a_(s, n + 1) + x´_s = --------------------------------------------------------, (s = 1, 2, ..., n), + a_(n+1), _1x1 + a_(n+1), _2x2 + ... + a_(n+1), _nx_n + 1 + + where the a's are parameters. The order of this group is clearly n(n + + 2). + + (ii.) The groups simply isomorphic with the totality of the projective + transformations which transform a non-special linear complex in space + of 2n - 1 dimensions with itself. The order of this group is n(2n + + 1). + + (iii.) and (iv.) The groups simply isomorphic with the totality of the + projective transformations which change a quadric of non-vanishing + discriminant into itself. These fall into two distinct classes of + types according as n is even or odd. In either case the order is ½n(n + + 1). The case n = 3 forms an exception in which the corresponding + group is not simple. It is also to be noticed that a cyclical group is + a simple group, since it has no continuous self-conjugate subgroup + distinct from itself. + + W. K. J. Killing and E. J. Cartan have separately proved that outside + these four great classes there exist only five distinct types of + simple groups, whose orders are 14, 52, 78, 133 and 248; thus + completing the enumeration of all possible types. + + To prevent any misapprehension as to the bearing of these very general + results, it is well to point out explicitly that there are no + limitations on the parameters of a continuous group as it has been + defined above. They are to be regarded as taking in general complex + values. If in the finite equations of a continuous group the imaginary + symbol does not explicitly occur, the finite equations will usually + define a group (in the general sense of the original definition) when + both parameters and variables are limited to real values. Such a group + is, in a certain sense, a continuous group; and such groups have been + considered shortly by Lie (cf. Lie-Engel, iii. 360-392), who calls + them _real_ continuous groups. To these real continuous groups the + above statement as to the totality of simple groups does not apply; + and indeed, in all probability, the number of types of _real_ simple + continuous groups admits of no such complete enumeration. The effect + of limitation to real transformations may be illustrated by + considering the groups of projective transformations which change + + x² + y² + z² - 1 = 0 and x² + y² - z² - 1 = 0 + + respectively into themselves. Since one of these quadrics is changed + into the other by the imaginary transformation + + x´ = x, y´ = y, z´ = z[root](-1), + + the general continuous groups which transform the two quadrics + respectively into themselves are simply isomorphic. This is not, + however, the case for the _real_ continuous groups. In fact, the + second quadric has two real sets of generators; and therefore the real + group which transforms it into itself has two self-conjugate + subgroups, either of which leaves unchanged each of one set of + generators. The first quadric having imaginary generators, no such + self-conjugate subgroups can exist for the real group which transforms + it into itself; and this real group is in fact simple. + + + The adjunct group. + + Among the groups isomorphic with a given continuous group there is one + of special importance which is known as the _adjunct_ group. This is a + homogeneous linear group in a number of variables equal to the order + of the group, whose infinitesimal operations are defined by the + relations + + [Pd] + X_i=[Sigma] c_(ijs)x_i -------, (j = 1, 2, ..., r), + i, s [Pd]x_s + + where c_(ijs) are the often-used constants, which give the combinants + of the infinitesimal operations in terms of the infinitesimal + operations themselves. + + That the r infinitesimal operations thus defined actually generate a + group isomorphic with the given group is verified by forming their + combinants. It is thus found that (X_pX_q) = [Sigma][s]c_(pqs)X_s. The + X's, however, are not necessarily linearly independent. In fact, the + sufficient condition that [Sigma][j]a_jX_j should be identically zero + is that [Sigma][j]a_jc_(ijs) should vanish for all values of i and s. + Hence if the equations [Sigma][j]a_jc_(ijs) = 0 for all values of i + and s have r' linearly independent solutions, only r - r´ of the X's + are linearly independent, and the isomorphism of the two groups is + multiple. If Y1, Y2, ..., Y_r are the infinitesimal operations of the + given group, the equations + + [Sigma] a_jc_(ijs) = 0, (s, i = 1, 2, ..., r) + j + + express the condition that the operations of the cyclical group + generated by [Sigma][j]a_jY_i should be permutable with every + operation of the group; in other words, that they should be + self-conjugate operations. In the case supposed, therefore, the given + group contains a subgroup of order r´ each of whose operations is + self-conjugate. The adjunct group of a given group will therefore be + simply isomorphic with the group, unless the latter contains + self-conjugate operations; and when this is the case the order of the + adjunct will be less than that of the given group by the order of the + subgroup formed of the self-conjugate operations. + + + Continuous groups of the line of the plane, and of three-dimensional + space. + + We have been thus far mainly concerned with the abstract theory of + continuous groups, in which no distinction is made between two simply + isomorphic groups. We proceed to discuss the classification and theory + of groups when their form is regarded as essential; and this is a + return to a more geometrical point of view. + + It is natural to begin with the projective groups, which are the + simplest in form and at the same time are of supreme importance in + geometry. The general projective group of the straight line is the + group of order three given by + + ax + b + x´ = ------- + cx + d´ + + where the parameters are the ratios of a, b, c, d. Since + + x´3 - x´2 x´ - x´1 x3 - x2 x - x1 + --------- · -------- = ------- · ------ + x´3 - x´1 x´ - x´2 x3 - x1 x - x2 + + is an operation of the above form, the group is triply transitive. + Every subgroup of order two leaves one point unchanged, and all such + subgroups are conjugate. A cyclical subgroup leaves either two + distinct points or two coincident points unchanged. A subgroup which + either leaves two points unchanged or interchanges them is an example + of a "mixed" group. + + The analysis of the general projective group must obviously increase + very rapidly in complexity, as the dimensions of the space to which it + applies increase. This analysis has been completely carried out for + the projective group of the plane, with the result of showing that + there are thirty distinct types of subgroup. Excluding the general + group itself, every one of these leaves either a point, a line, or a + conic section unaltered. For space of three dimensions Lie has also + carried out a similar investigation, but the results are extremely + complicated. One general result of great importance at which Lie + arrives in this connexion is that every projective group in space of + three dimensions, other than the general group, leaves either a point, + a curve, a surface or a linear complex unaltered. + + Returning now to the case of a single variable, it can be shown that + any finite continuous group in one variable is either cyclical or of + order two or three, and that by a suitable transformation any such + group may be changed into a projective group. + + The genesis of an infinite as distinguished from a finite continuous + group may be well illustrated by considering it in the case of a + single variable. The infinitesimal operations of the projective group + in one variable are d/dx, x(d/dx), x²(d/dx). If these combined with + x³(d/dx) be taken as infinitesimal operations from which to generate + a continuous group among the infinitesimal operations of the group, + there must occur the combinant of x²(d/dx) and x³(d/dx). This is + x^4(d/dx). The combinant of this and x²(d/dx) is 2x^5(d/dx) and so on. + Hence x^_r(d/dx), where r is any positive integer, is an infinitesimal + operation of the group. The general infinitesimal operation of the + group is therefore [f](x)(d/dx), where [f](x) is an arbitrary integral + function of x. + + In the classification of the groups, projective or non-projective of + two or more variables, the distinction between primitive and + imprimitive groups immediately presents itself. For groups of the + plane the following question arises. Is there or is there not a + singly-infinite family of curves [f](x, y) = C, where C is an + arbitrary constant such that every operation of the group interchanges + the curves of the family among themselves? In accordance with the + previously given definition of imprimitivity, the group is called + imprimitive or primitive according as such a set exists or not. In + space of three dimensions there are two possibilities; namely, there + may either be a singly infinite system of surfaces F(x, y, z) = C, + which are interchanged among themselves by the operations of the + group; or there may be a doubly-infinite system of curves G(x, y, z) = + a, H(x, y, z) = b, which are so interchanged. + + In regard to primitive groups Lie has shown that any primitive group + of the plane can, by a suitably chosen transformation, be transformed + into one of three definite types of projective groups; and that any + primitive group of space of three dimensions can be transformed into + one of eight definite types, which, however, cannot all be represented + as projective groups in three dimensions. + + The results which have been arrived at for imprimitive groups in two + and three variables do not admit of any such simple statement. + + + Contact transformations. + + We shall now explain the conception of contact-transformations and + groups of contact-transformations. This conception, like that of + continuous groups, owes its origin to Lie. + + From a purely analytical point of view a contact-transformation may be + defined as a point-transformation in 2n + 1 variables, z, x1, x2, ..., + x_n, p1, p2, ..., p_n which leaves unaltered the equation dz - p1dx1 - + p2dx2 - ... - p_ndx_n = 0. Such a definition as this, however, gives + no direct clue to the geometrical properties of the transformation, + nor does it explain the name given. + + In dealing with contact-transformations we shall restrict ourselves to + space of two or of three dimensions; and it will be necessary to begin + with some purely geometrical considerations. An infinitesimal + surface-element in space of three dimensions is completely specified, + apart from its size, by its position and orientation. If x, y, z are + the co-ordinates of some one point of the element, and if p, q, -1 + give the ratios of the direction-cosines of its normal, x, y, z, p, q + are five quantities which completely specify the element. There are, + therefore, [oo]^5 surface elements in three-dimensional space. The + surface-elements of a surface form a system of [oo]² elements, for + there are [oo]² points on the surface, and at each a definite + surface-element. The surface-elements of a curve form, again, a system + of [oo]² elements, for there are [oo]¹ points on the curve, and at + each [oo]¹ surface-elements containing the tangent to the curve at the + point. Similarly the surface-elements which contain a given point + clearly form a system of [oo]² elements. Now each of these systems of + [oo]² surface-elements has the property that if (x, y, z, p, q) and (x + + dx, y + dy, z + dz, p + dp, q + dq) are consecutive elements from + any one of them, then dz - pdx - qdy = 0. In fact, for a system of the + first kind dx, dy, dz are proportional to the direction-cosines of a + tangent line at a point of the surface, and p, q, -1 are proportional + to the direction-cosines of the normal. For a system of the second + kind dx, dy, dz are proportional to the direction-cosines of a tangent + to the curve, and p, q, -1 give the direction-cosines of the normal to + a plane touching the curve; and for a system of the third kind dx, dy, + dz are zero. Now the most general way in which a system of [oo]² + surface-elements can be given is by three independent equations + between x, y, z, p and q. If these equations do not contain p, q, they + determine one or more (a finite number in any case) points in space, + and the system of surface-elements consists of the elements containing + these points; i.e. it consists of one or more systems of the third + kind. + + If the equations are such that two distinct equations independent of p + and q can be derived from them, the points of the system of + surface-elements lie on a curve. For such a system the equation dz - + pdx - qdy = 0 will hold for each two consecutive elements only when + the plane of each element touches the curve at its own point. + + If the equations are such that only one equation independent of p and + q can be derived from them, the points of the system of + surface-elements lie on a surface. Again, for such a system the + equation dz - pdx - qdy = 0 will hold for each two consecutive + elements only when each element touches the surface at its own point. + Hence, when all possible systems of [oo]² surface-elements in space + are considered, the equation dz - pdx - qdy = 0 is characteristic of + the three special types in which the elements belong, in the sense + explained above, to a point or a curve or a surface. + + Let us consider now the geometrical bearing of any transformation x´ = + [f]1(x, y, z, p, q), ..., q´ = [f]5(x, y, z, p, q), of the five + variables. It will interchange the surface-elements of space among + themselves, and will change any system of [oo]² elements into another + system of [oo]² elements. A special system, i.e. a system which + belongs to a point, curve or surface, will not, however, in general be + changed into another special system. The necessary and sufficient + condition that a special system should always be changed into a + special system is that the equation dz´ - p´dx´ - q´dy´ = 0 should be + a consequence of the equation dz - pdx - qdy = 0; or, in other words, + that this latter equation should be invariant for the transformation. + + When this condition is satisfied the transformation is such as to + change the surface-elements of a surface in general into + surface-elements of a surface, though in particular cases they may + become the surface-elements of a curve or point; and similar + statements may be made with respect to a curve or point. The + transformation is therefore a veritable geometrical transformation in + space of three dimensions. Moreover, two special systems of + surface-elements which have an element in common are transformed into + two new special systems with an element in common. Hence two curves or + surfaces which touch each other are transformed into two new curves or + surfaces which touch each other. It is this property which leads to + the transformations in question being called contact-transformations. + It will be noticed that an ordinary point-transformation is always a + contact-transformation, but that a contact-transformation (in space of + n dimensions) is not in general a point-transformation (in space of n + dimensions), though it may always be regarded as a + point-transformation in space of 2n + 1 dimensions. In the analogous + theory for space of two dimensions a line-element, defined by (x, y, + p), where 1 : p gives the direction-cosines of the line, takes the + place of the surface-element; and a transformation of x, y and p which + leaves the equation dy - pdx = 0 unchanged transforms the [oo]¹ + line-elements, which belong to a curve, into [oo]¹ line-elements which + again belong to a curve; while two curves which touch are transformed + into two other curves which touch. + + One of the simplest instances of a contact-transformation that can be + given is the transformation by reciprocal polars. By this + transformation a point P and a plane p passing through it are changed + into a plane p´ and a point P´ upon it; i.e. the surface-element + defined by P, p is changed into a definite surface-element defined by + P´, p´. The totality of surface-elements which belong to a + (non-developable) surface is known from geometrical considerations to + be changed into the totality which belongs to another + (non-developable) surface. On the other hand, the totality of the + surface-elements which belong to a curve is changed into another set + which belong to a developable. The analytical formulae for this + transformation, when the reciprocation is effected with respect to the + paraboloid x² + y² - 2z = 0, are x´ = p, y´ = q, z´ = px + qy - z, p´ = + x, q´ = y. That this is, in fact, a contact-transformation is verified + directly by noticing that dz´ - p´dx´ - q´dy´ = -d(z - px - qy) - xdp + - ydq = -(dz - pdx - qdy). A second simple example is that in which + every surface-element is displaced, without change of orientation, + normal to itself through a constant distance t. The analytical + equations in this case are easily found in the form + + pt qt + x´ = x + -------------------, y´ = y + -------------------, + [root](1 + p² + q²) [root](1 + p² + q²) + + t + z´ = z - -------------------, + [root](1 + p² + q²) + + p´ = q, q´ = q. + + That this is a contact-transformation is seen geometrically by + noticing that it changes a surface into a parallel surface. Every + point is changed by it into a sphere of radius t, and when t is + regarded as a parameter the equations define a cyclical group of + contact-transformations. + + The formal theory of continuous groups of contact-transformations is, + of course, in no way distinct from the formal theory of continuous + groups in general. On what may be called the geometrical side, the + theory of groups of contact-transformations has been developed with + very considerable detail in the second volume of Lie-Engel. + + + Applications of the theory of continuous groups. + + To the manifold applications of the theory of continuous groups in + various branches of pure and applied mathematics it is impossible here + to refer in any detail. It must suffice to indicate a few of them very + briefly. In some of the older theories a new point of view is obtained + which presents the results in a fresh light, and suggests the natural + generalization. As an example, the theory of the invariants of a + binary form may be considered. + + If in the form [f] = a0x^_n + na1x^(n-1)y + ... + a_ny^n, the + variables be subjected to a homogeneous substitution + + x´ = [alpha]x + ßy, y´ = [gamma]x + [delta]y, (i.) + + and if the coefficients in the new form be represented by accenting + the old coefficients, then + + a´0 = a0[alpha]^n + a1n[alpha]^(n-1)[gamma] + ... + a_n[gamma]^n,\ + | + a´1 = a0[alpha]^(n-1)ß + a1_(n-1)[alpha]^(n-2)ß[gamma] + | + [alpha]^(n-1)[delta]} + ... + a_n[gamma]^(n-1)[delta], > (ii.) + | + a´_n = a0ß^n + a1nß^(n-1)[delta] + ... + a_n[delta]^n; / + + and this is a homogeneous linear substitution performed on the + coefficients. The totality of the substitutions, (i.), for which + [alpha][delta] - ß[gamma] = 1, constitutes a continuous group of order + 3, which is generated by the two infinitesimal transformations + y([Pd]/[Pd]x) and x([Pd]/[Pd]y). Hence with the same limitations on + [alpha], ß, [gamma], [delta] the totality of the substitutions (ii.) + forms a simply isomorphic continuous group of order 3, which is + generated by the two infinitesimal transformations + + [Pd] [Pd] [Pd] [Pd] + a0 ------ + 2a1 ------ + 3a1 ------ + ... + na_(n-1) -------, + [Pd]a1 [Pd]a2 [Pd]a3 [Pd]a_n + + and + + [Pd] [Pd] [Pd] [Pd] + na1 ------ + (n - 1)a2 ------ + (n - 2)a3 ------ + ... + a_u ----------. + [Pd]a0 [Pd]a1 [Pd]a2 [Pd]a_(u-1) + + The invariants of the binary form, i.e. those functions of the + coefficients which are unaltered by all homogeneous substitutions on + x, y of determinant unity, are therefore identical with the functions + of the coefficients which are invariant for the continuous group + generated by the two infinitesimal operations last written. In other + words, they are given by the common solutions of the differential + equations + + [Pd][f] [Pd][f] [Pd][f] + a0 ------- + 2a1 ------- + 3a2 ------- + ... = 0, + [Pd]a1 [Pd]a2 [Pd]a3 + + [Pd][f] [Pd][f] [Pd][f] + na1 ------- + (n - 1)a2 ------- + (n - 2)a3 ------- + ... = 0. + [Pd]a0 [Pd]a1 [Pd]a2 + + Both this result and the method by which it is arrived at are well + known, but the point of view by which we pass from the transformation + group of the variables to the isomorphic transformation group of the + coefficients, and regard the invariants as invariants rather of the + group than of the forms, is a new and a fruitful one. + + The general theory of curvature of curves and surfaces may in a + similar way be regarded as a theory of their invariants for the group + of motions. That something more than a mere change of phraseology is + here implied will be evident in dealing with minimum curves, i.e. with + curves such that at every point of them dx² + dy² + dz² = 0. For such + curves the ordinary theory of curvature has no meaning, but they + nevertheless have invariant properties in regard to the group of + motions. + + The curvature and torsion of a curve, which are invariant for all + transformations by the group of motions, are special instances of what + are known as _differential invariants_. If [xi]([Pd]/[Pd]x) + + [eta]([Pd]/[Pd]y) is the general infinitesimal transformation of a + group of point-transformations in the plane, and if y1, y2, ... + represent the successive differential coefficients of y, the + infinitesimal transformation may be written in the extended form + + [Pd] [Pd] [Pd] [Pd] + [xi] ----- + [eta] ----- + [eta]1 ------ + [eta]2 ------ + ... + [Pd]x [Pd]y [Pd]y1 [Pd]y2 + + where [eta]1[delta]t, [eta]2[delta]t, ... are the increments of y1, + y2, .... By including a sufficient number of these variables the group + must be intransitive in them, and must therefore have one or more + invariants. Such invariants are known as differential invariants of + the original group, being necessarily functions of the differential + coefficients of the original variables. For groups of the plane it may + be shown that not more than two of these differential invariants are + independent, all others being formed from these by algebraical + processes and differentiation. For groups of point-transformations in + more than two variables there will be more than one set of + differential invariants. For instance, with three variables, one may + be regarded as independent and the other two as functions of it, or + two as independent and the remaining one as a function. Corresponding + to these two points of view, the differential invariants for a curve + or for a surface will arise. + + If a differential invariant of a continuous group of the plane be + equated to zero, the resulting differential equation remains unaltered + when the variables undergo any transformation of the group. + Conversely, if an ordinary, differential equation [f](x, y, y1, y2, + ...) = 0 admits the transformations of a continuous group, i.e. if the + equation is unaltered when x and y undergo any transformation of the + group, then [f](x, y, y1, y2, ...) or some multiple of it must be a + differential invariant of the group. Hence it must be possible to find + two independent differential invariants [alpha], ß of the group, such + that when these are taken as variables the differential equation takes + the form F([alpha], ß, dß/d[alpha], d²ß/d[alpha]², ...) = 0. This + equation in [alpha], ß will be of lower order than the original + equation, and in general simpler to deal with. Supposing it solved in + the form ß = [phi]([alpha]), where for [alpha], ß their values in + terms of x, y, y1, y2, ... are written, this new equation, containing + arbitrary constants, is necessarily again of lower order than the + original equation. The integration of the original equation is thus + divided into two steps. This will show how, in the case of an ordinary + differential equation, the fact that the equation admits a continuous + group of transformations may be taken advantage of for its + integration. + + The most important of the applications of continuous groups are to the + theory of systems of differential equations, both ordinary and + partial; in fact, Lie states that it was with a view to systematizing + and advancing the general theory of differential equations that he was + led to the development of the theory of continuous groups. It is quite + impossible here to give any account of all that Lie and his followers + have done in this direction. An entirely new mode of regarding the + problem of the integration of a differential equation has been opened + up, and in the classification that arises from it all those apparently + isolated types of equations which in the older sense are said to be + integrable take their proper place. It may, for instance, be mentioned + that the question as to whether Monge's method will apply to the + integration of a partial differential equation of the second order is + shown to depend on whether or not a contact-transformation can be + found which will reduce the equation to either [Pd]²z/[Pd]x² = 0 or + [Pd]²z/[Pd]x[Pd]y = 0. It is in this direction that further advance in + the theory of partial differential equations must be looked for. + Lastly, it may be remarked that one of the most thorough discussions + of the axioms of geometry hitherto undertaken is founded entirely upon + the theory of continuous groups. + + +_Discontinuous Groups._ + +We go on now to the consideration of discontinuous groups. Although +groups of finite order are necessarily contained under this general +head, it is convenient for many reasons to deal with them separately, +and it will therefore be assumed in the present section that the number +of operations in the group is not finite. Many large classes of +discontinuous groups have formed the subject of detailed investigation, +but a general formal theory of discontinuous groups can hardly be said +to exist as yet. It will thus be obvious that in considering +discontinuous groups it is necessary to proceed on different lines from +those followed with continuous groups, and in fact to deal with the +subject almost entirely by way of example. + + + Generating operations. + + The consideration of a discontinuous group as arising from a set of + independent generating operations suggests a purely abstract point of + view in which any two simply isomorphic groups are indistinguishable. + The number of generating operations may be either finite or infinite, + but the former case alone will be here considered. Suppose then that + S1, S2, ..., S_n is a set of independent operations from which a group + G is generated. The general operation of the group will be represented + by the symbol S_a^[alpha]S_b^ß ... S_d^[delta], or [Sigma], where a, + b, ..., d are chosen from 1, 2, ..., n, and [alpha], ß, ..., [delta] + are any positive or negative integers. It may be assumed that no two + successive suffixes in [Sigma] are the same, for if b = a, then + S_a^[alpha]S_b^ß may be replaced by S_a^([alpha] +ß). If there are no + relations connecting the generating operations and the identical + operation, every distinct symbol [Sigma] represents a distinct + operation of the group. For if [Sigma] = [Sigma]1, or S_a^[alpha] + S_b^ß ... S_d^[delta] = S_(a1)^([alpha]1) S_(b1)^(ß1) ... + S_(d1)^([delta]1), then S_(d1)^(-[delta]1) ... S_(b1)^(-ß1) + S_(a1)^(-[alpha]1) S_a^[alpha] S_b^ß ... S_d^[delta] = 1; and unless a + = a1, b = b1, ..., [alpha] = [alpha]1, ß = ß1, ..., this is a relation + connecting the generating operations. + + Suppose now that T1, T2, ... are operations of G, and that H is that + self-conjugate subgroup of G which is generated by T1, T2, ... and the + operations conjugate to them. Then, of the operations that can be + formed from S1, S2, ..., S_n, the set [Sigma]H, and no others, reduce + to the same operation [Sigma] when the conditions T1 = 1, T2 = 1, ... + are satisfied by the generating operations. Hence the group which is + generated by the given operations, when subjected to the conditions + just written, is simply isomorphic with the factor-group G/H. + Moreover, this is obviously true even when the conditions are such + that the generating operations are no longer independent. Hence any + discontinuous group may be defined abstractly, that is, in regard to + the laws of combination of its operations apart from their actual + form, by a set of generating operations and a system of relations + connecting them. Conversely, when such a set of operations and system + of relations are given arbitrarily they define in abstract form a + single discontinuous group. It may, of course, happen that the group + so defined is a group of finite order, or that it reduces to the + identical operation only; but in regard to the general statement these + will be particular and exceptional cases. + + + Properly and improperly discontinuous groups. + + An operation of a discontinuous group must necessarily be specified + analytically by a system of equations of the form + + x´_s = [f]_s(x1, x2, ..., x_n; a1, a2, ..., a_r), (s = 1, 2, ..., n), + + and the different operations of the group will be given by different + sets of values of the parameters a1, a2, ..., a_r. No one of these + parameters is susceptible of continuous variations, but at least one + must be capable of taking a number of values which is not finite, if + the group is not one of finite order. Among the sets of values of the + parameters there must be one which gives the identical transformation. + No other transformation makes each of the differences x´1 - x1, x´2 - + x2, ..., x´_n - x_n vanish. Let d be an arbitrary assigned positive + quantity. Then if a transformation of the group can be found such that + the modulus of each of these differences is less than d when the + variables have arbitrary values within an assigned range of variation, + however small d may be chosen, the group is said to be _improperly_ + discontinuous. In the contrary case the group is called _properly_ + discontinuous. The range within which the variables are allowed to + vary may clearly affect the question whether a given group is properly + or improperly discontinuous. For instance, the group defined by the + equation x´ = ax + b, where a and b are any rational numbers, is + improperly discontinuous; and the group defined by x´ = x + a, where a + is an integer, is properly discontinuous, whatever the range of the + variable. On the other hand, the group, to be later considered, + defined by the equation x´ = (ax + b)/(cx + d), where a, b, c, d are + integers satisfying the relation ad - bc = 1, is properly + discontinuous when x may take any complex value, and improperly + discontinuous when the range of x is limited to real values. + + + Linear discontinuous groups. + + Among the discontinuous groups that occur in analysis, a large number + may be regarded as arising by imposing limitations on the range of + variation of the parameters of continuous groups. If + + x´_s = [f]_s(x1, x2, ..., x_n; a1, a2, ..., a_r), (s = 1, 2, ..., n), + + are the finite equations of a continuous group, and if C with + parameters c1, c2, ..., c_r is the operation which results from + carrying out A and B with corresponding parameters in succession, then + the c's are determined uniquely by the a's and the b's. If the c's are + rational functions of the a's and b's, and if the a's and b's are + arbitrary rational numbers of a given corpus (see NUMBER), the c's + will be rational numbers of the same corpus. If the c's are rational + integral functions of the a's and b's, and the latter are arbitrarily + chosen integers of a corpus, then the c's are integers of the same + corpus. Hence in the first case the above equations, when the a's are + limited to be rational numbers of a given corpus, will define a + discontinuous group; and in the second case they will define such a + group when the a's are further limited to be integers of the corpus. A + most important class of discontinuous groups are those that arise in + this way from the general linear continuous group in a given set of + variables. For n variables the finite equations of this continuous + group are + + x´_s = a_(s1)x1 + a_(s2)x2 + ... + a_(sn)x_n, (s = 1, 2, ..., n), + + where the determinant of the a's must not be zero. In this case the + c's are clearly integral lineo-linear functions of the a's and b's. + Moreover, the determinant of the c's is the product of the determinant + of the a's and the determinant of the b's. Hence equations (ii.), + where the parameters are restricted to be integers of a given corpus, + define a discontinuous group; and if the determinant of the + coefficients is limited to the value unity, they define a + discontinuous group which is a (self-conjugate) subgroup of the + previous one. + + The simplest case which thus presents itself is that in which there + are two variables while the coefficients are rational integers. This + is the group defined by the equations + + x´ = ax + by, \ + > + y´ = cx + dy, / + + where a, b, c, d are integers such that ad - bc = 1. To every + operation of this group there corresponds an operation of the set + defined by + + az + b + z´ = ------, + cz + d + + in such a way that to the product of two operations of the group there + corresponds the product of the two analogous operations of the set. + The operations of the set (iv.), where ad - bc = 1, therefore + constitute a group which is isomorphic with the previous group. The + isomorphism is multiple, since to a single operation of the second set + there correspond the two operations of the first for which a, b, c, d + and -a, -b, -c, -d are parameters. These two groups, which are of + fundamental importance in the theory of quadratic forms and in the + theory of modular functions, have been the object of very many + investigations. + + + Discontinuous groups arising from geometrical operations. + + Another large class of discontinuous groups, which have far-reaching + applications in analysis, are those which arise in the first instance + from purely geometrical considerations. By the combination and + repetition of a finite number of geometrical operations such as + displacements, projective transformations, inversions, &c., a + discontinuous group of such operations will arise. Such a group, as + regards the points of the plane (or of space), will in general be + improperly discontinuous; but when the generating operations are + suitably chosen, the group may be properly discontinuous. In the + latter case the group may be represented in a graphical form by the + division of the plane (or space) into regions such that no point of + one region can be transformed into another point of the same region by + any operation of the group, while any given region can be transformed + into any other by a suitable transformation. Thus, let ABC be a + triangle bounded by three circular arcs BC, CA, AB; and consider the + figure produced from ABC by inversions in the three circles of which + BC, CA, AB are part. By inversion at BC, ABC becomes an equiangular + triangle A´BC. An inversion in AB changes ABC and A´BC into + equiangular triangles ABC´ and A´´BC´. Successive inversions at AB and + BC then will change ABC into a series of equiangular triangles with B + for a common vertex. These will not overlap and will just fill in the + space round B if the angle ABC is a submultiple of two right angles. + If then the angles of ABC are submultiples of two right angles (or + zero), the triangles formed by any number of inversions will never + overlap, and to each operation consisting of a definite series of + inversions at BC, CA and AB will correspond a distinct triangle into + which ABC is changed by the operation. The network of triangles so + formed gives a graphical representation of the group that arises from + the three inversions in BC, CA, AB. The triangles may be divided into + two sets, those, namely, like A´´BC´, which are derived from ABC by an + even number of inversions, and those like A´BC or ABC´ produced by an + odd number. Each set are interchanged among themselves by any even + number of inversions. Hence the operations consisting of an even + number of inversions form a group by themselves. For this group the + quadrilateral formed by ABC and A´BC constitutes a region, which is + changed by every operation of the group into a distinct region (formed + of two adjacent triangles), and these regions clearly do not overlap. + Their distribution presents in a graphical form the group that arises + by pairs of inversions at BC, CA, AB; and this group is generated by + the operation which consists of successive inversions at AB, BC and + that which consists of successive inversions at BC, CA. The group + defined thus geometrically may be presented in many analytical forms. + If x, y and x´, y´ are the rectangular co-ordinates of two points + which are inverse to each other with respect to a given circle, x´ and + y´ are rational functions of x and y, and conversely. Thus the group + may be presented in a form in which each operation gives a birational + transformation of two variables. If x + iy = z, x´ + iy´ = z´, and if + x´, y´ is the point to which x, y is transformed by any even number of + inversions, then z´ and z are connected by a linear relation z´ = + ([alpha]z + ß)/([gamma]z + [delta]), where [alpha], ß, [gamma], + [delta] are constants (in general complex) depending on the circles at + which the inversions are taken. Hence the group may be presented in + the form of a group of linear transformations of a single variable + generated by the two linear transformations z´ = ([alpha]1z + + ß1)/([gamma]1z + [delta]1), z´ = ([alpha]2z + ß2)/([gamma]2z + + [delta]2), which correspond to pairs of inversions at AB, BC and BC, + CA respectively. In particular, if the sides of the triangle are taken + to be x = 0, x² + y² -1 = 0, x² + y² + 2x = 0, the generating + operations are found to be z´ = z + 1, z´ = -z^(-1); and the group is + that consisting of all transformations of the form z´ = (az + b)/(cz + + d), where ad - bc = 1, a, b, c, d being integers. This is the group + already mentioned which underlies the theory of the elliptic modular + functions; a modular function being a function of z which is invariant + for some subgroup of finite index of the group in question. + + The triangle ABC from which the above geometrical construction started + may be replaced by a polygon whose sides are circles. If each angle is + a submultiple of two right angles or zero, the construction is still + effective to give a set of non-overlapping regions, which represent + graphically the group which arises from pairs of inversions in the + sides of the polygon. In their analytical form, as groups of linear + transformations of a single variable, the groups are those on which + the theory of automorphic functions depends. A similar construction in + space, the polygons bounded by circular arcs being replaced by + polyhedra bounded by spherical faces, has been used by F. Klein and + Fricke to give a geometrical representation for groups which are + improperly discontinuous when represented as groups of the plane. + + + Group of a linear differential equation. + + The special classes of discontinuous groups that have been dealt with + in the previous paragraphs arise directly from geometrical + considerations. As a final example we shall refer briefly to a class + of groups whose origin is essentially analytical. Let + + d^_ny d^(n-1)y dy + ----- + P1 -------- + ... + P_(n-1) -- + P_ny = 0 + dx^_n dx^(n-1) dx + + be a linear differential equation, the coefficients in which are + rational functions of x, and let y1, y2, ..., y_n be a linearly + independent set of integrals of the equation. In the neighbourhood of + a finite value x0 of x, which is not a singularity of any of the + coefficients in the equation, these integrals are ordinary + power-series in x - x0. If the analytical continuations of y1, y2, + ..., y_n be formed for any closed path starting from and returning to + x0, the final values arrived at when x0 is again reached will be + another set of linearly independent integrals. When the closed path + contains no singular point of the coefficients of the differential + equation, the new set of integrals is identical with the original set. + If, however, the closed path encloses one or more singular points, + this will not in general be the case. Let y´1, y´2, ..., y´_n be the + new integrals arrived at. Since in the neighbourhood of x0 every + integral can be represented linearly in terms of y1, y2, ..., y_n, + there must be a system of equations + + y´1 = a11y1 + a12y2 + ... + a_(1n)y_n, + + y´2 = a21y1 + a22y2 + ... + a_(2n)y_n, + + . . . . . + + y´_n = a_(n1)y1 + a_(n2)y2 + ... + a_(nn)y_n, + + where the a's are constants, expressing the new integrals in terms of + the original ones. To each closed path described by x0 there therefore + corresponds a definite linear substitution performed on the y's. + Further, if S1 and S2 are the substitutions that correspond to two + closed paths L1 and L2, then to any closed path which can be + continuously deformed, without crossing a singular point, into L1 + followed by L2, there corresponds the substitution S1S2. Let L1, L2, + ..., L_r be arbitrarily chosen closed paths starting from and + returning to the same point, and each of them enclosing a single one + of the (r) finite singular points of the equation. Every closed path + in the plane can be formed by combinations of these r paths taken + either in the positive or in the negative direction. Also a closed + path which does not cut itself, and encloses all the r singular points + within it, is equivalent to a path enclosing the point at infinity and + no finite singular point. If S1, S2, S3, ..., S_r are the linear + substitutions that correspond to these r paths, then the substitution + corresponding to every possible path can be obtained by combination + and repetition of these r substitutions, and they therefore generate a + discontinuous group each of whose operations corresponds to a definite + closed path. The group thus arrived at is called the group of the + equation. For a given equation it is unique in type. In fact, the only + effect of starting from another set of independent integrals is to + transform every operation of the group by an arbitrary substitution, + while choosing a different set of paths is equivalent to taking a new + set of generating operations. The great importance of the group of the + equation in connexion with the nature of its integrals cannot here be + dealt with, but it may be pointed out that if all the integrals of the + equation are algebraic functions, the group must be a group of finite + order, since the set of quantities y1, y2 ..., y_n can then only take + a finite number of distinct values. + + +_Groups of Finite Order._ + +We shall now pass on to groups of finite order. It is clear that here we +must have to do with many properties which have no direct analogues in +the theory of continuous groups or in that of discontinuous groups in +general; those properties, namely, which depend on the fact that the +number of distinct operations in the group is finite. + + Let S1, S2, S3, ..., S_N denote the operations of a group G of finite + order N, S1 being the identical operation. The tableau + + S1, S2, S3, ..., S_N, + S1S2, S2S2, S3S3, ..., S_NS2, + S1S3, S2S3, S3S3, ..., S_NS3, + . . . . . + S1S_N, S2S_N, S3S_N, ..., S_NS_N, + + when in it each compound symbol S_pS_q is replaced by the single + symbol S_r that is equivalent to it, is called the multiplication + table of the group. It indicates directly the result of multiplying + together in an assigned sequence any number of operations of the + group. In each line (and in each column) of the tableau every + operation of the group occurs just once. If the letters in the tableau + are regarded as mere symbols, the operation of replacing each symbol + in the first line by the symbol which stands under it in the pth line + is a permutation performed on the set of N symbols. Thus to the N + lines of the tableau there corresponds a set of N permutations + performed on the N symbols, which includes the identical permutation + that leaves each unchanged. Moreover, if S_pS_q = S_r, then the result + of carrying out in succession the permutations which correspond to the + pth and qth lines gives the permutation which corresponds to the rth + line. Hence the set of permutations constitutes a group which is + simply isomorphic with the given group. + + Every group of finite order N can therefore be represented in concrete + form as a transitive group of permutations on N symbols. + + + Properties of a group which depend on the order. + + The order of any subgroup or operation of G is necessarily finite. If + T1(= S1), T2, ..., T_n are the operations of a subgroup H of G, and if + [Sigma] is any operation of G which is not contained in H, the set of + operations [Sigma]T1, [Sigma]T2, ..., [Sigma]T_n, or [Sigma]H, are all + distinct from each other and from the operations of H. If the sets H + and [Sigma]H do not exhaust the operations of G, and if [Sigma]´ is an + operation not belonging to them, then the operations of the set + [Sigma]´H are distinct from each other and from those of H and + [Sigma]H. This process may be continued till the operations of G are + exhausted. The order n of H must therefore be a factor of the order N + of G. The ratio N/n is called the index of the subgroup H. By taking + for H the cyclical subgroup generated by any operation S of G, it + follows that the order of S must be a factor of the order of G. + + Every operation S is permutable with its own powers. Hence there must + be some subgroup H of G of greatest possible order, such that every + operation of H is permutable with S. Every operation of H transforms S + into itself, and every operation of the set H[Sigma] transforms S into + the same operation. Hence, when S is transformed by every operation of + G, just N/n distinct operations arise if n is the order of H. These + operations, and no others, are conjugate to S within G; they are said + to form a set of conjugate operations. The number of operations in + every conjugate set is therefore a factor of the order of G. In the + same way it may be shown that the number of subgroups which are + conjugate to a given subgroup is a factor of the order of G. An + operation which is permutable with every operation of the group is + called a _self-conjugate_ operation. The totality of the + self-conjugate operations of a group forms a self-conjugate Abelian + subgroup, each of whose operations is permutable with every operation + of the group. + + + Sylow's theorem. + + An Abelian group contains subgroups whose orders are any given factors + of the order of the group. In fact, since every subgroup H of an + Abelian group G and the corresponding factor groups G/H are Abelian, + this result follows immediately by an induction from the case in which + the order contains n prime factors to that in which it contains n + 1. + For a group which is not Abelian no general law can be stated as to + the existence or non-existence of a subgroup whose order is an + arbitrarily assigned factor of the order of the group. In this + connexion the most important general result, which is independent of + any supposition as to the order of the group, is known as Sylow's + theorem, which states that if p^a is the highest power of a prime p + which divides the order of a group G, then G contains a single + conjugate set of subgroups of order p^a, the number in the set being + of the form 1 + kp. Sylow's theorem may be extended to show that if + p^a´ is a factor of the order of a group, the number of subgroups of + order p^a´ is of the form 1 + kp. If, however, p^a´ is not the highest + power of p which divides the order, these groups do not in general + form a single conjugate set. + + The importance of Sylow's theorem in discussing the structure of a + group of given order need hardly be insisted on. Thus, as a very + simple instance, a group whose order is the product p1p2 of two primes + (p1 < p2) must have a self-conjugate subgroup of order p2, since the + order of the group contains no factor, other than unity, of the form 1 + + kp2. The same again is true for a group of order p1²p2, unless p1 = + 2, and p2 = 3. + + There is one other numerical property of a group connected with its + order which is quite general. If N is the order of G, and n a factor + of N, the number of operations of G, whose orders are equal to or are + factors of n, is a multiple of n. + + + Composition-series of a group. + + As already defined, a composite group is a group which contains one or + more self-conjugate subgroups, whose orders are greater than unity. If + H is a self-conjugate subgroup of G, the factor-group G/H may be + either simple or composite. In the former case G can contain no + self-conjugate subgroup K, which itself contains H; for if it did K/H + would be a self-conjugate subgroup of G/H. When G/H is simple, H is + said to be a maximum self-conjugate subgroup of G. Suppose now that G + being a given composite group, G, G1, G2, ..., G_n, 1 is a series of + subgroups of G, such that each is a maximum self-conjugate subgroup of + the preceding; the last term of the series consisting of the identical + operation only. Such a series is called a _composition-series_ of G. + In general it is not unique, since a group may have two or more + maximum self-conjugate subgroups. A composition-series of a group, + however it may be chosen, has the property that the number of terms of + which it consists is always the same, while the factor-groups G/G1, + G1/G2, ..., G_n differ only in the sequence in which they occur. It + should be noticed that though a group defines uniquely the set of + factor-groups that occur in its composition-series, the set of + factor-groups do not conversely in general define a single type of + group. When the orders of all the factor-groups are primes the group + is said to be _soluble_. + + If the series of subgroups G, H, K, ..., L, 1 is chosen so that each + is the greatest self-conjugate subgroup of G contained in the previous + one, the series is called a chief composition-series of G. All such + series derived from a given group may be shown to consist of the same + number of terms, and to give rise to the same set of factor-groups, + except as regards sequence. The factor-groups of such a series will + not, however, necessarily be simple groups. From any chief + composition-series a composition-series may be formed by interpolating + between any two terms H and K of the series for which H/K is not a + simple group, a number of terms h1, h2, ..., h_r; and it may be shown + that the factor-groups H/h1, h1/h2, ..., h_r/K are all simply + isomorphic with each other. + + + Isomorphism of a group with itself. + + A group may be represented as isomorphic with itself by transforming + all its operations by any one of them. In fact, if S_pS_q = S_r, then + S^(-1)S_pS · S^(-1)S_qS = S^(-1)S_rS. An isomorphism of the group with + itself, established in this way, is called an inner isomorphism. It + may be regarded as an operation carried out on the symbols of the + operations, being indeed a permutation performed on these symbols. The + totality of these operations clearly constitutes a group isomorphic + with the given group, and this group is called the group of inner + isomorphisms. A group is simply or multiply isomorphic with its group + of inner isomorphisms according as it does not or does contain + self-conjugate operations other than identity. It may be possible to + establish a correspondence between the operations of a group other + than those given by the inner isomorphisms, such that if S´ is the + operation corresponding to S, then S´_pS´_q = S´_r is a consequence of + S_pS_q = S_r. The substitution on the symbols of the operations of a + group resulting from such a correspondence is called an outer + isomorphism. The totality of the isomorphisms of both kinds + constitutes the group of isomorphisms of the given group, and within + this the group of inner isomorphisms is a self-conjugate subgroup. + Every set of conjugate operations of a group is necessarily + transformed into itself by an inner isomorphism, but two or more sets + may be interchanged by an outer isomorphism. + + A subgroup of a group G, which is transformed into itself by every + isomorphism of G, is called a _characteristic_ subgroup. A series of + groups G, G1, G2, ..., 1, such that each is a maximum characteristic + subgroup of G contained in the preceding, may be shown to have the + same invariant properties as the subgroups of a composition series. A + group which has no characteristic subgroup must be either a simple + group or the direct product of a number of simply isomorphic simple + groups. + + + Permutation-groups. + + It has been seen that every group of finite order can be represented + as a group of permutations performed on a set of symbols whose number + is equal to the order of the group. In general such a representation + is possible with a smaller number of symbols. Let H be a subgroup of + G, and let the operations of G be divided, in respect of H, into the + sets H, S2H, S3H, ..., S_mH. If S is any operation of G, the sets SH, + SS2H, SS3H, ..., SS_mH differ from the previous sets only in the + sequence in which they occur. In fact, if SS_p belong to the set S_qH, + then since H is a group, the set SS_pH is identical with the set S_qH. + Hence, to each operation S of the group will correspond a permutation + performed on the symbols of the m sets, and to the product of two + operations corresponds the product of the two analogous permutations. + The set of permutations, therefore, forms a group isomorphic with the + given group. Moreover, the isomorphism is simple unless for one or + more operations, other than identity, the sets all remain unaltered. + This can only be the case for S, when every operation conjugate to S + belongs to H. In this case H would contain a self-conjugate subgroup, + and the isomorphism is multiple. + + The fact that every group of finite order can be represented, + generally in several ways, as a group of permutations, gives special + importance to such groups. The number of symbols involved in such a + representation is called the _degree_ of the group. In accordance with + the general definitions already given, a permutation-group is called + transitive or intransitive according as it does or does not contain + permutations changing any one of the symbols into any other. It is + called imprimitive or primitive according as the symbols can or cannot + be arranged in sets, such that every permutation of the group changes + the symbols of any one set either among themselves or into the symbols + of another set. When a group is imprimitive the number of symbols in + each set must clearly be the same. + + The total number of permutations that can be performed on n symbols is + n!, and these necessarily constitute a group. It is known as the + _symmetric_ group of degree n, the only rational functions of the + symbols which are unaltered by all possible permutations being the + symmetric functions. When any permutation is carried out on the + product of the n(n - 1)/2, differences of the n symbols, it must + either remain unaltered or its sign must be changed. Those + permutations which leave the product unaltered constitute a group of + order n!/2, which is called the _alternating_ group of degree n; it is + a self-conjugate subgroup of the symmetric group. Except when n = 4 + the alternating group is a simple group. A group of degree n, which is + not contained in the alternating group, must necessarily have a + self-conjugate subgroup of index 2, consisting of those of its + permutations which belong to the alternating group. + + + Groups of linear substitutions. + + Among the various concrete forms in which a group of finite order can + be presented the most important is that of a group of linear + substitutions. Such groups have already been referred to in connexion + with discontinuous groups. Here the number of distinct substitutions + is necessarily finite; and to each operation S of a group G of finite + order there will correspond a linear substitution s, viz. + + __j=m + x_i = \ s_(ij)x_j(i, j = 1, 2, ..., m), + /__j=1 + + on a set of m variables, such that if ST = U, then st = u. The linear + substitutions s, t, u, ... then constitute a group g with which G is + isomorphic; and whether the isomorphism is simple or multiple g is + said to give a "representation" of G as a group of linear + substitutions. If all the substitutions of g are transformed by the + same substitution on the m variables, the (in general) new group of + linear substitutions so constituted is said to be "equivalent" with g + as a representation of G; and two representations are called + "non-equivalent," or "distinct," when one is not capable of being + transformed into the other. + + A group of linear substitutions on m variables is said to be + "reducible" when it is possible to choose m´(< m) linear functions of + the variables which are transformed among themselves by every + substitution of the group. When this cannot be done the group is + called "irreducible." It can be shown that a group of linear + substitutions, of finite order, is always either irreducible, or such + that the variables, when suitably chosen, may be divided into sets, + each set being irreducibly transformed among themselves. This being + so, it is clear that when the irreducible representations of a group + of finite order are known, all representations may be built up. + + It has been seen at the beginning of this section that every group of + finite order N can be presented as a group of permutations (i.e. + linear substitutions in a limited sense) on N symbols. This group is + obviously reducible; in fact, the sum of the symbols remain unaltered + by every substitution of the group. The fundamental theorem in + connexion with the representations, as an irreducible group of linear + substitutions, of a group of finite order N is the following. + + If r is the number of different sets of conjugate operations in the + group, then, when the group of N permutations is completely reduced, + + (i.) just r distinct irreducible representations occur: + + (ii.) each of these occurs a number of times equal to the number of + symbols on which it operates: + + (iii.) these irreducible representations exhaust all the distinct + irreducible representations of the group. + + Among these representations what is called the "identical" + representation necessarily occurs, i.e. that in which each operation + of the group corresponds to leaving a single symbol unchanged. If + these representations are denoted by [Gamma]1, [Gamma]2, ..., + [Gamma]_r, then any representation of the group as a group of linear + substitutions, or in particular as a group of permutations, may be + uniquely represented by a symbol [Sigma][alpha]_i[Gamma]_i, in the + sense that the representation when completely reduced will contain the + representation [Gamma]_i just [alpha]_i times for each suffix i. + + + Group characteristics. + + A representation of a group of finite order as an irreducible group of + linear substitutions may be presented in an infinite number of + equivalent forms. If + + x´_i = [Sigma] s_(ij)x_j (i, j = 1, 2, ..., m), + + is the linear substitution which, in a given irreducible + representation of a group of finite order G, corresponds to the + operation S, the determinant + + | s11 - [lambda] s12 ... s_(1m) | + | s21 s22-[lambda] ... s_(2m) | + | . . ... . | + | . . ... . | + | . . ... . | + | s_m1 s_2m ... s_(mm) - [lambda] | + + is invariant for all equivalent representations, when written as a + polynomial in [lambda]. Moreover, it has the same value for S and S´, + if these are two conjugate operations in G. Of the various invariants + that thus arise the most important is s11 + s22 + ... + s_(mm), which + is called the "characteristic" of S. If S is an operation of order p, + its characteristic is the sum of m pth roots of unity; and in + particular, if S is the identical operation its characteristic is m. + If r is the number of sets of conjugate operations in G, there is, for + each representation of G as an irreducible group, a set of r + characteristics: X1, X2, ... X_r, one corresponding to each conjugate + set; so that for the r irreducible representations just r such sets of + characteristics arise. These are distinct, in the sense that if + [Psi]1, [Psi]2, ..., [Psi]_r are the characteristics for a distinct + representation from the above, then X_i and [Psi]_i are not equal for + all values of the suffix i. It may be the case that the r + characteristics for a given representation are all real. If this is so + the representation is said to be self-inverse. In the contrary case + there is always another representation, called the "inverse" + representation, for which each characteristic is the conjugate + imaginary of the corresponding one in the original representation. The + characteristics are subject to certain remarkable relations. If h_p + denotes the number of operations in the pth conjugate set, while + X^_i{p}, and X^j{p} are the characteristics of the pth conjugate set + in [Gamma]_i and [Gamma]_j, then + + __p=r + \ h_p X_p^i X^_p^j = 0 or n, + /__p=1 + + according to [Gamma]_i and [Gamma]_j are not or are inverse + representations, n being the order of G. + + Again + + __i=r + \ X_p^i X^_q^i = 0 or n/h_p + /__i=1 + + according as the pth and qth conjugate sets are not or are inverse; + the qth set being called the inverse of the pth if it consists of the + inverses of the operations constituting the pth. + + + Linear homogeneous groups. + + Another form in which every group of finite order can be represented + is that known as a linear homogeneous group. If in the equations + + x´_r = a_(r1)x1 + a_(r2)x2 + ... +a_(rm)x_m, (r = 1, 2, ..., m), + + which define a linear homogeneous substitution, the coefficients are + integers, and if the equations are replaced by congruences to a finite + modulus n, the system of congruences will give a definite operation, + provided that the determinant of the coefficients is relatively prime + to n. The product of two such operations is another operation of the + same kind; and the total number of distinct operations is finite, + since there is only a limited number of choices for the coefficients. + The totality of these operations, therefore, constitutes a group of + finite order; and such a group is known as a _linear homogeneous_ + group. If n is a prime the order of the group is + + (n^m - 1)(n^m - n) ... (n^m - n^(m-1)). + + The totality of the operations of the linear homogeneous group for + which the determinant of the coefficients is congruent to unity forms + a subgroup. Other subgroups arise by considering those operations + which leave a function of the variables unchanged (mod. n). All such + subgroups are known as linear homogeneous groups. + + When the ratios only of the variables are considered, there arises a + _linear fractional_ group, with which the corresponding linear + homogeneous group is isomorphic. Thus, if p is a prime the totality of + the congruences + + az + b + z´ [equiv] ------, ad - bc [/=] 0, (mod. p) + cz + d + + constitutes a group of order p(p² - 1). This class of groups for + various values of p is almost the only one which has been as yet + exhaustively analysed. For all values of p except 3 it contains a + simple self-conjugate subgroup of index 2. + + A great extension of the theory of linear homogeneous groups has been + made in recent years by considering systems of congruences of the form + + x´_r [equiv] a_(r1)x1 + a_(r2)x2 + ... + a_(rm)x_m, + (r = 1, 2, ..., m), + + in which the coefficients a_(rs), are integral functions with real + integral coefficients of a root of an irreducible congruence to a + prime modulus. Such a system of congruences is obviously limited in + numbers and defines a group which contains as a subgroup the group + defined by the same congruences with ordinary integral coefficients. + + + Applications. + + The chief application of the theory of groups of finite order is to + the theory of algebraic equations. The analogy of equations of the + second, third and fourth degrees would give rise to the expectation + that a root of an equation of any finite degree could be expressed in + terms of the coefficients by a finite number of the operations of + addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and the extraction of + roots; in other words, that the equation could be solved by radicals. + This, however, as proved by Abel and Galois, is not the case: an + equation of a higher degree than the fourth in general defines an + algebraic irrationality which cannot be expressed by means of + radicals, and the cases in which such an equation can be solved by + radicals must be regarded as exceptional. The theory of groups gives + the means of determining whether an equation comes under this + exceptional case, and of solving the equation when it does. When it + does not, the theory provides the means of reducing the problem + presented by the equation to a normal form. From this point of view + the theory of equations of the fifth degree has been exhaustively + treated, and the problems presented by certain equations of the sixth + and seventh degrees have actually been reduced to normal form. + + Galois (see EQUATION) showed that, corresponding to every irreducible + equation of the nth degree, there exists a transitive + substitution-group of degree n, such that every function of the roots, + the numerical value of which is unaltered by all the substitutions of + the group can be expressed rationally in terms of the coefficients, + while conversely every function of the roots which is expressible + rationally in terms of the coefficients is unaltered by the + substitutions of the group. This group is called the group of the + equation. In general, if the equation is given arbitrarily, the group + will be the symmetric group. The necessary and sufficient condition + that the equation may be soluble by radicals is that its group should + be a soluble group. When the coefficients in an equation are rational + integers, the determination of its group may be made by a finite + number of processes each of which involves only rational arithmetical + operations. These processes consist in forming resolvents of the + equation corresponding to each distinct type of subgroup of the + symmetric group whose degree is that of the equation. Each of the + resolvents so formed is then examined to find whether it has rational + roots. The group corresponding to any resolvent which has a rational + root contains the group of the equation; and the least of the groups + so found is the group of the equation. Thus, for an equation of the + fifth degree the various transitive subgroups of the symmetric group + of degree five have to be considered. These are (i.) the alternating + group; (ii.) a soluble group of order 20; (iii.) a group of order 10, + self-conjugate in the preceding; (iv.) a cyclical group of order 5, + self-conjugate in both the preceding. If x0, x1, x2, x3, x4 are the + roots of the equation, the corresponding resolvents may be taken to be + those which have for roots (i.) the square root of the discriminant; + (ii.) the function (x0x1 + x1x2 + x2x3 + x3x4 + x4x0)(x0x2 + x2x4 + + x4x1 + x1x3 + x3x0); (iii.) the function x0x1 + x1x2+ x2x3 + x3x4 + + x4x0; and (iv.) the function x0²x1 + x1²x2 + x2²x3 + x3²x4 + x4²x0. + Since the groups for which (iii.) and (iv.) are invariant are + contained in that for which (ii.) is invariant, and since these are + the only soluble groups of the set, the equation will be soluble by + radicals only when the function (ii.) can be expressed rationally in + terms of the coefficients. If + + (x0x1 + x1x2 + x2x3 + x3x4 + x4x0)(x0x2 + x2x4 + x4x1 + x1x3 + x3x0) + + is known, then clearly x0x1 + x1x2 + x2x3 + x3x4 + x4x0 can be + determined by the solution of a quadratic equation. Moreover, the sum + and product (x0 + [epsilon]x1 + [epsilon]²x2 + [epsilon]³x3 + + [epsilon]^4x4)^5 and (x0 + [epsilon]^4x1+[epsilon]^3x2 + [epsilon]²x3 + + [epsilon]x4)^5 can be expressed rationally in terms of x0x1 + x1x2 + + x2x3 + x3x4 + x4x0, [epsilon], and the symmetric functions; [epsilon] + being a fifth root of unity. Hence (x0 + [epsilon]x1 + [epsilon]²x2 + + [epsilon]³x3 + [epsilon]^4X4)^5 can be determined by the solution of a + quadratic equation. The roots of the original equation are then + finally determined by the extraction of a fifth root. The problem of + reducing an equation of the fifth degree, when not soluble by + radicals, to a normal form, forms the subject of Klein's _Vorlesungen + über das Ikosaeder_. Another application of groups of finite order is + to the theory of linear differential equations whose integrals are + algebraic functions. It has been already seen, in the discussion of + discontinuous groups in general, that the groups of such equations + must be groups of finite order. To every group of finite order which + can be represented as an irreducible group of linear substitutions on + n variables will correspond a class of irreducible linear differential + equations of the nth order whose integrals are algebraic. The complete + determination of the class of linear differential equations of the + second order with all their integrals algebraic, whose group has the + greatest possible order, viz. 120, has been carried out by Klein. + + AUTHORITIES.--Continuous groups: Lie and Engel, _Theorie der + Transformationsgruppen_ (Leipzig, vol. i., 1888; vol. ii., 1890; vol. + iii., 1893); Lie and Scheffers, _Vorlesungen über gewöhnliche + Differentialgleichungen mit bekannten infinitesimalen + Transformationen_ (Leipzig, 1891); _Idem, Vorlesungen über + continuierliche Gruppen_ (Leipzig, 1893); _Idem, Geometrie der + Berührungstransformationen_ (Leipzig, 1896); Klein and Schilling, + _Höhere Geometrie_, vol. ii. (lithographed) (Göttingen, 1893, for both + continuous and discontinuous groups). Campbell, _Introductory Treatise + on Lie's Theory of Finite Continuous Transformation Groups_ (Oxford, + 1903). Discontinuous groups: Klein and Fricke, _Vorlesungen über die + Theorie der elliptischen Modulfunktionen_ (vol. i., Leipzig, 1890) + (for a full discussion of the modular group); _Idem, Vorlesungen über + die Theorie der automorphen Funktionen_ (vol. i., Leipzig, 1897; vol. + ii. pt. i., 1901) (for the general theory of discontinuous groups); + Schoenflies, _Krystallsysteme und Krystallstruktur_ (Leipzig, 1891) + (for discontinuous groups of motions); Groups of finite order: Galois, + _[OE]uvres mathématiques_ (Paris, 1897, reprint); Jordan, _Traité des + substitutions et des équations algébriques_ (Paris, 1870); Netto, + _Substitutionentheorie und ihre Anwendung auf die Algebra_ (Leipzig, + 1882; Eng. trans. by Cole, Ann Arbor, U.S.A., 1892); Klein, + _Vorlesungen über das Ikosaeder_ (Leipzig, 1884; Eng. trans. by + Morrice, London, 1888); H. Vogt, _Leçons sur la résolution algébrique + des équations_ (Paris, 1895); Weber, _Lehrbuch der Algebra_ + (Braunschweig, vol. i., 1895; vol. ii., 1896; a second edition + appeared in 1898); Burnside, _Theory of Groups of Finite Order_ + (Cambridge, 1897); Bianchi, _Teoria dei gruppi di sostituzioni e delle + equazioni algebriche_ (Pisa, 1899); Dickson, _Linear Groups with an + Exposition of the Galois Field Theory_ (Leipzig, 1901); De Séguier, + _Éléments de la théorie des groupes abstraits_ (Paris, 1904), A + summary with many references will be found in the _Encyklopädie der + mathematischen Wissenschaften_ (Leipzig, vol. i., 1898, 1899). + (W. Bu.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The word "group," which appears first in English in the sense of + an assemblage of figures in an artistic design, picture, &c., is + adapted from the Fr. _groupe_, which is to be referred to the + Teutonic word meaning "knot," "mass," "bunch," represented in English + by "crop" (q.v.). The technical mathematical sense is not older than + 1870. + + + + +GROUSE, a word of uncertain origin,[1] now used generally by +ornithologists to include all the "rough-footed" Gallinaceous birds, but +in common speech applied almost exclusively, when used alone, to the +_Tetrao scoticus_ of Linnaeus, the _Lagopus scoticus_ of modern +systematists--more particularly called in English the red grouse, but +till the end of the 18th century almost invariably spoken of as the +Moor-fowl or Moor-game. The effect which this species is supposed to +have had on the British legislature, and therefore on history, is well +known, for it was the common belief that parliament always rose when the +season for grouse-shooting began (August 12th); while according to the +_Orkneyinga Saga_ (ed. Jonaeus, p. 356; ed. Anderson, p. 168) events of +some importance in the annals of North Britain followed from its pursuit +in Caithness in the year 1157. + +The red grouse is found on moors from Monmouthshire and Derbyshire +northward to the Orkneys, as well as in most of the Hebrides. It +inhabits similar situations throughout Wales and Ireland, but it does +not naturally occur beyond the limits of the British Islands,[2] and is +the only species among birds peculiar to them. The word "species" may in +this case be used advisedly (since the red grouse invariably "breeds +true," it admits of an easy diagnosis, and it has a definite +geographical range); but scarcely any zoologist can doubt of its common +origin with the willow-grouse, _Lagopus albus_ (_L. subalpinus_ or _L. +saliceti_ of some authors), that inhabits a subarctic zone from Norway +across the continents of Europe and Asia, as well as North America from +the Aleutian Islands to Newfoundland. The red grouse indeed is rarely or +never found away from the heather on which chiefly it subsists; while +the willow-grouse in many parts of the Old World seems to prefer the +shrubby growth of berry-bearing plants (_Vaccinium_ and others) that, +often thickly interspersed with willows and birches, clothes the higher +levels or the lower mountain-slopes, and it flourishes in the New World +where heather scarcely exists, and a "heath" in its strict sense is +unknown. It is true that the willow-grouse always becomes white in +winter, which the red grouse never does; but in summer there is a +considerable resemblance between the two species, the cock willow-grouse +having his head, neck and breast of nearly the same rich chestnut-brown +as his British representative, and, though his back be lighter in +colour, as is also the whole plumage of his mate, than is found in the +red grouse, in other respects the two species are precisely alike. No +distinction can be discovered in their voice, their eggs, their build, +nor in their anatomical details, so far as these have been investigated +and compared.[3] Moreover, the red grouse, restricted as is its range, +varies in colour not inconsiderably according to locality. + +[Illustration: Red Grouse.] + +Though the red grouse does not, after the manner of other members of the +genus _Lagopus_, become white in winter, Scotland possesses a species of +the genus which does. This is the ptarmigan, _L. mutus_ or _L. alpinus_, +which differs far more in structure, station and habits from the red +grouse than that does from the willow-grouse, and in Scotland is far +less abundant, haunting only the highest and most barren mountains. It +is said to have formerly inhabited both Wales and England, but there is +no evidence of its appearance in Ireland. On the continent of Europe it +is found most numerously in Norway, but at an elevation far above the +growth of trees, and it occurs on the Pyrenees and on the Alps. It also +inhabits northern Russia. In North America, Greenland and Iceland it is +represented by a very nearly allied form--so much so indeed that it is +only at certain seasons that the slight difference between them can be +detected. This form is the _L. rupestris_ of authors, and it would +appear to be found also in Siberia (_Ibis_, 1879, p. 148). Spitzbergen +is inhabited by a large form which has received recognition as _L. +hemileucurus_, and the northern end of the chain of the Rocky Mountains +is tenanted by a very distinct species, the smallest and perhaps the +most beautiful of the genus, _L. leucurus_, which has all the feathers +of the tail white. + +[Illustration: Ptarmigan.] + +[Illustration: Blackcock.] + +The bird, however, to which the name of grouse in all strictness belongs +is probably the _Tetrao tetrix_ of Linnaeus--the blackcock and greyhen, +as the sexes are respectively called. It is distributed over most of the +heath-country of England, except in East Anglia, where attempts to +introduce it have been only partially successful. It also occurs in +North Wales and very generally throughout Scotland, though not in +Orkney, Shetland or the Outer Hebrides, nor in Ireland. On the continent +of Europe it has a very wide range, and it extends into Siberia. In +Georgia its place is taken by a distinct species, on which a Polish +naturalist (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1875, p. 267) has conferred the name +of _T. mlokosiewiczi_. Both these birds have much in common with their +larger congener the capercally and its eastern representative. + +The species of the genus _Bonasa_, of which the European _B. sylvestris_ +is the type, does not inhabit the British Islands. It is perhaps the +most delicate game-bird that comes to table. It is the _gelinotte_ of +the French, the _Haselhuhn_ of Germans, and _Hjerpe_ of Scandinavians. +Like its transatlantic congener _B. umbellus_, the ruffed grouse or +birch-partridge (of which there are two other local forms, _B. +umbelloides_ and _B. sabinii_), it is purely a forest-bird. The same may +be said of the species of _Canace_, of which two forms are found in +America, _C. canadensis_, the spruce-partridge, and _C. franklini_, and +also of the Siberian _C. falcipennis_. Nearly allied to these birds is +the group known as _Dendragapus_, containing three large and fine forms +_D. obscurus_, _D. fuliginosus_, and _D. richardsoni_--all peculiar to +North America. Then there are _Centrocercus urophasianus_, the sage-cock +of the plains of Columbia and California, and _Pedioecetes_, the +sharp-tailed grouse, with its two forms, _P. phasianellus_ and _P. +columbianus_, while finally _Cupidonia_, the prairie-hen, also with two +local forms, _C. cupido_ and _C. pallidicincta_, is a bird that in the +United States of America possesses considerable economic value, enormous +numbers being consumed there, and also exported to Europe. + + The various sorts of grouse are nearly all figured in Elliot's + _Monograph of the Tetraoninae_, and an excellent account of the + American species is given in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway's _North + American Birds_ (iii. 414-465). See also SHOOTING. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] It seems first to occur (O. Salusbury Brereton, _Archaeologia_, + iii. 157) as "grows" in an ordinance for the regulation of the royal + household dated "apud Eltham, mens. Jan. 22 Hen. VIII.," i.e. 1531, + and considering the locality must refer to black game. It is found in + an Act of Parliament 1 Jac. I. cap. 27, § 2, i.e. 1603, and, as + reprinted in the _Statutes at Large_, stands as now commonly spelt, + but by many writers or printers the final e was omitted in the 17th + and 18th centuries. In 1611 Cotgrave had "Poule griesche. A + Moore-henne; the henne of the Grice [in ed. 1673 "Griece"] or + Mooregame" (_Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues, s.v. + Poule_). The most likely derivation seems to be from the old French + word _griesche_, _greoche_ or _griais_ (meaning speckled, and cognate + with _griseus_, grisly or grey), which was applied to some kind of + partridge, or according to Brunetto Latini (_Trés._ p. 211) to a + quail, "porce que ele fu premiers trovée en Grece." The Oxford + Dictionary repudiates the possibility of "grouse" being a spurious + singular of an alleged plural "grice," and, with regard to the + possibility of "grows" being a plural of "grow," refers to Giraldus + Cambrensis (c. 1210), _Topogr. Hib. opera_ (Rolls) v. 47: "gallinae + campestres, quas vulgariter _grutas_ vocant." + + [2] It was successfully, though with much trouble, introduced by Mr + Oscar Dickson on a tract of land near Gottenburg in Sweden (_Svenska + Jägarförbundets Nya Tidskrift_, 1868, p. 64 _et alibi_). + + [3] A very interesting subject for discussion would be whether + _Lagopus scoticus_ or _L. albus_ has varied most from the common + stock of both. Looking to the fact that the former is the only + species of the genus which does not assume white clothing in winter, + an evolutionist might at first deem the variation greatest in its + case; but then it must be borne in mind that the species of _Lagopus_ + which turn white differ in that respect from all other groups of the + family _Tetraonidae_. Furthermore every species of _Lagopus_ (even + _L. leucurus_, the whitest of all) has its first set of _remiges_ + coloured brown. These are dropped when the bird is about half-grown, + and in all the species but _L. scoticus_ white _remiges_ are then + produced. If therefore the successive phases assumed by any animal in + the course of its progress to maturity indicate the phases through + which the species has passed, there may have been a time when all the + species of _Lagopus_ wore a brown livery even when adult, and the + white dress donned in winter has been imposed upon the wearers by + causes that can be easily suggested. The white plumage of the birds + of this group protects them from danger during the snows of a + protracted winter. But the red grouse, instead of perpetuating + directly the more ancient properties of an original _Lagopus_ that + underwent no great seasonal change of plumage, may derive its + ancestry from the widely-ranging willow-grouse, which in an epoch + comparatively recent (in the geological sense) may have stocked + Britain, and left descendants that, under conditions in which the + assumption of a white garb would be almost fatal to the preservation + of the species, have reverted (though doubtless with some + modifications) to a comparative immutability essentially the same as + that of the primal _Lagopus_. + + + + +GROVE, SIR GEORGE (1820-1900), English writer on music, was born at +Clapham on the 13th of August 1820. He was articled to a civil engineer, +and worked for two years in a factory near Glasgow. In 1841 and 1845 he +was employed in the West Indies, erecting lighthouses in Jamaica and +Bermuda. In 1849 he became secretary to the Society of Arts, and in 1852 +to the Crystal Palace. In this capacity his natural love of music and +enthusiasm for the art found a splendid opening, and he threw all the +weight of his influence into the task of promoting the best music of all +schools in connexion with the weekly and daily concerts at Sydenham, +which had a long and honourable career under the direction of Mr +(afterwards Sir) August Manns. Without Sir George Grove that eminent +conductor would hardly have succeeded in doing what he did to encourage +young composers and to educate the British public in music. Grove's +analyses of the Beethoven symphonies, and the other works presented at +the concerts, set the pattern of what such things should be; and it was +as a result of these, and of the fact that he was editor of _Macmillan's +Magazine_ from 1868 to 1883, that the scheme of his famous _Dictionary +of Music and Musicians_, published from 1878 to 1889 (new edition, +edited by J. A. Fuller Maitland, 1904-1907), was conceived and executed. +His own articles in that work on Beethoven, Mendelssohn and Schubert are +monuments of a special kind of learning, and that the rest of the book +is a little thrown out of balance owing to their great length is hardly +to be regretted. Long before this he had contributed to the _Dictionary +of the Bible_, and had promoted the foundation of the Palestine +Exploration Fund. On a journey to Vienna, undertaken in the company of +his lifelong friend, Sir Arthur Sullivan, the important discovery of a +large number of compositions by Schubert was made, including the music +to _Rosamunde_. When the Royal College of Music was founded in 1882 he +was appointed its first director, receiving the honour of knighthood. He +brought the new institution into line with the most useful European +conservatoriums. On the completion of the new buildings in 1894 he +resigned the directorship, but retained an active interest in the +institution to the end of his life. He died at Sydenham on the 28th of +May 1900. + + His life, a most interesting one, was written by Mr Charles Graves. + (J. A. F. M.) + + + + + +GROVE, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT (1811-1896), English judge and man of science, +was born on the 11th of July 1811 at Swansea, South Wales. After being +educated by private tutors, he went to Brasenose College, Oxford, where +he took an ordinary degree in 1832. Three years later he was called to +the bar at Lincoln's Inn. His health, however, did not allow him to +devote himself strenuously to practice, and he occupied his leisure with +scientific studies. About 1839 he constructed the platinum-zinc voltaic +cell that bears his name, and with the aid of a number of these +exhibited the electric arc light in the London Institution, Finsbury +Circus. The result was that in 1840 the managers appointed him to the +professorship of experimental philosophy, an office which he held for +seven years. His researches dealt very largely with electro-chemistry +and with the voltaic cell, of which he invented several varieties. One +of these, the Grove gas-battery, which is of special interest both +intrinsically and as the forerunner of the secondary batteries now in +use for the "storage" of electricity, was based on his observation that +a current is produced by a couple of platinum plates standing in +acidulated water and immersed, the one in hydrogen, the other in oxygen. +At one of his lectures at the Institution he anticipated the electric +lighting of to-day by illuminating the theatre with incandescent +electric lamps, the filaments being of platinum and the current supplied +by a battery of his nitric acid cells. In 1846 he published his famous +book on _The Correlation of Physical Forces_, the leading ideas of which +he had already put forward in his lectures: its fundamental conception +was that each of the forces of nature--light, heat, electricity, &c.--is +definitely and equivalently convertible into any other, and that where +experiment does not give the full equivalent, it is because the initial +force has been dissipated, not lost, by conversion into other +unrecognized forces. In the same year he received a Royal medal from the +Royal Society for his Bakerian lecture on "Certain phenomena of voltaic +ignition and the decomposition of water into its constituent gases." In +1866 he presided over the British Association at its Nottingham meeting +and delivered an address on the continuity of natural phenomena. But +while he was thus engaged in scientific research, his legal work was not +neglected, and his practice increased so greatly that in 1853 he became +a Q.C. One of the best-known cases in which he appeared as an advocate +was that of William Palmer, the Rugeley poisoner, whom he defended. In +1871 he was made a judge of the Common Pleas in succession to Sir Robert +Collier, and remained on the bench till 1887. He died in London on the +1st of August 1896. + + A selection of his scientific papers is given in the sixth edition of + _The Correlation of Physical Forces_, published in 1874. + + + + +GROVE (O.E. _graf_, cf. O.E. _groefa_, brushwood, later "greave"; the +word does not appear in any other Teutonic language, and the _New +English Dictionary_ finds no Indo-European root to which it can be +referred; Skeat considers it connected with "grave," to cut, and finds +the original meaning to be a glade cut through a wood), a small group or +cluster of trees, growing naturally and forming something smaller than a +wood, or planted in particular shapes or for particular purposes, in a +park, &c. Groves have been connected with religious worship from the +earliest times, and in many parts of India every village has its sacred +group of trees. For the connexion of religion with sacred groves see +TREE-WORSHIP. + + The word "grove" was used by the authors of the Authorized Version of + the Bible to translate two Hebrew words: (1) _'eshel_, as in Gen. xxi. + 33, and 1 Sam. xxii. 6; this is rightly given in the Revised Version + as "tamarisk"; (2) _asherah_ in many places throughout the Old + Testament. Here the translators followed the Septuagint [Greek: alsos] + and the Vulgate _lucus_. The _'[)a]shéráh_ was a wooden post erected + at the Canaanitish places of worship, and also by the altars of + Yahweh. It may have represented a tree. + + + + +GROZNYI, a fortress and town of Russia, North Caucasia, in the province +of Terek, on the Zunzha river, 82 m. by rail N.E. of Vladikavkaz, on the +railway to Petrovsk. There are naphtha wells close by. The +fortifications were constructed in 1819. Pop. (1897) 15,599. + + + + +GRUB, the larva of an insect, a caterpillar, maggot. The word is formed +from the verb "to grub," to dig, break up the surface of the ground, +and clear of stumps, roots, weeds, &c. According to the _New English +Dictionary_, "grub" may be referred to an ablaut variant of the Old +Teutonic _grab_-, to dig, cf. "grave." Skeat (_Etym. Dict._ 1898) refers +it rather to the root seen in "grope," "grab," &c., the original meaning +"to search for." The earliest quotation of the slang use of the word in +the sense of food in the _New English Dictionary_ is dated 1659 from +_Ancient Poems, Ballads_, &c., Percy Society Publications. +"Grub-street," as a collective term for needy hack-writers, dates from +the 17th century and is due to the name of a street near Moorfields, +London, now Milton Street, which was as Johnson says "much inhabited by +writers of small histories, dictionaries and temporary poems." + + + + +GRUBER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1774-1851), German critic and literary +historian, was born at Naumburg on the Saale, on the 29th of November +1774. He received his education at the town school of Naumburg and the +university of Leipzig, after which he resided successively at Göttingen, +Leipzig, Jena and Weimar, occupying himself partly in teaching and +partly in various literary enterprises, and enjoying in Weimar the +friendship of Herder, Wieland and Goethe. In 1811 he was appointed +professor at the university of Wittenberg, and after the division of +Saxony he was sent by the senate to Berlin to negotiate the union of the +university of Wittenberg with that of Halle. After the union was +effected he became in 1815 professor of philosophy at Halle. He was +associated with Johann Samuel Ersch in the editorship of the great work +_Allgemeine Encyklopädie der Wissenschaften und Künste_; and after the +death of Ersch he continued the first section from vol. xviii. to vol. +liv. He also succeeded Ersch in the editorship of the _Allgemeine +Literaturzeitung_. He died on the 7th of August 1851. + + Gruber was the author of a large number of works, the principal of + which are _Charakteristik Herders_ (Leipzig, 1805), in conjunction + with Johann T. L. Danz (1769-1851), afterwards professor of theology + at Jena; _Geschichte des menschlichen Geschlechts_ (2 vols., Leipzig, + 1806); _Wörterbuch der altklassischen Mythologie_ (3 vols., Weimar, + 1810-1815); _Wielands Leben_ (2 parts, Weimar, 1815-1816), and + _Klopstocks Leben_ (Weimar, 1832). He also edited Wieland's _Sämtliche + Werke_ (Leipzig, 1818-1828). + + + + +GRUMBACH, WILHELM VON (1503-1567), German adventurer, chiefly known +through his connexion with the so-called "Grumbach feuds" (_Grumbachsche +Händel_), the last attempt of the German knights to destroy the power of +the territorial princes. A member of an old Franconian family, he was +born on the 1st of June 1503, and having passed some time at the court +of Casimir, prince of Bayreuth (d. 1527), fought against the peasants +during the rising in 1524 and 1525. About 1540 Grumbach became +associated with Albert Alcibiades, the turbulent prince of Bayreuth, +whom he served both in peace and war. After the conclusion of the peace +of Passau in 1552, Grumbach assisted Albert in his career of plunder in +Franconia and was thus able to take some revenge upon his enemy, +Melchior von Zobel, bishop of Würzburg. As a landholder Grumbach was a +vassal of the bishops of Würzburg, and had held office at the court of +Conrad of Bibra, who was bishop from 1540 to 1544. When, however, Zobel +was chosen to succeed Conrad the harmonious relations between lord and +vassal were quickly disturbed. Unable to free himself and his associates +from the suzerainty of the bishop by appealing to the imperial courts he +decided to adopt more violent measures, and his friendship with Albert +was very serviceable in this connexion. Albert's career, however, was +checked by his defeat at Sievershausen in July 1553 and his subsequent +flight into France, and the bishop took advantage of this state of +affairs to seize Grumbach's lands. The knight obtained an order of +restitution from the imperial court of justice (_Reichskammergericht_), +but he was unable to carry this into effect; and in April 1558 some of +his partisans seized and killed the bishop. Grumbach declared he was +innocent of this crime, but his story was not believed, and he fled to +France. Returning to Germany he pleaded his cause in person before the +diet at Augsburg in 1559, but without success. Meanwhile he had found a +new patron in John Frederick, duke of Saxony, whose father, John +Frederick, had been obliged to surrender the electoral dignity to the +Albertine branch of his family. Chafing under this deprivation the duke +listened readily to Grumbach's plans for recovering the lost dignity, +including a general rising of the German knights and the deposition of +Frederick II., king of Denmark. Magical charms were employed against the +duke's enemies, and communications from angels were invented which +helped to stir up the zeal of the people. In 1563 Grumbach attacked +Würzburg, seized and plundered the city and compelled the chapter and +the bishop to restore his lands. He was consequently placed under the +imperial ban, but John Frederick refused to obey the order of the +emperor Maximilian II. to withdraw his protection from him. Meanwhile +Grumbach sought to compass the assassination of the Saxon elector, +Augustus; proclamations were issued calling for assistance; and +alliances both without and within Germany were concluded. In November +1566 John Frederick was placed under the ban, which had been renewed +against Grumbach earlier in the year, and Augustus marched against +Gotha. Assistance was not forthcoming, and a mutiny led to the +capitulation of the town. Grumbach was delivered to his foes, and, after +being tortured, was executed at Gotha on the 18th of April 1567. + + See F. Ortloff, _Geschichte der Grumbachschen Händel_ (Jena, + 1868-1870), and J. Voigt, _Wilhelm von Grumbach und seine Händel_ + (Leipzig, 1846-1847). + + + + +GRUMENTUM, an ancient town in the centre of Lucania, 33 m. S. of +Potentia by the direct road through Anxia, and 52 m. by the Via +Herculia, at the point of divergence of a road eastward to Heraclea. It +seems to have been a native Lucanian town, not a Greek settlement. In +215 B.C. the Carthaginian general Hanno was defeated under its walls, +and in 207 B.C. Hannibal made it his headquarters. In the Social War it +appears as a strong fortress, and seems to have been held by both sides +at different times. It became a colony, perhaps in the time of Sulla, at +latest under Augustus, and seems to have been of some importance. Its +site, identified by Holste from the description of the martyrdom of St +Laverius, is a ridge on the right bank of the Aciris (Agri) about 1960 +ft. above sea-level, ½ m. below the modern Saponara, which lies much +higher (2533 ft.). Its ruins (all of the Roman period) include those of +a large amphitheatre (arena 205 by 197 ft.), the only one in Lucania, +except that at Paestum. There are also remains of a theatre. +Inscriptions record the repair of its town walls and the construction of +_thermae_ (of which remains were found) in 57-51 B.C., the construction +in 43 B.C., of a portico, remains of which may be seen along an ancient +road, at right angles to the main road, which traversed Grumentum from +S. to N. + + See F. P. Caputi in _Notizie degli scavi_ (1877), 129, and G. Patroni, + ibid. (1897) 180. (T. As.) + + + + +GRÜN. HANS BALDUNG (c. 1470-1545), commonly called Grün, a German +painter of the age of Dürer, was born at Gmünd in Swabia, and spent the +greater part of his life at Strassburg and Freiburg in Breisgau. The +earliest pictures assigned to him are altarpieces with the monogram H. +B. interlaced, and the date of 1496, in the monastery chapel of +Lichtenthal near Baden. Another early work is a portrait of the emperor +Maximilian, drawn in 1501 on a leaf of a sketch-book now in the +print-room at Carlsruhe. The "Martyrdom of St Sebastian" and the +"Epiphany" (Berlin Museum), fruits of his labour in 1507, were painted +for the market-church of Halle in Saxony. In 1509 Grün purchased the +freedom of the city of Strassburg, and resided there till 1513, when he +moved to Freiburg in Breisgau. There he began a series of large +compositions, which he finished in 1516, and placed on the high altar of +the Freiburg cathedral. He purchased anew the freedom of Strassburg in +1517, resided in that city as his domicile, and died a member of its +great town council 1545. + +Though nothing is known of Grün's youth and education, it may be +inferred from his style that he was no stranger to the school of which +Dürer was the chief. Gmünd is but 50 m. distant on either side from +Augsburg and Nuremberg. Grün prints were often mistaken for those of +Dürer; and Dürer himself was well acquainted with Grün's woodcuts and +copper-plates in which he traded during his trip to the Netherlands +(1520). But Grün's prints, though Düreresque, are far below Dürer, and +his paintings are below his prints. Without absolute correctness as a +draughtsman, his conception of human form is often very unpleasant, +whilst a questionable taste is shown in ornament equally profuse and +"baroque." Nothing is more remarkable in his pictures than the pug-like +shape of the faces, unless we except the coarseness of the extremities. +No trace is apparent of any feeling for atmosphere or light and shade. +Though Grün has been commonly called the Correggio of the north, his +compositions are a curious medley of glaring and heterogeneous colours, +in which pure black is contrasted with pale yellow, dirty grey, impure +red and glowing green. Flesh is a mere glaze under which the features +are indicated by lines. His works are mainly interesting because of the +wild and fantastic strength which some of them display. We may pass +lightly over the "Epiphany" of 1507, the "Crucifixion" of 1512, or the +"Stoning of Stephen" of 1522, in the Berlin Museum. There is some force +in the "Dance of Death" of 1517, in the museum of Basel, or the +"Madonna" of 1530, in the Liechtenstein Gallery at Vienna. Grün's best +effort is the altarpiece of Freiburg, where the "Coronation of the +Virgin," and the "Twelve Apostles," the "Annunciation, Visitation, +Nativity and Flight into Egypt," and the "Crucifixion," with portraits +of donors, are executed with some of that fanciful power which Martin +Schön bequeathed to the Swabian school. As a portrait painter he is well +known. He drew the likeness of Charles V., as well as that of +Maximilian; and his bust of Margrave Philip in the Munich Gallery tells +us that he was connected with the reigning family of Baden as early as +1514. At a later period he had sittings from Margrave Christopher of +Baden, Ottilia his wife, and all their children, and the picture +containing these portraits is still in the grand-ducal gallery at +Carlsruhe. Like Dürer and Cranach, Grün became a hearty supporter of the +Reformation. He was present at the diet of Augsburg in 1518, and one of +his woodcuts represents Luther under the protection of the Holy Ghost, +which hovers over him in the shape of a dove. + + + + +GRÜNBERG, a town of Germany, in Prussian Silesia, beautifully situated +between two hills on an affluent of the Oder, and on the railway from +Breslau to Stettin via Küstrin, 36 m. N.N.W. of Glogau. Pop. (1905) +20,987. It has a Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches, a modern +school and a technical (textiles) school. There are manufactures of +cloth, paper, machinery, straw hats, leather and tobacco. The prosperity +of the town depends chiefly on the vine culture in the neighbourhood, +from which, besides the exportation of a large quantity of grapes, about +700,000 gallons of wine are manufactured annually. + + + + +GRUNDTVIG, NIKOLAI FREDERIK SEVERIN (1783-1872), Danish poet, statesman +and divine, was born at the parsonage of Udby in Zealand on the 8th of +September 1783. In 1791 he was sent to live at the house of a priest in +Jutland, and studied at the free school of Aarhuus until he went up to +the university of Copenhagen in 1800. At the close of his university +life he made Icelandic his special study, until in 1805 he took the +position of tutor in a house on the island of Langeland. The next three +years were spent in the study of Shakespeare, Schiller and Fichte. His +cousin, the philosopher Henrik Steffens, had returned to Copenhagen in +1802 full of the teaching of Schelling and his lectures and the early +poetry of Öhlenschläger opened the eyes of Grundtvig to the new era in +literature. His first work, _On the Songs in the Edda_, attracted no +attention. Returning to Copenhagen in 1808 he achieved greater success +with his _Northern Mythology_, and again in 1809-1811 with a long epic +poem, the _Decline of the Heroic Life in the North_. The boldness of the +theological views expressed in his first sermon in 1810 offended the +ecclesiastical authorities, and he retired to a country parish as his +father's assistant for a while. From 1812 to 1817 he published five or +six works, of which the _Rhyme of Roskilde_ is the most remarkable. From +1816 to 1819 he was editor of a polemical journal entitled _Dannevirke_, +and in 1818 to 1822 appeared his Danish paraphrases (6 vols.) of Saxo +Grammaticus and Snorri. During these years he was preaching against +rationalism to an enthusiastic congregation in Copenhagen, but he +accepted in 1821 the country living of Praestö, only to return to the +metropolis the year after. In 1825 he published a pamphlet, _The +Church's Reply_, against H. N. Clausen, who was professor of theology in +the university of Copenhagen. Grundtvig was publicly prosecuted and +fined, and for seven years he was forbidden to preach, years which he +spent in publishing a collection of his theological works, in paying two +visits to England, and in studying Anglo-Saxon. In 1832 he obtained +permission to preach again, and in 1839 he became priest of the +workhouse church of Vartov hospital, Copenhagen, a post he continued to +hold until his death. In 1837-1841 he published _Songs for the Danish +Church_, a rich collection of sacred poetry; in 1838 he brought out a +selection of early Scandinavian verse; in 1840 he edited the Anglo-Saxon +poem of the _Phoenix_, with a Danish translation. He visited England a +third time in 1843. From 1844 until after the first German war Grundtvig +took a very prominent part in politics. In 1861 he received the titular +rank of bishop, but without a see. He went on writing occasional poems +till 1866, and preached in the Vartov every Sunday until a month before +his death. His preaching attracted large congregations, and he soon had +a following. His hymn-book effected a great change in Danish church +services, substituting the hymns of the national poets for the slow +measures of the orthodox Lutherans. The chief characteristic of his +theology was the substitution of the authority of the "living word" for +the apostolic commentaries, and he desired to see each congregation a +practically independent community. His patriotism was almost a part of +his religion, and he established popular schools where the national +poetry and history should form an essential part of the instruction. His +followers are known as Grundtvigians. He was married three times, the +last time in his seventy-sixth year. He died on the 2nd of September +1872. Grundtvig holds a unique position in the literature of his +country; he has been styled the Danish Carlyle. He was above all things +a man of action, not an artist; and the formless vehemence of his +writings, which have had a great influence over his own countrymen, is +hardly agreeable or intelligible to a foreigner. The best of his +poetical works were published in a selection (7 vols., 1880-1889) by his +eldest son, Svend Hersleb Grundtvig (1824-1883), who was an authority on +Scandinavian antiquities, and made an admirable collection of old Danish +poetry (_Danmarks gamle Folkeviser_, 1853-1883, 5 vols.; completed in +1891 by A. Olrik). + + His correspondence with Ingemann was edited by S. Grundtvig (1882); + his correspondence with Christian Molbech by L. Schröder (1888); see + also F. Winkel Horn, _Grundtvigs Liv og Gjerning_ (1883); and an + article by F. Nielsen in Bricka's _Dansk Biografisk Lexikon_. + + + + +GRUNDY, SYDNEY (1848- ), English dramatist, was born at Manchester on +the 23rd of March 1848, son of Alderman Charles Sydney Grundy. He was +educated at Owens College, Manchester, and was called to the bar in +1869, practising in Manchester until 1876. His farce, _A Little Change_, +was produced at the Haymarket Theatre in 1872. He became well known as +an adapter of plays, among his early successes in this direction being +_The Snowball_ (Strand Theatre, 1879) from _Oscar, ou le mari qui trompe +sa femme_ by MM. Scribe and Duvergne, and _In Honour Bound_ (1880) from +Scribe's _Une Chaîne_. In 1887 he made a popular success with _The Bells +of Haslemere_, written with Mr H. Pettitt and produced at the Adelphi. +In 1889-1890 he produced two ingenious original comedies, _A White Lie_ +(Court Theatre) and _A Fool's Paradise_ (Gaiety Theatre), which had been +played two years earlier at Greenwich as _The Mouse-Trap_. These were +followed by _Sowing the Wind_ (Comedy, 1893), _An Old Jew_ (Garrick, +1894), and by an adaptation of Octave Feuillet's _Montjoye as A Bunch of +Violets_ (Haymarket, 1894). In 1894 he produced _The New Woman_ and _The +Slaves of the Ring_; in 1895, _The Greatest of These_, played by Mr and +Mrs Kendal at the Garrick Theatre; _The Degenerates_ (Haymarket, 1899), +and _A Debt of Honour_ (St James's 1900). Among Mr Grundy's most +successful adaptations were the charming _Pair of Spectacles_ (Garrick, +1890) from _Les Petits Oiseaux_ of MM. Labiche and Delacour. Others +were _A Village Priest_ (Haymarket, 1890) from _Le Secret de la +terreuse_, a melodrama by MM. Busnach and Cauvin; _A Marriage of +Convenience_ (Haymarket, 1897) from _Un Mariage de Louis XV_, by Alex. +Dumas, père, _The Silver Key_ (Her Majesty's, 1897) from his _Mlle de +Belle-isle_, and _The Musqueteers_ (1899) from the same author's novel; +_Frocks and Frills_ (Haymarket, 1902) from the _Doigts de fées_ of MM. +Scribe and Legouvé; _The Garden of Lies_ (St James's Theatre, 1904) from +Mr Justus Miles Forman's novel; _Business is Business_ (His Majesty's +Theatre, 1905), a rather free adaptation from Octave Mirbeau's _Les +Affaires sont les affaires_; and _The Diplomatists_ (Royalty Theatre, +1905) from _La Poudre aux yeux_, by Labiche. + + + + +GRUNDY, MRS, the name of an imaginary English character, who typifies +the disciplinary control of the conventional "proprieties" of society +over conduct, the tyrannical pressure of the opinion of neighbours on +the acts of others. The name appears in a play of Thomas Morton, _Speed +the Plough_ (1798), in which one of the characters, Dame Ashfield, +continually refers to what her neighbour Mrs Grundy will say as the +criterion of respectability. Mrs Grundy is not a character in the play, +but is a kind of "Mrs Harris" to Dame Ashfield. + + + + +GRUNER, GOTTLIEB SIGMUND (1717-1778), the author of the first connected +attempt to describe in detail the snowy mountains of Switzerland. His +father, Johann Rudolf Gruner (1680-1761), was pastor of Trachselwald, in +the Bernese Emmenthal (1705), and later (1725) of Burgdorf, and a great +collector of information relating to historical and scientific matters; +his great _Thesaurus topographico-historicus totius ditionis Bernensis_ +(4 vols. folio, 1729-1730) still remains in MS., but in 1732 he +published a small work entitled _Deliciae urbis Bernae_, while he +possessed an extensive cabinet of natural history objects. Naturally +such tastes had a great influence on the mind of his son, who was born +at Trachselwald, and educated by his father and at the Latin school at +Burgdorf, not going to Berne much before 1736, when he published a +dissertation on the use of fire by the heathen. In 1739 he qualified as +a notary, in 1741 became the archivist of Hesse-Homburg, and in 1743 +accompanied Prince Christian of Anhalt-Schaumburg to Silesia and the +university of Halle. He returned to his native land before 1749, when he +obtained a post at Thorberg, being transferred in 1764 to Landshut and +Fraubrunnen. It was in 1760 that he published in 3 vols. at Berne his +chief work, _Die Eisgebirge des Schweizerlandes_ (bad French translation +by M. de Kéralio, Paris, 1770). The first two volumes are filled by a +detailed description of the snowy Swiss mountains, based not so much on +personal experience as on older works, and a very large number of +communications received by Gruner from numerous friends; the third +volume deals with glaciers in general, and their various properties. +Though in many respects imperfect, Gruner's book sums up all that was +known on the subject in his day, and forms the starting-point for later +writers. The illustrations are very curious and interesting. In 1778 he +republished (nominally in London, really at Berne) much of the +information contained in his larger work, but thrown into the form of +letters, supposed to be written in 1776 from various spots, under the +title of _Reisen durch die merkwürdigsten Gegenden Helvetiens_ (2 +vols.). (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +GRÜNEWALD, MATHIAS. The accounts which are given of this German painter, +a native of Aschaffenburg, are curiously contradictory. Between 1518 and +1530, according to statements adopted by Waagen and Passavant, he was +commissioned by Albert of Brandenburg, elector and archbishop of Mainz, +to produce an altarpiece for the collegiate church of St Maurice and +Mary Magdalen at Halle on the Saale; and he acquitted himself of this +duty with such cleverness that the prelate in after years caused the +picture to be rescued from the Reformers and brought back to +Aschaffenburg. From one of the churches of that city it was taken to the +Pinakothek of Munich in 1836. It represents St Maurice and Mary Magdalen +between four saints, and displays a style so markedly characteristic, +and so like that of Lucas Cranach, that Waagen was induced to call +Grünewald Cranach's master. He also traced the same hand and technical +execution in the great altarpieces of Annaberg and Heilbronn, and in +various panels exhibited in the museums of Mainz, Darmstadt, +Aschaffenburg, Vienna and Berlin. A later race of critics, declining to +accept the statements of Waagen and Passavant, affirm that there is no +documentary evidence to connect Grünewald with the pictures of Halle and +Annaberg, and they quote Sandrart and Bernhard Jobin of Strassburg to +show that Grünewald is the painter of pictures of a different class. +They prove that he finished before 1516 the large altarpiece of +Issenheim, at present in the museum of Colmar, and starting from these +premises they connect the artist with Altdorfer and Dürer to the +exclusion of Cranach. That a native of the Palatinate should have been +asked to execute pictures for a church in Saxony can scarcely be +accounted strange, since we observe that Hans Baldung (Grün) was +entrusted with a commission of this kind. But that a painter of +Aschaffenburg should display the style of Cranach is strange and indeed +incredible, unless vouched for by first-class evidence. In this case +documents are altogether wanting, whilst on the other hand it is beyond +the possibility of doubt, even according to Waagen, that the altarpiece +of Issenheim is the creation of a man whose teaching was altogether +different from that of the painter of the pictures of Halle and +Annaberg. The altarpiece of Issenheim is a fine and powerful work, +completed as local records show before 1516 by a Swabian, whose +distinguishing mark is that he followed the traditions of Martin +Schongauer, and came under the influence of Altdorfer and Dürer. As a +work of art the altarpiece is important, being a poliptych of eleven +panels, a carved central shrine covered with a double set of wings, and +two side pieces containing the Temptation of St Anthony, the hermits +Anthony and Paul in converse, the Virgin adored by Angels, the +Resurrection, the Annunciation, the Crucifixion, St Sebastian, St +Anthony, and the Marys wailing over the dead body of Christ. The author +of these compositions is also the painter of a series of monochromes +described by Sandrart in the Dominican convent, and now in part in the +Saalhof at Frankfort, and a Resurrection in the museum of Basel, +registered in Amerbach's inventory as the work of Grünewald. + + + + +GRUTER (or GRUYTÈRE), JAN (1560-1627), a critic and scholar of Dutch +parentage by his father's side and English by his mother's, was born at +Antwerp on the 3rd of December 1560. To avoid religious persecution his +parents while he was still young came to England; and for some years he +prosecuted his studies at Cambridge, after which he went to Leiden, +where he graduated M. A. In 1586 he was appointed professor of history +at Wittenberg, but as he refused to subscribe the _formula concordiae_ +he was unable to retain his office. From 1589 to 1592 he taught at +Rostock, after which he went to Heidelberg, where in 1602 he was +appointed librarian to the university. He died at Heidelberg on the 20th +of September 1627. + + Gruter's chief works were his _Inscriptiones antiquae totius orbis + Romani_ (2 vols., Heidelberg, 1603), and _Lampas, sive fax artium + liberalium_ (7 vols., Frankfort, 1602-1634). + + + + +GRUYÈRE (Ger. _Greyerz_), a district in the south-eastern portion of the +Swiss canton of Fribourg, famed for its cattle and its cheese, and the +original home of the "Ranz des Vaches," the melody by which the herdsmen +call their cows home at milking time. It is composed of the middle reach +(from Montbovon to beyond Bulle) of the Sarine or Saane valley, with its +tributary glens of the Hongrin (left), the Jogne (right) and the Trême +(left), and is a delightful pastoral region (in 1901 it contained 17,364 +cattle). It forms an administrative district of the canton of Fribourg, +its population in 1900 being 23,111, mainly French-speaking and +Romanists. From Montbovon (11 m. by rail from Bulle) there are mountain +railways leading S.W. past Les Avants to Montreux (14 m.), and E. up the +Sarine valley past Château d'Oex to Saanen or Gessenay (14 m.), and by a +tunnel below a low pass to the Simme valley and Spiez on the Lake of +Thun. The modern capital of the district is the small town of Bulle +[Ger. _Boll_], with a 13th-century castle and in 1900 3330 inhabitants, +French-speaking and Romanists. But the historical capital is the very +picturesque little town of _Gruyères_ (which keeps its final "s" in +order to distinguish it from the district), perched on a steep hill +(S.E. of Bulle) above the left bank of the Sarine, and at a height of +2713 ft. above the sea-level. It is only accessible by a rough carriage +road, and boasts of a very fine old castle, at the foot of which is the +solitary street of the town, which in 1900 had 1389 inhabitants. + +The castle was the seat of the counts of the Gruyère, who are first +mentioned in 1073. The name is said to come from the word _gruyer_, +meaning the officer of woods and forests, but the counts bore the +canting arms of a crane (_grue_), which are seen all over the castle and +the town. That valiant family ended (in the legitimate line) with Count +Michel (d. 1575) whose extravagance and consequent indebtedness +compelled him in 1555 to sell his domains to Bern and Fribourg. Bern +took the upper Sarine valley (it still keeps Saanen at its head, but in +1798 lost the Pays d'En-Haut to the canton du Léman, which in 1803 +became the canton of Vaud). Fribourg took the rest of the county, which +it added to Bulle and Albeuve (taken in 1537 from the bishop of +Lausanne), and to the lordship of Jaun in the Jaun or Jogne valley +(bought in 1502-1504 from its lords), in order to form the present +administrative district of Gruyère, which is not co-extensive with the +historical county of that name. + + See the materials collected by J. J. Hisely and published in + successive vols. of the _Mémoires et documents de la suisse romande + ... introa. à l'hist._ (1851); Histoire (2 vols., 1855-1857); and + Monuments de l'histoire (2 vols., 1867-1869); K. V. von Bonstetten, + _Briefe über ein schweiz. Hirtenland_ (1781) (Eng. trans., 1784); J. + Reichlen, _La Gruyère illustrée_ (1890), seq.; H. Raemy, _La Gruyère_ + (1867); and _Les Alpes fribourgeoises_, by many authors (Lausanne, + 1908). (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +GRYNAEUS (or GRYNER), JOHANN JAKOB (1540-1617), Swiss Protestant divine, +was born on the 1st of October 1540 at Bern. His father, Thomas +(1512-1564), was for a time professor of ancient languages at Basel and +Bern, but afterwards became pastor of Röteln in Baden. He was nephew of +the more eminent Simon Grynaeus (q.v.). Johann was educated at Basel, +and in 1559 received an appointment as curate to his father. In 1563 he +proceeded to Tübingen for the purpose of completing his theological +studies, and in 1565 he returned to Röteln as successor to his father. +Here he felt compelled to abjure the Lutheran doctrine of the Lord's +Supper, and to renounce the _formula concordiae_. Called in 1575 to the +chair of Old Testament exegesis at Basel, he became involved in +unpleasant controversy with Simon Sulzer and other champions of Lutheran +orthodoxy; and in 1584 he was glad to accept an invitation to assist in +the restoration of the university of Heidelberg. Returning to Basel in +1586, after Simon Sulzer's death, as _antistes_ or superintendent of the +church there and as professor of the New Testament, he exerted for +upwards of twenty-five years a considerable influence upon both the +church and the state affairs of that community, and acquired a wide +reputation as a skilful theologian of the school of Ulrich Zwingli. +Amongst other labours he helped to reorganize the gymnasium in 1588. +Five years before his death he became totally blind, but continued to +preach and lecture till his death on the 13th of August 1617. + + His many works include commentaries on various books of the Old and + New Testament, _Theologica theoremata el problemata_ (1588), and a + collection of patristic literature entitled _Monumenta S. patrum + orthodoxographa_ (2 vols., fol., 1569). + + + + +GRYNAEUS, SIMON (1493-1541), German scholar and theologian of the +Reformation, son of Jacob Gryner, a Swabian peasant, was born in 1493 at +Vehringen, in Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. He adopted the name Grynaeus +from the epithet of Apollo in Virgil. He was a schoolfellow with +Melanchthon at Pforzheim, whence he went to the university of Vienna, +distinguishing himself there as a Latinist and Grecian. His appointment +as rector of a school at Buda was of no long continuance; his views +excited the zeal of the Dominicans and he was thrown into prison. +Gaining his freedom at the instance of Hungarian magnates, he visited +Melanchthon at Wittenberg, and in 1524 became professor of Greek at the +university of Heidelberg, being in addition professor of Latin from +1526. His Zwinglian view of the Eucharist disturbed his relations with +his Catholic colleagues. From 1526 he had corresponded with +Oecolampadius, who in 1529 invited him to Basel, which Erasmus had just +left. The university being disorganized, Grynaeus pursued his studies, +and in 1531 visited England for research in libraries. A commendatory +letter from Erasmus gained him the good offices of Sir Thomas More. He +returned to Basel charged with the task of collecting the opinions of +continental reformers on the subject of Henry VIII.'s divorce, and was +present at the death of Oecolampadius (Nov. 24, 1531). He now, while +holding the chair of Greek, was appointed extraordinary professor of +theology, and gave exegetical lectures on the New Testament. In 1534 +Duke Ulrich called him to Württemberg in aid of the reformation there, +as well as for the reconstitution of the university of Tübingen, which +he carried out in concert with Ambrosius Blarer of Constanz. Two years +later he had an active hand in the so-called First Helvetic Confession +(the work of Swiss divines at Basel in January 1536); also in the +conferences which urged the Swiss acceptance of the Wittenberg Concord +(1536). At the Worms conference (1540) between Catholics and Protestants +he was the sole representative of the Swiss churches, being deputed by +the authorities of Basel. He was carried off suddenly in his prime by +the plague at Basel on the 1st of August 1541. A brilliant scholar, a +mediating theologian, and personally of lovable temperament, his +influence was great and wisely exercised. Erasmus and Calvin were among +his correspondents. His chief works were Latin versions of Plutarch, +Aristotle and Chrysostom. + +His son SAMUEL (1539-1599) was professor of jurisprudence at Basel. His +nephew THOMAS (1512?-1564) was professor at Basel and minister in Baden, +and left four distinguished sons of whom JOHANN JAKOB (1540-1617) was a +leader in the religious affairs of Basel. The last of the direct +descendants of Simon Grynaeus was his namesake SIMON (1725-1799), +translator into German of French and English anti-deistical works, and +author of a version of the Bible in modern German (1776). + + See Bayle's _Dictionnaire_; W. T. Streuber in Hauck's + _Realencyklopädie_ (1899); and for bibliography, Streuber's _S. + Grynaei epistolae_ (1847). (A. Go.*) + + + + +GRYPHIUS, ANDREAS (1616-1664), German lyric poet and dramatist, was born +on the 11th of October 1616, at Grossglogau in Silesia, where his father +was a clergyman. The family name was Greif, latinized, according to the +prevailing fashion, as Gryphius. Left early an orphan and driven from +his native town by the troubles of the Thirty Years' War, he received +his schooling in various places, but notably at Fraustadt, where he +enjoyed an excellent classical education. In 1634 he became tutor to the +sons of the eminent jurist Georg von Schönborn (1579-1637), a man of +wide culture and considerable wealth, who, after filling various +administrative posts and writing many erudite volumes on law, had been +rewarded by the emperor Ferdinand II. with the title and office of +imperial count-palatine (_Pfalzgraf_). Schönborn, who recognized +Gryphius's genius, crowned him _poëta laureatus_, gave him the diploma +of master of philosophy, and bestowed on him a patent of nobility, +though Gryphius never used the title. A month later, on the 23rd of +December 1637, Schönborn died; and next year Gryphius went to continue +his studies at Leiden, where he remained six years, both hearing and +delivering lectures. Here he fell under the influence of the great Dutch +dramatists, Pieter Cornelissen Hooft (1581-1647) and Joost van den +Vondel (1587-1679), who largely determined the character of his later +dramatic works. After travelling in France, Italy and South Germany, +Gryphius settled in 1647 at Fraustadt, where he began his dramatic work, +and in 1650 was appointed syndic of Glogau, a post he held until his +death on the 16th of July 1664. A short time previously he had been +admitted under the title of "The Immortal" into the _Fruchtbringende +Gesellschaft_, a literary society, founded in 1617 by Ludwig, prince of +Anhalt-Köthen on the model of the Italian academies. + +Gryphius was a man of morbid disposition, and his melancholy +temperament, fostered by the misfortunes of his childhood, is largely +reflected in his lyrics, of which the most famous are the +_Kirchhofsgedanken_ (1656). His best works are his comedies, one of +which, _Absurda Comica, oder Herr Peter Squentz_ (1663), is evidently +based on the comic episode of Pyramus and Thisbe in _The Midsummer +Night's Dream_. _Die geliebte Dornrose_ (1660), which is written in a +Silesian dialect, contains many touches of natural simplicity and grace, +and ranks high among the comparatively small number of German dramas of +the 17th century. _Horribilicribrifax_ (1663), founded on the _Miles +gloriosus_ of Plautus, is a rather laboured attack on pedantry. Besides +these three comedies, Gryphius wrote five tragedies. In all of them his +tendency is to become wild and bombastic, but he had the merit of at +least attempting to work out artistically conceived plans, and there are +occasional flashes both of passion and of imagination. His models seem +to have been Seneca and Vondel. He had the courage, in _Carolus +Stuardus_ (1649) to deal with events of his own day; his other tragedies +are _Leo Armenius_ (1646); _Katharina von Georgien_ (1657), _Cardenio +und Celinde_ (1657) and _Papinianus_ (1663). No German dramatic writer +before him had risen to so high a level, nor had he worthy successors +until about the middle of the 18th century. + + A complete edition of Gryphius's dramas and lyric poetry has been + published by H. Palm in the series of the Stuttgart Literarische + Verein (3 vols., 1878, 1882, 1884). Volumes of selected works will be + found in W. Muller's _Bibliothek der deutschen Dichter des 17ten + Jahrhunderts_ (1822) and in J. Tittmann's _Deutsche Dichter des 17ten + Jahrhunderts_ (1870). There is also a good selection by H. Palm in + Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_. + + See O. Klopp, _Andreas Gryphius als Dramatiker_ (1851); J. Hermann, + _Über Andreas Gryphius_ (1851); T. Wissowa, _Beiträge zur Kenntnis von + Andreas Gryphius' Leben und Schriften_ (1876); J. Wysocki, _Andreas + Gryphius et la tragédie allemande au XVII^e siècle_; and V. + Mannheimer, _Die Lyrik des Andreas Gryphius_ (1904). + + + + +GUACHARO (said to be an obsolete Spanish word signifying one that cries, +moans or laments loudly), the Spanish-American name of what English +writers call the oil-bird, the _Steatornis caripensis_ of +ornithologists, a very remarkable bird, first described by Alexander von +Humboldt (_Voy. aux rég. équinoxiales_ i. 413, Eng. trans. iii. 119; +_Obs. Zoologie_ ii. 141, pl. xliv.) from his own observation and from +examples obtained by Aimé J. A. Bonpland, on the visit of those two +travellers, in September 1799, to a cave near Caripé (at that time a +monastery of Aragonese Capuchins) some forty miles S.E. of Cumaná on the +northern coast of South America. A few years later it was discovered, +says Latham (_Gen. Hist. Birds_, 1823, vii. 365), to inhabit Trinidad, +where it appears to bear the name of _Diablotin_;[1] but by the receipt +of specimens procured at Sarayacu in Peru, Cajamarca in the Peruvian +Andes, and Antioquia in Colombia (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1878, pp. 139, +140; 1879, p. 532), its range has been shown to be much greater than had +been supposed. The singularity of its structure, its curious habits, and +its peculiar economical value have naturally attracted no little +attention from zoologists. First referring it to the genus +_Caprimulgus_, its original describer soon saw that it was no true +goatsucker. It was subsequently separated as forming a subfamily, and +has at last been regarded as the type of a distinct family, +_Steatornithidae_--a view which, though not put forth till 1870 (_Zool. +Record_, vi. 67), seems now to be generally deemed correct. Its +systematic position, however, can scarcely be considered settled, for +though on the whole its predominating alliance may be with the +_Caprimulgidae_, nearly as much affinity may be traced to the +_Strigidae_, while it possesses some characters in which it differs from +both (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1873, pp. 526-535). About as big as a crow, +its plumage exhibits the blended tints of chocolate-colour and grey, +barred and pencilled with dark-brown or black, and spotted in places +with white, that prevail in the two families just named. The beak is +hard, strong and deeply notched, the nostrils are prominent, and the +gape is furnished with twelve long hairs on each side. The legs and toes +are comparatively feeble, but the wings are large. In habits the +guacharo is wholly nocturnal, slumbering by day in deep and dark caverns +which it frequents in vast numbers. Towards evening it arouses itself, +and, with croaking and clattering which has been likened to that of +castanets, it approaches the exit of its retreat, whence at nightfall it +issues in search of its food, which, so far as is known, consists +entirely of oily nuts or fruits, belonging especially to the genera +_Achras_, _Aiphanas_, _Laurus_ and _Psichotria_, some of them sought, it +would seem, at a very great distance, for Funck (_Bull. Acad. Sc. +Bruxelles_ xi. pt. 2, pp. 371-377) states that in the stomach of one he +obtained at Caripé he found the seed of a tree which he believed did not +grow nearer than 80 leagues. The hard, indigestible seed swallowed by +the guacharo are found in quantities on the floor and the ledges of the +caverns it frequents, where many of them for a time vegetate, the plants +thus growing being etiolated from want of light, and, according to +travellers, forming a singular feature of the gloomy scene which these +places present. The guacharo is said to build a bowl-like nest of clay, +in which it lays from two to four white eggs, with a smooth but +lustreless surface, resembling those of some owls. The young soon after +they are hatched become a perfect mass of fat, and while yet in the nest +are sought by the Indians, who at Caripé, and perhaps elsewhere, make a +special business of taking them and extracting the oil they contain. +This is done about midsummer, when by the aid of torches and long poles +many thousands of the young birds are slaughtered, while their parents +in alarm and rage hover over the destroyers' heads, uttering harsh and +deafening cries. The grease is melted over fires kindled at the cavern's +mouth, run into earthen pots, and preserved for use in cooking as well +as for the lighting of lamps. It is said to be pure and limpid, free +from any disagreeable taste or smell, and capable of being kept for a +year without turning rancid. In Trinidad the young are esteemed s great +delicacy for the table by many, though some persons object to their +peculiar scent, which resembles that of a cockroach (_Blatta_), and +consequently refuse to eat them. The old birds also, according to E. C. +Taylor (_Ibis_, 1864, p. 90), have a strong crow-like odour. But one +species of the genus _Steatornis_ is known. + + In addition to the works above quoted valuable information about this + curious bird may be found under the following references: L'Herminier, + _Ann. Sc. Nat._ (1836), p. 60, and _Nouv. Ann. Mus._ (1838), p. 321; + Hautessier, Rev. Zool. (1838), p. 164; J. Müller, _Monatsb. Berl. + Acad._ (1841), p. 172, and _Archiv für Anat._ (1862), pp. 1-11; des + Murs, _Rev. zool._ (1843), p. 32, and _Ool. Orn._ pp. 260-263; + Blanchard, _Ann. Mus._ (1859), xi. pl. 4, fig. 30; König-Warthausen, + _Journ. für Orn._ (1868), pp. 384-387; Goering, _Vargasia_ (1869), pp. + 124-128; Murie, _Ibis_ (1873), pp. 81-86. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Not to be confounded with the bird so called in the French + Antilles, which is a petrel (_Oestrelata_). + + + + +GUACO, HUACO or GUAO, also Vejuco and Bejuco, terms applied to various +Central and South American and West Indian plants, in repute for +curative virtues. The Indians and negroes of Colombia believe the plants +known to them as guaco to have been so named after a species of kite, +thus designated in imitation of its cry, which they say attracts to it +the snakes that serve it principally for food; they further hold the +tradition that their antidotal qualities were discovered through the +observation that the bird eats of their leaves, and even spreads the +juice of the same on its wings, during contests with its prey. The +disputes that have arisen as to what is "the true guaco" are to be +attributed mainly to the fact that the names of the American Indians for +all natural objects are generic, and their genera not always in +coincidence with those of naturalists. Thus any twining plant with a +heart-shaped leaf, white and green above and purple beneath, is called +by them guaco (R. Spruce, in Howard's _Neueva Quinologia_, "Cinchona +succirubra," p. 22, note). What is most commonly recognized in Colombia +as guaco, or _Vejuco del guaco_, would appear to be _Mikania Guaco_ +(Humboldt and Bonpland, _Pl. équinox_, ii. 84, pl. 105, 1809), a +climbing Composite plant of the tribe _Eupatoriaceae_, affecting moist +and shady situations, and having a much-branched and deep-growing root, +variegated, serrate, opposite leaves and dull-white flowers, in axillary +clusters. The whole plant emits a disagreeable odour. It is stated that +the Indians of Central America, after having "guaconized" themselves, +i.e. taken guaco, catch with impunity the most dangerous snakes, which +writhe in their hands as though touched by a hot iron (B. Seemann, +_Hooker's Journ. of Bot._ v. 76, 1853). The odour alone of guaco has +been said to cause in snakes a state of stupor and torpidity; and +Humboldt, who observed that the near approach of a rod steeped in +guaco-juice was obnoxious to the venomous _Coluber corallinus_, was of +opinion that inoculation with it imparts to the perspiration an odour +which makes reptiles unwilling to bite. The drug is not used in modern +therapeutics. + + + + +GUADALAJARA, an inland city of Mexico and capital of the state of +Jalisco, 275 m. (direct) W.N.W. of the Federal capital, in lat. 20° 41´ +10´´ N., long. 103° 21´ 15´´ W. Pop. (1895) 83,934; (1900) 101,208. +Guadalajara is served by a short branch of the Mexican Central railway +from Irapuato. The city is in the Antemarac valley near the Rio Grande +de Santiago, 5092 ft. above sea-level. Its climate is dry, mild and +healthy, though subject to sudden changes. The city is well built, with +straight and well-paved streets, numerous plazas, public gardens and +shady promenades. Its public services include tramways and electric +lighting, the Juanacatlán falls of the Rio Grande near the city +furnishing the electric power. Guadalajara is an episcopal see, and its +cathedral, built between 1571 and 1618, is one of the largest and most +elaborately decorated churches in Mexico. The government palace, which +like the cathedral faces upon the _plaza mayor_, is generally considered +one of the finest specimens of Spanish architecture in Mexico. Other +important edifices and institutions are the university, with its schools +of law and medicine, the mint, built in 1811, the modern national +college and high schools, a public library of over 28,000 volumes, an +episcopal seminary, an academy of fine arts, the Teatro Degollado, and +the large modern granite building of the penitentiary. There are many +interesting churches and eleven conventual establishments in the city. +Charitable institutions of a high character are also prominent, among +which are the Hospicio, which includes an asylum for the aged, infirm, +blind, deaf and dumb, foundlings and orphans, a primary school for both +sexes, and a girls' training school, and the Hospital de San Miguel de +Belen, which is a hospital, an insane asylum, and a school for little +children. One of the most popular public resorts of the city is the +_Paseo_, a beautiful drive and promenade extending along both banks of +the Rio San Juan de Dios for 1¼ m. and terminating in the _alameda_, or +public garden. The city has a good water-supply, derived from springs +and brought in through an aqueduct 8 m. long. Guadalajara is surrounded +by a fertile agricultural district and is an important commercial town, +but the city is chiefly distinguished as the centre of the iron, steel +and glass industries of Mexico. It is also widely known for the artistic +pottery manufactured by the Indians of the city and of its suburb, San +Pedro. Among other prominent industries are the manufacture of cotton +and woollen goods, leather, furniture, hats and sweetmeats. Guadalajara +was founded in 1531 by Nuño de Guzman, and became the seat of a bishop +in 1549. The Calderon bridge near the city was the scene of a serious +defeat of the revolutionists under Hidalgo in January 1811. The severe +earthquake of the 31st of May 1818 partially destroyed the two cathedral +steeples; and that of the 11th of March 1875 damaged many of the larger +buildings. The population includes large Indian and mestizo elements. + + + + +GUADALAJARA, a province of central Spain, formed in 1833 of districts +taken from New Castile; bounded on the N. by Segovia, Soria and +Saragossa, E. by Saragossa and Teruel, S. by Cuenca and W. by Madrid. +Pop. (1900) 200,186; area, 4676 sq. m. Along the northern frontier of +Guadalajara rise the lofty Guadarrama mountains, culminating in the +peaks of La Cebollera (6955 ft.) and Ocejon (6775 ft.); the rest of the +province, apart from several lower ranges in the east, belongs to the +elevated plateau of New Castile, and has a level or slightly undulating +surface, which forms the upper basin of the river Tagus, and is watered +by its tributaries the Tajuña, Henares, Jarama and Gallo. The climate of +this region, as of Castile generally, is marked by the extreme severity +of its winter cold and summer heat; the soil varies very much in +quality, but is fertile enough in many districts, notably the cornlands +of the Alcarria, towards the south. Few of the cork and oak forests +which formerly covered the mountains have escaped destruction; and the +higher tracts of land are mainly pasture for the sheep and goats which +form the principal wealth of the peasantry. Grain, olive oil, wine, +saffron, silk and flax are produced, but agriculture makes little +progress, owing to defective communications and unscientific farming. In +1903, the only minerals worked were common salt and silver, and the +total output of the mines was valued at £25,000. Deposits of iron, lead +and gold also exist and were worked by the Romans; but their +exploitation proved unprofitable when renewed in the 19th century. Trade +is stagnant and the local industries are those common to almost all +Spanish towns and villages, such as the manufacture of coarse cloth and +pottery. The Madrid-Saragossa railway traverses the province for 70 m.; +the roads are ill-kept and insufficient. Guadalajara (11,144) is the +capital, and the only town with more than 5000 inhabitants; Molina de +Aragon, a fortified town built at the foot of the Parameras de Molina +(2500-3500 ft.), and on the right bank of the Gallo, a tributary of the +Tagus, is of some importance as an agricultural centre. Siguënza, on the +railway, is an episcopal city, with a fine Romanesque cathedral dating +from the 11th century. It is probably the ancient _Segontia_, founded in +218 B.C. by refugees from Saguntum. The population of the province, +which numbers only 42 per sq. m., decreased slightly between 1870 and +1900, and extreme poverty compels many families to emigrate (see also +CASTILE). + + + + +GUADALAJARA, the capital of the Spanish province of Guadalajara, on the +left bank of the river Henares, and on the Madrid-Saragossa railway, 35 +m. E.N.E. of Madrid. Pop. (1900) 11,144. Guadalajara is a picturesque +town, occupying a somewhat sterile plain, 2100 ft. above the sea. A +Roman aqueduct and the Roman foundations of the bridge built in 1758 +across the Henares bear witness to its antiquity. Under Roman and +Visigothic rule it was known as _Arriaca_ or _Caraca_; its present name, +which sometimes appears in medieval chronicles as _Godelfare_, +represents the _Wad-al-hajarah_, or "Valley of Stones," of the Moors, +who occupied the town from 714 until 1081, when it was captured by Alvar +Yañez de Minaya, a comrade of the more famous Cid. The church of Santa +Maria contains the image of the "Virgin of Battles," which accompanied +Alphonso VI. of Castile (1072-1109) on his campaigns against the Moors; +and there are several other ancient and interesting churches in +Guadalajara, besides two palaces, dating from the 15th century, and +built with that blend of Christian and Moorish architecture which +Spaniards call the _Mudéjar_ style. The more important of these is the +palace of the ducal house del Infantado, formerly owned by the Mendoza +family, whose _panteon_, or mausoleum, added between 1696 and 1720 to +the 13th-century church of San Francisco, is remarkable for the rich +sculpture of its tombs. The town and provincial halls date from 1585, +and the college of engineers was originally built by Philip V., early in +the 18th century, as a cloth factory. Manufactures of soap, leather, +woollen fabrics and bricks have superseded the original cloth-weaving +industry for which Guadalajara was long celebrated; there is also a +considerable trade in agricultural produce. + + + + +GUADALQUIVIR (ancient _Baetis_, Moorish _Wadi al Kebir_, "the Great +River"), a river of southern Spain. What is regarded as the main stream +rises 4475 ft. above sea-level between the Sierra de Cazorla and Sierra +del Pozo, in the province of Jaen. It does not become a large river +until it is joined by the Guadiana Menor (Guadianamenor) on the left, +and the Guadalimar on the right. Lower down it receives many +tributaries, the chief being the Genil or Jenil, from the left. The +general direction of the river is west by south, but a few miles above +Seville it changes to south by west. Below Coria it traverses the series +of broad fens known as Las Marismas, the greatest area of swamp in the +Iberian Peninsula. Here it forms two subsidiary channels, the western 31 +m., the eastern 12 m. long, which rejoin the main stream on the borders +of the province of Cadiz. Below Sanlúcar the river enters the Atlantic +after a total course of 360 m. It drains an area of 21,865 sq. m. Though +the shortest of the great rivers of the peninsula, it is the only one +which flows at all seasons with a full stream, being fed in winter by +the rains, in summer by the melted snows of the Sierra Nevada. In the +time of the Moors it was navigable up to Cordova, but owing to the +accumulation of silt in its lower reaches it is now only navigable up to +Seville by vessels of 1200 to 1500 tons. + + + + +GUADELOUPE, a French colony in the West Indies, lying between the +British islands of Montserrat on the N., and Dominica on the S., between +15° 59´ and 16° 20´ N. and 61° 31´ and 61° 50´ W. It consists of two +entirely distinct islands, separated by a narrow arm of the sea, Rivière +Salée (Salt river), varying from 100 ft. to 400 ft. in width and +navigable for small vessels. The western island, a rugged mass of +ridges, peaks and lofty uplands, is called Basse-Terre, while the +eastern and smaller island, the real low-land, is known as Grande-Terre. +A sinuous ridge runs through Basse-Terre from N. to S. In the north-west +rises the peak of Grosse Montagne (2370 ft.), from which sharp spurs +radiate in all directions; near the middle of the west coast are the +twin heights of Les Mamelles (2536 ft. and 2368 ft.). Farther south the +highest elevation is attained in La Soufrière (4900 ft.). In 1797 this +volcano was active, and in 1843 its convulsions laid several towns in +ruins; but a few thermal springs and solfataras emitting vapour are now +its only signs of activity. The range terminates in the extreme south in +the jagged peak of Caraibe (2300 ft.). Basse-Terre is supremely +beautiful, its cloud-capped mountains being clothed with a mantle of +luxuriant vegetation. On Grande-Terre the highest elevation is only 450 +ft., and this island is the seat of extensive sugar plantations. It +consists of a plain composed mainly of limestone and a conglomerate of +sand and broken shells known as _maconne de bon dieu_, much used for +building. The bay between the two sections of Guadeloupe on the north is +called Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin, that on the south being Petit Cul-de-Sac +Marin. Basse-Terre (364 sq. m.) is 28 m. long by 12 m. to 15 m. wide; +Grande-Terre (255 sq. m.) is 22 m. long from N. to S., of irregular +shape, with a long peninsula, Chateaux Point, stretching from the +south-eastern extremity. Basse-Terre is watered by a considerable number +of streams, most of which in the rainy season are liable to sudden +floods (locally called _galions_), but Grande-Terre is practically +destitute of springs, and the water-supply is derived almost entirely +from ponds and cisterns. + +The west half of the island consists of a foundation of old eruptive +rocks upon which rest the recent accumulations of the great volcanic +cones, together with mechanical deposits derived from the denudation of +the older rocks. Grande-Terre on the other hand, consists chiefly of +nearly horizontal limestones lying conformably upon a series of fine +tuffs and ashes, the whole belonging to the early part of the Tertiary +system (probably Eocene and Oligocene). Occasional deposits of marl and +limestone of late Pliocene age rest unconformably upon these older beds; +and near the coast there are raised coral reefs of modern date. + +The mean annual temperature is 78° F., and the minimum 61° F., and the +maximum 101° F. From July to November heavy rains fall, the annual +average on the coast being 86 in., while in the interior it is much +greater. Guadeloupe is subject to terrible storms. In 1825 a hurricane +destroyed the town of Basse-Terre, and Grand Bourg in Marie Galante +suffered a like fate in 1865. The soil is rich and fruitful, sugar +having long been its staple product. The other crops include cereals, +cocoa, cotton, manioc, yams and rubber; tobacco, vanilla, coffee and +bananas are grown, but in smaller quantities. Over 30% of the total area +is under cultivation, and of this more than 50% is under sugar. The +centres of this industry are St Anne, Pointe-à-Pitre and Le Moule, where +there are well-equipped _usines_, and there is also a large _usine_ at +Basse-Terre. The forests, confined to the island of Basse-Terre, are +extensive and rich in valuable woods, but, being difficult of access, +are not worked. Salt and sulphur are the only minerals extracted, and in +addition to the sugar _usines_, there are factories for the making of +rum, liqueurs, chocolate, besides fruit-canning works and tanneries. +France takes most of the exports; and next to France, the United States, +Great Britain and India are the countries most interested in the import +trade. + +The inhabitants of Guadeloupe consist of a few white officials and +planters, a few East Indian immigrants from the French possessions in +India, and the rest negroes and mulattoes. These mulattoes are famous +for their grace and beauty of both form and feature. The women greatly +outnumber the men, and there is a very large percentage of illegitimate +births. Pop. (1900) 182,112. + +The governor is assisted by a privy council, a director of the interior, +a procurator-general and a paymaster, and there is also an elected +legislative council of 30 members. The colony forms a department of +France and is represented in the French parliament by a senator and two +deputies. Political elections are very eagerly contested, the mulatto +element always striving to gain the preponderance of power. + +The seat of government, of the Apostolic administration and of the court +of appeal is at Basse-Terre (7762), which is situated on the south-west +coast of the island of that name. It is a picturesque, healthy town +standing on an open roadstead. Pointe-à-Pitre (17,242), the largest +town, lies in Grande-Terre near the mouth of the Rivière Salée. Its +excellent harbour has made it the chief port and commercial capital of +the colony. Le Moule (10,378) on the east coast of Grande-Terre does a +considerable export trade in sugar, despite its poor harbour. Of the +other towns, St Anne (9497), Morne à l'Eau (8442), Petit Canal (6748), +St François (5265), Petit Bourg (5110) and Trois Rivières (5016), are +the most important. + +Round Guadeloupe are grouped its dependencies, namely, La Desirade, 6 m. +E., a narrow rugged island 10 sq. m. in area; Marie Galante 16 m. S.E. +Les Saintes, a group of seven small islands, 7 m. S., one of the +strategic points of the Antilles, with a magnificent and strongly +fortified naval harbour; St Martin, 142 m. N.N.W.; and St Bartholomew, +130 m. N.N.W. + +_History._--Guadeloupe was discovered by Columbus in 1493, and received +its name in honour of the monastery of S. Maria de Guadalupe at +Estremadura in Spain. In 1635 l'Olive and Duplessis took possession of +it in the name of the French Company of the Islands of America, and +l'Olive exterminated the Caribs with great cruelty. Four chartered +companies were ruined in their attempts to colonize the island, and in +1674 it passed into the possession of the French crown and long remained +a dependency of Martinique. After unsuccessful attempts in 1666, 1691 +and 1703, the British captured the island in 1759, and held it for four +years. Guadeloupe was finally separated from Martinique in 1775, but it +remained under the governor of the French Windward Islands. In 1782 +Rodney defeated the French fleet near the island, and the British again +obtained possession in April 1794, but in the following summer they were +driven out by Victor Hugues with the assistance of the slaves whom he +had liberated for the purpose. In 1802 Bonaparte, then first consul, +sent an expedition to the island in order to re-establish slavery, but, +after a heroic defence, many of the negroes preferred suicide to +submission. During the Hundred Days in 1810, the British once more +occupied the island, but, in spite of its cession to Sweden by the +treaty of 1813 and a French invasion in 1814, they did not withdraw till +1816. Between 1816 and 1825 the code of laws peculiar to the island was +introduced. Municipal institutions were established in 1837; and slavery +was finally abolished in 1848. + + + + +GUADET, MARGUERITE ÉLIE (1758-1794), French Revolutionist, was born at +St Émilion near Bordeaux on the 20th of July 1758. When the Revolution +broke out he had already gained a reputation as a brilliant advocate at +Bordeaux. In 1790 he was made administrator of the Gironde and in 1791 +president of the criminal tribunal. In this year he was elected to the +Legislative Assembly as one of the brilliant group of deputies known +subsequently as Girondins or Girondists. As a supporter of the +constitution of 1791 he joined the Jacobin club, and here and in the +Assembly became an eloquent advocate of all the measures directed +against real or supposed traitors to the constitution. He bitterly +attacked the ministers of Louis XVI., and was largely instrumental in +forcing the king to accept the Girondist ministry of the 15th of March +1792. He was an ardent advocate of the policy of forcing Louis XVI. +into harmony with the Revolution; moved (May 3) for the dismissal of the +king's non-juring confessor, for the banishment of all non-juring +priests (May 16), for the disbandment of the royal guard (May 30), and +the formation in Paris of a camp of _fédérés_ (June 4). He remained a +royalist, however, and with Gensonné and Vergniaud even addressed a +letter to the king soliciting a private interview. Whatever negotiations +may have resulted, however, were cut short by the insurrection of the +10th of August. Guadet, who presided over the Assembly during part of +this fateful day, put himself into vigorous opposition to the +insurrectionary Commune of Paris, and it was on his motion that on the +30th of August the Assembly voted its dissolution--a decision reversed +on the following day. In September Guadet was returned by a large +majority as deputy to the Convention. At the trial of Louis XVI. he +voted for an appeal to the people and for the death sentence, but with a +respite pending appeal. In March 1793 he had several conferences with +Danton, who was anxious to bring about a _rapprochement_ between the +Girondists and the Mountain during the war in La Vendée, but he +unconditionally refused to join hands with the man whom he held +responsible for the massacres of September. Involved in the fall of the +Girondists, and his arrest being decreed on the 2nd of June 1793, he +fled to Caen, and afterwards hid in his father's house at St Émilion. He +was discovered and taken to Bordeaux, where, after his identity had been +established, he was guillotined on the 17th of June 1794. + + See J. Guadet, _Les Girondins_ (Paris, 1889); and F. A. Aulard, _Les + Orateurs de la législative et de la convention_ (Paris, 2nd ed., + 1906). + + + + +GUADIANA (anc. _Anas_, Moorish _Wadi Ana_), a river of Spain and +Portugal. The Guadiana was long believed to rise in the lowland known as +the Campo de Montiel, where a chain of small lakes, the Lagunas de +Ruidera (partly in Ciudad Real, partly in Albacete), are linked together +by the Guadiana Alto or Upper Guadiana. This stream flows north-westward +from the last lake and vanishes underground within 3 m. of the river +Zancara or Giguela. About 22 m. S.W. of the point of disappearance, the +Guadiana Alto was believed to re-emerge in the form of several large +springs, which form numerous lakes near the Zancara and are known as the +"eyes of the Guadiana" (_los ojos de Guadiana_). The stream which +connects them with the Zancara is called the Guadiana Bajo or Lower +Guadiana. It is now known that the Guadiana Alto has no such course, but +flows underground to the Zancara itself, which is the true "Upper +Guadiana." The Zancara rises near the source of the Júcar, in the east +of the tableland of La Mancha; thence it flows westward, assuming the +name of Guadiana near Ciudad Real, and reaching the Portuguese frontier +6 m. S.W. of Badajoz. In piercing the Sierra Morena it forms a series of +foaming rapids, and only begins to be navigable at Mertola, 42 m. from +its mouth. From the neighbourhood of Badajoz it forms the boundary +between Spain and Portugal as far as a point near Monsaraz, where it +receives the small river Priega Muñoz on the left, and passes into +Portuguese territory, with a southerly direction. At Pomarão it again +becomes a frontier stream and forms a broad estuary 25 m. long. It +enters the Gulf of Cadiz between the Portuguese town of Villa Real de +Santo Antonio and the Spanish Ayamonte, after a total course of 510 m. +Its mouth is divided by sandbanks into many channels. The Guadiana +drains an area of 31,940 sq. m. Its principal tributaries are the Zujar, +Jabalón, Matachel and Ardila from the left; the Bullaque, Ruecas, Botoa, +Degebe and Cobres from the right. + +The GUADIANA MENOR (or _Guadianamenor_, i.e. "Lesser Guadiana") rises in +the Sierra Nevada, receives two large tributaries, the Fardes from the +right and Barbata from the left, and enters the Guadalquivir near Ubeda, +after a course of 95 m. + + + + +GUADIX, a city of southern Spain, in the province of Granada; on the +left bank of the river Guadix, a subtributary of the Guadiana Menor, and +on the Madrid-Valdepeñas-Almería railway. Pop. (1900) 12,652. Guadix +occupies part of an elevated plateau among the northern foothills of the +Sierra Nevada. It is surrounded by ancient walls, and was formerly +dominated by a Moorish castle, now in ruins. It is an episcopal see of +great antiquity, but its cathedral, built in the 18th century on the +site of a mosque, possesses little architectural merit. The city was +once famous for its cutlery; but its modern manufactures (chiefly +earthenware, hempen goods, and hats) are inconsiderable. It has some +trade in wool, cotton, flax, corn and liqueurs. The warm mineral springs +of Graena, much frequented during the summer, are 6 m. W. Guadix el +Viejo, 5 m. N.W., was the Roman _Acci_, and, according to tradition, the +seat of the first Iberian bishopric, in the 2nd century. After 711 it +rose to some importance as a Moorish fortress and trading station, and +was renamed _Wad Ash_, "Water of Life." It was surrendered without a +siege to the Spaniards, under Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1489. + + + + +GUADUAS, a town of the department of Cundinamarca, Colombia, 53 m. N.W. +of Bogotá on the old road between that city and the Magdalena river port +of Honda. Pop. (1900, estimate) 9000, chiefly Indians or of mixed blood. +It stands in a narrow and picturesque valley formed by spurs of the +Eastern Cordillera, and on a small stream bearing the same name, which +is that of the South American bamboo (_guaduas_), found in great +abundance along its banks. Sugar-cane and coffee are cultivated in the +vicinity, and fruits of various kinds are produced in great abundance. +The elevation of the town is 3353 ft. above the sea, and it has a +remarkably uniform temperature throughout the whole year. Guaduas has a +pretty church facing upon its _plaza_, and an old monastery now used for +secular purposes. The importance of the town sprang from its position on +the old _camino real_ between Bogotá and Honda, an importance that has +passed away with the completion of the railway from Girardot to the +Bogotá plateau. Guaduas was founded in 1614. + + + + +GUAIACUM, a genus of trees of the natural order _Zygophyllaceae_. The +guaiacum or lignum-vitae tree (Ger. _Guajakbaum_, _Franzosenbaum_, +_Pockenholzbaum_; Fr. _Gayac_, _Gaïac_), _G. officinale_, is a native of +the West Indies and the north coast of South America, where it attains a +height of 20 to 30 ft. Its branches are numerous, flexuous and knotted; +the leaves opposite and pinnate, with caducous (falling early) stipules, +and entire, glabrous, obovate or oval leaflets, arranged in 2 or, more +rarely, 3 pairs; the flowers are in axillary clusters (cymes), and have +5 oval pubescent sepals, 5 distinct pale-blue petals three times the +length of the sepals, 10 stamens, and a 2-celled superior ovary. The +fruit is about ¾ in. long, with a leathery pericarp, and contains in +each of its two cells a single seed (see fig.). _G. sanctum_ grows in +the Bahamas and Cuba, and at Key West in Florida. It is distinguished +from _G. officinale_ by its smaller and narrow leaflets, which are in 4 +to 5 pairs, by its shorter and glabrous sepals, and 5-celled and +5-winged fruit. _G. arboreum_, the guaiacum tree of Colombia, is found +in the valley of the Magdalena up to altitudes 800 metres (2625 ft.) +above sea-level, and reaches considerable dimensions. Its wood is of a +yellow colour merging into green, and has an almost pulverulent +fracture; the flowers are yellow and conspicuous; and the fruit is dry +and 4-winged. + +The lignum vitae of commerce, so named on account of its high repute as +a medicinal agent in past times, when also it was known as _lignum +sanctum_ and _lignum Indicum_, _lignum guaycanum_, or simply _guayacan_, +is procured from _G. officinale_, and in smaller amount from _G. +sanctum_. It is exported in large logs or blocks, generally divested of +bark, and presents in transverse section very slightly marked concentric +rings of growth, and scarcely any traces of pith; with the aid of a +magnifying glass the medullary rays are seen to be equidistant and very +numerous. The outer wood, the sapwood or alburnum, is of a pale yellow +hue, and devoid of resin; the inner, the heartwood or duramen, which is +by far the larger proportion, is of a dark greenish-brown, contains in +its pores 26% of resin, and has a specific gravity of 1.333, and +therefore sinks in water on which the alburnum floats. Owing to the +diagonal and oblique arrangement of the successive layers of its fibres, +the wood cannot be split; and on account of its hardness, density and +durability it is much valued for the manufacture of ships' pulleys, +rulers, skittle-balls, mallets and other articles. + +[Illustration: From Bentley & Trimen's _Medicinal Plants_, by permission +of J. & A. Churchill. + +Guaiacum or Lignum Vitae, _Guaiacum officinale_ shoot-bearing leaves and +flowers. 1, Fruit; 2, Vertical section of fruit, showing the solitary +pendulous seed in each chamber. All about ½ natural size.] + +Chips or turnings of the heartwood of _G. officinale_ (_guaiaci lignum_) +are employed in the preparation of the _liquor sarsae compositus +concentratus_ of British pharmacy. They may be recognized by being +either yellow of greenish-brown in colour, and by turning bluish-green +when treated with nitric acid, or when heated with corrosive sublimate, +and green with solution of chloride of lime. They are occasionally +adulterated with boxwood shavings. Lignum vitae is imported chiefly from +St Domingo, the Bahamas and Jamaica. + + The bark was formerly used in medicine; it contains much calcium + oxalate, and yields on incineration 23% of ash. Guaiacum resin, the + _guaiaci resina_ of pharmacopoeias, is obtained from the wood as an + exudation from natural fissures or from incisions; by heating billets + about 3 ft. in length, bored to permit of the outflow of the resin; or + by boiling chips and raspings in water to which salt has been added to + raise the temperature of ebullition. It occurs in rounded or oval + tears, commonly coated with a greyish-green dust, and supposed to be + the produce of _G. sanctum_, or in large brownish or greenish-brown + masses, translucent at the edges; fuses at 85° C.; is brittle, and has + a vitreous fracture, and a slightly balsamic odour, increased by + pulverization and by heat; and is at first tasteless when chewed, but + produces subsequently a sense of heat in the throat. It is readily + soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, creosote, oil of cloves and + solutions of caustic alkalies; and its solution gives a blue colour + with gluten, raw potato parings and the roots of horse-radish, carrot + and various other plants. The alcoholic tincture becomes green with + sodium hypochlorite, and with nitric acid turns in succession green, + blue and brown. With glycerin it gives a clear solution, and with + nitrous ether a bluish-green gelatinous mass. It is blued by various + oxidizing agents, e.g. ozone, and, as Schönbein discovered, by the + juice of certain fungi. The chief constituents are three distinct + resins, _guaiaconic acid_, C19H20O5 (70%), _guaiac acid_, which is + closely allied to benzoic acid, and _guaiaretic acid_. Like all + resins, these are insoluble in water, soluble in alkalies, but + precipitated on neutralization of the alkaline solution. + + Guaiacum wood was first introduced into Europe by the Spaniards in + 1508, and Nicolaus Poll, writing in 1517 (see Luisinus, _De morbo + gallico_, p. 210, Ven., 1566), states that some three thousand persons + in Spain had already been restored to health by it. The virtues of the + resin, however, were not known until a later period, and in Thomas + Paynel's translation (_Of the Wood called Guaiacum_, &c., p. 9, ed. of + 1540) of Ulrich von Hutten's treatise _De morbi gallici curatione per + administrationem ligni guaiaci_ (1519) we read of the wood: "There + followeth fro it, whan it bourneth a gomme, which we yet knowe not, + for what pourpose it serueth." Flückiger and Hanbury + (_Pharmacographia_, p. 95) state that the first edition of the _London + Pharmacopoeia_ in which they find the resin mentioned is that of 1677. + The decoction of the wood was administered in gout, the stone, palsy, + leprosy, dropsy, epilepsy, and other diseases, but principally in the + "morbus gallicus," or syphilis, for which it was reckoned a certain + specific, insomuch that at first "the physitions wolde not allowe it, + perceyuynge that theyr profite wolde decay therby" (Paynel, _op. cit._ + p. 8). Minute instructions are given in old works as to the mode of + administering guaiacum. The patient was confined in a closed and + heated chamber, was placed on the lowest possible diet, and, after + liberal purgation, was made twice a day to drink a milk-warm decoction + of the wood. The use of salt was specially to be avoided. A decoction + of 1 lb. of guaiacum was held to be sufficient for the four first days + of the treatment. The earlier opinions as to the efficacy of guaiacum + came to be much modified in the course of time, and Dr Pearson + (_Observations on the Effects of Various Articles of the Mat. Med. in + the Cure of Lues Venerea_, c. i., 2nd ed., 1807) says:--"I never saw + one single instance in which the powers of this medicine eradicated + the venereal virus." He found its beneficial effects to be most marked + in cases of secondary symptoms. Guaiacum resin is given medicinally in + doses of 5-15 grains. Its important preparations in the British + Pharmacopoeia are the _mistura guiaci_ (dose ½-1 oz.), the ammoniated + tincture of guaiacum (dose ½-1 drachm), in which the resin is + dissolved by means of ammonia, and the trochiscus or lozenge, + containing 3 grains of the resin. This lozenge is undoubtedly of value + when given early in cases of sore throat, especially of rheumatic + origin. Powdered guaiacum is also used. + + Guaiacum resin differs pharmacologically from other resins in being + less irritant, so that it is absorbed from the bowel and exerts remote + stimulant actions, notably upon the skin and kidneys. It affects the + bronchi but slightly, since it contains no volatile oil. + + The drug is useful both in acute and chronic sore throat, the mixture, + according to Sir Lauder Brunton, being more effective than the + tincture. The aperient action, which it exerts less markedly than + other members of its class, renders it useful in the treatment of + chronic constipation. Sir Alfred Garrod has urged the claims of this + drug in the treatment of chronic gout. Both in this disease and in + other forms of chronic arthritis guaiacum may be given in combination + with iodides, which it often enables the patient to tolerate. Guaiacum + is not now used in the treatment of syphilis. + + The tincture of guaiacum is universally used as a test for the + presence of blood, or rather of haemoglobin, the red colouring matter + of the blood, in urine or other secretions. This test was first + suggested by Dr John Day of Geelong, Australia. A _single drop_ of the + tincture should be added to, say, an inch of urine in a test-tube. The + resin is at once precipitated, yielding a milky fluid. If "ozonic + ether"--an ethereal solution of hydrogen peroxide--be now poured + gently into the test-tube, a deep blue coloration is produced along + the line of contact if haemoglobin be present. The reaction is due to + the oxidation of the resin by the peroxide of hydrogen--such oxidation + occurring only if haemoglobin be present to act as an oxygen-carrier. + + + + +GUALDO TADINO (anc. _Tadinum_, 1 m. to the W.), a town and episcopal see +of Umbria, Italy, 1755 ft. above sea-level, in the province of Perugia, +22 m. N. of Foligno by rail. Pop. (1901), town, 4440; commune, 10,756. +The suffix Tadino distinguishes it from Gualdo in the province of +Macerata, and Gualdo Cattaneo, S.W. of Foligno. The cathedral has a good +rose-window and possesses, like several of the other churches, +15th-century paintings by Umbrian artists, especially works by Niccolò +Alunno. The town is still surrounded by walls. The ancient Tadinum lay 1 +m. to the W. of the modern town. It is mentioned in the Eugubine tablets +(see IGUVIUM) as a hostile city against which imprecations are directed. +In its neighbourhood Narses defeated and slew Totila in 552. No ruins +are now visible, though they seem to have been extant in the 17th +century. The new town seems to have been founded in 1237. It was at +first independent, but passed under Perugia in 1292, and later became +dependent on the duchy of Spoleto. + + + + +GUALEGUAY, a flourishing town and river port of the province of Entre +Rios, Argentine Republic, on the Gualeguay river, 32 m. above its +confluence with the Ibicuy branch of the Paraná, and about 120 m. N.N.W. +of Buenos Aires. Pop. (1895) 7810. The Gualeguay is the largest of the +Entre Rios rivers, traversing almost the whole length of the province +from N. to S., but it is of but slight service in the transportation of +produce except the few miles below Gualeguay, whose port, known as +Puerto Ruiz, is 7 m. lower down stream. A steam tramway connects the +town and port, and a branch line connects with Entre Rios railways at +the station of Tala. The principal industry in this region is that of +stock-raising, and there is a large exportation of cattle, jerked beef, +hides, tallow, mutton, wool and sheep-skins. Wood and charcoal are also +exported to Buenos Aires. The town was founded in 1783. + + + + +GUALEGUAYCHÚ, a prosperous commercial and industrial town and port of +the province of Entre Rios, Argentine Republic, on the left bank of the +Gualeguaychú river, 11 m. above its confluence with the Uruguay, and 120 +m. N. of Buenos Aires. Pop. (1892, est.) 14,000. It is the chief town of +a department of the same name, the largest in the province. A bar at the +mouth of the river prevents the entrance of larger vessels and compels +the transfer of cargoes to and from lighters. The town is surrounded by +a rich grazing country, and exports cattle, jerked beef, mutton, hides, +pelts, tallow, wool and various by-products. A branch line running N. +connects with the Entre Rios railways at Basavilbaso. The town was +founded in 1783. + + + + +GUALO, CARDINAL (fl. 1216), was sent to England by Pope Innocent III. in +1216. He supported John with all the weight of papal authority. After +John's death he crowned the infant Henry III. and played an active part +in organizing resistance to the rebels led by Louis of France, +afterwards king Louis VIII. As representing the pope, the suzerain of +Henry, he claimed the regency and actually divided the chief power with +William Marshal, earl of Pembroke. He proclaimed a crusade against Louis +and the French, and, after the peace of Lambeth, he forced Louis to make +a public and humiliating profession of penitence (1217). He punished the +rebellious clergy severely, and ruled the church with an absolute hand +till his departure from England in 1218. Gualo's character has been +severely criticized by English writers; but his chief offence seems to +have been that of representing unpopular papal claims. + + + + +GUAM (Span. _Guajan_; _Guahan_, in the native Chamorro), the largest and +most populous of the Ladrone or Mariana Islands, in the North Pacific, +in 13° 26´ N. lat. and 144° 39´ E. long., about 1823 m. E. by S. of Hong +Kong, and about 1450 m. E. of Manila. Pop. (1908) about 11,360, of whom +363 were foreigners, 140 being members of the U.S. naval force. Guam +extends about 30 m. from N.N.E. to S.S.W., has an average width of about +6½ m., and has an area of 207 sq. m. The N. portion is a plateau from +300 to 600 ft. above the sea, lowest in the interior and highest along +the E. and W. coast, where it terminates abruptly in bluffs and +headlands; Mt Santa Rosa, toward the N. extremity, has an elevation of +840 ft. A range of hills from 700 to nearly 1300 ft. in height traverses +the S. portion from N. to S. a little W. of the middle--Mt Jumullong +Mangloc, the highest peak, has an elevation of 1274 ft. Between the foot +of the steep W. slope of these hills and the sea is a belt of rolling +lowlands and to the E. the surface is broken by the valleys of five +rivers with a number of tributaries, has a general slope toward the sea, +and terminates in a coast-line of bluffs. Apra (formerly San Luis +d'Apra) on the middle W. coast is the only good harbour; it is about 3½ +m. across, has a depth of 4-27 fathoms, and is divided into an inner and +an outer harbour by a peninsula and an island. It serves as a naval +station and as a port of transit between America and the Philippines, at +which army transports call monthly. Deer, wild hog, duck, curlew, snipe +and pigeon are abundant game, and several varieties of fish are caught. +Some of the highest points of the island are nearly bare of vegetation, +and the more elevated plateau surface is covered with sword grass, but +in the valleys and on the lower portions of the plateaus there is +valuable timber. The lowlands have a rich soil; in lower parts of the +highlands raised coralliferous limestone with a light covering of soil +appears, and in the higher parts the soil is entirely of clay and silt. +The climate is agreeable and healthy. From December to June the N.E. +trade winds prevail and the rainfall is relatively light; during the +other six months the monsoon blows and produces the rainy season. +Destructive typhoons and earthquakes sometimes visit Guam. The island is +thought to possess little if any mineral wealth, with the possible +exception of coal. Only a small part of Guam is under cultivation, and +most of this lies along the S.W. coast, its chief products being +cocoanuts, rice, sugar, coffee and cacao. A United States Agricultural +Experiment Station in Guam (at Agaña) was provided for in 1908. + +The inhabitants are of the Chamorro (Indonesian) stock, strongly +intermixed with Philippine Tagals and Spaniards; their speech is a +dialect of Malay, corrupted by Tagal and Spanish. There are very few +full-blood Chamorros. The aboriginal native was of a very dark mahogany +or chocolate colour. A majority of the total number of natives live in +Agaña. The natives are nearly all farmers, and most of them are poor, +but their condition has been improved under American rule. Public +schools have been established; in 1908 the enrolment was 1700. On the +island there is a small colony of lepers, segregated only after American +occupation. Gangrosa is a disease said to be peculiar to Guam and the +neighbouring islands; it is due to a specific bacillus and usually +destroys the nasal septum. The victims of this disease also are +segregated. There is a good general hospital. + +Agaña (or San Ignacio de Agaña) is the capital and principal town; under +the Spanish régime it was the capital of the Ladrones. It is about 5 m. +N.E. of Piti, the landing-place of Apra harbour and port of entry, with +which it is connected by an excellent road. Agaña has paved streets and +sewer and water systems. Other villages, all small, are Asan, Piti, +Sumay, Umata, Merizo and Inarajan. Guam is governed by a "naval +governor," an officer of the U.S. navy who is commandant of the naval +station. The island is divided into four administrative districts, each +with an executive head called a gobernadorcillo (commissioner), and +there are a court of appeals, a court of first instance and courts of +justices of the peace. Peonage was abolished in the island by the United +States in February 1900. Telegraphic communication with the Caroline +Islands was established in 1905; in 1908 there were four cables ending +at the relay station at Sumay on the Shore of Apra harbour. + +Guam was discovered by Magellan in 1521, was occupied by Spain in 1688, +was captured by the United States cruiser "Charleston" in June 1899, and +was ceded to the United States by the Treaty of Paris on the 10th of +December 1898. + + See _A List of Books (with References to Periodicals) on Samoa and + Guam_ (1901; issued by the Library of Congress); L. M. Cox, "The + Island of Guam," in _Bulletin of the American Geographical Society_, + vol. 36 (New York, 1904); Gen. Joseph Wheeler, _Report on the Island + of Guam_, June 1900 (War Department, Document No. 123); F. W. + Christian, _The Caroline Islands_ (London, 1899); an account of the + flora of Guam by W. E. Safford in the publications of the National + Herbarium (Smithsonian Institution); and the reports of the naval + governor. + + + + +GUAN, a word apparently first introduced into the ornithologist's +vocabulary about 1743 by Edwards,[1] who said that a bird he figured +(_Nat. Hist. Uncommon Birds_, pl. xiii.) was "so called in the West +Indies," and the name has hence been generally applied to all the +members of the subfamily _Penelopinae_, which are distinguished from the +kindred subfamily _Cracinae_ or curassows by the broad postacetabular +area of the pelvis as pointed out by Huxley (_Proc. Zool. Society_, +1868, p. 297) as well as by their maxilla being wider than it is high, +with its culmen depressed, the crown feathered, and the nostrils +bare--the last two characters separating the _Penelopinae_ from the +_Oreophasinae_, which form the third subfamily of the _Cracidae_,[2] a +family belonging to that taxonomer's division _Peristeropodes_ of the +order _Gallinae_. + +The _Penelopinae_ have been separated into seven genera, of which +_Penelope_ and _Ortalis_, containing respectively about sixteen and +nineteen species, are the largest, the others numbering from one to +three only. Into their minute differences it would be useless to enter: +nearly all have the throat bare of feathers, and from that of many of +them hangs a wattle; but one form, _Chamaepetes_, has neither of these +features, and _Stegnolaema_, though wattled, has the throat clothed. +With few exceptions the guans are confined to the South-American +continent; one species of _Penelope_ is however found in Mexico (e.g. at +Mazatlan), _Pipile cumanensis_ inhabits Trinidad as well as the +mainland, while three species of _Ortalis_ occur in Mexico or Texas, and +one, which is also common to Venezuela, in Tobago. Like curassows, guans +are in great measure of arboreal habit. They also readily become tame, +but all attempts to domesticate them in the full sense of the word have +wholly failed, and the cases in which they have even been induced to +breed and the young have been reared in confinement are very few. Yet it +would seem that guans and curassows will interbreed with poultry +(_Ibis_, 1866, p. 24; _Bull. Soc. Imp. d'Acclimatation_, 1868, p. 559; +1869, p. 357), and what is more extraordinary is that in Texas the +hybrids between the chiacalacca (_Ortalis vetula_) and the domestic fowl +are asserted to be far superior to ordinary game-cocks for fighting +purposes. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Edwards also gives "quan" as an alternative spelling, and this + may be nearer the original form, since we find Dampier in 1676 + writing (Voy. ii. pt. 2, p. 66) of what was doubtless an allied if + not the same bird as the "quam." The species represented by Edwards + does not seem to have been identified. + + [2] See the excellent _Synopsis_ by Sclater and Salvin in the + _Proceedings of the Zoological Society_ for 1870 (pp. 504-544), while + further information on the Cracinae was given by Sclater in the + _Transactions_ of the same society (ix. pp. 273-288, pls. xl.-liii.). + Some additions have since been made to the knowledge of the family, + but none of very great importance. + + + + +GUANABACOA (an Indian name meaning "site of the waters"), a town of +Cuba, in Havana province, about 6 m. E. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 14,368. +Guanabacoa is served by railway to Havana, with which it is connected by +the Regla ferry across the bay. It is picturesquely situated amid woods, +on high hills which furnish a fine view. There are medicinal springs in +the town, and deposits of liquid bitumen in the neighbouring hills. The +town is essentially a residence suburb of the capital, and has some +rather pretty streets and squares and some old and interesting churches +(including Nuestra Señora de la Asuncion, 1714-1721). Just outside the +city is the church of Potosi with a famous "wonder-working" shrine and +image. An Indian pueblo of the same name existed here before 1555, and a +church was established in 1576. Already at the end of the 17th century +Guanabacoa was the fashionable summer residence of Havana. It enjoyed +its greatest popularity in this respect from the end of the 18th to the +middle of the 19th century. It was created a _villa_ with an +_ayuntamiento_ (city council) in 1743. In 1762 its fort, the Little +Morro, on the N. shore near Cojimar (a bathing beach, where the Key West +cable now lands), was taken by the English. + + + + +GUANACO, sometimes spelt Huanaca, the larger of the two wild +representatives in South America of the camel tribe; the other being the +vicugña. The guanaco (_Lama huanacus_), which stands nearly 4 ft. at the +shoulder, is an elegant creature, with gracefully curved neck and long +slender legs, the hind-pair of the latter bearing two naked patches or +callosities. The head and body are covered with long soft hair of a fawn +colour above and almost pure white beneath. Guanaco are found throughout +the southern half of South America, from Peru in the north to Cape Horn +in the south, but occur in greatest abundance in Patagonia. They live in +herds usually of from six to thirty, although these occasionally contain +several hundreds, while solitary individuals are sometimes met. They are +exceedingly timid, and therefore wary and difficult of approach; like +many other ruminants, however, their curiosity sometimes overcomes their +timidity, so as to bring them within range of the hunter's rifle. Their +cry is peculiar, being something between the belling of a deer and the +neigh of a horse. The chief enemies of the guanaco are the Patagonian +Indians and the puma, as it forms the principal food of both. Its flesh +is palatable although wanting in fat, while its skin forms the chief +clothing material of the Patagonians. Guanaco are readily domesticated, +and in this state become very bold and will attack man, striking him +from behind with both knees. In the wild state they never defend +themselves, and if approached from different points, according to the +Indian fashion of hunting, get completely bewildered and fall an easy +prey. They take readily to the water, and have been observed swimming +from one island to another, while they have been seen drinking +salt-water. They have a habit of depositing their droppings during +successive days on the same spot--a habit appreciated by the Peruvian +Indians, who use those deposits for fuel. Guanaco also have favourite +localities in which to die, as appears from the great heaps of their +bones found in particular spots. + +[Illustration: Head of Guanaco.] + + + + +GUANAJAY, a town of western Cuba, in Pinar del Rio province, about 36 m. +(by rail) S.W. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 6400. Guanajay is served by the W. +branch of the United railways of Havana, of which it is the W. terminus. +The town lies among hills, has an excellent climate, and in colonial +times was (like Holguín) an acclimatization station for troops fresh +from Spain; it now has considerable repute as a health resort. The +surrounding country is a fertile sugar and tobacco region. Guanajay has +always been important as a distributing point in the commerce of the +western end of the island. It was an ancient pueblo, of considerable +size and importance as early as the end of the 18th century. + + + + +GUANAJUATO, or GUANAXUATO, an inland state of Mexico, bounded N. by +Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi, E. by Querétaro, S. by Michoacan and W. +by Jalisco. Area, 11,370 sq. m. It is one of the most densely populated +states of the republic; pop. (1895) 1,047,817; (1900) 1,061,724. The +state lies wholly within the limits of the great central plateau of +Mexico, and has an average elevation of about 6000 ft. The surface of +its northern half is broken by the Sierra Gorda and Sierra de +Guanajuato, but its southern half is covered by fertile plains largely +devoted to agriculture. It is drained by the Rio Grande de Lerma and its +tributaries, which in places flow through deeply eroded valleys. The +climate is semi-tropical and healthy, and the rainfall is sufficient to +insure good results in agriculture and stock-raising. In the warm +valleys sugar-cane is grown, and at higher elevations Indian corn, +beans, barley and wheat. The southern plains are largely devoted to +stock-raising. Guanajuato has suffered much from the destruction of its +forests, but there remain some small areas on the higher elevations of +the north. The principal industry of the state is mining, the mineral +wealth of the mountain ranges of the north being enormous. Among its +mineral products are silver, gold, tin, lead, mercury, copper and opals. +Silver has been extracted since the early days of the Spanish conquest, +over $800,000,000 having been taken from the mines during the subsequent +three and a half centuries. Some of the more productive of these mines, +or groups of mines, are the Veta Madre (mother lode), the San Bernabé +lode, and the Rayas mines of Guanajuato, and the La Valenciana mine, the +output of which is said to have been $226,000,000 between 1766 and 1826. +The manufacturing establishments include flour mills, tanneries and +manufactories of leather, cotton and woollen mills, distilleries, +foundries and potteries. The Mexican Central and the Mexican National +railway lines cross the state from N. to S., and the former operates a +short branch from Silao to the state capital and another westward from +Irapuato to Guadalajara. The capital is Guanajuato, and other important +cities and towns are León, or León de las Aldamas; Celaya (pop. 25,565 +in 1900), an important railway junction 22 m. by rail W. from Querétaro, +and known for its manufactures of broadcloth, saddlery, soap and +sweetmeats; Irapuato (18,593 in 1900), a railway junction and commercial +centre, 21 m. S. by W. of Guanajuato; Silao (15,355), a railway junction +and manufacturing town (woollens and cottons), 14 m. S.W. of Guanajuato; +Salamanca (13,583). on the Mexican Central railway and Lerma river, 25 +m. S. by E. of Guanajuato, with manufactures of cottons and porcelain; +Allende (10,547), a commercial town 30 m. E. by S. of Guanajuato, with +mineral springs; Valle de Santiago (12,660). 50 m. W. by S. of +Querétaro; Salvatierra (10,393), 60 m. S.E. of Guanajuato; Cortazar +(8633); La Luz (8318), in a rich mining district; Pénjamo (8262); Santa +Cruz (7239); San Francisco del Rincón (10,904), 39 m. W. of Guanajuato +in a rich mining district; and Acambaro (8345), a prosperous town of the +plain, 76 m. S.S.E. of Guanajuato. + + + + +GUANAJUATO, or SANTA FÉ DE GUANAJUATO, a city of Mexico and capital of +the above state, 155 m. (direct) N.W. of the Federal capital, on a small +tributary of the Rio Grande de Lerma or Santiago. Pop. (1895) 39,404; +(1900) 41,486. The city is built in the Cañada de Marfil at the junction +of three ravines about 6500 ft. above the sea, and its narrow, tortuous +streets rise steeply as they follow the ravines upward to the mining +villages clustered about the opening of the mines in the hillsides. +Guanajuato is sometimes described as a collection of mining villages; +but in addition there is the central city with its crowded winding +streets, its substantial old Spanish buildings, its fifty ore-crushing +mills and busy factories and its bustling commercial life. Enclosing the +city are the steep, barren mountain sides honeycombed with mines. The +climate is semi-tropical and is considered healthy. The noteworthy +public buildings and institutions are an interesting old Jesuit church +with arches of pink stone and delicate carving, eight monasteries, the +government palace, a mint dating from 1812, a national college, the fine +Teatro Juárez, and the Pantheon, or public cemetery, with catacombs +below. The Alhóndiga de Granaditas, originally a public granary, was +used as a fort during the War of Independence, and is celebrated as the +scene of the first battle (1810) in that long struggle. Among the +manufactures are cottons, prints, soaps, chemicals, pottery and +silverware, but mining is the principal interest and occupation of the +population. The silver mines of the vicinity were long considered the +richest in Mexico, the celebrated Veta Madre (mother lode) even being +described as the richest in the world; and Guanajuato has the largest +reduction works in Mexico. The railway outlet for the city consists of a +short branch of the Mexican Central, which joins the trunk line at +Silao. Guanajuato was founded in 1554. It attained the dignity of a city +in 1741. It was celebrated for its vigorous resistance to the invaders +at the time of the Spanish conquest, and was repeatedly sacked during +that war. + + + + +GUANCHES, GUANCHIS or GUANCHOS (native Guanchinet; _Guan_=person, +_Chinet_ = Teneriffe,--"man of Teneriffe," corrupted, according to Nuñez +de la Peña, by Spaniards into Guanchos), the aboriginal inhabitants of +the Canary Islands. Strictly the Guanches were the primitive inhabitants +of Teneriffe, where they seem to have preserved racial purity to the +time of the Spanish conquest, but the name came to be applied to the +indigenous populations of all the islands. The Guanches, now extinct as +a distinct people, appear, from the study of skulls and bones +discovered, to have resembled the Cro-Magnon race of the Quaternary age, +and no real doubt is now entertained that they were an offshoot of the +great race of Berbers which from the dawn of history has occupied +northern Africa from Egypt to the Atlantic. Pliny the Elder, deriving +his knowledge from the accounts of Juba, king of Mauretania, states that +when visited by the Carthaginians under Hanno the archipelago was found +by them to be uninhabited, but that they saw ruins of great buildings. +This would suggest that the Guanches were not the first inhabitants, and +from the absence of any trace of Mahommedanism among the peoples found +in the archipelago by the Spaniards it would seem that this extreme +westerly migration of Berbers took place between the time of which Pliny +wrote and the conquest of northern Africa by the Arabs. Many of the +Guanches fell in resisting the Spaniards, many were sold as slaves, and +many conformed to the Roman Catholic faith and married Spaniards. + +Such remains as there are of their language, a few expressions and the +proper names of ancient chieftains still borne by certain families, +connect it with the Berber dialects. In many of the islands signs are +engraved on rocks. Domingo Vandewalle, a military governor of Las +Palmas, was the first, in 1752, to investigate these; and it is due to +the perseverance of D. Aquilino Padran, a priest of Las Palmas, that +anything about the inscription on the island Hierro has been brought to +light. In 1878 Dr R. Verneau discovered in the ravines of Las Balos some +genuine Libyan inscriptions. Without exception the rock inscriptions +have proved to be Numidic. In two of the islands (Teneriffe and Gomera) +the Guanche type has been retained with more purity than in the others. +No inscriptions have been found in these two islands, and therefore it +would seem that the true Guanches did not know how to write. In the +other islands numerous Semitic traces are found, and in all of them are +the rock-signs. From these facts it would seem that the Numidians, +travelling from the neighbourhood of Carthage and intermixing with the +dominant Semitic race, landed in the Canary Islands, and that it is they +who have written the inscriptions at Hierro and Grand Canary. + +The political and social institutions of the Guanches varied. In some +islands hereditary autocracy prevailed; in others the government was +elective. In Teneriffe all the land belonged to the chiefs who leased it +to their subjects. In Grand Canary suicide was regarded as honourable, +and on a chief inheriting, one of his subjects willingly honoured the +occasion by throwing himself over a precipice. In some islands polyandry +was practised; in others the natives were monogamous. But everywhere the +women appear to have been respected, an insult offered any woman by an +armed man being a capital offence. Almost all the Guanches used to wear +garments of goat-skins, and others of vegetable fibres, which have been +found in the tombs of Grand Canary. They had a taste for ornaments, +necklaces of wood, bone and shells, worked in different designs. Beads +of baked earth, cylindrical and of all shapes, with smooth or polished +surfaces, mostly black and red in colour, were chiefly in use. They +painted their bodies; the _pintaderas_, baked clay objects like seals in +shape, have been explained by Dr Verneau as having been used solely for +painting the body in various colours. They manufactured rough pottery, +mostly without decorations, or ornamented by means of the finger-nail. +The Guanches' weapons were those of the ancient races of south Europe. +The polished battle-axe was more used in Grand Canary, while stone and +obsidian, roughly cut, were commoner in Teneriffe. They had, besides, +the lance, the club, sometimes studded with pebbles, and the javelin, +and they seem to have known the shield. They lived in natural or +artificial caves in their mountains. In districts where cave-dwellings +were impossible, they built small round houses and, according to the +Spaniards, they even practised rude fortification. In Palma the old +people were at their own wish left to die alone. After bidding their +family farewell they were carried to the sepulchral cave, nothing but a +bowl of milk being left them. The Guanches embalmed their dead; many +mummies have been found in an extreme state of desiccation, each +weighing not more than 6 or 7 lb. Two almost inaccessible caves in a +vertical rock by the shore 3 m. from Santa Cruz (Teneriffe) are said +still to contain bones. The process of embalming seems to have varied. +In Teneriffe and Grand Canary the corpse was simply wrapped up in goat +and sheep skins, while in other islands a resinous substance was used to +preserve the body, which was then placed in a cave difficult of access, +or buried under a tumulus. The work of embalming was reserved for a +special class, women for female corpses, men for male. Embalming seems +not to have been universal, and bodies were often simply hidden in caves +or buried. + +Little is known of the religion of the Guanches. They appear to have +been a distinctly religious race. There was a general belief in a +supreme being, called Acoran, in Grand Canary, Achihuran in Teneriffe, +Eraoranhan in Hierro, and Abora in Palma. The women of Hierro worshipped +a goddess called Moneiba. According to tradition the male and female +gods lived in mountains whence they descended to hear the prayers of the +people. In other islands the natives venerated the sun, moon, earth and +stars. A belief in an evil spirit was general. The demon of Teneriffe +was called Guayota and lived in the peak of Teyde, which was the hell +called Echeyde. In times of drought the Guanches drove their flocks to +consecrated grounds, where the lambs were separated from their mothers +in the belief that their plaintive bleatings would melt the heart of the +Great Spirit. During the religious feasts all war and even personal +quarrels were stayed. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--S. Berthelot, _Antiquités canariennes_ (Paris, 1839); + Baker Webb and S. Berthelot, _Histoire naturelle des îles Canaries_ + (Paris, 1839); Paul Broca, _Revue d'anthropologie_, iv. (1874); + General L. L. C. Faidherbe, _Quelque mots sur l'ethnologie de + l'archipel canarien_ (Paris, 1875); Chil y Naranjo, _Estudios + historicos, climatologicos y Patologicos de las Islas Canarias_ (Las + Palmas, 1876-1889); "De la pluralité des races humaines de l'archipel + canarien," _Bull. Soc. Anthrop. Paris_, 1878; "Habitations et + sépultures des anciens habitants des îles Canaries," _Revue + d'anthrop._, 1879; R. Verneau, "Sur les Sémites aux îles Canaries," + and "Sur les anciens habitants de la Isleta, Grande Canarie," _Bull. + Soc. Anthrop. Paris_, 1881; _Rapport sur une mission scientifique dans + l'archipel canarien_ (Paris, 1887); _Cinq années de séjour aux îles + Canaries_ (Paris, 1891); H. Meyer, _Die Insel Tenerife_ (Leipzig, + 1896), "Über die Urbewohner der canarischen Inseln," in _Adolf Bastian + Festschrift_ (Berlin, 1896); F. von Luschan, _Anhang über eine + Schädelsammlung von den canarischen Inseln_; R. Virchow, "Schädel mit + Carionecrosis der Sagittalgegend," _Verhandlungen der Berliner + Anthrop. Gesellschaft_ (1896); G. Sergi, _The Mediterranean Race_ + (London, 1901); _The Guanches of Tenerife ..._, by Alonso de Espinosa, + translated by Sir Clements Markham, with bibliography (Hakluyt + Society, 1907). + + + + +GUANIDINE, CN3H5 or HN:C(NH2)2, the amidine of amidocarbonic acid. It +occurs in beet juice. It was first prepared in 1861 by A. Strecker, who +oxidized guanine with hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate. It may +be obtained synthetically by the action of ammonium iodide on cyanamide, +CN·NH2 + NH4I=CN3H5·HI·; by heating ortho-carbonic esters with ammonia +to 150° C.; but best by heating ammonium thiocyanate to 180°-190° C., +when the thiourea first formed is converted into guanidine thiocyanate, +2CS(NH2)2=HN:C(NH2)2·HCNS+H2S. It is a colourless crystalline solid, +readily soluble in water and alcohol; it deliquesces on exposure to air. +It has strong basic properties, absorbs carbon dioxide readily, and +forms well-defined crystalline salts. Baryta water hydrolyses it to +urea. By direct union with glycocoll acid, it yields glycocyamine, +NH2·(HN):C·NH·CH2·CO2H, whilst with methyl glycocoll (sarcosine) it +forms creatine, NH2·(NH):C·N(CH3)·CH2·CO2H. + + Many derivatives of guanidine were obtained by J. Thiele (_Ann._, + 1892, 270, p. 1; 1893, 273, p. 133; _Ber._, 1893, 26, pp. 2598, 2645). + By the action of nitric acid on guanidine in the presence of sulphuric + acid, nitroguanidine, HN:C(NH2)·NH·NO2 (a substance possessing acid + properties) is obtained; from which, by reduction with zinc dust, + amidoguanidine, HN:C(NH2)·NH·NH2, is formed. This amidoguanidine + decomposes on hydrolysis with the formation of semicarbazide, + NH2·CO·NH·NH2, which, in its turn, breaks down into carbon dioxide, + ammonia and hydrazine. Amidoguanidine is a body of hydrazine type, for + it reduces gold and silver salts and yields a benzylidine derivative. + On oxidation with potassium permanganate, it gives + azodicarbondiamidine nitrate, NH2·(HN):C·N:N·C:(NH)·NH2·2HNO3, which, + when reduced by sulphuretted hydrogen, is converted into the + corresponding hydrazodicarbondiamidine, NH2·(HN):C·NH·NH·C:(NH)·NH2. + By the action of nitrous acid on a nitric acid solution of + amidoguanidine, diazoguanidine nitrate, NH2·(HN):C·NH·N2·NO3, is + obtained. This diazo compound is decomposed by caustic alkalis with + the formation of cyanamide and hydrazoic acid, + CH4N5·NO3=N3H+CN·NH2+HNO3, whilst acetates and carbonates convert it + into amidotetrazotic acid, + + N--N. + // + H2N·C ||. + \\ + NH--N + + Amidotetrazotic acid yields addition compounds with amines, and by the + further action of nitrous acid yields a very explosive derivative, + diazotetrazol, CN6. By fusing guanidine with urea, dicyandiamidine + H2N·(HN):C·NH·CO·NH2, is formed. + + + + +GUANO (a Spanish word from the Peruvian _huanu_, dung), the excrement of +birds, found as large deposits on certain islands off the coast of Peru, +and on others situated in the Southern ocean and off the west coast of +Africa. The large proportions of phosphorus in the form of phosphates +and of nitrogen as ammonium oxalate and urate renders it a valuable +fertilizer. Bat's guano, composed of the excrement of bats, is found in +certain caves in New Zealand and elsewhere; it is similar in composition +to Peruvian guano. (See MANURES AND MANURING.) + + + + +GUANTA, a port on the Caribbean coast of the state of Bermúdez, +Venezuela, 12 m. N.E. of Barcelona, with which it is connected by rail. +It dates from the completion of the railway to the coal mines of +Naricual and Capiricual nearly 12 m. beyond Barcelona, and was created +for the shipment of coal. The harbour is horseshoe-shaped, with its +entrance, 1998 ft. wide, protected by an island less than 1 m. off the +shore. The entrance is easy and safe, and the harbour affords secure +anchorage for large vessels, with deep water alongside the iron railway +wharf. These advantages have made Guanta the best port on this part of +the coast, and the trade of Barcelona and that of a large inland +district have been transferred to it. A prominent feature in its trade +is the shipment of live cattle. Among its exports are sugar, coffee, +cacáo, tobacco and fruit. + + + + +GUANTÁNAMO, the easternmost important town of the S. coast of Cuba, in +the province of Santiago, about 40 m. E. of Santiago. Pop. (1907) +14,559. It is situated by the Guazo (or Guaso) river, on a little open +plain between the mountains. The beautiful, land-locked harbour, 10 m. +long from N. to S. and 4 m. wide in places, has an outer and an inner +basin. The latter has a very narrow entrance, and 2 to 2.5 fathoms depth +of water. From the port of Caimanera to the city of Guantánamo, 13 m. +N., there is a railway, and the city has railway connexion with +Santiago. Guantánamo is one of the two ports leased by Cuba to the +United States for a naval station. It is the shipping-port and centre of +a surrounding coffee-, sugar- and lime-growing district. In 1741 an +English force under Admiral Edward Vernon and General Thomas Wentworth +landed here to attack Santiago. They named the harbour Cumberland bay. +After their retreat fortifications were begun. The history of the region +practically dates, however, from the end of the 18th century, when it +gained prosperity from the settlement of French refugees from Santo +Domingo; the town, as such, dates only from 1822. Almost all the old +families are of French descent, and French was the language locally most +used as late as the last third of the 19th century. In recent years, +especially since the Spanish-American War of 1898, the region has +greatly changed socially and economically. Guantánamo was once a +fashionable summer residence resort for wealthy Cubans. + + + + +GUARANA (so called from the Guaranis, an aboriginal American tribe), the +plant _Paullinia Cupana_ (or _P. sorbilis_) of the natural order +_Sapindaceae_, indigenous to the north and west of Brazil. It has a +smooth erect stem; large pinnate alternate leaves, composed of 5 +oblong-oval leaflets; narrow panicles of short-stalked flowers; and +ovoid or pyriform fruit about as large as a grape, and containing +usually one seed only, which is shaped like a minute horse-chestnut. +What is commonly known as guarana, guarana bread or Brazilian cocoa, is +prepared from the seeds as follows. In October and November, at which +time they become ripe, the seeds are removed from their capsules and +sun-dried, so as to admit of the ready removal by hand of the white +aril; they are next ground in a stone mortar or deep dish of hard +sandstone; the powder, moistened by the addition of a small quantity of +water, or by exposure to the dews, is then made into a paste with a +certain proportion of whole or broken seeds, and worked up sometimes +into balls, but usually into rolls not unlike German sausages, 5 to 8 +in. in length, and 12 to 16 oz. in weight. After drying by artificial or +solar heat, the guarana is packed between broad leaves in sacks or +baskets. Thus prepared, it is of extreme hardness, and has a brown hue, +a bitter astringent taste, and an odour faintly resembling that of +roasted coffee. An inferior kind, softer and of a lighter colour, is +manufactured by admixture of cocoa or cassava. Rasped or grated into +sugar and water, guarana forms a beverage largely consumed in S. +America. Its manufacture, originally confined to the Mauhés Indians, has +spread into various parts of Brazil. + + The properties of guarana as a nervous stimulant and restorative are + due to the presence of what was originally described as a new + principle and termed guaranine, but is now known to be identical with + caffeine or theine. Besides this substance, which is stated to exist + in it in the form of tannate, guarana yields on analysis the glucoside + saponin, with tannin, starch, gum, three volatile oils, and an acrid + green fixed oil (Fournier, _Journ. de Pharm._ vol. xxxix., 1861, p. + 291). + + + + +GUARANIS, a tribe and stock of South American Indians, having their home +in Paraguay, Uruguay and on the Brazilian coast. The Guaranis had +developed some civilization before the arrival of the Spaniards, and +being a peaceable people quickly submitted. They form to-day the chief +element in the populations of Paraguay and Uruguay. Owing to its +patronage by the Jesuit missionaries the Guarani language became a +widespread medium of communication, and in a corrupted form is still +the common language in Paraguay. + + + + +GUARANTEE (sometimes spelt "guarantie" or "guaranty"; an O. Fr. form of +"warrant," from the Teutonic word which appears in German as _wahren_, +to defend or make safe and binding), a term more comprehensive and of +higher import than either "warrant" or "security," and designating +either some international treaty whereby claims, rights or possessions +are secured, or more commonly a mere private transaction, by means of +which one person, to obtain some trust, confidence or credit for +another, engages to be answerable for him. + +In English law, a guarantee is a contract to answer for the payment of +some debt, or the performance of some duty, by a third person who is +_primarily_ liable to such payment or performance. It is a _collateral_ +contract, which does not extinguish the original liability or obligation +to which it is accessory, but on the contrary is itself rendered null +and void should the latter fail, as without a principal there can be no +accessory. The liabilities of a surety are in law dependent upon those +of the principal debtor, and when the latter cease the former do so +likewise (_per_ Collins, L.J., in _Stacey_ v. _Hill_, 1901, 1 K.B., at +p. 666; see _per_ Willes, J., in _Bateson_ v. _Gosling_, 1871, L.R. 7 +C.P., at p. 14), except in certain cases where the discharge of the +principal debtor is by operation of law (see _In re Fitzgeorge--ex parte +Robson_, 1905, 1 K.B. p. 462). If, therefore, persons wrongly suppose +that a third person is liable to one of them, and a guarantee is given +on that erroneous supposition, it is invalid _ab initio_, by virtue of +the _lex contractûs_, because its foundation (which was that another was +taken to be liable) has failed (_per_ Willes, J., in _Mountstephen_ v. +_Lakeman_, L.R. 7 Q.B. p. 202). According to various existing codes +civil, a suretyship, in respect of an obligation "non-valable," is null +and void save where the invalidity is the result of personal incapacity +of the principal debtor (Codes Civil, France and Belgium, 2012; Spain, +1824; Portugal, 822; Italy, 1899; Holland, 1858; Lower Canada, 1932). In +some countries, however, the mere personal incapacity of a son under age +to borrow suffices to vitiate the guarantee of a loan made to him +(Spain, 1824; Portugal, 822, s. 2, 1535, 1536). The Egyptian codes +sanction guarantees expressly entered into "in view of debtor's want of +legal capacity" to contract a valid principal obligation (Egyptian +Codes, Mixed Suits, 605; Native Tribunals, 496). The Portuguese code +(art. 822, s. 1) retains the surety's liability, in respect of an +invalid principal obligation, until the latter has been legally +rescinded. + +The giver of a guarantee is called "the surety," or "the guarantor"; the +person to whom it is given "the creditor," or "the guarantee"; while the +person whose payment or performance is secured thereby is termed "the +principal debtor," or simply "the principal." In America, but not +apparently elsewhere, there is a recognized distinction between "a +surety" and "a guarantor"; the former being usually bound with the +principal, at the same time and on the same consideration, while the +contract of the latter is his own separate undertaking, in which the +principal does not join, and in respect of which he is not to be held +liable, until due diligence has been exerted to compel the principal +debtor to make good his default. There is no privity of contract between +the surety and the principal debtor, for the surety contracts with the +creditor, and they do not constitute in law one person, and are not +jointly liable to the creditor (_per_ Baron Parke in _Bain_ v. _Cooper_, +1 Dowl. R. (N.S.) 11, 14). + +No special phraseology is necessary to the formation of a guarantee; and +what really distinguishes such a contract from one of insurance is not +any essential difference between the two forms of words _insurance_ and +_guarantee_, but the substance of the contract entered into by the +parties in each particular case (_per_ Romer, L.J., in _Seaton_ v. +_Heath_--_Seaton_ v. _Burnand_, 1899, 1 Q.B. 782, 792, C.A.; _per_ +Vaughan Williams, L.J., in _In re Denton's Estate Licenses Insurance +Corporation and Guarantee Fund Ltd._ v. _Denton_, 1904, 2 Ch., at p. +188; and see _Dane_ v. _Mortgage Insurance Corporation_, 1894, 1 Q.B. 54 +C.A.) In this connexion it may be mentioned that the different kinds of +suretyships have been classified as follows: (1) Those in which there is +an agreement to constitute, for a particular purpose, the relation of +principal and surety, to which agreement the creditor thereby secured is +a party; (2) those in which there is a similar agreement between the +principal and surety only, to which the creditor is a stranger; and (3) +those in which, without any such contract of suretyship, there is a +primary and a secondary liability of two persons for one and the same +debt, the debt being, as between the two, that of one of those persons +only, and not equally of both, so that the other, if he should be +compelled to pay it, would be entitled to reimbursement from the person +by whom (as between the two) it ought to have been paid (_per_ Earl of +Selborne, L.C., _in Duncan Fox and Co._ v. _North and South Wales Bank_, +6 App. Cas., at p. 11). According to several codes civil sureties are +made divisible into conventional, legal and judicial (Fr. and Bel., +2015, 2040 et seq.; Spain, 1823; Lower Canada, 1930), while the Spanish +code further divides them into gratuitous and for valuable consideration +(art. 1, 823). + +In England the common-law requisites of a guarantee in no way differ +from those essential to the formation of any other contract. That is to +say, they comprise the mutual assent of two or more parties, competency +to contract, and, unless the guarantee be under seal, valuable +consideration. An offer to guarantee is not binding until it has been +accepted, being revocable till then by the party making it. Unless, +however, as sometimes happens, the offer contemplates an express +acceptance, one may be implied, and it may be a question for a jury +whether an offer of guarantee has in fact been accepted. Where the +surety's assent to a guarantee has been procured by fraud of the person +to whom it is given, there is no binding contract. Such fraud may +consist of suppression or concealment or misrepresentation. There is +some conflict of authorities as to what facts must be spontaneously +disclosed to the surety by the creditor, but it may be taken that the +rule on the subject is less stringent than that governing insurances +upon marine, life and other risks (_The North British Insurance Co._ v. +_Lloyd_, 10 Exch. 523), though formerly this was denied (_Owen_ v. +_Homan_, 3 Mac. & G. 378, 397). Moreover, even where the contract relied +upon is in the form of a policy guaranteeing the solvency of a surety +for another's debt, and is therefore governed by the doctrine of +_uberrima_ fides, only such facts as are really material to the risk +undertaken need be spontaneously disclosed (_Seaton_ v. +_Burnand_--_Burnand_ v. _Seaton_, 1900, A.C. 135). As regards the +competency of the parties to enter into a contract of guarantee, this +may be affected by insanity or intoxication of the surety, if known to +the creditor, or by disability of any kind. The ordinary disabilities +are those of infants and married women--now in England greatly mitigated +as regards the latter by the Married Women's Property Acts, 1870 to +1893, which enable a married woman to contract, as a _feme sole_, to the +extent of her separate property. Every guarantee not under seal must +according to English law have a consideration to support it, though the +least spark of one suffices (_per_ Wilmot, J., in _Pillan_ v. _van +Mierop and Hopkins_, 3 Burr., at p. 1666; _Haigh_ v. _Brooks_, 10 A. & +E. 309; _Barrell_ v. _Trussell_, 4 Taunt. 117), which, as in other +cases, may consist either of some right, interest, profit or benefit +accruing to the one party, or some forbearance, detriment, loss or +responsibility given, suffered or undertaken by the other. In some +guarantees the consideration is entire--as where, in consideration of a +lease being granted, the surety becomes answerable for the performance +of the covenants; in other cases it is fragmentary, i.e. supplied from +time to time--as where a guarantee is given to secure the balance of a +running account at a banker's, or a balance of a running account for +goods supplied (_per_ Lush, L.J., in _Lloyd's_ v. _Harper_, 16 Ch. Div., +at p. 319). In the former case, the moment the lease is granted there is +nothing more for the lessor to do, and such a guarantee as that of +necessity runs on throughout the duration of the lease and is +irrevocable. In the latter case, however, unless the guarantee +stipulates to the contrary, the surety may at any time terminate his +liability under the guarantee as to _future_ advances, &c. The +consideration for a guarantee must not be _past_ or _executed_, but on +the other hand it need not comprise a direct benefit or advantage to +either the surety or the creditor, but may solely consist of anything +done, or any promise made, for the benefit of the principal debtor. It +is more frequently _executory_ than _concurrent_, taking the form either +of forbearance to sue the principal debtor, or of a future advance of +money or supply of goods to him. + +By the Indian Contract Act 1872, sect. 127, it is provided that the +consideration for a guarantee may consist of anything done or any +promise made for the benefit of the principal debtor by the creditor. +Total failure of the consideration stipulated for by the party giving a +guarantee will prevent its being enforced, as will also the existence of +an illegal consideration. Though in all countries the mutual assent of +two or more parties is essential to the formation of any contract (see +e.g. Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 1108; Port. 643, 647 et seq.; Spain, +1258, 1261; Italy, 1104; Holl. 1356; Lower Canada, 984), a consideration +is not everywhere regarded as a necessary element (see Pothier's _Law of +Obligations_, Evans's edition, vol. ii. p. 19). Thus in Scotland a +contract may be binding without a consideration to support it (Stair i. +10. 7). + +The statutory requisites of a guarantee are, in England, prescribed by +(1) the Statute of Frauds, which, with reference to guarantees, provides +that "no action shall be brought whereby to charge the defendant upon +any special promise to answer for the debt, default or miscarriages of +another person, unless the agreement upon which such action shall be +brought, or some memorandum or note thereof, shall be in writing and +signed by the party to be charged therewith, or some other person +thereunto by him lawfully authorized," and (2) Lord Tenterden's Act (9 +Geo. IV. c. 14), which by § 6 enacts that "no action shall be brought +whereby to charge any person upon or by reason of any representation or +assurance made or given concerning or relating to the character, +conduct, credit, ability, trade or dealings of any other person, to the +intent or purpose that such other person may obtain credit, money or +goods upon" (i.e. "upon credit," see _per_ Parke, B., in _Lyde_ v. +_Barnard_, 1 M. & W., at p. 104), "unless such representation or +assurance be made in writing signed by the party to be charged +therewith." This latter enactment, which applies to incorporated +companies as well as to individual persons (_Hirst_ v. _West Riding +Union Banking Co._, 1901, 2 K.B. 560 C.A.), was rendered necessary by an +evasion of the 4th section of the Statute of Frauds, accomplished by +treating the special promise to answer for another's debt, default or +miscarriage, when not in writing, as required by that section, as a +false and fraudulent representation concerning another's credit, +solvency or honesty, in respect of which damages, as for a tort, were +held to be recoverable (_Pasley_ v. _Freeman_, 3 T.R. 51). In Scotland, +where, it should be stated, a guarantee is called a "cautionary +obligation," similar enactments to those just specified are contained in +§ 6 of the Mercantile Law Amendment Act (Scotland) 1856, while in the +Irish Statute of Frauds (7 Will. III. c. 12) there is a provision (§ 2) +identical with that found in the English Statute of Frauds. In India a +guarantee may be either oral or written (Indian Contract Act, § 126), +while in the Australian colonies, Jamaica and Ceylon it must be in +writing. The German code civil requires the surety's promise to be +verified by writing where he has not executed the principal obligation +(art. 766), and the Portuguese code renders a guarantee provable by all +the modes established by law for the proof of the principal contract +(art. 826). According to most codes civil now in force a guarantee like +any other contract can usually be made verbally in the presence of +witnesses and in certain cases (where for instance considerable sums of +money are involved) _sous signature privée_ or else by judicial or +notarial instrument (see Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 1341; Spain, 1244; +Port. 2506, 2513; Italy, 1341 et seq.; Pothier's _Law of Obligations_, +Evans's ed. i. 257; Burge on _Suretyship_, p. 19; van der Linden's +_Institutes of Holland_, p. 120); the French and Belgian Codes, +moreover, provide that suretyship is not to be presumed but must always +be expressed (art. 2015). + +The Statute of Frauds does not invalidate a verbal guarantee, but +renders it unenforceable by action. It may therefore be available in +support of a defence to an action, and money paid under it cannot be +recovered. An indemnity is not a guarantee within the statute, unless it +contemplates the primary liability of a third person. It need not, +therefore, be in writing when it is a mere promise to become liable for +a debt, whenever the person to whom the promise is made should become +liable (_Wildes_ v. _Dudlow_, L.R. 19 Eq. 198; _per_ Vaughan Williams, +L.J. in _Harburg India-Rubber Co._ v. _Martin_, 1902, 1 K.B. p. 786; +_Guild_ v. _Conrad_, 1894, 2 Q.B. 885 C.A.). Neither does the statute +apply to the promise of a _del credere_ agent, which binds him, in +consideration of the higher commission he receives, to make no sales on +behalf of his principal except to persons who are absolutely solvent, +and renders him liable for any loss that may result from the +non-fulfilment of his promise. A promise to _give_ a guarantee is, +however, within the statute, though not one to _procure_ a guarantee. + +The general principles which determine what are guarantees within the +Statute of Frauds, as deduced from a multitude of decided cases, are +briefly as follows: (1) the primary liability of a third person must +exist or be contemplated as the foundation of the contract (_Birkmyr_ v. +_Darnell_, 1 Sm. L.C. 11th ed. p. 299; _Mountstephen_ v. _Lakeman_, L.R. +7 Q.B. 196; L.R. 7 H.L. 17); (2) the promise must be made to the +creditor; (3) there must be an absence of all liability on the part of +the surety independently of his express promise of guarantee; (4) the +main object of the transaction between the parties to the guarantee must +be the fulfilment of a third party's obligation (see _Harburg +India-rubber Comb Co._ v. _Martin_, 1902, 1 K.B. 778, 786); and (5) the +contract entered into must not amount to a sale by the creditor to the +promiser of a security for a debt or of the debt itself (see de Colyar's +_Law of Guarantees and of Principal and Surety_, 3rd ed. pp. 65-161, +where these principles are discussed in detail by the light of decided +cases there cited). + +As regards the kind of note or memorandum of the guarantee that will +satisfy the Statute of Frauds, it is now provided by § 3 of the +Mercantile Law Amendment Act 1856, that "no special promise to be made, +by any person after the passing of this act, to answer for the debt, +default or miscarriage of another person, being in writing and signed by +the party to be charged therewith, or some other person by him thereunto +lawfully authorized, shall be deemed invalid to support an action, suit +or other proceeding, to charge the person by whom such promise shall +have been made, by reason only that the consideration for such promise +does not appear in writing or by necessary inference from a written +document." Prior to this enactment, which is not retrospective in its +operation, it was held in many cases that as the Statute of Frauds +requires "the agreement" to be in writing, all parts thereof were +required so to be, including the consideration moving to, as well as the +promise by, the party to be charged (_Wain_ v. _Walters_, 5 East, 10; +_Sounders_ v. _Wakefield_, 4 B. & Ald. 595). These decisions, however, +proved to be burdensome to the mercantile community, especially in +Scotland and the north of England, and ultimately led to the alteration +of the law, so far as guarantees are concerned, by means of the +enactment already specified. Any writing embodying the terms of the +agreement between the parties, and signed by the party to be charged, is +sufficient; and the idea of agreement need not be present to the mind of +the person signing (_per_ Lindley, L.J., in _In re_ Hoyle--_Hoyle_ v. +_Hoyle_, 1893, 1 Ch., at p. 98). It is, however, necessary that the +names of the contracting parties should appear somewhere in writing; +that the party to be charged, or his agent, should sign the memorandum +or note of agreement, or else should sign another paper referring +thereto; and that, when the note or memorandum is made, a complete +agreement shall exist. Moreover, the memorandum must have been made +before action brought, though it need not be contemporaneous with the +agreement itself. As regards the stamping of the memorandum or note of +agreement, a guarantee cannot, in England, be given in evidence unless +properly stamped (Stamp Act 1891). A guarantee for the payment of goods, +however, requires no stamp, being within the exception contained in the +first schedule of the act. Nor is it necessary to stamp a written +representation or assurance as to character within 9 Geo. IV. c. 14, +_supra_. If under seal, a guarantee requires sometimes an _ad valorem_ +stamp and sometimes a ten-shilling stamp; in other cases a sixpenny +stamp generally suffices; and, on certain prescribed terms, the stamps +can be affixed any time after execution (Stamp Act 1891, § 15, amended +by § 15 of the Finance Act 1895). + + + Extent of surety's liability. + +The liability incurred by a surety under his guarantee depends upon its +terms, and is not necessarily co-extensive with that of the principal +debtor. It is, however, obvious that as the surety's obligation is +merely accessory to that of the principal it cannot as such exceed it +(de Colyar, _Law of Guarantees_, 3rd ed. p. 233; Burge, _Suretyship_, p. +5). By the Roman law, if there were any such excess the surety's +obligation was rendered _wholly_ void and not merely void _pro tanto_. +By many existing codes civil, however, a guarantee which imposes on the +surety a greater liability than that of the principal is not thereby +invalidated, but the liability is merely reducible to that of the +principal (Fr. and Bel. 2013; Port. 823; Spain, 1826; Italy, 1900; +Holland, 1859; Lower Canada, 1933). By sec. 128 of the Indian Contract +Act 1872 the liability of the surety is, unless otherwise provided by +contract, coextensive with that of the principal. Where the liability of +the surety is _less_ extensive in amount than that of the principal +debtor, difficult questions have arisen in England and America as to +whether the surety is liable only for _part_ of the debt equal to the +limit of his liability, or, up to such limit, for the _whole_ debt +(_Ellis_ v. _Emmanuel_, 1 Ex. Div. 157; _Hobson_ v. _Bass_, 6 Ch. App. +792; Brandt, _Suretyship_, sec. 219). The surety cannot be made liable +except for a loss sustained by reason of the default guaranteed against. +Moreover, in the case of a joint and several guarantee by several +sureties, unless all sign it none are liable thereunder (_National Pro. +Bk. of England_ v. _Brackenbury_, 1906, 22 _Times_ L.R. 797). It was +formerly considered in England to be the duty of the party taking a +guarantee to see that it was couched in language enabling the party +giving it to understand clearly to what extent he was binding himself +(_Nicholson_ v. _Paget_, 1 C. & M. 48, 52). This view, however, can no +longer be sustained, it being now recognized that a guarantee, like any +other contract, must, in cases of ambiguity, be construed against the +party bound thereby and in favour of the party receiving it (_Mayer_ v. +_Isaac_, 6 M. & W. 605, 612; _Wood_ v. _Priestner_, L.R. 2 Exch. 66, +71). The surety is not to be changed beyond the limits prescribed by his +contract, which must be construed so as to give effect to what may +fairly be inferred to have been the intention of the parties, from what +they themselves have expressed in writing. In cases of doubtful import, +recourse to parol evidence is permissible, to explain, but not to +contradict, the written evidence of the guarantee. As a general rule, +the surety is not liable if the principal debt cannot be enforced, +because, as already explained, the obligation of the surety is merely +accessory to that of the principal debtor. It has never been actually +decided in England whether this rule holds good in cases where the +principal debtor is an infant, and on that account is not liable to the +creditor. Probably in such a case the surety might be held liable by +estoppel (see _Kimball_ v. _Newell_, 7 Hill (N.Y.) 116). When directors +guarantee the performance by their company of a contract which is ultra +vires, and therefore not binding on the latter, the directors' +suretyship liability is, nevertheless, enforceable against them +(_Yorkshire Railway Waggon Co._ v. _Maclure_, 21 Ch. D. 309 C.A.). + +It is not always easy to determine for how long a time liability under a +guarantee endures. Sometimes a guarantee is limited to a single +transaction, and is obviously intended to be security against one +specific default only. On the other hand, it as often happens that it is +not exhausted by one transaction on the faith of it, but extends to a +series of transactions, and remains a standing security until it is +revoked, either by the act of the parties or else by the death of the +surety. It is then termed a continuing guarantee. No fixed rules of +interpretation determine whether a guarantee is a continuing one or +not, but each case must be judged on its individual merits; and +frequently, in order to achieve a correct construction, it becomes +necessary to examine the surrounding circumstances, which often reveal +what was the subject-matter which the parties contemplated when the +guarantee was given, and likewise what was the scope and object of the +transaction between them. Most continuing guarantees are either ordinary +mercantile securities, in respect of advances made or goods supplied to +the principal debtor or else bonds for the good behaviour of persons in +public or private offices or employments. With regard to the latter +class of continuing guarantees, the surety's liability is, generally +speaking, revoked by any change in the constitution of the persons to or +for whom the guarantee is given. On this subject it is now provided by +section 18 of the Partnership Act 1890, which applies to Scotland as +well as England, that "a continuing guarantee or cautionary obligation +given either to a firm or to a third person in respect of the +transactions of a firm, is, in the absence of agreement to the contrary, +revoked as to future transactions by any change in the constitution of +the firm to which, or of the firm in respect of the transactions of +which the guaranty or obligation was given." This section, like the +enactment it replaces, namely, sec. 4 of the Mercantile Law Amendment +Act 1856, is mainly declaratory of the English common law, as embodied +in decided cases, which indicate that the changes in the persons to or +for whom a guarantee is given may consist either of an increase in their +number, of a diminution thereof caused by death or retirement from +business, or of the incorporation or consolidation of the persons to +whom the guarantee is given. In this connexion it may be stated that the +Government Offices (Security) Act 1875, which has been amended by the +Statute Law Revision Act 1883, contains certain provisions with regard +to the acceptance by the heads of public departments of guarantees given +by companies for the due performance of the duties of an office or +employment in the public service, and enables the Commissioners of His +Majesty's Treasury to vary the character of any security, for good +behaviour by public servants, given after the passing of the act. + +Before the surety can be rendered liable on his guarantee, the principal +debtor must have made default. When, however, this has occurred, the +creditor, in the absence of express agreement to the contrary, may sue +the surety, without even informing him of such default having taken +place, or requiring him to pay, and before proceeding against the +principal debtor or resorting to securities for the debt received from +the latter. In those countries where the municipal law is based on the +Roman civil law, sureties usually possess the right (which may, however, +be renounced by them) originally conferred by the Roman law, of +compelling the creditor to insist on the goods, &c. (if any) of the +principal debtor being first "discussed," i.e. appraised and sold, and +appropriated to the liquidation of the debt guaranteed (see Codes Civil, +Fr. and Bel. 2021 et seq.; Spain, 1830, 1831; Port. 830; Germany, 771, +772, 773; Holland, 1868; Italy, 1907; Lower Canada, 1941-1942; Egypt +[mixed suits] 612; _ibid._ [native tribunals] 502), before having +recourse to the sureties. This right, according to a great American +jurist (Chancellor Kent in _Hayes_ v. _Ward_, 4 Johns. New York, Ch. +Cas. p. 132), "accords with a common sense of justice and the natural +equity of mankind." In England this right has never been fully +recognized. Neither does it prevail in America nor, since the passing of +the Mercantile Law Amendment Act (Scotland) 1856, s. 8, is it any longer +available in Scotland where, prior to the last-named enactment, the +benefit of discussion, as it is termed, existed. In England, however, +before any demand for payment has been made by the creditor on the +surety, the latter can, as soon as the principal debtor has made +default, compel the creditor, on giving him an indemnity against costs +and expenses, to sue the principal debtor if the latter be solvent and +able to pay (_per_ A. L. Smith, L.J., in _Rouse_ v. _Bradford Banking +Company_, 1894, 2 Ch. 75; _per_ Lord Eldon in _Wright_ v. _Simpson_, 6 +Ves., at p. 733), and a similar remedy is also open to the surety in +America (see Brandt on _Suretyship_, par. 205, p. 290) though in +neither of these countries nor in Scotland can one of several sureties, +when sued for the whole guaranteed debt by the creditor, compel the +latter to divide his claim amongst all the solvent sureties, and reduce +it to the share and proportion of each surety. However, this _beneficium +divisionis_, as it is called in Roman law, is recognized by many +existing codes (Fr. and Bel. 2025-2027; Spain, 1837; Portugal, 835-836; +Germany, 426; Holland, 1873-1874; Italy, 1911-1912; Lower Canada, 1946; +Egypt [mixed suits], 615, 616). + +The usual mode in England of enforcing liability under a guarantee is by +action in the High Court or in the county court. It is also permissible +for the creditor to obtain redress by means of a set-off or +counter-claim, in an action brought against him by the surety. On the +other hand, the surety may now, in any court in which the action on the +guarantee is pending, avail himself of any set-off which may exist +between the principal debtor and the creditor. Moreover, if one of +several sureties for the same debt is sued by the creditor or his +guarantee, he can, by means of a proceeding termed a third-party notice, +claim contribution from his co-surety towards the common liability. +Independent proof of the surety's liability under his guarantee must +always be given at the trial; as the creditor cannot rely either on +admissions made by the principal debtor, or on a judgment or award +obtained against him (_Ex parte Young In re Kitchin_, 17 Ch. Div. 668). +Should the surety become bankrupt either before or after default has +been made by the principal debtor, the creditor will have to prove +against his estate. This right of proof is now in England regulated by +the 37th section of the Bankruptcy Act, 1883, which is most +comprehensive in its terms. + + + Rights of sureties. + +A person liable as a surety for another under a guarantee possesses +various rights against him, against the person to whom the guarantee is +given, and also against those who may have become co-sureties in respect +of the same debt, default or miscarriage. As regards the surety's rights +against the principal debtor, the latter may, where the guarantee was +made with his consent but not otherwise (see _Hodgson_ v. _Shaw_, 3 Myl. +& K. at p. 190), after he has made default, be compelled by the surety +to exonerate him from liability by payment of the guaranteed debt (_per_ +Sir W. Grant, M.R., in _Antrobus_ v. _Davidson_, 3 Meriv. 569, 579; +_per_ Lindley, L.J., in _Johnston_ v. _Salvage Association_, 19 Q.B.D. +460, 461; and see _Wolmershausen_ v. _Gullick_, 1893, 2 Ch. 514). The +moment, moreover, the surety has himself paid any portion of the +guaranteed debt, he is entitled to rank as a creditor for the amount so +paid, and to compel repayment thereof. In the event of the principal +debtor's bankruptcy, the surety can in England, if the creditor has not +already proved in respect of the guaranteed debt, prove against the +bankrupt's estate, not only in respect of payments made before the +bankruptcy of the principal debtor, but also, it seems, in respect of +the contingent liability to pay under the guarantee (see _Ex parte +Delmar re Herepath_, 1889, 38 W.R. 752), while if the creditor has +already proved, the surety who has paid the guaranteed debt has a right +to all dividends received by the creditor from the bankrupt in respect +thereof, and to stand in the creditor's place as to future dividends. +This right is, however, often waived by the guarantee stipulating that, +until the creditor has received full payment of all sums over and above +the guaranteed debt, due to him from the principal debtor, the surety +shall not participate in any dividends distributed from the bankrupt's +estate amongst his creditors. As regards the rights of the surety +against the creditor, they are in England exercisable even by one who in +the first instance was a principal debtor, but has since become a +surety, by arrangement with his creditor, duly notified to the creditor, +though not even sanctioned by him. This was decided by the House of +Lords in the case of _Rouse_ v. _The Bradford Banking Co._, 1894, A.C. +586, removing a doubt created by the previous case of _Swire_ v. +_Redman_, 1 Q.B.D. 536, which must now be treated as overruled. The +surety's principal right against the creditor entitles him, after +payment of the guaranteed debt, to the benefit of all securities, +whether known to him (the surety) or not, which the creditor held +against the principal debtor; and where, by default or _laches_ of the +creditor, such securities have been lost, or rendered otherwise +unavailable, the surety is discharged _pro tanto_. This right, which is +_not_ in abeyance till the surety is called on to pay (_Dixon_ v. +_Steel_, 1901, 2 Ch. 602), extends to all securities, whether satisfied +or not, given before or after the contract of suretyship was entered +into. On this subject the Mercantile Law Amendment Act, 1856, § 5, +provides that "every person who being surety for the debt or duty of +another, or being liable with another for any debt or duty, shall pay +such debt or perform such duty, shall be entitled to have assigned to +him, or to a trustee for him, every judgment, specialty, or other +security, which shall be held by the creditor in respect of such debt or +duty, whether such judgment, specialty, or other security shall or shall +not be deemed at law to have been satisfied by the payment of the debt +or performance of the duty, and such person shall be entitled to stand +in the place of the creditor, and to use all the remedies, and, if need +be, and upon a proper indemnity, to use the name of the creditor, in any +action or other proceeding at law or in equity, in order to obtain from +the principal debtor, or any co-surety, co-contractor, or co-debtor, as +the case may be, indemnification for the advances made and loss +sustained by the person who shall have so paid such debt or performed +such duty; and such payment or performance so made by such surety shall +not be pleadable in bar of any such action or other proceeding by him, +provided always that no co-surety, co-contractor, or co-debtor shall be +entitled to recover from any other co-surety, co-contractor, or +co-debtor, by the means aforesaid, more than the just proportion to +which, as between those parties themselves, such last-mentioned person +shall be justly liable." This enactment is so far retrospective that it +applies to a contract made before the act, where the breach thereof, and +the payment by the surety, have taken place subsequently. The right of +the surety to be subrogated, on payment by him of the guaranteed debt, +to all the rights of the creditor against the principal debtor is +recognized in America (_Tobin_ v. _Kirk_, 80 New York S.C.R. 229), and +many other countries (Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 2029; Spain, 1839; Port. +839; Germany, 774; Holland, 1877; Italy, 1916; Lower Canada, 2959; Egypt +[mixed suits], 617; _ibid._ [native tribunals], 505). + +As regards the rights of the surety against a co-surety, he is entitled +to contribution from him in respect of their common liability. This +particular right is not the result of any contract, but is derived from +a general equity, on the ground of equality of burden and benefit, and +exists whether the sureties be bound jointly, or jointly and severally, +and by the same, or different, instruments. There is, however, no right +of contribution where each surety is severally bound for a given portion +only of the guaranteed debt; nor in the case of a surety for a surety; +(see _In re Denton's Estate_, 1904, 2 Ch. 178 C.A.); nor where a person +becomes a surety jointly with another and at the latter's request. +Contribution may be enforced, either before payment, or as soon as the +surety has paid more than his share of the common debt (_Wolmershausen_ +v. _Gullick_, 1803, 2 Ch. 514); and the amount recoverable is now always +regulated by the number of solvent sureties, though formerly this rule +only prevailed in equity. In the event of the bankruptcy of a surety, +proof can be made against his estate by a co-surety for any excess over +the latter's contributive share. The right of contribution is not the +only right possessed by co-sureties against each other, but they are +also entitled to the benefit of all securities which have been taken by +any one of them as an indemnity against the liability incurred for the +principal debtor. The Roman law did not recognize the right of +contribution amongst sureties. It is, however, sanctioned by many +existing codes (Fr. and Bel. 2033; Germany, 426, 474; Italy, 1920; +Holland, 1881; Spain, 1844; Port. 845; Lower Canada, 1955; Egypt [mixed +suits], 618, _ibid._ [native tribunals], 506), and also by the Indian +Contract Act 1872, ss. 146-147. + +The discharge of a surety from liability under his guarantee may be +accomplished In various ways, he being regarded, especially in England +and America, as a "favoured debtor" (_per_ Turner, L.J., in _Wheatley_ +v. _Bastow_, 7 De G. M. & G. 279, 280; _per_ Earl of Selborne, L.C., in +_In re Sherry--London and County Banking Co._ v. _Terry_, 25 Ch. D., at +p. 703; and see Brandt on _Suretyship_, secs. 79, 80). Thus, fraud +subsequent to the execution of the guarantee (as where, for example, the +creditor connives at the principal debtor's default) will certainly +discharge the surety. Again, a material alteration made by the creditor +in the instrument of guarantee after its execution may also have this +effect. The most prolific ground of discharge, however, is usually +traceable to causes originating in the creditor's laches or conduct, the +governing principle being that if the creditor violates any rights which +the surety possessed when he entered into the suretyship, even though +the damage be nominal only, the guarantee cannot be enforced. On this +subject it suffices to state that the surety's discharge may be +accomplished (1) by a variation of the terms of the contract between the +creditor and the principal debtor, or of that subsisting between the +creditor and the surety (see _Rickaby_ v. _Lewis_, 22 T.L.R. 130); (2) +by the creditor taking a new security from the principal debtor in lieu +of the original one; (3) by the creditor discharging the principal +debtor from liability; (4) by the creditor binding himself to give time +to the principal debtor for payment of the guaranteed debt; or (5) by +loss of securities received by the creditor in respect of the guaranteed +debt. + +In this connexion It may be stated in general terms that whatever +extinguishes the principal obligation necessarily determines that of the +surety (which is accessory thereto), not only in England but elsewhere +also (Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 2034, 2038; Spain, 1847; Port. 848; +Lower Canada, 1956; 1960; Egypt [mixed suits], 622, _ibid._ [native +tribunals], 509; Indian Contract Act 1872, sec. 134), and that, by most +of the codes civil now in force, the surety is discharged by _laches_ or +conduct of the creditor inconsistent with the surety's rights (see Fr. +and Bel. 2037; Spain, 1852; Port. 853; Germany, 776; Italy, 1928; Egypt +[mixed suits], 623), though it may be mentioned that the rule prevailing +in England, Scotland, America and India which releases the surety from +liability where the creditor, by binding contract with the principal, +extends without the surety's consent the time for fulfilling the +principal obligation, while recognized by two existing codes civil +(Spain, 1851; Port. 852), is rejected by the majority of them (Fr. and +Bel. 2039; Holland, 1887; Italy, 1930; Lower Canada, 1961; Egypt [mixed +suits], 613; _ib._ [native tribunals], 503); (and see Morice, _English +and Dutch Law_, p. 96; van der Linden, _Institutes of Holland_, pp. +120-121). A revocation of the contract of suretyship by act of the +parties, or in certain cases by the death of the surety, may also +operate to discharge the surety. The death of a surety does not _per se_ +determine the guarantee, but, save where from its nature the guarantee +is irrevocable by the surety himself, it can be revoked by express +notice after his death, or, it would appear, by the creditor becoming +affected with constructive notice thereof; except where, under the +testator's will, the executor has the option of continuing the +guarantee, in which case the executor should, it seems, specifically +withdraw the guarantee in order to determine it. Where one of a number +of joint and several sureties dies, the future liability of the +survivors under the guarantee continues, at all events until it has been +determined by express notice. Moreover, when three persons joined in a +guarantee to a bank, and their liability thereunder was not expressed to +be several, it was held that the death of one surety did not determine +the liability of the survivors. In such a case, however, the estate of +the deceased surety would be relieved from liability. + +The Statutes of Limitation bar the right of action on guarantees under +seal after twenty years, and on other guarantees after six years, from +the date when the creditor might have sued the surety. + + AUTHORITIES.--De Colyar, _Law of Guarantees and of Principal and + Surety_ (3rd ed., 1897); American edition, by J. A. Morgan (1875); + Throop, _Validity of Verbal Agreements_; Fell, _Guarantees_ (2nd + ed.); Theobald, _Law of Principal and Surety_; Brandt, _Law of + Suretyships and Guarantee_; article by de Colyar in _Journal of + Comparative Legislation_ (1905), on "Suretyship from the Standpoint of + Comparative Jurisprudence." (H. A. de C.) + + + + +GUARATINGUETÁ, a city of Brazil In the eastern part of the state of São +Paulo, 124 m. N.E. of the city of São Paulo. Pop. (1890) of the +municipality, which includes a large rural district and the villages of +Apparecida and Roseira, 30,690. The city, which was founded in 1651, +stands on a fertile plain 3 m. from the Parahyba river, and is the +commercial centre of one of the oldest agricultural districts of the +state. The district produces large quantities of coffee, and some sugar, +Indian corn and beans. Cattle and pigs are raised. The city dwellings +are for the most part constructed of rough wooden frames covered with +mud, called _taipa_ by the natives, and roofed with curved tiles. The +São Paulo branch of the Brazilian Central railway passes through the +city, by which it is connected with Rio de Janeiro on one side and São +Paulo and Santos on the other. + + + + +GUARDA, an episcopal city and the capital of an administrative district +bearing the same name, and formerly in the province of Beira, Portugal; +on the Guarda-Abrantes and Lisbon-Villar Formoso railways. Pop. (1900) +6124. Guarda is situated 3370 ft. above sea-level, at the north-eastern +extremity of the Serra da Estrella, overlooking the fertile valley of +the river Côa. It is surrounded by ancient walls, and contains a ruined +castle, a fine 16th-century cathedral and a sanatorium for consumptives. +Its industries comprise the manufacture of coarse cloth and the sale of +grain, wine and live stock. In 1199 Guarda was founded, on the site of +the Roman Lencia Oppidana, by Sancho I. of Portugal, who intended it, as +its name implies, to be a "guard" against Moorish invasion. The +administrative district of Guarda coincides with north-eastern Beira; +pop. (1900), 261,630; area, 1065 sq. m. + + + + +GUARDI, FRANCESCO (1712-1793), Venetian painter, was a pupil of +Canaletto, and followed his style so closely that his pictures are very +frequently attributed to his more celebrated master. Nevertheless, the +diversity, when once perceived, is sufficiently marked--Canaletto being +more firm, solid, distinct, well-grounded, and on the whole the higher +master, while Guardi is noticeable for spirited touch, sparkling colour +and picturesquely sketched figures--in these respects being fully equal +to Canaletto. Guardi sometimes coloured Canaletto's designs. He had +extraordinary facility, three or four days being enough for producing an +entire work. The number of his performances is large in proportion to +this facility and to the love of gain which characterized him. Many of +his works are to be found in England and seven in the Louvre. + + + + +GUARDIAN, one who guards or defends another, a protector. The O. Fr. +_guarden_, _garden_, mod. _gardien_, from _guarder_, _garder_, is of +Teutonic origin, from the base _war-_, to protect, cf. O.H. Ger. +_warten_, and Eng. "ward"; thus "guardian" and "warden" are +etymologically identical, as are "guard" and "ward"; cf. the use of the +correlatives "guardian" and "ward," i.e. a minor, or person incapable of +managing his affairs, under the protection or in the custody of a +guardian. For the position of guardians of the poor see POOR LAW, and +for the legal relations between a guardian and his ward see INFANT, +MARRIAGE and ROMAN LAW. + + + + +GUARDS, AND HOUSEHOLD TROOPS. The word _guard_ is an adaptation of the +Fr. _guarde_, mod. _garde_, O. Ger. _ward_; see GUARDIAN. The practice +of maintaining bodyguards is of great antiquity, and may indeed be +considered the beginning of organized armies. Thus there is often no +clear distinction between the inner ring of personal defenders and the +select corps of trained combatants who are at the chief's entire +disposal. Famous examples of corps that fell under one or both these +headings are the "Immortals" of Xerxes, the Mamelukes, Janissaries, the +_Huscarles_ of the Anglo-Saxon kings, and the Russian Strelitz +(_Stryeltsi_). In modern times the distinction of function is better +marked, and the fighting men who are more intimately connected with the +sovereign than the bulk of the army can be classified as to duties into +"Household Troops," who are in a sense personal retainers, and +"Guards," who are a _corps d'élite_ of combatants. But the dividing line +is not so clear as to any given body of troops. Thus the British +Household Cavalry is part of the combatant army as well as the +sovereign's escort. + +The oldest of the household or bodyguard corps in the United Kingdom is +the King's Bodyguard of the _Yeomen of the Guard_ (q.v.), formed at his +accession by Henry VII. The "nearest guard," the personal escort of the +sovereign, is the "King's Bodyguard of the Honourable Corps of +_Gentlemen-at-Arms_," created by Henry VIII. at his accession in 1509. +Formed possibly on the pattern of the "Pensionnaires" of the French +kings--retainers of noble birth who were the predecessors of the _Maison +du Roi_ (see below)--the new corps was originally called "the +Pensioners." The importance of such guards regiments in the general +development of organized armies is illustrated by a declaration of the +House of Commons, made in 1674, that the militia, the pensioners and the +Yeomen of the Guard were the only lawful armed forces in the realm. But +with the rise of the professional soldier and the corresponding disuse +of arms by the nobles and gentry, the Gentlemen-at-Arms (a title which +came into use in James II.'s time, though it did not become that of the +corps until William IV.'s) retaining their noble character, became less +and less military. Burke attempted without success in 1782 to restrict +membership to officers of the army and navy, but the necessity of giving +the corps an effective military character became obvious when, on the +occasion of a threatened Chartist riot, it was called upon to do duty as +an armed body at St James's Palace. The corps was reconstituted on a +purely military basis in 1862, and from that date only military officers +of the regular services who have received a war decoration are eligible +for appointment. The office of captain, however, is political, the +holder (who is always a peer) vacating it on the resignation of the +government of which he is a member. The corps consists at present of +captain, lieutenant, standard bearer, clerk of the cheque (adjutant), +sub-officer and 39 gentlemen-at-arms. The uniform consists of a scarlet +swallow-tailed coat and blue overalls, with gold epaulettes, brass +dragoon helmet with drooping white plume and brass box-spurs, these last +contrasting rather forcibly with the partizan, an essentially infantry +weapon, that they carry. + + _The Royal Company of Archers._--The king's bodyguard for Scotland was + constituted in its present form in the year 1670, by an act of the + privy council of Scotland. An earlier origin has been claimed for the + company, some connecting it with a supposed archer guard of the kings + of Scotland. In the above-mentioned year, 1676, the minutes of the + Royal Company begin by stating, that owing to "the noble and usefull + recreation of archery being for many years much neglected, several + noblemen and gentlemen did associate themselves in a company for + encouragement thereof ... and did apply to the privy council for their + approbation ... which was granted." For about twenty years at the end + of the 17th century, perhaps owing to the adhesion of the majority to + the Stuart cause, its existence seems to have been suspended. But in + 1703 a new captain-general, Sir George Mackenzie, Viscount Tarbat, + afterwards earl of Cromarty (1630-1714), was elected, and he procured + for the company a new charter from Queen Anne. The rights and + privileges renewed or conferred by this charter were to be held of the + crown for the _reddendo_ of a pair of barbed arrows. This _reddendo_ + was paid to George IV. at Holyrood in 1822, to Queen Victoria in 1842 + and to King Edward VII. in 1903. The history of the Royal Company + since 1703 has been one of great prosperity. Large parades were + frequently held, and many distinguished men marched in the ranks. + Several of the leading insurgents in 1745 were members, but the + company was not at that time suspended in any way. + + In 1822 when King George IV. visited Scotland, it was thought + appropriate that the Royal Company should act as his majesty's + bodyguard during his stay, especially as there was a tradition of a + former archer bodyguard. They therefore performed the duties usually + assigned to the gentlemen-at-arms. When Queen Victoria visited the + Scottish capital in 1842, the Royal Company again did duty; the last + time they were called out in her reign in their capacity of royal + bodyguard was in 1860 on the occasion of the great volunteer review in + the Queen's Park, Edinburgh. They acted in the same capacity when King + Edward VII. reviewed the Scottish Volunteers there on the 18th of + September 1905. + + King George IV. authorized the company to take, in addition to their + former name, that of "The King's Body Guard for Scotland," and + presented to the captain-general a gold stick, thus constituting the + company part of the royal household. In virtue of this stick the + captain-general of the Royal Company takes his place at a coronation + or similar pageant immediately behind the gold stick of England. The + lieutenants-general of the company have silver sticks; and the + council, which is the executive body of the company, possess seven + ebony ones. George IV. further appointed a full dress uniform to be + worn by members of the company at court, when not on duty as guards, + in which latter case the ordinary field dress is used. The court dress + is green with green velvet facings, gold epaulettes and lace, crimson + silk sash, and cocked hat with green plume. The officers wear a gold + sash in place of a crimson one, and an _aiguillette_ on the left + shoulder. All ranks wear swords. The field dress at present consists + of a dark-green tunic, shoulder-wings and gauntleted cuffs and + trousers trimmed with black and crimson; a bow-case worn as a sash, of + the same colour as the coat, black waistbelt with sword, and Balmoral + bonnet with thistle ornament and eagle's feather. The officers of the + company are the captain-general, 4 captains, 4 lieutenants, 4 ensigns, + 12 brigadiers and adjutant. + +Corps of the gentlemen-at-arms or yeoman type do not of course count as +combatant troops--if for no other reason at least because they are armed +with the weapons of bygone times. Colonel Clifford Walton states in his +_History of the British Standing Army_ that neither the Yeomen of the +Guard nor the Pensioners were ever subject to martial law. The British +guards and household troops that are armed, trained and organized as +part of the army are the _Household Cavalry_ and the _Foot Guards_. + +The Household Cavalry consists at the present day of three regiments, +and has its origin, as have certain of the Foot guard regiments, in the +ashes of the "New Model" army disbanded at the restoration of Charles +II. in 1660. In that year the "1st or His Majesty's Own Troop of Guards" +formed during the king's exile of his cavalier followers, was taken on +the strength of the army. The 2nd troop was formerly in the Spanish +service as the "Duke of York's Guards," and was also a cavalier unit. In +1670, on Monk's death, the original 3rd troop (Monk's Life Guards, +renamed in 1660 the "Lord General's Troop of Guards") became the 2nd +(the queen's) troop, and the duke of York's troop the 3rd. In 1685 the +1st and 2nd troops were styled Life Guards of Horse, and two years later +the blue-uniformed "Royal Regiment of Horse," a New Model regiment that +had been disbanded and at once re-raised in 1660, was made a household +cavalry corps. Later under the colonelcy of the earl of Oxford it was +popularly called "The Oxford Blues." There were also from time to time +other troops (e.g. Scots troops 1700-1746) that have now disappeared. In +1746 the 2nd troop was disbanded, but it was revived in 1788, when the +two senior corps were given their present title of 1st and 2nd Life +Guards. From 1750 to 1819 the Blues bore the name of "Royal Horse Guards +Blue," which in 1819 was changed to "Royal Horse Guards (The Blues)." +The general distinction between the uniforms of the red Life Guard and +the blue Horse Guard still exists. The 1st and the 2nd regiments of Life +Guards wear scarlet tunics with blue collars and cuffs, and the Royal +Horse Guards blue tunics with scarlet collars and cuffs. All three wear +steel cuirasses on state occasions and on guard duty. The head-dress is +a steel helmet with drooping horse-hair plume (white for Life Guards, +red for Horse Guards). In full dress white buckskin pantaloons and long +knee boots are worn. Amongst the peculiarities of these _corps d'élite_ +is the survival of the old custom of calling non-commissioned officers +"corporal of horse" instead of sergeant, and corporal-major instead of +sergeant-major, the wearing by trumpeters and bandsmen in full dress of +a black velvet cap, a richly laced coat with a full skirt extending to +the wearer's knees and long white gaiters. There is little distinction +between the two Life Guards regiments' uniforms, the most obvious point +being that the cord running through the white leather pouch belt is red +for the 1st and blue for the 2nd. + +The Foot Guards comprise the Grenadier Guards, the Coldstream Guards, +the Scots Guards and the Irish Guards, each (except the last) of three +battalions. The Grenadiers, originally the First Foot Guards, represent +a royalist infantry regiment which served with the exiled princes in the +Spanish army and returned at the Restoration in 1660. The Coldstream +Guards are a New Model regiment, and were originally called the Lord +General's (Monk's) regiment of Foot Guards. Their popular title, which +became their official designation in 1670, is derived from the fact that +the army with which Monk restored the monarchy crossed the Tweed into +England at the village of Coldstream, and that his troops (which were +afterwards, except the two units of horse and foot of which Monk himself +was colonel, disbanded) were called the Coldstreamers. The two +battalions of Scots Foot Guards, which regiment was separately raised +and maintained in Scotland after the Restoration, marched to London in +1686 and 1688 and were brought on to the English Establishment in 1707. +In George III.'s reign they were known as the Third Guards, and from +1831 to 1877 (when the present title was adopted) as the Scots Fusilier +Guards. + +The Irish Guards (one battalion) were formed in 1902, after the South +African War, as a mark of Queen Victoria's appreciation of the services +rendered by the various Irish regiments of the line.[1] The dress of the +Foot Guards is generally similar in all four regiments, scarlet tunic +with blue collars, cuffs and shoulder-straps, blue trousers and high, +rounded bearskin cap. The regimental distinctions most easily noticed +are these. The Grenadiers wear a small white plume in the bearskin, the +Coldstreams a similar red one, the Scots none, the Irish a blue-green +one. The buttons on the tunic are spaced evenly for the Grenadiers, by +twos for the Coldstreams, by threes for the Scots and by fours for the +Irish. The band of the modern cap is red for the Grenadiers, white for +the Coldstreams, "diced" red and white (chequers) for the Scots and +green for the Irish. Former privileges of foot guard regiments, such as +higher brevet rank in the army for their regimental officers, are now +abolished, but Guards are still subject exclusively to the command of +their own officers, and the officers of the Foot Guards, like those of +the Household Cavalry, have special duties at court. Neither the cavalry +nor the infantry guards serve abroad in peace time as a rule, but in +1907 a battalion of the Guards, which it was at that time proposed to +disband, was sent to Egypt. "Guards' Brigades" served in the Napoleonic +Wars, in the Crimea, in Egypt at various times from 1887 to 1898 and in +South Africa 1899-1902. The last employment of the Household Cavalry as +a brigade in war was at Waterloo, but composite regiments made up from +officers and men of the Life Guards and Blues were employed in Egypt and +in S. Africa. + + The sovereigns of France had guards in their service in Merovingian + times, and their household forces appear from time to time in the + history of medieval wars. Louis XI. was, however, the first to + regularize their somewhat loose organization, and he did so to such + good purpose that Francis I. had no less than 8000 guardsmen + organized, subdivided and permanently under arms. The senior unit of + the _Gardes du Corps_ was the famous company of Scottish archers + (_Compagnie écossaise de la Garde du Corps du Roi_), which was + originally formed (1418) from the Scottish contingents that assisted + the French in the Hundred Years' War. Scott's _Quentin Durward_ gives + a picture of life in the corps as it was under Louis XI. In the + following century, however, its regimental history becomes somewhat + confused. Two French companies were added by Louis XI. and Francis I. + and the _Gardes du Corps_ came to consist exclusively of cavalry. + About 1634 nearly all the Scots then serving went into the "regiment + d'Hébron" and thence later into the British regular army (see HEPBURN, + SIR JOHN). Thereafter, though the titles, distinctions and privileges + of the original Archer Guard were continued, it was recruited from + native Frenchmen, preference being (at any rate at first) given to + those of Scottish descent. At its disbandment in 1791 along with the + rest of the _Gardes du Corps_, it contained few, if any, native Scots. + There was also, for a short time (1643-1660), an infantry regiment of + _Gardes écossaises_. + + In 1671 the title of _Maison Militaire du Roi_ was applied to that + portion of the household that was distinctively military. It came to + consist of 4 companies of the _Gardes du Corps_, 2 companies of + _Mousquetaires_ (cavalry) (formed 1622 and 1660), 1 company of + _Chevaux légers_ (1570), 1 of _Gendarmes de la Maison Rouge_, and 1 of + _Grenadiers à Cheval_ (1676), with 1 company of _Gardes de la Porte_ + and one called the _Cent-Suisses_, the last two being semi-military. + This large establishment, which did not include all the guard + regiments, was considerably reduced by the Count of St Germain's + reforms in 1775, all except the _Gardes du Corps_ and the + _Cent-Suisses_ being disbanded. The whole of the _Maison du Roi_, with + the exception of the semi-military bodies referred to, was cavalry. + + The _Gardes françaises_, formed in 1563, did not form part of the + _Maison_. They were an infantry regiment, as were the famous _Gardes + suisses_, originally a Swiss mercenary regiment in the Wars of + Religion, which was, for good conduct at the combat of Arques, + incorporated in the permanent establishment by Henry IV. in 1589 and + in the guards in 1615. At the Revolution, contrary to expectation, the + French Guards sided openly with the Constitutional movement and were + disbanded. The Swiss Guards, however, being foreigners, and therefore + unaffected by civil troubles, retained their exact discipline and + devotion to the court to the day on which they were sacrificed by + their master to the bullets of the Marseillais and the pikes of the + mob (August 10, 1792). Their tragic fate is commemorated by the + well-known monument called the "Lion of Lucerne," the work of + Thorvaldsen, erected near Lucerne in 1821. The "Constitutional," + "Revolutionary" and other guards that were created after the abolition + of the _Maison_ and the slaughter of the Swiss are unimportant, but + through the "Directory Guards" they form a nominal link between the + household troops of the monarchy and the corps which is perhaps the + most famous "Guard" in history. The Imperial Guard of Napoleon had its + beginnings in an escort squadron called the Corps of Guides, which + accompanied him in the Italian campaign of 1796-1797 and in Egypt. On + becoming First Consul in 1799 he built up out of this and of the guard + of the Directory a small corps of horse and foot, called the Consular + Guard, and this, which was more of a fighting unit than a personal + bodyguard, took part in the battle of Marengo. The Imperial Guard, + into which it was converted on the establishment of the Empire, was at + first of about the strength of a division. As such it took part in the + Austerlitz and Jena campaigns, but after the conquest of Prussia + Napoleon augmented it, and divided it into the "Old Guard" and the + "Young Guard." Subsequently the "Middle Guard" was created, and by + successive augmentations the corps of the guard had grown to be 57,000 + strong in 1811-1812 and 81,000 in 1813. It preserved its general + character as a _corps d'élite_ of veterans to the last, but from about + 1813 the "Young Guard" was recruited directly from the best of the + annual conscript contingent. The officers held a higher rank in the + army than their regimental rank in the Guards. At the first + Restoration an attempt was made to revive the _Maison du Roi_, but in + the constitutional régime of the second Restoration this semi-medieval + form of bodyguard was given up and replaced by the _Garde Royale_, a + selected fighting corps. This took part in the short war with Spain + and a portion of it fought in Algeria, but it was disbanded at the + July Revolution. Louis Philippe had no real guard troops, but the + memories of the Imperial Guard were revived by Napoleon III., who + formed a large guard corps in 1853-1854. This, however, was open to an + even greater degree than Napoleon I.'s guard to the objection that it + took away the best soldiers from the line. Since the fall of the + Empire in 1870 there have been no guard troops in France. The duty of + watching over the safety of the president is taken in the ordinary + roster of duty by the troops stationed in the capital. The "Republican + Guard" is the Paris gendarmerie, recruited from old soldiers and armed + and trained as a military body. + + In _Austria-Hungary_ there are only small bodies of household troops + (Archer Body Guard, Trabant Guard, Hungarian Crown Guards, &c.) + analogous to the British Gentlemen at Arms or Yeomen of the Guard. + Similar forces, the "Noble Guard" and the "Swiss Guard," are + maintained in the Vatican. The court troops of Spain are called + "halberdiers" and armed with the halbert. + + In _Russia_ the Guard is organized as an army corps. It possesses + special privileges, particularly as regards officers' advancement. + + In _Germany_ the distinction between armed retainers and "Guards" is + well marked. The army is for practical purposes a unit under imperial + control, while household troops ("castle-guards" as they are usually + called) belong individually to the various sovereigns within the + empire. The "Guards," as a combatant force in the army are those of + the king of _Prussia_ and constitute a strong army corps. This has + grown gradually from a bodyguard of archers, and, as in Great Britain, + the functions of the heavy cavalry regiments of the Guard preserve to + some extent the name and character of a body guard (_Gardes du + Corps_). The senior foot guard regiment is also personally connected + with the royal family. The conversion of a palace-guard to a combatant + force is due chiefly to Frederick William I., to whom drill was a + ruling passion, and who substituted effective regiments for the + ornamental "Trabant Guards" of his father. A further move was made by + Frederick the Great in substituting for Frederick William's expensive + "giant" regiment of guards a larger number of ordinary soldiers, whom + he subjected to the same rigorous training and made a _corps d'élite_. + Frederick the Great also formed the Body Guard alluded to above. + Nevertheless in 1806 the Guard still consisted only of two cavalry + regiments and four infantry regiments, and it was the example of + Napoleon's imperial guard which converted this force into a corps of + all arms. In 1813 its strength was that of a weak division, but in + 1860 by slight but frequent augmentations it had come to consist of an + army corps, complete with all auxiliary services. A few guard + regiments belonging to the minor sovereigns are counted in the line + of the German army. In war the Guard is employed as a unit, like other + army corps. It is recruited by the assignment of selected young men of + each annual contingent, and is thus free from the reproach of the + French Imperial Guard, which took the best-trained soldiers from the + regiments of the line. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The "Irish Guards" of the Stuarts took the side of James II., + fought against William III. in Ireland and lost their regimental + identity in the French service to which the officers and soldiers + transferred themselves on the abandonment of the struggle. + + + + +GUARD-SHIP, a warship stationed at some port or harbour to act as a +guard, and in former times in the British navy to receive the men +impressed for service. She usually was the flagship of the admiral +commanding on the coast. A guard-boat is a boat which goes the round of +a fleet at anchor to see that due watch is kept at night. + + + + +GUÁRICO, a large inland state of Venezuela created by the territorial +redivision of 1904, bounded by Aragua and Miranda on the N., Bermúdez on +the E., Bolívar on the S., and Zamora on the W. Pop. (1905 estimate), +78,117. It extends across the northern _llanos_ to the Orinoco and Apure +rivers and is devoted almost wholly to pastoral pursuits, exporting +cattle, horses and mules, hides and skins, cheese and some other +products. The capital is Calabozo, and the other principal towns are +Camaguán (pop. 3648) on the Portugueza river, Guayabal (pop. 3146), on a +small tributary of the Guárico river, and Zaraza (pop. 14,546) on the +Unare river, nearly 150 m. S.E. of Carácas. + + + + +GUARIENTO, sometimes incorrectly named GUERRIERO, the first Paduan +painter who distinguished himself. The only date distinctly known in his +career is 1365, when, having already acquired high renown in his native +city, he was invited by the Venetian authorities to paint a Paradise, +and some incidents of the war of Spoleto, in the great council-hall of +Venice. These works were greatly admired at the time, but have long ago +disappeared under repaintings. His works in Padua have suffered much. In +the church of the Eremitani are allegories of the Planets, and, in its +choir, some small sacred histories in dead colour, such as an Ecce Homo; +also, on the upper walls, the life of St Augustine, with some other +subjects. A few fragments of other paintings by Guariento are still +extant in Padua. In the gallery of Bassano is a Crucifixion, carefully +executed, and somewhat superior to a merely traditional method of +handling, although on the whole Guariento must rather be classed in that +school of art which preceded Cimabue than as having advanced in his +vestiges; likewise two other works in Bassano, ascribed to the same +hand. The painter is buried in the church of S. Bernardino, Padua. + + + + +GUARINI, CAMILLO-GUARINO (1624-1683), Italian monk, writer and +architect, was born at Modena in 1624. He was at once a learned +mathematician, professor of literature and philosophy at Messina, and, +from the age of seventeen, was architect to Duke Philibert of Savoy. He +designed a very large number of public and private buildings at Turin, +including the palaces of the duke of Savoy and the prince of Cacignan, +and many public buildings at Modena, Verona, Vienna, Prague, Lisbon and +Paris. He died at Milan in 1683. + + + + +GUARINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1537-1612), Italian poet, author of the +_Pastor fido_, was born at Ferrara on the 10th of December 1537, just +seven years before the birth of Tasso. He was descended from Guarino da +Verona. The young Battista studied both at Pisa and Padua, whence he was +called, when not yet twenty, to profess moral philosophy in the schools +of his native city. He inherited considerable wealth, and was able early +in life to marry Taddea de' Bendedei, a lady of good birth. In 1567 he +entered the service of Alphonso II., duke of Ferrara, thus beginning the +court career which was destined to prove a constant source of +disappointment and annoyance to him. Though he cultivated poetry for +pastime, Guarini aimed at state employment as the serious business of +his life, and managed to be sent on various embassies and missions by +his ducal master. There was, however, at the end of the 16th century no +opportunity for a man of energy and intellectual ability to distinguish +himself in the petty sphere of Italian diplomacy. The time too had +passed when the profession of a courtier, painted in such glowing terms +by Castiglione, could confer either profit or honour. It is true that +the court of Alphonso presented a brilliant spectacle to Europe, with +Tasso for titular poet, and an attractive circle of accomplished +ladies. But the last duke of Ferrara was an illiberal patron, feeding +his servants with promises, and ever ready to treat them with the +brutality that condemned the author of the _Gerusalemme liberata_ to a +madhouse. Guarini spent his time and money to little purpose, suffered +from the spite and ill-will of two successive secretaries,--Pigna and +Montecatini,--quarrelled with his old friend Tasso, and at the end of +fourteen years of service found himself half-ruined, with a large family +and no prospects. When Tasso was condemned to S. Anna, the duke promoted +Guarini to the vacant post of court poet. There is an interesting letter +extant from the latter to his friend Cornelio Bentivoglio, describing +the efforts he made to fill this place appropriately. "I strove to +transform myself into another person, and, like a player, reassumed the +character, costume and feelings of my youth. Advanced in manhood, I +forced myself to look young; I turned my natural melancholy into +artificial gaiety, affected loves I did not feel, exchanged wisdom for +folly, and, in a word, passed from a philosopher into a poet." How +ill-adapted he felt himself to this masquerade life may be gathered from +the following sentence: "I am already in my forty-fourth year, the +father of eight children, two of whom are old enough to be my censors, +while my daughters are of an age to marry." Abandoning so uncongenial a +strain upon his faculties, Guarini retired in 1582 to his ancestral +farm, the Villa Guarina, in the lovely country that lies between the +Adige and Po, where he gave himself up to the cares of his family, the +nursing of his dilapidated fortunes and the composition of the _Pastor +fido_. He was not happy in his domestic lot; for he had lost his wife +young, and quarrelled with his elder sons about the division of his +estate. Litigation seems to have been an inveterate vice with Guarini; +nor was he ever free from legal troubles. After studying his biography, +the conclusion is forced upon our minds that he was originally a man of +robust and virile intellect, ambitious of greatness, confident in his +own powers, and well qualified for serious affairs, whose energies found +no proper scope for their exercise. Literary work offered but a poor +sphere for such a character, while the enforced inactivity of court life +soured a naturally capricious and choleric temper. Of poetry he spoke +with a certain tone of condescension, professing to practise it only in +his leisure moments; nor are his miscellaneous verses of a quality to +secure for their author a very lasting reputation. It is therefore not a +little remarkable that the fruit of his retirement--a disappointed +courtier past the prime of early manhood--should have been a dramatic +masterpiece worthy to be ranked with the classics of Italian literature. +Deferring a further account of the _Pastor fido_ for the present, the +remaining incidents of Guarini's restless life may be briefly told. In +1585 he was at Turin superintending the first public performance of his +drama, whence Alphonso recalled him to Ferrara, and gave him the office +of secretary of state. This reconciliation between the poet and his +patron did not last long. Guarini moved to Florence, then to Rome, and +back again to Florence, where he established himself as the courtier of +Ferdinand de' Medici. A dishonourable marriage, pressed upon his son +Guarino by the grand-duke, roused the natural resentment of Guarini, +always scrupulous upon the point of honour. He abandoned the Medicean +court, and took refuge with Francesco Maria of Urbino, the last scion of +the Montefeltro-della-Rovere house. Yet he found no satisfaction at +Urbino. "The old court is a dead institution," he writes to a friend; +"one may see a shadow of it, but not the substance in Italy of to-day. +Ours is an age of appearances, and one goes a-masquerading all the +year." This was true enough. Those dwindling deadly-lively little +residence towns of Italian ducal families, whose day of glory was over, +and who were waiting to be slowly absorbed by the capacious appetite of +Austria, were no fit places for a man of energy and independence. +Guarini finally took refuge in his native Ferrara, which, since the +death of Alphonso, had now devolved to the papal see. Here, and at the +Villa Guarina, his last years were passed in study, law-suits, and +polemical disputes with his contemporary critics, until 1612, when he +died at Venice in his seventy-fifth year. + +The _Pastor fido_ (first published in 1590) is a pastoral drama composed +not without reminiscences of Tasso's _Aminta_. The scene is laid in +Arcadia, where Guarini supposes it to have been the custom to sacrifice +a maiden yearly to Diana. But an oracle has declared that when two +scions of divine lineage are united in marriage, and a faithful shepherd +has atoned for the ancient error of a faithless woman, this inhuman rite +shall cease. The plot turns upon the unexpected fulfilment of this +prophecy, contrary to all the schemes which had been devised for +bringing it to accomplishment, and in despite of apparent +improbabilities of divers kinds. It is extremely elaborate, and, +regarded as a piece of cunning mechanism, leaves nothing to be desired. +Each motive has been carefully prepared, each situation amply developed. +Yet, considered as a play, the _Pastor fido_ disappoints a reader +trained in the school of Sophocles or Shakespeare. The action itself +seems to take place off the stage, and only the results of action, +stationary tableaux representing the movement of the drama, are put +before us in the scenes. The art is lyrical, not merely in form but in +spirit, and in adaptation to the requirements of music which demands +stationary expressions of emotion for development. The characters have +been well considered, and are exhibited with great truth and vividness; +the cold and eager hunter Silvio contrasting with the tender and +romantic Mirtillo, and Corisca's meretricious arts enhancing the pure +affection of Amarilli. Dorinda presents another type of love so +impulsive that it prevails over a maiden's sense of shame, while the +courtier Carino brings the corruption of towns into comparison with the +innocence of the country. In Carino the poet painted his own experience, +and here his satire upon the court of Ferrara is none the less biting +because it is gravely measured. In Corisca he delineated a woman +vitiated by the same town life, and a very hideous portrait has he +drawn. Though a satirical element was thus introduced into the _Pastor +fido_ in order to relieve its ideal picture of Arcadia, the whole play +is but a study of contemporary feeling in Italian society. There is no +true rusticity whatever in the drama. This correspondence with the +spirit of the age secured its success during Guarini's lifetime; this +made it so dangerously seductive that Cardinal Bellarmine told the poet +he had done more harm to Christendom by his blandishments than Luther by +his heresy. Without anywhere transgressing the limits of decorum, the +_Pastor fido_ is steeped in sensuousness; and the immodesty of its +pictures is enhanced by rhetorical concealments more provocative than +nudity. Moreover, the love described is effeminate and wanton, felt less +as passion than as lust enveloped in a veil of sentiment. We divine the +coming age of _cicisbei_ and _castrati_. Of Guarini's style it would be +difficult to speak in terms of too high praise. The thought and +experience of a lifetime have been condensed in these five acts, and +have found expression in language brilliant, classical, chiselled to +perfection. Here and there the taste of the 17th century makes itself +felt in frigid conceits and forced antitheses; nor does Guarini abstain +from sententious maxims which reveal the moralist rather than the poet. +Yet these are but minor blemishes in a masterpiece of diction, +glittering and faultless like a polished bas-relief of hard Corinthian +bronze. That a single pastoral should occupy so prominent a place in the +history of literature seems astonishing, until we reflect that Italy, +upon the close of the 16th century, expressed itself in the _Pastor +fido_, and that the influence of this drama was felt through all the art +of Europe till the epoch of the Revolution. It is not a mere play. The +sensual refinement proper to an age of social decadence found in it the +most exact embodiment, and made it the code of gallantry for the next +two centuries. + + The best edition of the _Pastor fido_ is the 20th, published at Venice + (Ciotti) in 1602. The most convenient is that of Barbéra (Florence, + 1866). For Guarini's miscellaneous _Rime_, the Ferrara edition, in 4 + vols., 1737, may be consulted. His polemical writings, _Verato primo_ + and _secondo_, and his prose comedy called _Idropica_, were published + at Venice, Florence and Rome, between 1588 and 1614. (J. A. S.) + + + + +GUARINO, also known as VARINUS, and surnamed from his birthplace +FAVORINUS, PHAVORINUS or CAMERS (c. 1450-1537), Italian lexicographer +and scholar, was born at Favera near Camerino, studied Greek and Latin +at Florence under Politian, and afterwards became for a time the pupil +of Lascaris. Having entered the Benedictine order, he now gave himself +with great zeal to Greek lexicography; and in 1496 published his +_Thesaurus cornucopiae et horti Adonidis_, a collection of thirty-four +grammatical tracts in Greek. He for some time acted as tutor to Giovanni +dei Medici (afterwards Leo X.), and also held the appointment of keeper +of the Medicean library at Florence. In 1514 Leo appointed him bishop of +Nocera. In 1517 he published a translation of the _Apophthegmata_ of +Joannes Stobaeus, and in 1523 appeared his _Etymologicum magnum, sive +thesaurus universae linguae Graecae ex multis variisque autoribus +collectus_, a compilation which has been frequently reprinted, and which +has laid subsequent scholars under great though not always acknowledged +obligations. + + + + +GUARINO [GUARINUS] DA VERONA (1370-1460), one of the Italian restorers +of classical learning, was born in 1370 at Verona, and studied Greek at +Constantinople, where for five years he was the pupil of Manuel +Chrysoloras. When he set out on his return to Italy he was the happy +possessor of two cases of precious Greek MSS. which he had been at great +pains to collect; it is said that the loss of one of these by shipwreck +caused him such distress that his hair turned grey in a single night. He +supported himself as a teacher of Greek, first at Verona and afterwards +in Venice and Florence; in 1436 he became, through the patronage of +Lionel, marquis of Este, professor of Greek at Ferrara; and in 1438 and +following years he acted as interpreter for the Greeks at the councils +of Ferrara and Florence. He died at Ferrara on the 14th of December +1460. + + His principal works are translations of Strabo and of some of the + _Lives_ of Plutarch, a compendium of the Greek grammar of Chrysoloras, + and a series of commentaries on Persius, Juvenal, Martial and on some + of the writings of Aristotle and Cicero. See Rosmini, _Vita e + disciplina di Guarino_ (1805-1806); Sabbadini, _Guarino Veronese_ + (1885); Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ ii. (1908). + + + + +GUARNIERI, or GUARNERIUS, a celebrated family of violin-makers of +Cremona. The first was Andreas (c. 1626-1698), who worked with Antonio +Stradivari in the workshop of Nicolo Amati (son of Geronimo). Violins of +a model original to him are dated from the sign of "St Theresa" in +Cremona. His son Joseph (1666-c. 1739) made instruments at first like +his father's, but later in a style of his own with a narrow waist; his +son, Peter of Venice (b. 1695), was also a fine maker. Another son of +Andreas, Peter (Pietro Giovanni), commonly known as "Peter of Cremona" +(b. 1655), moved from Cremona and settled at Mantua, where he too worked +"sub signo Sanctae Teresae." Peter's violins again showed considerable +variations from those of the other Guarnieri. Hart, in his work on the +violin, says, "There is increased breadth between the sound-holes; the +sound-hole is rounder and more perpendicular; the middle bouts are more +contracted, and the model is more raised." + +The greatest of all the Guarnieri, however, was a nephew of Andreas, +Joseph del Gesù (1687-1745), whose title originates in the I.H.S. +inscribed on his tickets. His master was Gaspar di Salo. His conception +follows that of the early Brescian makers in the boldness of outline and +the massive construction which aim at the production of tone rather than +visual perfection of form. The great variety of his work in size, model, +&c., represents his various experiments in the direction of discovering +this tone. A stain or sap-mark, parallel with the finger-board on both +sides, appears on the bellies of most of his instruments. Since the +middle of the 18th century a great many spurious instruments ascribed to +this master have poured over Europe. It was not until Paganini played on +a "Joseph" that the taste of amateurs turned from the sweetness of the +Amati and the Stradivarius violins in favour of the robuster tone of the +Joseph Guarnerius. See VIOLIN. + + + + +GUASTALLA, a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, in the province of +Reggio, from which it is 18 m. N. by road, on the S. bank of the Po, 79 +ft. above sea-level. It is also connected by rail with Parma and Mantua +(via Suzzara). Pop. (1901), 2658 (town); 11,091 (commune). It has +16th-century fortifications. The cathedral, dating from the 10th +century, has been frequently restored. Guastalla was founded by the +Lombards in the 7th century; in the church of the Pieve Pope Paschal II. +held a council in 1106. In 1307 it was seized by Giberto da Correggio of +Parma. In 1403 it passed to Guido Torello, cousin of Filippo Maria +Visconti of Milan. In 1539 it was sold by the last female descendant of +the Torelli to Ferrante Gonzaga. In 1621 it was made the seat of a +duchy, but in 1748 it was added to those of Parma and Piacenza, whose +history it subsequently followed. + + + + +GUATEMALA (sometimes incorrectly written GUATIMALA), a name now +restricted to the republic of Guatemala and to its chief city, but +formerly given to a captaincy-general of Spanish America, which included +the fifteen provinces of Chiapas, Suchitepeques, Escuintla, Sonsonate, +San Salvador, Vera Paz and Peten, Chiquimula, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa +Rica, Totonicapam, Quezaltenango, Sololá, Chimaltenango and +Sacatepeques,--or, in other words, the whole of Central America (except +Panama) and part of Mexico. The name is probably of Aztec origin, and is +said by some authorities to mean in its native form Quauhtematlan, "Land +of the Eagle," or "Land of Forest"; others, writing it U-ha-tez-ma-la, +connect it with the volcano of Agua (i.e. "water"), and interpret it as +"mountain vomiting water." + +The republic of Guatemala is situated between 13° 42´ and 17° 49´ N., +and 88° 10´ and 92° 30´ W. (For map, see CENTRAL AMERICA.) Pop. (1903), +1,842,134; area about 48,250 sq. m. Guatemala is bounded on the W. and +N. by Mexico, N.E. by British Honduras, E. by the Gulf of Honduras, and +the republic of Honduras, S.E. by Salvador and S. by the Pacific Ocean. +The frontier towards Mexico was determined by conventions of the 27th of +September 1882, the 17th of October 1883, the 1st of April 1895, and the +8th of May 1899. Starting from the Pacific, it ascends the river +Suchiate, then follows an irregular line towards the north-east, till it +reaches the parallel of 17° 49[min] N., along which it runs to the +frontier of British Honduras. This frontier, by the convention of the +9th of July 1893, coincides with the meridian of 89° 20[min] W., till it +meets the river Sarstoon or Sarstun, which it follows eastwards to the +Gulf of Honduras. + + _Physical Description._--Guatemala is naturally divided into five + regions--the lowlands of the Pacific coast, the volcanic mountains of + the Sierra Madre, the so-called plateaus immediately north of these, + the mountains of the Atlantic versant and the plain of Peten. (1) The + coastal plains extend along the entire southern seaboard, with a mean + breadth of 50 m., and link together the belts of similar territory in + Salvador and the district of Soconusco in Chiapas. Owing to their + tropical heat, low elevation above sea-level, and marshy soil, they + are thinly peopled, and contain few important towns except the + seaports. (2) The precipitous barrier of the Sierra Madre, which + closes in the coastal plains on the north, is similarly prolonged into + Salvador and Mexico. It is known near Guatemala city as the Sierra de + las Nubes, and enters Mexico as the Sierra de Istatan. It forms the + main watershed between the Pacific and Atlantic river systems. Its + summit is not a well-defined crest, but is often rounded or flattened + into a table-land. The direction of the great volcanic cones, which + rise in an irregular line above it, is not identical with the main + axis of the Sierra itself, except near the Mexican frontier, but has a + more southerly trend, especially towards Salvador; here the base of + many of the igneous peaks rests among the southern foothills of the + range. It is, however, impossible to subdivide the Sierra Madre into a + northern and a volcanic chain; for the volcanoes are isolated by + stretches of comparatively low country; at least thirteen considerable + streams flow down between them, from the main watershed to the sea. + Viewed from the coast, the volcanic cones seem to rise directly from + the central heights of the Sierra Madre, above which they tower; but + in reality their bases are, as a rule, farther south. East of Tacana, + which marks the Mexican frontier, and is variously estimated at 13,976 + ft. and 13,090 ft., and if the higher estimate be correct is the + loftiest peak in Central America, the principal volcanoes + are--Tajamulco or Tajumulco (13,517 ft.); Santa Maria (12,467 ft.), + which was in eruption during 1902, after centuries of quiescence, in + which its slopes had been overgrown by dense forests; Atitlán + (11,719), overlooking the lake of that name; Acatenango (13,615). + which shares the claim of Tacana to be the highest mountain of Central + America; Fuego (i.e. "fire," variously estimated at 12,795 ft. and + 12,582 ft.), which received its name from its activity at the time of + the Spanish conquest; Agua (i.e. "water," 12,139 ft.), so named in + 1541 because it destroyed the former capital of Guatemala with a + deluge of water from its flooded crater; and Pacaya (8390), a group of + igneous peaks which were in eruption in 1870. (3) The so-called + plateaus which extend north of the Sierra Madre are in fact high + valleys, rather than table-lands, enclosed by mountains. A better idea + of this region is conveyed by the native name Altos, or highlands, + although that term includes the northern declivity of the Sierra + Madre. The mean elevation is greatest in the west (Altos of + Quezaltenango) and least in the east (Altos of Guatemala). A few of + the streams of the Pacific slope actually rise in the Altos, and force + a way through the Sierra Madre at the bottom of deep ravines. One + large river, the Chixoy, escapes northwards towards the Atlantic. (4) + The relief of the mountainous country which lies north of the Altos + and drains into the Atlantic is varied by innumerable terraces, ridges + and underfalls; but its general configuration is admirably compared by + E. Reclus with the appearance of "a stormy sea breaking into parallel + billows" (_Universal Geography_, ed. E. G. Ravenstein, div. xxxiii., + p. 212). The parallel ranges extend east and west with a slight + southerly curve towards their centres. A range called the Sierra de + Chama, which, however, changes its name frequently from place to + place, strikes eastward towards British Honduras, and is connected by + low hills with the Cockscomb Mountains; another similar range, the + Sierra de Santa Cruz, continues east to Cape Cocoli between the + Polochic and the Sarstoon; and a third, the Sierra de las Minas or, in + its eastern portion, Sierra del Mico, stretches between the Polochic + and the Motagua. Between Honduras and Guatemala the frontier is formed + by the Sierra de Merendon. (5) The great plain of Peten, which + comprises about one-third of the whole area of Guatemala, belongs + geographically to the Yucatan Peninsula, and consists of level or + undulating country, covered with grass or forest. Its population + numbers less than two per sq. m., although many districts have a + wonderfully fertile soil and abundance of water. The greater part of + this region is uncultivated, and only utilized as pasture by the + Indians, who form the majority of its inhabitants. + + Guatemala is richly watered. On the western side of the sierras the + versant is short, and the streams, while very numerous, are + consequently small and rapid; but on the eastern side a number of the + rivers attain a very considerable development. The Motagua, whose + principal head stream is called the Rio Grande, has a course of about + 250 m., and is navigable to within 90 m. of the capital, which is + situated on one of its confluents, the Rio de las Vacas. It forms a + delta on the south of the Gulf of Honduras. Of similar importance is + the Polochic, which is about 180 m. in length, and navigable about 20 + m. above the river-port of Telemán. Before reaching the Golfo Amatique + it passes through the Golfo Dulce, or Izabal Lake, and the Golfete + Dulce. A vast number of streams, among which are the Chixoy, the + Guadalupe, and the Rio de la Pasion, unite to form the Usumacinta, + whose noble current passes along the Mexican frontier, and flowing on + through Chiapas and Tabasco, falls into the Bay of Campeche. The + Chiapas follows a similar course. + + There are several extensive lakes in Guatemala. The Lake of Peten or + Laguna de Flores, in the centre of the department of Peten, is an + irregular basin about 27 m. long, with an extreme breadth of 13 m. In + an island in the western portion stands Flores, a town well known to + American antiquaries for the number of ancient idols which have been + recovered from its soil. On the shore of the lake is the stalactite + cave of Jobitsinal, of great local celebrity; and in its depths, + according to the popular legend, may still be discerned the stone + image of a horse that belonged to Cortes. The Golfo Dulce is, as its + name implies, a fresh-water lake, although so near the Atlantic. It is + about 36 m. long, and would be of considerable value as a harbour if + the bar at the mouth of the Rio Dulce did not prevent the upward + passage of seafaring vessels. As a contrast the Lake of Atitlán (q.v.) + is a land-locked basin encompassed with lofty mountains. About 9 m. S. + of the capital lies the Lake of Amatitlán (q.v.) with the town of the + same name. On the borders of Salvador and Guatemala there is the Lake + of Guija, about 20 m. long and 12 broad, at a height of 2100 ft. above + the sea. It is connected by the river Ostuma with the Lake of Ayarza + which lies about 1000 ft. higher at the foot of the Sierra Madre. + + The geology, fauna and flora of Guatemala are discussed under CENTRAL + AMERICA. The bird-life of the country is remarkably rich; one bird of + magnificent plumage, the quetzal, quijal or quesal (_Trogon + resplendens_), has been chosen as the national emblem. + + _Climate._--The climate is healthy, except on the coasts, where + malarial fever is prevalent. The rainy season in the interior lasts + from May to October, but on the coast sometimes continues till + December. The coldest month is January, and the warmest is May. The + average temperatures for these months at places of different + altitudes, as given by Dr Karl Sapper, are shown on the following + page. + + The average rainfall is very heavy, especially on the Atlantic slope, + where the prevailing winds are charged with moisture from the Gulf of + Mexico or the Caribbean Sea; at Tual, a high station on the Atlantic + slope, it reaches 195 in.; in central Guatemala it is only 27 in. + Towards the Atlantic rain often occurs in the dry season, and there is + a local saying near the Golfo Dulce that "it rains thirteen months in + the year." Fogs are not rare. In Guatemala, as in other parts of + Central America (q.v.), each of the three climatic zones, cold, + temperate and hot (_tierra fria_, _tierra templada_, _tierra + caliente_) has its special characteristics, and it is not easy to + generalize about the climate of the country as a whole. + + +----------------+----------+--------------------+ + | | Altitude | Fahrenheit Degrees.| + | Locality. | (Feet). +--------------------+ + | | | January. | May. | + +----------------+----------+-----------+--------+ + | Puerto Barrios | 6 | 74 | 81 | + | Salamá | 3020 | 68 | 77 | + | Campur | 3050 | 64 | 73 | + | Chimax | 4280 | 61 | 68 | + | Guatemala | 4870 | 60 | 67 | + | Quezaltenango | 7710 | 50 | 62 | + +----------------+----------+-----------+--------+ + + _Natural Products._--The minerals discovered in Guatemala include + gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, mercury, antimony, coal, salt and + sulphur; but it is uncertain if many of these exist in quantities + sufficient to repay exploitation. Gold is obtained at Las Quebradas + near Izabal, silver in the departments of Santa Rosa and Chiquimula, + salt in those of Santa Rosa and Alta Vera Paz. During the 17th century + gold-washing was carried on by English miners in the Motagua valley, + and is said to have yielded rich profits; hence the name of "Gold + Coast" was not infrequently given to the Atlantic littoral near the + mouth of the Motagua. + + The area of forest has only been seriously diminished in the west, and + amounted to 2030 sq. m. in 1904. Besides rubber, it yields many + valuable dye-woods and cabinet-woods, such as cedar, mahogany and + logwood. Fruits, grain and medicinal plants are obtained in great + abundance, especially where the soil is largely of volcanic origin, as + in the Altos and Sierra Madre. Parts of the Peten district are equally + fertile, maize in this region yielding two hundredfold from unmanured + soil. The vegetable products of Guatemala include coffee, cocoa, + sugar-cane, bananas, oranges, vanilla, aloes, agave, ipecacuanha, + castor-oil, sarsaparilla, cinchona, tobacco, indigo and the wax-plant + (_Myrica cerifera_). + +_Inhabitants._--The inhabitants of Guatemala, who tend to increase +rapidly owing to the high birth-rate, low mortality, and low rate of +emigration, numbered in 1903 1,842,134, or more than one-third of the +entire population of Central America. Fully 60% are pure Indians, and +the remainder, classed as _Ladinos_ or "Latins" (i.e. Spaniards in +speech and mode of life), comprise a large majority of half-castes +(_mestizos_) and civilized Indians and a smaller proportion of whites. +It includes a foreign population of about 12,000 Europeans and North +Americans, among them being many Jews from the west of the United +States. There are important German agricultural settlements, and many +colonists from north Italy who are locally called _Tiroleses_, and +despised by the Indians for their industry and thrift. About half the +births among the Indians and one-third among the whites are +illegitimate. + +No part of Central America contains a greater diversity of tribes, and +in 1883 Otto Stoll estimated the number of spoken languages as eighteen, +although east of the meridian of Lake Amatitlán the native speech has +almost entirely disappeared and been replaced by Spanish. The Indians +belong chiefly to the Maya stock, which predominates throughout Peten, +or to the allied Quiché race which is well represented in the Altos and +central districts. The Itzas, Mopans, Lacandons, Chols, Pokonchi and the +Pokomans who inhabit the large settlement of Mixco near the capital, all +belong to the Maya family; but parts of central and eastern Guatemala +are peopled by tribes distinct from the Mayas and not found in Mexico. +In the 16th century the Mayas and Quichés had attained a high level of +civilization (see CENTRAL AMERICA, _Archaeology_), and at least two of +the Guatemalan languages, Quiché and Cakchiquel, possess the rudiments +or the relics of a literature. The Quiché _Popol Vuh_, or "Book of +History," which was translated into Spanish by the Dominican friar +Ximenes, and edited with a French version by Brasseur de Bourbourg, is +an important document for students of the local myths. In appearance the +various Guatemalan tribes differ very little; in almost all the +characteristic type of Indian is short but muscular, with low forehead, +prominent cheek-bones and straight black hair. In character the Indians +are, as a rule, peaceable, though conscious of their numerical +superiority and at times driven to join in the revolutions which so +often disturb the course of local politics; they are often intensely +religious, but with a few exceptions are thriftless, indolent and +inveterate gamblers. Their _confradias_, or brotherhoods, each with its +patron saint and male and female chiefs, exist largely to organize +public festivals, and to purchase wooden masks, costumes and decorations +for the dances and dramas in which the Indians delight. These dramas, +which deal with religious and historical subjects, are of Indian origin, +and somewhat resemble the mystery-plays of medieval Europe, a +resemblance heightened by the introduction, due to Spanish missionaries, +of Christian saints and heroes such as Charlemagne. The Indians are +devoted to bull-fighting and cock-fighting. Choral singing is a popular +amusement, and is accompanied by the Spanish guitar and native +wind-instruments. The Indians have a habit of consuming a yellowish +edible earth containing sulphur; on pilgrimages they obtain images +moulded of this earth at the shrines they visit, and eat the images as a +prophylactic against disease. Maize, beans and bananas, varied +occasionally with dried meat and fresh pork, form their staple diet; +drunkenness is common on pay-days and festivals, when large quantities +of a fiery brandy called _chicha_ are consumed. + + _Chief Towns._--The capital of the republic, Guatemala or Guatemala la + Nueva (pop. 1905 about 97,000) and the cities of Quezaltenango + (31,000), Totonicapam (28,000), Coban (25,000), Sololá (17,000), + Escuintla (12,000), Huehuetanango (12,000), Amatitlán (10,000) and + Atitlán (9000) are described under separate headings. All the chief + towns except the seaports are situated within the mountainous region + where the climate is temperate. Retalhuleu, among the southern + foothills of the Sierra Madre, is one of the centres of coffee + production, and is connected by rail with the Pacific port of + Champerico, a very unhealthy place in the wet season. Both Retalhuleu + and Champerico were, like Quezaltenango, Sololá, and other towns, + temporarily ruined by the earthquake of the 18th of April 1902. Santa + Cruz Quiché, 25 m. N.E. of Totonicapam, was formerly the capital of + the Quiché kings, but has now a Ladino population. Livingston, a + seaport at the mouth of the Polochic (here called the Rio Dulce), was + founded in 1806, and subsequently named after the author of a code of + Guatemalan laws; few vestiges remain of the Spanish settlement of + Sevilla la Nueva, founded in 1844, and of the English colony of + Abbotsville, founded in 1825,--both near Livingston. La Libertad, also + called by its Indian name of Sacluc, is the principal town of Peten. + + _Shipping and Communications._--The republic is in regular steam + communication on the Atlantic side with New Orleans, New York and + Hamburg, by vessels which visit the ports of Barrios (Santo Tomas) and + Livingston. On the southern side the ports of San José, Champerico and + Ocós are visited by the Pacific mail steamers, by the vessels of a + Hamburg company and by those of the South American (Chilean) and the + Pacific Steam Navigation Companies. Iztapa, formerly the principal + harbour on the south coast, has been almost entirely abandoned since + 1853. Gualan, on the Motagua, and Panzos, on the Polochic, are small + river-ports. The principal towns are connected by wagon roads, towards + the construction and maintenance of which each male inhabitant is + required to pay two pesos or give four days' work a year. There are + coach routes between the capital and Quezaltenango, but over a great + portion of the country transport is still on mule-back. All the + railway lines have been built since 1875. The main lines are the + Southern, belonging to an American company and running from San José + to the capital; the Northern, a government line from the capital to + Puerto Barrios, which completes the interoceanic railroad; and the + Western, from Champerico to Quezaltenango, belonging to a Guatemalan + company, but largely under German management. For local traffic there + are several lines; one from Iztapa, near San José, to Naranjo, and + another from Ocós to the western coffee plantations. On the Atlantic + slope transport is effected mainly by river tow-boats from Livingston + along the Golfo Dulce and other lakes, and the Polochic river as far + as Panzos. The narrow-gauge railway that serves the German plantations + in the Vera Paz region is largely owned by Germans. + + Guatemala joined the Postal Union in 1881; but its postal and + telegraphic services have suffered greatly from financial + difficulties. The telephonic systems of Guatemala la Nueva, + Quezaltenango and other cities are owned by private companies. + + _Commerce and Industry._--The natural resources of Guatemala are rich + but undeveloped; and the capital necessary for their development is + not easily obtained in a country where war, revolution and economic + crises recur at frequent intervals, where the premium on gold has + varied by no less than 500% in a single year, and where many of the + wealthiest cities and agricultural districts have been destroyed by + earthquake in one day (18th of April 1902). At the beginning of the + 19th century, Guatemala had practically no export trade; but between + 1825 and 1850 cochineal was largely exported, the centre of production + being the Amatitlán district. This industry was ruined by the + competition of chemical dyes, and a substitute was found in the + cultivation of coffee. Guatemala is surpassed only by Brazil and the + East Indies in the quantity of coffee it exports. The chief + plantations are owned and managed by Germans; more than half of the + crop is sent to Germany, while three-fifths of the remainder go to the + United States and one-fifth to Great Britain. The average yearly + product is about 70,000,000 lb., worth approximately £1,300,000, and + subject to an export duty of one gold dollar (4s.) per quintal (101 + lb.). Sugar, bananas, tobacco and cocoa are also cultivated; but much + of the sugar and bananas, most of the cocoa, and all the tobacco are + consumed in the country. During the colonial period, the cocoa of + western Guatemala and Soconusco was reserved on account of its fine + flavour for the Spanish court. The indigo and cotton plantations yield + little profit, owing to foreign competition, and have in most cases + been converted to other uses. The cultivation of bananas tends to + increase, though more slowly than in other Central American countries. + Grain, sweet potatoes and beans are grown for home consumption. + Cattle-farming is carried on in the high pasture-lands and the plains + of Peten; but the whole number of sheep (77,000 in 1900) and pigs + (30,000) in the republic is inferior to the number kept in many single + English counties. Much of the wool is sold, like the native cotton, to + Indian and Ladino women, who manufacture coarse cloth and linen in + their homes. + + By the Land Act of 1894 the state domains, except on the coasts and + frontiers, were divided into lots for sale. The largest holding + tenable by one person under this act was fixed at 50 caballerias, or + 5625 acres; the price varies from £40 to £80 per caballeria of 112½ + acres. Free grants of uncultivated land are sometimes made to + immigrants (including foreign companies), to persons who undertake to + build roads or railways through their allotments, to towns, villages + and schools. The condition of the Indians on the plantations is often + akin to slavery, owing to the system adopted by some planters of + making payments in advance; for the Indians soon spend their earnings, + and thus contract debts which can only be repaid by long service. + + In addition to the breweries, rum and brandy distilleries, sugar mills + and tobacco factories, which are sometimes worked as adjuncts to the + plantations, there are many purely urban industries, such as the + manufacture of woollen and cotton goods on a large scale, and + manufactures of building material and furniture; but these industries + are far less important than agriculture. + + During the five years 1900 to 1904 inclusive, the average value of + Guatemalan imports, which consisted chiefly of textiles, iron and + machinery, sacks, provisions, flour, beer, wine and spirits, amounted + to £776,000; about one-half came from the United States, and nearly + one-fourth from the United Kingdom. The exports during the same period + had an average value of £1,528,000, and ranked as follows in order of + value: coffee (£1,300,000), timber, hides, rubber, sugar, bananas, + cocoa. + + _Finance._--Within the republic there are six banks of issue, to which + the government is deeply indebted. There is practically neither gold + nor silver in circulation, and the value of the bank-notes is so + fluctuating that trade is seriously hampered. On the 25th of June + 1903, the issue of bank-notes without a guarantee was restricted; and + thenceforward all banks were compelled to retain gold or silver to the + value of 10% of the notes issued in 1904, 20% in 1905 and 30% in 1906. + This reform has not, to any appreciable extent, rendered more stable + the value of the notes issued. The silver peso, or dollar, of 100 + centavas is the monetary unit, weighs 25 grammes .900 fine, and has a + nominal value of 4s. Being no longer current it has been replaced by + the paper peso. The nickel coins include the real (nominal value 6d.), + half-real and quarter-real. The metric system of weights and measures + has been adopted, but the old Spanish standards remain in general use. + + Of the revenue, about 64% is derived from customs and excise; 9% from + property, road, military, slaughter and salt taxes; 1.7% from the + gunpowder monopoly; and the remainder from various taxes, stamps, + government lands, and postal and telegraph services. The estimated + revenue for 1905-1906 was 23,000,000 pesos (about £328,500); the + estimated expenditure was 27,317,659 pesos (£390,200), of which + £242,800 were allotted to the public debt, £42,000 to internal + development and justice, £29,000 to the army and the remainder largely + to education. The gold value of the currency peso (75 = £1 in 1903, 70 + = £1 in 1904, 58 = £1 in 1905) fluctuates between limits so wide that + conversion into sterling (especially for a series of years), with any + pretension to accuracy, is impracticable. In 1899 the rate of exchange + moved between 710% and 206% premium on gold. According to the official + statement, the gold debt, which runs chiefly at 4% and is held in + Germany and England, amounted to £1,987,905 on the 1st of January + 1905; the currency debt (note issues, internal loans, &c.) amounted to + £704,730; total £2,692,635, a decrease since 1900 of about £300,000. + +_Government._--According to the constitution of December 1879 (modified +in 1885, 1887, 1889 and 1903) the legislative power is vested in a +national assembly of 69 deputies (1 for every 20,000 inhabitants) chosen +for 4 years by direct popular vote, under universal manhood suffrage. +The president of the republic is elected in a similar manner, but for 6 +years, and he is theoretically not eligible for the following term. He +is assisted by 6 ministers, heads of government departments, and by a +council of state of 13 members, partly appointed by himself and partly +by the national assembly. + +_Local Government._--Each of the twenty-two departments is administered +by an official called a _jefe politico_, or political chief, appointed +by the president, and each is subdivided into municipal districts. These +districts are administered by one or more _alcaldes_ or mayors, assisted +by municipal councils, both alcaldes and councils being chosen by the +people. + +_Justice._--The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, consisting +of a chief justice and four associate justices elected by the people; +six appeal courts, each with three judges, also elected by the people; +and twenty-six courts of first instance, each consisting of one judge +appointed by the president and two by the chief justice of the supreme +court. + +_Religion and Instruction._--The prevailing form of religion is the +Roman Catholic, but the state recognizes no distinction of creed. The +establishment of conventual or monastic institutions is prohibited. Of +the population in 1893, 90% could neither read nor write, 2% could only +read, and 8% could read and write. Primary instruction is nominally +compulsory, and, in government schools, is provided at the cost of the +state. In 1903 there were 1064 government primary schools. There are +besides about 128 private (occasionally aided) schools of similar +character, owners of plantations on which there are more than ten +children being obliged to provide school accommodation. Higher +instruction is given in two national institutes at the capital, one for +men with 500 pupils and one for women with 300. At Quezaltenango there +are two similar institutes, and at Chiquimula there are other two. To +each of the six there is a school for teachers attached, and within the +republic there are four other schools for teachers. For professional +instruction (law, medicine, engineering) there are schools supported by +private funds, but aided occasionally by the government. Other +educational establishments are a school of art, a national conservatory +of music, a commercial college, four trades' schools with more than 600 +pupils and a national library. There is a German school, endowed by the +German government. + +_Defence._--For the white and mixed population military service is +compulsory; from the eighteenth to the thirtieth year of age in the +active army, and from the thirtieth to the fiftieth in the reserve. The +effective force of the active army is 56,900, of the reserve 29,400. +About 7000 officers and men are kept in regular service. Military +training is given in all public and most private schools. + +_History._--Guatemala was conquered by the Spaniards under Pedro de +Alvarado between 1522 and 1524. Up to the years 1837-1839 its history +differs only in minor details from that of the neighbouring states of +Central America (q.v.). The colonial period was marked by the +destruction of the ancient Indian civilization, the extermination of +many entire tribes, and the enslavement of the survivors, who were +exploited to the utmost for the benefit of Spanish officials and +adventurers. But although the administration was weak, corrupt and +cruel, it succeeded in establishing the Roman Catholic religion, and in +introducing the Spanish language among the Indians and Ladinos, who thus +obtained a tincture of civilization and ultimately a desire for more +liberal institutions. The Central American provinces revolted in 1821, +were annexed to the Mexican empire of Iturbide from 1822 to 1823, and +united to form a federal republic from 1823 to 1839. In Guatemala the +Clerical, Conservative or anti-Federal party was supreme; after a +protracted struggle it overthrew the Liberals or Federalists, and +declared the country an independent republic, with Rafael Carrera +(1814-1865) as president. In 1845 an attempt to restore the federal +union failed; in 1851 Carrera defeated the Federalist forces of Honduras +and Salvador at La Arada near Chiquimula, and was recognized as the +pacificator of the republic. In 1851 a new constitution was promulgated, +and Carrera was appointed president till 1856, a dignity which was in +1854 bestowed upon him for life. His rivalry with Gerardo Barrios (d. +1865), president of Salvador, resulted in open war in 1863. At +Coatepeque the Guatemalans suffered a severe defeat, which was followed +by a truce. Honduras now joined with Salvador, and Nicaragua and Costa +Rica with Guatemala. The contest was finally settled in favour of +Carrera, who besieged and occupied San Salvador and made himself +dominant also in Honduras and Nicaragua. During the rest of his rule, +which lasted till his death in April 1865, he continued to act in +concert with the Clerical party, and endeavoured to maintain friendly +relations with the European governments. Carrera's successor was General +Cerna, who had been recommended by him for election. The Liberal party +began to rise in influence about 1870, and in May 1871 Cerna was +deposed. The archbishop of Guatemala and the Jesuits were driven into +exile as intriguers in the interests of the Clericals. Pres. Rufino +Barrios (1835-1885), elected in 1873, governed the country after the +manner of a dictator; he expelled the Jesuits, confiscated their +property and disestablished and disendowed the church. But though he +encouraged education, promoted railway and other enterprises, and +succeeded in settling difficulties as to the Mexican boundary, the +general result of his policy was baneful. Conspiracies against him were +rife, and in 1884 he narrowly escaped assassination. His ambition was to +be the restorer of the federal union of the Central American states, and +when his efforts towards this end by peaceful means failed he had +recourse to the sword. Counting on the support of Honduras and Salvador, +he proclaimed himself, in February 1885, the supreme military chief of +Central America, and claimed the command of all the forces within the +five states. President Zaldívar, of Salvador, had been his friend, but +after the issue of the decree of union he entered into a defensive +alliance with Costa Rica and Nicaragua. In March Barrios invaded +Salvador, and on the 2nd of April a battle was fought, in which the +Guatemalan president was killed. He was succeeded by General Manuel +Barillas. No further effort was made to force on the union, and on the +16th of April the war was formally ended. Peace, however, only provided +opportunity for domestic conspiracy, with assassination and revolution +in view. In 1892 General José Maria Reina Barrios was elected president, +and in 1897 he was re-elected; but on the 8th of February 1898 he was +assassinated. Señor Morales, vice-president, succeeded him; but in the +same year Don Manuel Estrada Cabrera (b. 1857) was elected president for +the term ending 1905. Cabrera promoted education, commerce and the +improvement of communications, but his re-election for the term +1905-1911 caused widespread discontent. He was charged with aiming at a +dictatorship, with permitting or even encouraging the imprisonment, +torture and execution without trial of political opponents, with +maladministration of the finances and with aggression against the +neighbouring states. A well-armed force, which included a body of +adventurers from San Francisco (U.S.A.) was organized by General +Barillas, the ex-president, and invaded Guatemala in March 1906 from +Mexico, British Honduras and Salvador. Barillas (1845-1907) proclaimed +his intention of establishing a silver currency, and gained, to a great +extent, the sympathy of the German and British residents; he had been +the sole Guatemalan president who had not sought to prolong his own +tenure of office. Ocós was captured by his lieutenant, General Castillo, +and the revolution speedily became a war, in which Honduras, Costa Rica +and Salvador were openly involved against Guatemala, while Nicaragua was +hostile. But Cabrera held his ground, and even gained several indecisive +victories. The intervention of President Roosevelt and of President Diaz +of Mexico brought about an armistice on the 19th of July, and the +so-called "Marblehead Pact" was signed on the following day on board the +United States cruiser "Marblehead." Its terms were embodied in a treaty +signed (28th of September) by representatives of the four belligerent +states, Nicaragua taking no part in the negotiations. The treaty +included regulations for the improvement of commerce and navigation in +the area affected by the war, and provided for the settlement of +subsequent disputes by the arbitration of the United States and Mexico. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Besides the works cited under CENTRAL AMERICA see the + interesting narrative of Thomas Gage, the English missionary, in + Juarros, _Compendio de la historia de Guatemala_ (1808-1818, 2 vols.; + new ed., 1857), which in Bailly's English translation (London, 1823) + long formed the chief authority. See also C. Juan Anino, _La Republica + de Guatemala_ (Guatemala, 1894); T. Brigham, _Guatemala, The Land of + the Quetzal_ (London, 1887); J. M. Caceres, _Geografia de + Centro-America_ (Paris, 1882); G. Lemale, _Guia geografica de los + centros de poblacion de la republica de Guatemala_ (Guatemala, 1882); + F. A. de Fuentes y Guzman, _Historia de Guatemala o Recordacion + Florida_ (Madrid, 1882); A. C. and A. P. Maudslay, _A Glimpse at + Guatemala, and some Notes on the Ancient Monuments of Central America_ + (London, 1899); Gustavo Niederlein, _The Republic of Guatemala_ + (Philadelphia, 1898); Ramon A. Salazar, _Historia del disenvolvimiento + intelectual de Guatemala_, vol. i. (Guatemala, 1897); Otto Stoll, + _Reisen und Schilderungen aus den Jahren 1878-1883_ (Leipzig, 1886); + J. Mendez, _Guia del immigrante en la republica de Guatemala_ + (Guatemala, 1895); Karl Sapper, "Grundzüge der physikalischen + Geographie von Guatemala," Ergänzungsheft No. 115, _Petermann's + Mitteilungen_ (Gotha, 1894); _Anuario de estadistica de la republica + de Guatemala_ (Guatemala); _Memoria de la Secretaria de Instruccion + Publica_ (Guatemala, 1899); _Handbook of Guatemala_, revised (Bureau + of the American Republics, Washington, 1897); _United States Consular + Reports_ (Washington); _British Foreign Office Diplomatic and Consular + Reports_ (London). + + + + +GUATEMALA, or GUATEMALA LA NUEVA (i.e. "New Guatemala," sometimes +written Nueva Guatemala, and formerly Santiago de los Caballeros de +Guatemala), the capital of the republic of Guatemala, and until 1821 of +the Spanish captaincy-general of Guatemala, which comprised Chiapas in +Mexico and all Central America except Panama. Pop. (1905) about 97,000. +Guatemala is built more than 5000 ft. above sea-level, in a wide +table-land traversed by the Rio de las Vacas, or Cow River, so called +from the cattle introduced here by Spanish colonists in the 16th +century. Deep ravines mark the edge of the table-land, and beyond it +lofty mountains rise on every side, the highest peaks being on the +south, where the volcanic summits of the Sierra Madre exceed 12,000 ft. +Guatemala has a station on the transcontinental railway from Puerto +Barrios on the Atlantic (190 m. N.E.) to San José on the Pacific (75 m. +S. by W.). It is thrice the size of any other city in the republic, and +has a corresponding commercial superiority. Its archbishop is the +primate of Central America (excluding Panama). Like most +Spanish-American towns Guatemala is laid out in wide and regular +streets, often planted with avenues of trees, and it has extensive +suburbs. The houses, though usually of only one storey, are solidly and +comfortably constructed; many of them are surrounded by large gardens +and courts. Among the open spaces the chief are the Plaza Mayor, which +contains the cathedral, erected in 1730, the archiepiscopal palace, the +government buildings, the mint and other public offices; and the more +modern Reforma Park and Plaza de la Concordia, now the favourite resorts +of the inhabitants. There are many large schools for both sexes, besides +hospitals and an orphanage. Many of the principal buildings, such as the +military academy, were originally convents. The theatre, founded in +1858, is one of the best in Central America. A museum, founded in 1831, +is maintained by the Sociedad Economica, which in various ways has done +great service to the city and the country. There are two fortresses, the +Castello Matamoros, built by Rafael Carrera (see GUATEMALA [republic] +under _History_), and the Castello de San José. Water is brought from a +distance of about 8 m. by two old aqueducts from the towns of Mixco and +Pinula; fuel and provisions are largely supplied by the Pokoman Indians +of Mixco. The general prosperity, and to some extent the appearance, of +Guatemala have procured it the name of the Paris of Central America. It +is lighted by electricity and has a good telephone service. Its trade is +chiefly in coffee, but it also possesses cigar factories, wool and +cotton factories, breweries, tanneries and other industrial +establishments. The foreign trade is chiefly controlled by Germans. + +The first city named Guatemala, now called Ciudad Vieja or "Old City," +was founded in 1527 by Pedro de Alvarado, the conqueror of the country, +on the banks of the Rio Pensativo, and at the foot of the volcano of +Agua (i.e. "Water"). In 1541 it was overwhelmed by a deluge of water +from the flooded crater of Agua; and in 1542 Alvarado founded Santiago +de los Caballeros la Nueva, now Antigua. This city flourished greatly, +and by the middle of the 18th century had become the most populous place +in Central America, with 60,000 inhabitants and more than 100 churches +and convents. But in 1773 it was ruined by an earthquake. It was +rebuilt, and ultimately became capital of the department of +Sacatepeques, and a health-resort locally celebrated for its thermal +springs. But the Guatemalans determined to found a new capital on the +site occupied by the hamlet of Ermita, 27 m. N.E. Here the third and +last city of Guatemala was built, and became the seat of government in +1779. The remarkable regularity of the streets is due to the +construction of the city on a uniform plan. The wide area covered, and +the lowness of the houses, were similarly due to an ordinance which, in +order to minimize the danger from earthquakes, forbade the erection of +any building more than 20 ft. high. Many of the belfries of convents or +churches, added after the ordinance had fallen into abeyance, were +overthrown by the earthquake of 1874, which also destroyed a large part +of Antigua. + + + + +GUATOS, a tribe of South American Indians of the upper Paraguay. They +are of a European fairness and wear beards. They live almost entirely in +canoes, building rough shelters in the swamps. They aided the Brazilians +in the war with Paraguay 1865-70. Very few survive. + + + + +GUATUSOS, a tribe of American Indians of Costa Rica. They are an active, +hardy people, who have always maintained hostility towards the Spaniards +and retain their independence. From their language they appear to be a +distinct stock. They were described by old writers as being very fair, +with flaxen hair, and these reports led to a belief, since exploded, +that they were European hybrids. There are very few surviving. + + + + +GUAVA (from the Mexican _guayaba_), the name applied to the fruits of +species of _Psidium_, a genus belonging to the natural order +_Myrtaceae_. The species which produces the bulk of the guava fruits of +commerce is _Psidium Guajava_, a small tree from 15 to 20 ft. high, a +native of the tropical parts of America and the West Indies. It bears +short-stalked ovate or oblong leaves, with strongly marked veins, and +covered with a soft tomentum or down. The flowers are borne on axillary +stalks, and the fruits vary much in size, shape and colour, numerous +forms and varieties being known and cultivated. The variety of which the +fruits are most valued is that which is sometimes called the white guava +(_P. Guajava_, var. _pyriferum_). The fruits are pear-shaped, about the +size of a hen's egg, covered with a thin bright yellow or whitish skin +filled with soft pulp, also of a light yellowish tinge, and having a +pleasant sweet-acid and somewhat aromatic flavour. _P. Guajava_, var. +_pomiferum_, produces a more globular or apple-shaped fruit, sometimes +called the red guava. The pulp of this variety is mostly of a darker +colour than the former and not of so fine a flavour, therefore the first +named is most esteemed for eating in a raw state; both, however, are +used in the preparation of two kinds of preserve known as guava jelly +and guava cheese, which are made in the West Indies and imported thence +to England; the fruits are of much too perishable a nature to allow of +their importation in their natural state. Both varieties have been +introduced into various parts of India, as well as in other countries of +the East, where they have become perfectly naturalized. Though of course +much too tender for outdoor planting in England, the guava thrives there +in hothouses or stoves. + +_Psidium variabile_ (also known as _P. Cattleyanum_), a tree of from 10 +to 20 ft. high, a native of Brazil (the Araçá or Araçá de Praya), is +known as the purple guava. The fruit, which is very abundantly produced +in the axils of the leaves, is large, spherical, of a fine deep claret +colour; the rind is pitted, and the pulp is soft, fleshy, purplish, +reddish next the skin, but becoming paler towards the middle and in the +centre almost or quite white. It has a very agreeable acid-sweet +flavour, which has been likened to that of a strawberry. + + + + +GUAYAMA, a small city and the capital of a municipal district and +department of the same name, on the southern coast of Porto Rico, 53 m. +S. of San Juan. Pop. (1899) of the city, 5334; (1910) 8321; (1899) of +the district, 12,749. The district (156 sq. m.) includes Arroyo and +Salinas. The city stands about 230 ft. above the sea and has a mild, +healthy climate. It is connected with Ponce by railway (1910), and with +the port of Arroyo by an excellent road, part of the military road +extending to Cayey, and it exports sugar, rum, tobacco, coffee, cattle, +fruit and other products of the department, which is very fertile. The +city was founded in 1736, but was completely destroyed by fire in 1832. +It was rebuilt on a rectangular plan and possesses several buildings of +note. Drinking-water is brought in through an aqueduct. + + + + +GUAYAQUIL, or SANTIAGO DE GUAYAQUIL, a city and port of Ecuador, capital +of the province of Guayas, on the right bank of the Guayas river, 33 m. +above its entrance into the Gulf of Guayaquil, in 2° 12´ S., 79° 51´ W. +Pop. (1890) 44,772; (1897, estimate) 51,000, mostly half-breeds. The +city is built on a comparatively level _pajonal_ or savanna, extending +southward from the base of three low hills, called Los Cerros de la +Cruz, between the river and the partially filled waters of the Estero +Salado. It is about 30 ft. above sea-level, and the lower parts of the +town are partially flooded in the rainy season. The old town is the +upper or northern part, and is inhabited by the poorer classes, its +streets being badly paved, crooked, undrained, dirty and pestilential. +The great fire of 1896 destroyed a large part of the old town, and some +of its insanitary conditions were improved in rebuilding. The new town, +or southern part, is the business and residential quarter of the better +classes, but the buildings are chiefly of wood and the streets are +provided with surface drainage only. Among the public buildings are the +governor's and bishop's palaces, town-hall, cathedral and 9 churches, +national college, episcopal seminary and schools of law and medicine, +theatre, two hospitals, custom-house, and several asylums and charitable +institutions. Guayaquil is also the seat of a university corporation +with faculties of law and medicine. A peculiarity of Guayaquil is that +the upper floors in the business streets project over the walks, forming +covered arcades. The year is divided into a wet and dry season, the +former from January to June, when the hot days are followed by nights of +drenching rain. The mean annual temperature is about 82° to 83° F.; +malarial and bilious fevers are common, the latter being known as +"Guayaquil fever," and epidemics of yellow fever are frequent. The dry +or summer season is considered pleasant and healthy. The water-supply is +now brought in through iron mains from the Cordilleras 53 m. distant. +The mains pass under the Guayas river and discharge into a large +distributing reservoir on one of the hills N. of the city. The city is +provided with tramway and telephone services, the streets are lighted +with gas and electricity, and telegraph communication with the outside +world is maintained by means of the West Coast cable, which lands at the +small port of Santa Elena, on the Pacific coast, about 65 m. W. of +Guayaquil. Railway connexion with Quito (290 m.) was established in June +1908. There is also steamboat connexion with the producing districts of +the province on the Guayas river and its tributaries, on which boats run +regularly as far up as Bodegas (80 m.) in the dry season, and for a +distance of 40 m. on the Daule. For smaller boats there are about 200 m. +of navigation on this system of rivers. The exports of the province are +almost wholly transported on these rivers, and are shipped either at +Guayaquil, or at Puna, its deep-water port, 6½ m. outside the Guayas +bar, on the E. end of Puna Island. The Guayas river is navigable up to +Guayaquil for steamers drawing 22 ft. of water; larger vessels anchor at +Puna, 40 m. from Guayaquil, where cargoes and passengers are transferred +to lighters and tenders. There is a quay on the river front, but the +depth alongside does not exceed 18 ft. The principal exports are cacao, +rubber, coffee, tobacco, hides, cotton, Panama hats, cinchona bark and +ivory nuts, the value of all exports for the year 1905 being 14,148,877 +_sucres_, in a total of 18,565,668 _sucres_ for the whole republic. In +1908 the exports were: cacao, about 64,000,000 lb., valued at +$6,400,000; hides, valued at $135,000; rubber, valued at $235,000; +coffee, valued at $273,000; and vegetable ivory, valued at $102,000. +There are some small industries in the city, including a shipyard, +saw-mills, foundry, sugar refineries, cotton and woollen mills, brewery, +and manufactures of soap, cigars, chocolate, ice, soda-water and +liqueurs. + +Santiago de Guayaquil was founded on St James's day, the 25th of July +1535, by Sebastian de Benalcazar, but was twice abandoned before its +permanent settlement in 1537 by Francesco de Orellana. It was captured +and sacked several times in the 17th and 18th centuries by pirates and +freebooters--by Jacob Clark in 1624, by French pirates in 1686, by +English freebooters under Edward David in 1687, by William Dampier in +1707 and by Clapperton in 1709. Defensive works were erected in 1730, +and in 1763, when the town was made a governor's residence, a castle and +other fortifications were constructed. Owing to the flimsy construction +of its buildings Guayaquil has been repeatedly burned, the greater fires +occurring in 1707, 1764, 1865, 1896 and 1899. The city was made the see +of a bishopric in 1837. + + + + +GUAYAS, or EL GUAYAS, a coast province of Ecuador, bounded N. by Manabí +and Pichincha, E. by Los Rios, Cañar and Azuay, S. by El Oro and the +Gulf of Guayaquil, and W. by the same gulf, the Pacific Ocean and the +province of Manabí. Pop. (1893, estimate) 98,100; area, 11,504 sq. m. It +is very irregular in form and comprises the low alluvial districts +surrounding the Gulf of Guayaquil between the Western Cordilleras and +the coast. It includes (since 1885) the Galápagos Islands, lying 600 m. +off the coast. The province of Guayas is heavily forested and traversed +by numerous rivers, for the most part tributaries of the Guayas river, +which enters the gulf from the N. This river system has a drainage area +of about 14,000 sq. m. and an aggregate of 200 m. of navigable channels +in the rainy season. Its principal tributaries are the Daule and +Babahoyo or Chimbo (also called Bodegas), and of the latter the Vinces +and Yaguachi. The climate is hot, humid and unhealthy, bilious and +malarial fevers being prevalent. The rainfall is abundant and the soil +is deep and fertile. Agriculture and the collection of forest products +are the chief industries. The staple products are cacao, coffee, +sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco and rice. The cultivation of cacao is the +principal industry, the exports forming about one-third the world's +supply. Stock-raising is also carried on to a limited extent. Among +forest products are rubber, cinchona bark, toquilla fibre and ivory +nuts. The manufacture of so-called Panama hats from the fibre of the +toquilla palm (commonly called _jipijapa_, after a town in Manabí famous +for this industry) is a long-established domestic industry among the +natives of this and other coast provinces, the humidity of the climate +greatly facilitating the work of plaiting the delicate straws, which +would be broken in a dry atmosphere. Guayas is the chief industrial and +commercial province of the republic, about nineteen-twentieths of the +commerce of Ecuador passing through the port of its capital, Guayaquil. +There are no land transport routes in the province except the Quito & +Guayaquil railway, which traverses its eastern half. The sluggish river +channels which intersect the greater part of its territory afford +excellent facilities for transporting produce, and a large number of +small boats are regularly engaged in that traffic. There are no large +towns in Guayas other than Guayaquil. Durán, on the Guayas river +opposite Guayaquil, is the starting point of the Quito railway and +contains the shops and offices of that line. The port of Santa Elena on +a bay of the same name, about 65 m. W. of Guayaquil, is a landing-point +of the West Coast cable, and a port of call for some of the regular +steamship lines. Its exports are chiefly Panama hats and salt. + + + + +GUAYCURUS, a tribe of South American Indians on the Paraguay. The name +has been used generally of all the mounted Indians of Gran Chaco. The +Guaycurus are a wild, fierce people, who paint their bodies and go +naked. They are fearless horsemen and are occupied chiefly in cattle +rearing. + + + + +GUAYMAS, or SAN JOSÉ DE GUAYMAS, a seaport of Mexico, in the state of +Sonora, on a small bay opening into the Gulf of California a few miles +W. of the mouth of the Yaqui river, in lat. 27° 58´ N., long. 110° 58´ +W. Pop. (1900) 8648. The harbour is one of the best on the W. coast of +Mexico, and the port is a principal outlet for the products of the large +state of Sonora. The town stands on a small, arid plain, nearly shut in +by mountains, and has a very hot, dry climate. It is connected with the +railways of the United States by a branch of the Southern Pacific from +Benson, Arizona, and is 230 m. S. by W. of the frontier town of Nogales, +where that line enters Mexico. The exports include gold, silver, hides +and pearls. + + + + +GUBBIO (anc. _Iguvium_, q.v.; med. _Eugubium_), a town and episcopal see +of Umbria, Italy, in the province of Perugia, from which it is 23 m. +N.N.E. by road; by rail it is 13 m. N.W. of Fossato di Vico (on the line +between Foligno and Ancona) and 70 m. E.S.E. of Arezzo. Pop. (1901) 5783 +(town); 26,718 (commune). Gubbio is situated at the foot and on the +steep slopes of Monte Calvo, from 1568 to 1735 ft. above sea-level, at +the entrance to the gorge which ascends to Scheggia, probably on the +site of the ancient Umbrian town. It presents a markedly medieval +appearance. The most prominent building is the Palazzo dei Consoli, on +the N. side of the Piazza della Signoria; it is a huge Gothic edifice +with a tower, erected in 1332-1346, according to tradition, by Matteo di +Giovanello of Gubbio, the name of Angelo da Orvieto occurs on the arch +of the main door, but his work may be limited to the sculptures of this +arch. It has two stories above the ground floor, and, being on the slope +of the hill, is, like the whole piazza, raised on arched substructures. +On the S. side of the piazza is the Palazzo Pretorio, or della Podestà, +begun in 1349 and now the municipal palace. It contains the famous +_Tabulae Iguvinae_, and a collection of paintings of the Umbrian school, +of furniture and of majolica. On the E. side is the modern Palazzo +Ranghiasci-Brancaleone, which until 1882 contained fine collections, now +dispersed. Above the Piazza della Signoria, at the highest point of the +town, is the Palazzo Ducale, erected by the dukes of Urbino in +1474-1480; the architect was, in all probability, Lucio da Laurana, to +whom is due the palace at Urbino, which this palace resembles, +especially in its fine colonnaded court. The Palazzo Beni, lower down, +belongs to a somewhat earlier period of the 15th century. Pope Martin V. +lodged here for a few days in 1420. The Palazzo Accoramboni, on the +other hand, is a Renaissance structure, with a fine entrance arch. Here +Vittoria Accoramboni was born in 1557. Opposite the Palazzo Ducale is +the cathedral, dedicated to SS. Mariano e Jacopo, a structure of the +12th century, with a façade, adorned with contemporary sculptures, +partly restored in 1514-1550. The interior contains some good pictures +by Umbrian artists, a fine episcopal throne in carved wood, and a fine +Flemish cope given by Pope Marcellus II. (1555) in the sacristy. The +exterior of the Gothic church of S. Francesco, in the lower part of the +town, built in 1259, preserves its original style, but the interior has +been modernized; and the same fate has overtaken the Gothic churches of +S. Maria Nuova and S. Pietro. S. Agostino, on the other hand, has its +Gothic interior better preserved. The whole town is full of specimens of +medieval architecture, the pointed arch of the 13th century being +especially prevalent. A remarkable procession takes place in Gubbio on +the 15th of May in each year, in honour of S. Ubaldo, when three +colossal wooden pedestals, each over 30 ft. high, and crowned by statues +of SS. Ubaldo, Antonio and Giorgio, are carried through the town, and +then, in a wild race, up to the church of S. Ubaldo on the mountain-side +(2690 ft.). See H. M. Bower, _The Elevation and Procession of the Ceri +at Gubbio_ (Folk-lore Society, London, 1897). + +After its reconstruction with the help of Narses (see IGUVIUM) the town +remained subject to the exarchs of Ravenna, and, after the destruction +of the Lombard kingdom in 774, formed part of the donation of +Charlemagne to the pope. In the 11th century the beginnings of its +independence may be traced. In the struggles of that time it was +generally on the Ghibelline side. In 1151 it repelled an attack of +several neighbouring cities, and formed from this time a republic +governed by consuls. In 1155 it was besieged by the emperor Frederick +I., but saved by the intervention of its bishop, S. Ubaldo, and was +granted privileges by the emperor. In 1203 it had its first podestà, +and from this period dates the rise of its importance. In 1387, after +various political changes, it surrendered to Antonio da Montefeltro of +Urbino, and remained under the dominion of the dukes of Urbino until, in +1624, the whole duchy was ceded to the pope. + +Gubbio was the birthplace of Oderisio, a famous miniature painter +(1240-1299), mentioned by Dante as the honour of his native town +(_Purg._ xi. 80 "_l'onor d'Agobbio_"), but no authentic works by him +exist. In the 14th and 15th centuries a branch of the Umbrian school of +painting flourished here, the most famous masters of which were Guido +Palmerucci (1280-1345?) and several members of the Nelli family, +particularly Ottaviano (d. 1444), whose best work is the "Madonna del +Belvedere" in S. Maria Nuova at Gubbio (1404), extremely well preserved, +with bright colouring and fine details. Another work by him is the group +of frescoes including a large "Last Judgment," and scenes from the life +of St Augustine, in the church of S. Agostino, discovered in 1902 under +a coating of whitewash. These painters seem to have been influenced by +the contemporary masters of the Sienese school. + +Gubbio occupies a far more important place in the history of majolica. +In a decree of 1438 a _vasarius vasorum pictorum_ is mentioned, who +probably was not the first of his trade. The art was brought to +perfection by Giorgio Andreoli, whose father had emigrated hither from +Pavia, and who in 1498 became a citizen of Gubbio. The works by his hand +are remarkable for their ruby tint, with a beautiful metallic lustre; +but only one small tazza remains in Gubbio itself. His art was carried +on by his sons, Cencio and Ubaldo, but was afterwards lost, and only +recovered in 1853 by Angelico Fabbri and Luigi Carocci. + +Two miles outside Porta Metauro to the N.E. is the Bottaccione, a large +water reservoir, constructed in the 12th or 14th century; the water is +collected in the bed of a stream by a massive dam. + + See A. Colasanti, _Gubbio_ (Bergamo, 1905); L. McCracken, _Gubbio_ + (London, 1905). (T. As.) + + + + +GUBEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, at the confluence +of the Lubis with the Neisse, 28 m. S.S.E. of Frankfort-on-Oder, at the +junction of railways to Breslau, Halle and Forst. Pop. (1875) 23,704; +(1905) 36,666. It possesses three Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic +church, a synagogue, a gymnasium, a modern school, a museum and a +theatre. The principal industries are the spinning and weaving of wool, +dyeing, tanning, and the manufacture of pottery ware, hats, cloth, paper +and machinery. The vine is cultivated in the neighbourhood to some +extent, and there is also some trade in fruit and vegetables. Guben is +of Wendish origin. It is mentioned in 1207 and received civic rights in +1235. It was surrounded by walls in 1311, about which time it came into +the possession of the margrave of Brandenburg, from whom it passed to +Bohemia in 1368. It was twice devastated by the Hussites, and in 1631 +and 1642 it was occupied by the Swedes. By the peace of Prague in 1635 +it came into the possession of the elector of Saxony, and in 1815 it +was, with the rest of Lower Lusatia, united to Prussia. + + + + +GUBERNATIS, ANGELO DE, COUNT (1840- ), Italian man of letters, was born +at Turin and educated there and at Berlin, where he studied philology. +In 1862 he was appointed professor of Sanskrit at Florence, but having +married a cousin of the Socialist Bakunin and become interested in his +views he resigned his appointment and spent some years in travel. He was +reappointed, however, in 1867; and in 1891 he was transferred to the +university of Rome. He became prominent both as an orientalist, a +publicist and a poet. He founded the _Italia letteraria_ (1862), the +_Rivista orientale_ (1867), the _Civitta italiana_ and _Rivista europea_ +(1869), the _Bollettino italiano degli studii orientali_ (1876) and the +_Revue internationale_ (1883), and in 1887 became director of the +_Giornale della società asiatica_. In 1878 he started the _Dizionario +biografico degli scrittori contemporanei_. His Oriental and mythological +works include the _Piccola enciclopedia indiana_ (1867), the _Fonti +vediche_ (1868), a famous work on zoological mythology (1872), and +another on plant mythology (1878). He also edited the encyclopaedic +_Storia universale della letteratura_ (1882-1885). His work in verse +includes the dramas _Cato_, _Romolo_, _Il re Nala_, _Don Rodrigo_, +_Savitri_, &c. + + + + +GUDBRANDSDAL, a district in the midlands of southern Norway, comprising +the upper course of the river Lougen or Laagen from Lillehammer at the +head of Lake Mjösen to its source in Lake Lesjekogen and tributary +valleys. Lillehammer, the centre of a rich timber district, is 114 m. N. +of Christiania by rail. The railway continues through the well-wooded +and cultivated valley to Otta (70 m.). Several tracks run westward into +the wild district of the Jotunheim. From Otto good driving routes run +across the watershed and descend the western slope, where the scenery is +incomparably finer than in Gudbrandsdal itself--(a) past Sörum, with the +13th-century churches of Vaagen and Lom (a fine specimen of the +Stavekirke or timber-built church), Aanstad and Polfos, with beautiful +falls of the Otta river, to Grotlid, whence roads diverge to Stryn on +the Nordfjord, and to Marok on the Geirangerfjord; (b) past Domaas (with +branch road north to Stören near Trondhjem, skirting the Dovrefjeld), +over the watershed formed by Lesjekogen Lake, which drains in both +directions, and down through the magnificent Romsdal. + + + + +GUDE (GUDIUS), MARQUARD (1635-1689), German archaeologist and classical +scholar, was born at Rendsburg in Holstein on the 1st of February 1635. +He was originally intended for the law, but from an early age showed a +decided preference for classical studies. In 1658 he went to Holland in +the hope of finding work as a teacher of classics, and in the following +year, through the influence of J. F. Gronovius, he obtained the post of +tutor and travelling companion to a wealthy young Dutchman, Samuel +Schars. During his travels Gude seized the opportunity of copying +inscriptions and MSS. At the earnest request of his pupil, who had +become greatly attached to him, Gude refused more than one professional +appointment, and it was not until 1671 that he accepted the post of +librarian to Duke Christian Albert of Holstein-Gottorp. Schars, who had +accompanied Gude, died in 1675, and left him the greater part of his +property. In 1678 Gude, having quarrelled with the duke, retired into +private life; but in 1682 he entered the service of Christian V. of +Denmark as counsellor of the Schleswig-Holstein chancellery, and +remained in it almost to the time of his death on the 26th of November +1689. Gude's great life-work, the collection of Greek and Latin +inscriptions, was not published till 1731. Mention may also be made of +his _editio princeps_ (1661) of the treatise of Hippolytus the Martyr on +Antichrist, and of his notes on Phaedrus (with four new fables +discovered by him) published in P. Burmann's edition (1698). + + His correspondence (ed. P. Burmann, 1697) is the most important + authority for the events of Gude's life, besides containing valuable + information on the learning of the times. See also J. Moller, _Cimbria + literata_, iii., and C. Bursian in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, + x. + + + + +GUDEMAN, ALFRED (1862- ), American classical scholar, was born in +Atlanta, Georgia, on the 26th of August 1862. He graduated at Columbia +University in 1883 and studied under Hermann Diels at the University of +Berlin. From 1890 to 1893 he was reader in classical philology at Johns +Hopkins University, from 1893 to 1902 professor in the University of +Pennsylvania, and from 1902 to 1904 professor in Cornell University. In +1904 he became a member of the corps of scholars preparing the Wölfflin +_Thesaurus linguae Latinae_--a unique distinction for an American +Latinist, as was the publication of his critical edition, with German +commentary, of Tacitus' _Agricola_ in 1902 by the Weidmannsche +Buchhandlung of Berlin. He wrote _Latin Literature of the Empire_ (2 +vols., _Prose and Poetry_, 1898-1899), a _History of Classical +Philology_ (1902) and _Sources of Plutarch's Life of Cicero_ (1902); and +edited Tacitus' _Dialogus de oratoribus_ (text with commentary, 1894 and +1898) and _Agricola_ (1899; with _Germania_, 1900), and Sallust's +_Catiline_ (1903). + + + + +GUDGEON (_Gobio fluviatilis_), a small fish of the Cyprinid family. It +is nearly related to the barbel, and has a small barbel or fleshy +appendage at each corner of the mouth. It is the _gobione_ of Italy, +_goujon_ of France (whence adapted in M. English as _gojon_), and +_Grässling_ or _Gründling_ of Germany. Gudgeons thrive in streams and +lakes, keeping to the bottom, and seldom exceeding 8 in. in length. In +China and Japan there are varieties differing only slightly from the +common European type. + + + + +GUDRUN (KUDRUN), a Middle High German epic, written probably in the +early years of the 13th century, not long after the _Nibelungenlied_, +the influence of which may be traced upon it. It is preserved in a +single MS. which was prepared at the command of Maximilian I., and was +discovered as late as 1820 in the Castle of Ambras in Tirol. The author +was an unnamed Austrian poet, but the story itself belongs to the cycle +of sagas, which originated on the shores of the North Sea. The epic +falls into three easily distinguishable parts--the adventures of King +Hagen of Ireland, the romance of Hettel, king of the Hegelingen, who +woos and wins Hagen's daughter Hilde, and lastly, the more or less +parallel story of how Herwig, king of Seeland, wins, in opposition to +her father's wishes, Gudrun, the daughter of Hettel and Hilde. Gudrun is +carried off by a king of Normandy, and her kinsfolk, who are in pursuit, +are defeated in a great battle on the island of Wülpensand off the Dutch +coast. The finest parts of the epic are those in which Gudrun, a +prisoner in the Norman castle, refuses to become the wife of her captor, +and is condemned to do the most menial work of the household. Here, +thirteen years later, Herwig and her brother Ortwin find her washing +clothes by the sea; on the following day they attack the Norman castle +with their army and carry out the long-delayed retribution. + +The epic of _Gudrun_ is not unworthy to stand beside the greater +_Nibelungenlied_, and it has been aptly compared with it as the +_Odyssey_ to the _Iliad_. Like the _Odyssey_, Gudrun is an epic of the +sea, a story of adventure; it does not turn solely round the conflict of +human passions; nor is it built up round one all-absorbing, +all-dominating idea like the _Nibelungenlied_. Scenery and incident are +more varied, and the poet has an opportunity for a more lyric +interpretation of motive and character. _Gudrun_ is composed in stanzas +similar to those of the _Nibelungenlied_, but with the essential +difference that the last line of each stanza is identical with the +others, and does not contain the extra accented syllable characteristic +of the _Nibelungen_ metre. + + _Gudrun_ was first edited by von der Hagen in vol. i. of his + _Heldenbuch_ (1820). Subsequent editions by A. Ziemann and A. J. + Vollmer followed in 1837 and 1845. The best editions are those by K. + Bartsch (4th ed., 1880), who has also edited the poem for Kürschner's + _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_ (vol. 6, 1885), by B. Symons (1883) and + by E. Martin (2nd ed., 1901). L. Ettmüller first applied Lachmann's + ballad-theory to the poem (1841), and K. Müllenhoff (_Kudrun, die + echten Teile des Gedichts_, 1845) rejected more than three-quarters of + the whole as "not genuine." There are many translations of the epic + into modern German, the best known being that of K. Simrock (15th ed., + 1884). A translation into English by M. P. Nichols appeared at Boston, + U.S.A., in 1889. + + See K. Bartsch, _Beiträge zur Geschichte und Kritik der Kudrun_ + (1865); H. Keck, _Die Gudrunsage_ (1867); W. Wilmanns, _Die + Entwickelung der Kudrundichtung_ (1873); A. Fécamp, _Le Poème de + Gudrun, ses origines, sa formation et son histoire_ (1892); F. Panzer, + _Hilde-Gudrun_ (1901). For later versions and adaptations of the saga + see O. Benedict, _Die Gudrunsage in der neueren Literatur_ (1902.) + + + + +GUÉBRIANT, JEAN BAPTISTE BUDES, COMTE DE (1602-1643), marshal of France, +was born at Plessis-Budes, near St Brieuc, of an old Breton family. He +served first in Holland, and in the Thirty Years' War he commanded from +1638 to 1639 the French contingent in the army of his friend Bernard of +Saxe-Weimar, distinguishing himself particularly at the siege of +Breisach in 1638. Upon the death of Bernard he received the command of +his army, and tried, in conjunction with J. Baner (1596-1641), the +Swedish general, a bold attack upon Regensburg (1640). His victories of +Wolfenbüttel on the 29th of June 1641 and of Kempen in 1642 won for him +the marshal's bâton. Having failed in an attempt to invade Bavaria in +concert with Torstensson he seized Rottweil, but was mortally wounded +there on the 17th of November 1643. + + A biography was published by Le Laboureur, _Histoire du mareschal de + Guébriant_, in 1656. See A. Brinzinger in _Württembergische + Vierteljahrschrift für Landesgeschichte_ (1902). + + + + + +GUELDER ROSE, so called from Guelderland, its supposed source, termed +also marsh elder, rose elder, water elder (Ger. _Wasserholder_, +_Schneeball_; Fr. _viorne-obier_, _l'obier d'Europe_), known botanically +as _Viburnum Opulus_, a shrub or small tree of the natural order +Caprifoliaceae, a native of Britain, and widely distributed in the +temperate and colder parts of Europe, Asia and North America. It is +common in Ireland, but rare in Scotland. In height it is from 6 to 12 +ft., and it thrives best in moist situations. The leaves are smooth, 2 +to 3 in. broad, with 3 to 5 unequal serrate lobes, and glandular +stipules adnate to the stalk. In autumn the leaves change their normal +bright green for a pink or crimson hue. The flowers, which appear in +June and July, are small, white, and arranged in cymes 2 to 4 in. in +diameter. The outer blossoms in the wild plant have an enlarged corolla, +¾ in. in diameter, and are devoid of stamens or pistils; in the common +cultivated variety all the flowers are sterile and the inflorescence is +globular, hence the term "snowball tree" applied to the plant, the +appearance of which at the time of flowering has been prettily described +by Cowper in his _Winter Walk at Noon_. The guelder rose bears juicy, +red, elliptical berries, 1/3 in. long, which ripen in September, and +contain each a single compressed seed. In northern Europe these are +eaten, and in Siberia, after fermentation with flour, they are distilled +for spirit. The plant has, however, emetic, purgative and narcotic +properties; and Taylor (_Med. Jurisp._ i. 448, 2nd ed., 1873) has +recorded an instance of the fatal poisoning of a child by the berries. +Both they and the bark contain valerianic acid. The woody shoots of the +guelder rose are manufactured into various small articles in Sweden and +Russia. Another member of the genus, _Viburnum_, _Lantana_, wayfaring +tree, is found in dry copses and hedges in England, except in the north. + + + + +GUELPH, a city of Ontario, Canada, 45 m. W. of Toronto, on the river +Speed and the Grand Trunk and Canadian Pacific railways. Pop. (1901) +11,496. It is the centre of a fine agricultural district, and exports +grain, fruit and live-stock in large quantities. It contains, in +addition to the county and municipal buildings, the Ontario Agricultural +College, which draws students from all parts of North and South America. +The river affords abundant water-power for flour-mills, saw-mills, +woollen-mills and numerous factories, of which agricultural implements, +sewing machines and musical instruments are the chief. + + + + +GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES. These names are doubtless Italianized forms of +the German words Welf and Waiblingen, although one tradition says that +they are derived from Guelph and Gibel, two rival brothers of Pistoia. +Another theory derives Ghibelline from Gibello, a word used by the +Sicilian Arabs to translate Hohenstaufen. However, a more popular story +tells how, during a fight around Weinsberg in December 1140 between the +German king Conrad III. and Welf, count of Bavaria, a member of the +powerful family to which Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony and Bavaria, +belonged, the soldiers of the latter raised the cry "Hie Welf!" to which +the king's troops replied with "Hie Waiblingen!" this being the name of +one of Conrad's castles. But the rivalry between Welf and Hohenstaufen, +of which family Conrad was a member, was anterior to this event, and had +been for some years a prominent fact in the history of Swabia and +Bavaria, although its introduction into Italy--in a slightly modified +form, however--only dates from the time of the Italian expeditions of +the emperor Frederick I. It is about this time that the German +chronicler, Otto of Freising, says, "Duae in Romano orbe apud Galliae +Germaniaeve fines famosae familiae actenus fuere, una Heinricorum de +Gueibelinga, alia Guelforum de Aldorfo, altera imperatores, altera +magnos duces producere solita." Chosen German king in 1152, Frederick +was not only the nephew and the heir of Conrad, he was related also to +the Welfs; yet, although his election abated to some extent the rivalry +between Welf and Hohenstaufen in Germany, it opened it upon a larger and +fiercer scale in Italy. + +During the long and interesting period covered by Frederick's Italian +campaigns, his enemies, prominent among whom were the cities of the +Lombard League, became known as Welfs, or Guelphs, while his partisans +seized upon the rival term of Waiblingen, or Ghibelline, and the +contest between these two parties was carried on with a ferocity unknown +even to the inhabitants of southern Germany. The distracted state of +northern Italy, the jealousies between various pairs of towns, the +savage hatred between family and family, were some of the causes which +fed this feud, and it reached its height during the momentous struggle +between Frederick II. and the Papacy in the 13th century. The story of +the contest between Guelph and Ghibelline, however, is little less than +the history of Italy in the middle ages. At the opening of the 13th +century it was intensified by the fight for the German and imperial +thrones between Philip, duke of Swabia, a son of Frederick I., and the +Welf, Otto of Brunswick, afterwards the emperor Otto IV., a fight waged +in Italy as well as in Germany. Then, as the heir of Philip of Swabia +and the rival of Otto of Brunswick, Frederick II. was forced to throw +himself into the arms of the Ghibellines, while his enemies, the popes, +ranged themselves definitely among the Guelphs, and soon Guelph and +Ghibelline became synonymous with supporter of pope and emperor. + +After the death of Frederick II. in 1250 the Ghibellines looked for +leadership to his son and successor, the German king, Conrad IV., and +then to his natural son, Manfred, while the Guelphs called the French +prince, Charles of Anjou, to their aid. But the combatants were nearing +exhaustion, and after the execution of Conradin, the last of the +Hohenstaufen, in 1268, this great struggle began to lose force and +interest. Guelph and Ghibelline were soon found representing local and +family rather than papal and imperial interests; the names were taken +with little or no regard for their original significance, and in the +15th century they began to die out of current politics. However, when +Louis XII. of France conquered Milan at the beginning of the 16th +century the old names were revived; the French king's supporters were +called Guelphs and the friends of the emperor Maximilian I. were +referred to as Ghibellines. + +The feud of Guelph and Ghibelline penetrated within the walls of almost +every city of northern Italy, and the contest between the parties, which +practically makes the history of Florence during the 13th century, is +specially noteworthy. First one side and then the other was driven into +exile; the Guelph defeat at the battle of Monte Aperto in 1260 was +followed by the expulsion of the Ghibellines by Charles of Anjou in +1266, and on a smaller scale a similar story may be told of many other +cities (see FLORENCE). + +The Guelph cause was buttressed by an idea, yet very nebulous, of +Italian patriotism. Dislike of the German and the foreigner rather than +any strong affection for the Papacy was the feeling which bound the +Guelph to the pope, and so enabled the latter to defy the arms of +Frederick II. The Ghibelline cause, on the other hand, was aided by the +dislike of the temporal power of the pope and the desire for a strong +central authority. This made Dante a Ghibelline, but the hopes of this +party, kindled anew by the journey of Henry VII. to Italy in 1310, were +extinguished by his departure. J. A. Symonds thus describes the +constituents of the two parties: "The Guelph party meant the burghers of +the consular Communes, the men of industry and commerce, the upholders +of civil liberty, the friends of democratic expansion. The Ghibelline +party included the naturalized nobles, the men of arms and idleness, the +advocates of feudalism, the politicians who regarded constitutional +progress with disfavour. That the banner of the church floated over the +one camp, while the standard of the empire rallied to itself the hostile +party, was a matter of comparatively superficial moment." In another +passage the same writer thus describes the sharp and universal division +between Guelph and Ghibelline: "Ghibellines wore the feathers in their +caps upon one side, Guelphs upon the other. Ghibellines cut fruit at +table crosswise, Guelphs straight down ... Ghibellines drank out of +smooth and Guelphs out of chased goblets. Ghibellines wore white and +Guelphs red roses." It is interesting to note that while Dante was a +Ghibelline, Petrarch was a Guelph. + + See J. A. Symonds, _The Renaissance in Italy_, vol. i. (1875). + + + + + +GUENEVERE (Lat. _Guanhumara_; Welsh, _Gwenhwyfar_; O. Eng. _Gaynore_), +in Arthurian romance the wife of King Arthur. Geoffrey of Monmouth, who +calls her Guanhumara, makes her a Roman lady, but the general tradition +is that she was of Cornish birth and daughter to King Leodegrance. Wace, +who, while translating Geoffrey, evidently knew, and used, popular +tradition, combines these two, asserting that she was of Roman parentage +on the mother's side, but cousin to Cador of Cornwall by whom she was +brought up. The tradition relating to Guenevere is decidedly confused +and demands further study. The Welsh triads know no fewer than three +Gwenhwyfars; Giraldus Cambrensis, relating the discovery of the royal +tombs at Glastonbury, speaks of the body found as that of Arthur's +second wife; the prose _Merlin_ gives Guenevere a bastard half-sister of +the same name, who strongly resembles her; and the _Lancelot_ relates +how this lady, trading on the likeness, persuaded Arthur that she was +the true daughter of Leodegrance, and the queen the bastard interloper. +This episode of the false Guenevere is very perplexing. + +To the majority of English readers Guenevere is best known in connexion +with her liaison with Lancelot, a story which, in the hands of Malory and +Tennyson, has assumed a form widely different from the original +conception, and at once more picturesque and more convincing. In the +French romances Lancelot is a late addition to the Arthurian cycle, his +birth is not recorded till long after the marriage of Arthur and +Guenevere, and he is at least twenty years the junior of the queen. The +relations between them are of the most conventional and courtly +character, and are entirely lacking in the genuine dramatic passion which +marks the love story of Tristan and Iseult. The _Lancelot-Guenevere_ +romance took form and shape in the artificial atmosphere encouraged by +such patronesses of literature as Eleanor of Aquitaine and her daughter +Marie, Comtesse de Champagne (for whom Chrétien de Troyes wrote his +_Chevalier de la Charrette_), and reflects the low social morality of a +time when love between husband and wife was declared impossible. But +though Guenevere has changed her lover, the tradition of her infidelity +is of much earlier date and formed a part of the primitive Arthurian +legend. Who the original lover was is doubtful; the _Vita Gildae_ relates +how she was carried off by Melwas, king of Aestiva Regis, to Glastonbury, +whither Arthur, at the head of an army, pursued the ravisher. A fragment +of a Welsh poem seems to confirm this tradition, which certainly lies at +the root of her later abduction by Meleagaunt. In the _Lanzelet_ of +Ulrich von Zatzikhoven the abductor is Falerîn. The story in these forms +represents an other-world abduction. A curious fragment of Welsh +dialogues, printed by Professor Rhys in his _Studies on the Arthurian +Legend_, appears to represent Kay as the abductor. In the +pseudo-Chronicles and the romances based upon them the abductor is +Mordred, and in the chronicles there is no doubt that the lady was no +unwilling victim. On the final defeat of Mordred she retires to a +nunnery, takes the veil, and is no more heard of. Wace says +emphatically-- + + _Ne fu oie ne véue, + Ne fu trovée, ne séue + Por la vergogne del mesfait + Et del pecié qu ele avoit fait_ (11. 13627-30). + +Layamon, who in his translation of Wace treats his original much as Wace +treated Geoffrey, says that there was a tradition that she had drowned +herself, and that her memory and that of Mordred were hateful in every +land, so that none would offer prayer for their souls. On the other hand +certain romances, e.g. the _Perceval_, give her an excellent character. +The truth is probably that the tradition of his wife's adultery and +treachery was a genuine part of the Arthurian story, which, neglected +for a time, was brought again into prominence by the social conditions +of the courts for which the later romances were composed; and it is in +this later and conventionalized form that the tale has become familiar +to us (see also LANCELOT). + + See _Studies on the Arthurian Legend_ by Professor Rhys; _The Legend + of Sir Lancelot_, Grimm Library, xii., Jessie L. Weston; _Der + Karrenritter_, ed. Professor Foerster. (J. L. W.) + + + + +GUENON (from the French, = one who grimaces, hence an ape), the name +applied by naturalists to the monkeys of the African genus +_Cercopithecus_, the Ethiopian representative of the Asiatic macaques, +from which they differ by the absence of a posterior heel to the last +molar in the lower jaw. + + + + +GUÉRET, a town of central France, capital of the department of Creuse, +situated on a mountain declivity 48 m. N.E. of Limoges on the Orleans +railway. Pop. (1906), town, 6042; commune (including troops, &c.), 8058. +Apart from the Hôtel des Monneyroux (used as prefecture), a picturesque +mansion of the 15th and 16th centuries, with mansard roofs and mullioned +windows, Guéret has little architectural interest. It is the seat of a +prefect and a court of assizes, and has a tribunal of first instance, a +chamber of commerce and lycées and training colleges, for both sexes. +The industries include brewing, saw-milling, leather-making and the +manufacture of basket-work and wooden shoes, and there is trade in +agricultural produce and cattle. Guéret grew up round an abbey founded +in the 7th century, and in later times became the capital of the +district of Marche. + + + + +GUEREZA, the native name of a long-tailed, black and white Abyssinian +monkey, _Colobus guereza_ (or _C. abyssinicus_), characterized by the +white hairs forming a long pendent mantle. Other east African monkeys +with a similar type of colouring, which, together with the wholly black +west African _C. satanas_, collectively constitute the subgenus +_Guereza_, may be included under the same title; and the name may be +further extended to embrace all the African thumbless monkeys of the +genus _Colobus_. These monkeys are the African representatives of the +Indo-Malay langurs (_Semnopithecus_), with which they agree in their +slender build, long limbs and tail, and complex stomachs, although +differing by the rudimentary thumb. The members of the subgenus +_Guereza_ present a transition from a wholly black animal (_C. satanas_) +to one (_C. caudatus_) in which the sides of the face are white, and the +whole flanks, as well as the tail, clothed with a long fringe of pure +white hairs. + + + + +GUERICKE, HEINRICH ERNST FERDINAND (1803-1878), German theologian, was +born at Wettin in Saxony on the 25th of February 1803 and studied +theology at Halle, where he was appointed professor in 1829. He greatly +disliked the union between the Lutheran and the Reformed churches, which +had been accomplished by the Prussian government in 1817, and in 1833 he +definitely threw in his lot with the Old Lutherans. In 1835 he lost his +professorship, but he regained it in 1840. Among his works were a Life +of _August Hermann Francke_ (1827, Eng. trans. 1837), _Church History_ +(1833, Eng. trans. by W. T. Shedd, New York, 1857-1863), _Allgemeine +christliche Symbolik_ (1839). In 1840 he helped to found the +_Zeitschrift für die gesammte lutherische Theologie und Kirche_, and he +died at Halle on the 4th of February 1878. + + + + +GUERICKE, OTTO VON (1602-1686), German experimental philosopher, was +born at Magdeburg, in Prussian Saxony, on the 20th of November 1602. +Having studied law at Leipzig, Helmstadt and Jena, and mathematics, +especially geometry and mechanics, at Leiden, he visited France and +England, and in 1636 became engineer-in-chief at Erfurt. In 1627 he was +elected alderman of Magdeburg, and in 1646 mayor of that city and a +magistrate of Brandenburg. His leisure was devoted to scientific +pursuits, especially in pneumatics. Incited by the discoveries of +Galileo, Pascal and Torricelli, he attempted the creation of a vacuum. +He began by experimenting with a pump on water placed in a barrel, but +found that when the water was drawn off the air permeated the wood. He +then took a globe of copper fitted with pump and stopcock, and +discovered that he could pump out air as well as water. Thus he became +the inventor of the air-pump (1650). He illustrated his discovery before +the emperor Ferdinand III. at the imperial diet which assembled at +Regensburg in 1654, by the experiment of the "Magdeburg hemispheres." +Taking two hollow hemispheres of copper, the edges of which fitted +nicely together, he exhausted the air from between them by means of his +pump, and it is recorded that thirty horses, fifteen back to back, were +unable to pull them asunder until the air was readmitted. Besides +investigating other phenomena connected with a vacuum, he constructed an +electrical machine which depended on the excitation of a rotating ball +of sulphur; and he made successful researches in astronomy, predicting +the periodicity of the return of comets. In 1681 he gave up office, and +retired to Hamburg, where he died on the 11th of May 1686. + + His principal observations are given in his work, _Experimenta nova, + ut vocant, Magdeburgica de vacuo spatio_ (Amsterdam, 1672). He is also + the author of a _Geschichte der Belagerung und Eroberung von + Magdeburg_. See F. W. Hoffmann, _Otto von Guericke_ (Magdeburg, 1874). + + + + +GUÉRIDON, a small table to hold a lamp or vase, supported by a tall +column or a human or mythological figure. This piece of furniture, often +very graceful and elegant, originated in France towards the middle of +the 17th century. In the beginning the table was supported by a negro or +other exotic figure, and there is some reason to believe that it took +its name from the generic appellation of the young African groom or +"tiger," who was generally called "Guéridon," or as we should say in +English "Sambo." The swarthy figure and brilliant costume of the "Moor" +when reproduced in wood and picked out in colours produced a very +striking effect, and when a small table was supported on the head by the +upraised hands the idea of passive service was suggested with +completeness. The guéridon is still occasionally seen in something +approaching its original form; but it had no sooner been introduced than +the artistic instinct of the French designer and artificer converted it +into a far worthier object. By the death of Louis XIV. there were +several hundreds of them at Versailles, and within a generation or two +they had taken an infinity of forms--columns, tripods, termini and +mythological figures. Some of the simpler and more artistic forms were +of wood carved with familiar decorative motives and gilded. Silver, +enamel, and indeed almost any material from which furniture can be made, +have been used for their construction. A variety of small "occasional" +tables are now called in French _guéridons_. + + + + +GUÉRIN, JEAN BAPTISTE PAULIN (1783-1855), French painter, was born at +Toulon, on the 25th of March 1783, of poor parents. He learnt, as a lad, +his father's trade of a locksmith, whilst at the same time he followed +the classes of the free school of art. Having sold some copies to a +local amateur, Guérin started for Paris, where he came under the notice +of Vincent, whose counsels were of material service. In 1810 Guérin made +his first appearance at the Salon with some portraits, which had a +certain success. In 1812 he exhibited "Cain after the murder of Abel" +(formerly in Luxembourg), and, on the return of the Bourbons, was much +employed in works of restoration and decoration at Versailles. His "Dead +Christ" (Cathedral, Baltimore) obtained a medal in 1817, and this +success was followed up by a long series of works, of which the +following are the more noteworthy: "Christ on the knees of the Virgin" +(1819); "Anchises and Venus" (1822) (formerly in Luxembourg); "Ulysses +and Minerva" (1824) (Musée de Rennes); "the Holy Family" (1829) +(Cathedral, Toulon); and "Saint Catherine" (1838) (St Roch). In his +treatment of subject, Guérin attempted to realize rococo graces of +conception, the liveliness of which was lost in the strenuous effort to +be correct. His chief successes were attained by portraits, and those of +Charles Nodier and the Abbé Lamennais became widely popular. He died on +the 19th of January 1855. + + + + +GUÉRIN, PIERRE NARCISSE, BARON (1774-1833), French painter, was born at +Paris on the 13th of May 1774. Becoming a pupil of Jean Baptiste +Regnault, he carried off one of the three "grands prix" offered in 1796, +in consequence of the competition not having taken place since 1793. The +_pension_ was not indeed re-established, but Guérin fulfilled at Paris +the conditions imposed upon a _pensionnaire_, and produced various +works, one of which brought him prominently before the public. This +work, "Marcus Sextus" (Louvre), exhibited at the Salon of 1799, excited +wild enthusiasm, partly due to the subject,--a victim of Sulla's +proscription returning to Rome to find his wife dead and his house in +mourning--in which an allusion was found to the actual situation of the +_émigrés_. Guérin on this occasion was publicly crowned by the president +of the Institute, and before his departure for Rome (on the +re-establishment of the École under Suvée) a banquet was given to him by +the most distinguished artists of Paris. In 1800, unable to remain in +Rome on account of his health, he went to Naples, where he painted the +"Grave of Amyntas." In 1802 Guérin produced "Phaedra and Hippolytus" +(Louvre); in 1810, after his return to Paris, he again achieved a great +success with "Andromache and Pyrrhus" (Louvre); and in the same year +also exhibited "Cephalus and Aurora" (Collection Sommariva) and +"Bonaparte and the Rebels of Cairo" (Versailles). The Restoration +brought to Guérin fresh honours; he had received from the first consul +in 1803 the cross of the Legion of Honour, and in 1815 Louis XVIII. +named him Academician. The success of Guérin's "Hippolytus" of +"Andromache," of "Phaedra" and of "Clytaemnestra" (Louvre) had been +ensured by the skilful selection of highly melodramatic situations, +treated with the strained and pompous dignity proper to the art of the +first empire; in "Aeneas relating to Dido the disasters of Troy" +(Louvre), which appeared side by side with "Clytaemnestra" at the Salon +of 1817, the influence of the Restoration is plainly to be traced. In +this work Guérin sought to captivate the public by an appeal to those +sensuous charms which he had previously rejected, and by the +introduction of picturesque elements of interest. But with this work +Guérin's public successes came to a close. He was, indeed, commissioned +to paint for the Madeleine a scene from the history of St Louis, but his +health prevented him from accomplishing what he had begun, and in 1822 +he accepted the post of director of the École de Rome, which in 1816 he +had refused. On returning to Paris in 1828, Guérin, who had previously +been made chevalier of the order of St Michel, was ennobled. He now +attempted to complete "Pyrrhus and Priam," a work which he had begun at +Rome, but in vain; his health had finally broken down, and in the hope +of improvement he returned to Italy with Horace Vernet. Shortly after +his arrival at Rome Baron Guérin died, on the 6th of July 1833, and was +buried in the church of La Trinità de' Monti by the side of Claude +Lorraine. + + A careful analysis and criticism of his principal works will be found + in Meyer's _Geschichte der französischen Malerei_. + + + + +GUÉRIN DU CAYLA, GEORGES MAURICE DE (1810-1839), French poet, descended +from a noble but poor family, was born at the chateau of Le Cayla in +Languedoc, on the 4th of August 1810. He was educated for the church at +a religious seminary at Toulouse, and then at the Collège Stanislas, +Paris, after which he entered the society at La Chesnaye in Brittany, +founded by Lamennais. It was only after great hesitation, and without +being satisfied as to his religious vocation, that under the influence +of Lamennais he joined the new religious order in the autumn of 1832; +and when, in September of the next year, Lamennais, who had come under +the displeasure of Rome, severed connexion with the society, Maurice de +Guérin soon followed his example. Early in the following year he went to +Paris, where he was for a short time a teacher at the College Stanislas. +In November 1838 he married a Creole lady of some fortune; but a few +months afterwards he was attacked by consumption and died on the 19th of +July 1839. In the _Revue des deux mondes_ for May 15th, 1840, there +appeared a notice of Maurice de Guérin by George Sand, to which she +added two fragments of his writings--one a composition in prose entitled +the _Centaur_, and the other a short poem. His _Reliquiae_ (2 vols., +1861), including the _Centaur_, his journal, a number of his letters and +several poems, was edited by G. S. Trébutien, and accompanied with a +biographical and critical notice by Sainte-Beuve; a new edition, with +the title _Journal, lettres et poèmes_, followed in 1862; and an English +translation of it was published at New York in 1867. Though he was +essentially a poet, his prose is more striking and original than his +poetry. Its peculiar and unique charm arises from his strong and +absorbing passion for nature, a passion whose intensity reached almost +to adoration and worship, but in which the pagan was more prominent than +the moral element. According to Sainte-Beuve, "no French poet or +painter has rendered so well the feeling for nature--the feeling not so +much for details as for the ensemble and the divine universality, the +feeling for the origin of things and the sovereign principle of life." + +The name of EUGÉNIE DE GUÉRIN (1805-1848), the sister of Maurice, cannot +be omitted from any notice of him. Her _Journals_ (1861, Eng. trans., +1865) and her _Lettres_ (1864, Eng. trans., 1865) indicated the +possession of gifts of as rare an order as those of her brother, though +of a somewhat different kind. In her case mysticism assumed a form more +strictly religious, and she continued to mourn her brother's loss of his +early Catholic faith. Five years older than he, she cherished a love for +him which was blended with a somewhat motherly anxiety. After his death +she began the collection and publication of the scattered fragments of +his writings. She died, however, on the 31st of May 1848, before her +task was completed. + + See the notices by George Sand and Sainte-Beuve referred to above; + Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_ (vol. xii.) and _Nouveaux Lundis_ + (vol. iii.); G. Merlet, _Causeries sur les femmes et les livres_ + (Paris, 1865); Selden, _L'Esprit des femmes de notre temps_ (Paris, + 1864); Marelle, _Eugénie et Maurice de Guérin_ (Berlin, 1869); Harriet + Parr, _M. and E. de Guérin, a monograph_ (London, 1870); and Matthew + Arnold's essays on Maurice and Eugénie de Guérin, in his _Essays in + Criticism_. + + + + +GUERNIERI, or WERNER, a celebrated mercenary captain who lived about the +middle of the 14th century. He was a member of the family of the dukes +of Urslingen, and probably a descendant of the dukes of Spoleto. From +1340 to 1343 he was in the service of the citizens of Pisa, but +afterwards he collected a troop of adventurers which he called the Great +Company, and with which he plundered Tuscany and Lombardy. He then +entered the service of Louis I. the Great, king of Hungary and Poland, +whom he assisted to obtain possession of Naples; but when dismissed from +this service his ravages became more terrible than ever, culminating in +the dreadful sack of Anagni in 1358, shortly after which Guernieri +disappeared from history. He is said to have worn a breastplate with the +inscription, "The enemy of God, of pity and of mercy." + + + + +GUERNSEY (Fr. _Guernesey_), one of the Channel Islands, belonging to +Britain, the second in size and westernmost of the important members of +the group. Its chief town, St Peter Port, on the east coast, is in 2° +33´ W., 49° 27´ N., 74 m. S. of Portland Bill on the English coast, and +30 m. from the nearest French coast to the east. The island, roughly +triangular in form, is 9¼ m. long from N.E. to S.W. and has an extreme +breadth of 5¼ m. and an area of 15,691 acres or 24.5 sq. m. Pop. (1901), +40,446, the density being thus 162 per sq. m. + +The surface of the island rises gradually from north to south, and +reaches its greatest elevation at Haut Nez (349 ft.) above Point Icart +on the south coast. The coast scenery, which forms one of the principal +attractions to the numerous summer visitors to the island, is finest on +the south. This coast, between Jerbourg and Pleinmont Points, +respectively at the south-eastern and south-western corners of the +island, is bold, rocky and indented with many exquisite little bays. Of +these the most notable are Moulin Huet, Saint's, and Petit Bot, all in +the eastern half of the south coast. The cliffs, however, culminate in +the neighbourhood of Pleinmont. Picturesque caves occur at several +points, such as the Creux Mahie. On the west coast there is a succession +of larger bays--Rocquaine Perelle, Vazon, and Cobo. Off the first lies +Lihou Island, the Hanois and other islets, and all three bays are sown +with rocks. The coast, however, diminishes in height, until at the +north-eastern extremity of the island the land is so low across the Vale +or Braye du Val, from shore to shore, that the projection of L'Ancresse +is within a few feet of being isolated. The east coast, on which, +besides the town and harbour of St Peter Port, is that of St Sampson, +presents no physical feature of note. The interior of the island is +generally undulating, and gains in beauty from its rich vegetation. +Picturesque glens descend upon some of the southern bays (the two +converging upon Petit Bot are notable), and the high-banked paths, +arched with foliage, which follow the small rills down to Moulin Huet +Bay, are much admired under the name of water-lanes. + +The soil is generally light sandy loam, overlying an angular gravel +which rests upon the weathered granite. This soil requires much manure, +and a large proportion of the total area (about three-fifths) is under +careful cultivation, producing a considerable amount of grain, but more +famous for market-gardening. Vegetables and potatoes are exported, with +much fruit, including grapes and flowers. Granite is quarried and +exported from St Sampson, and the fisheries form an important industry. + +For administrative purposes Guernsey is united with Alderney, Sark, Herm +and the adjacent islets to form the bailiwick of Guernsey, separate from +Jersey. The peculiar constitution, machinery of administration and +justice, finance, &c., are considered under the heading CHANNEL ISLANDS. +Guernsey is divided into the ten parishes of St Peter Port, St Sampson, +Vale, Câtel, St Saviour, St Andrew, St Martin, Forest, St Peter du Bois +and Torteval. The population of St Peter Port in 1901 was 18,264; of the +other parishes that of St Sampson was 5614 and that of Vale 5082. The +population of the bailiwick of Guernsey nearly doubled between 1821 and +1901, and that of the island increased from 35,243 in 1891 to 40,446 in +1901. The island roads are excellent, Guernsey owing much in this +respect to Sir John Doyle (d. 1834), the governor whose monument stands +on the promontory of Jerbourg. Like Jersey and the neighbouring part of +France, Guernsey retains considerable traces of early habitation in +cromlechs and menhirs, of which the most notable is the cromlech in the +north at L'Ancresse. As regards ecclesiastical architecture, all the +parish churches retain some archaeological interest. There is good +Norman work in the church of St Michael, Vale, and the church of St +Peter Port is a notable building of various periods from the early 14th +century. Small remains of monastic buildings are seen at Vale and on +Lihou Island. + + + + +GUERRAZZI, FRANCESCO DOMENICO (1804-1873), Italian publicist, born at +Leghorn, was educated for the law at Pisa, and began to practise in his +native place. But he soon took to politics and literature, under the +influence of Byron, and his novel, the _Battagli di Benevento_ (1827), +brought him into notice. Mazzini made his acquaintance, and with Carlo +Bini they started a paper, the _Indicatore_, at Leghorn in 1829, which +was quickly suppressed. Guerrazzi himself had to endure several terms of +imprisonment for his activity in the cause of Young Italy, and it was in +Portoferrato in 1834 that he wrote his most famous novel _Assidio di +Firenze_. He was the most powerful Liberal leader at Leghorn, and in +1848 became a minister, with some idea of exercising a moderating +influence in the difficulties with the grand-duke of Tuscany. In 1849, +when the latter fled, he was first one of the triumvirate with Mazzini +and Montanelli, and then dictator, but on the restoration he was +arrested and imprisoned for three years. His _Apologia_ was published in +1852. Released from prison, he was exiled to Corsica, but subsequently +was restored and was for some time a deputy at Turin (1862-1870), dying +of apoplexy at Leghorn on the 25th of September 1873. He wrote a number +of other works besides the novels already mentioned, notably _Isabella +Orsini_ (1845) and _Beatrice Cenci_ (1854), and his _Opere_ were +collected at Milan (1868). + + See the _Life and Works_ by Bosio (1877), and Carducci's edition of + his letters (1880). + + + + +GUERRERO, a Pacific coast state of Mexico, bounded N.W. by Michoacan, N. +by Mexico (state) and Morelos, N.E. and E. by Puebla and Oaxaca, and S. +and W. by the Pacific. Area, 24,996 sq. m. Pop., largely composed of +Indians and mestizos (1895), 417,886; (1900) 479,205. The state is +roughly broken by the Sierra Madre and its spurs, which cover its entire +surface with the exception of the low coastal plain (averaging about 20 +m. in width) on the Pacific. The valleys are usually narrow, fertile and +heavily forested, but difficult of access. The state is divided into two +distinct zones--the _tierras calientes_ of the coast and lower river +courses where tropical conditions prevail, and the _tierras templadas_ +of the mountain region where the conditions are subtropical. The latter +is celebrated for its agreeable and healthy climate, and for the variety +and character of its products. The principal river of the state is the +Rio de las Balsas or Mescala, which, having its source in Tlaxcala, +flows entirely across the state from W. to E., and then southward to the +Pacific on the frontier of Michoacan. This river is 429 m. long and +receives many affluents from the mountainous region through which it +passes, but its course is very precipitous and its mouth obstructed by +sand bars. The agricultural products include cotton, coffee, tobacco and +cereals, and the forests produce rubber, vanilla and various textile +fibres. Mining is undeveloped, although the mineral resources of the +state include silver, gold, mercury, lead, iron, coal, sulphur and +precious stones. The capital, Chilpancingo, or Chilpancingo de los +Bravos (pop. 7497 in 1900), is a small town in the Sierra Madre about +110 m. from the coast and 200 m. S. of the Federal capital. It is a +healthy well-built town on the old Acapulco road, is lighted by +electricity and is temporarily the western terminus of the Interoceanic +railway from Vera Cruz. It is celebrated in the history of Mexico as the +meeting-place of the revolutionary congress of 1813, which issued a +declaration of independence. Chilpancingo was badly damaged by an +earthquake in January 1902, and again on the 16th of April 1907. Other +important towns of the state are Tixtla, or Tixtla de Guerrero, formerly +the capital (pop. 6316 in 1900), 3 m. N.E. of Chilpancingo; Chilapa +(8256 in 1895), the most populous town of the state, partially destroyed +by a hurricane in 1889, and again by the earthquake of 1907; Iguala +(6631 in 1895); and Acapulco. Guerrero was organized as a state in 1849, +its territory being taken from the states of Mexico, Michoacan and +Puebla. + + + + +GUERRILLA (erroneously written "guerilla," being the diminutive of the +Span. _guerra_, war), a term currently used to denote war carried on by +bands in any irregular and unorganized manner. At the Hague Conference +of 1899 the position of irregular combatants was one of the subjects +dealt with, and the rules there adopted were reaffirmed at the +Conference of 1907. They provide that irregular bands in order to enjoy +recognition as belligerent forces shall (a) have at their head a person +responsible for his subordinates, (b) wear some fixed distinctive badge +recognizable at a distance, (c) carry arms openly, and (d) conform in +their operations to the laws and customs of war. The rules, however, +also provide that in case of invasion the inhabitants of a territory who +on the approach of the invading enemy spontaneously take up arms to +resist it, shall be regarded as belligerent troops if they carry arms +openly and respect the laws and customs of war, although they may not +have had time to become organized in accordance with the above +provisions. These rules were borrowed almost word for word from the +project drawn up at the Brussels international conference of 1874, +which, though never ratified, was practically incorporated in the army +regulations issued by the Russian government in connexion with the war +of 1877-78. (T. Ba.) + + + + +GUERRINI, OLINDO (1845- ), Italian poet, was born at Sant' Alberto, +Ravenna, and after studying law took to a life of letters, becoming +eventually librarian at Bologna University. In 1877 he published +_Postuma_, a volume of _canzoniere_, under the name of Lorenzo +Stechetti, following this with _Polemica_ (1878), _Canti popolari +romagnoli_ (1880) and other poetical works, and becoming known as the +leader of the "verist" school among Italian lyrical writers. + + + + +GUESDE, JULES BASILE (1845- ), French socialist, was born in Paris on +the 11th of November 1845. He had begun his career as a clerk in the +French Home Office, but at the outbreak of the Franco-German War he was +editing _Les Droits de l'homme_ at Montpellier, and had to take refuge +at Geneva in 1871 from a prosecution instituted on account of articles +which had appeared in his paper in defence of the Commune. In 1876 he +returned to France to become one of the chief French apostles of Marxian +collectivism, and was imprisoned for six months in 1878 for taking part +in the first Parisian International Congress. He edited at different +times _Les Droits de l'homme_, _Le Cri du peuple_, _Le Socialiste_, but +his best-known organ was the weekly _Égalité_. He had been in close +association with Paul Lafargue, and through him with Karl Marx, whose +daughter he married. It was in conjunction with Marx and Lafargue that +he drew up the programme accepted by the national congress of the Labour +party at Havre in 1880, which laid stress on the formation of an +international labour party working by revolutionary methods. Next year +at the Reims congress the orthodox Marxian programme of Guesde was +opposed by the "possibilists," who rejected the intransigeant attitude +of Guesde for the opportunist policy of Benoît Malon. At the congress of +St-Étienne the difference developed into separation, those who refused +all compromise with a capitalist government following Guesde, while the +opportunists formed several groups. Guesde took his full share in the +consequent discussion between the Guesdists, the Blanquists, the +possibilists, &c. In 1893 he was returned to the Chamber of Deputies for +Lille (7th circonscription) with a large majority over the Christian +Socialist and Radical candidates. He brought forward various proposals +in social legislation forming the programme of the Labour party, without +reference to the divisions among the Socialists, and on the 20th of +November 1894 succeeded in raising a two days' discussion of the +collectivist principle in the Chamber. In 1902 he was not re-elected, +but resumed his seat in 1906. In 1903 there was a formal reconciliation +at the Reims congress of the sections of the party, which then took the +name of the Socialist party of France. Guesde, nevertheless, continued +to oppose the opportunist policy of Jaurès, whom he denounced for +supporting one bourgeois party against another. His defence of the +principle of freedom of association led him, incongruously enough, to +support the religious Congregations against Émile Combes. Besides his +numerous political and socialist pamphlets he published in 1901 two +volumes of his speeches in the Chamber of Deputies entitled _Quatre ans +de lutte de classe 1893-1898_. + + + + +GUEST, EDWIN (1800-1880), English antiquary, was born in 1800. He was +educated at King Edward's school, Birmingham, and at Caius College, +Cambridge, where he graduated as eleventh wrangler, subsequently +becoming a fellow of his college. Called to the bar in 1828, he devoted +himself, after some years of legal practice, to antiquarian and literary +research. In 1838 he published his exhaustive _History of English +Rhythms_. He also wrote a very large number of papers on Roman-British +history, which, together with a mass of fresh material for a history of +early Britain, were published posthumously under the editorship of Dr +Stubbs under the title _Origines Celticae_ (1883). In 1852 Guest was +elected master of Caius College, becoming LL.D. in the following year, +and in 1854-1855 he was vice-chancellor of Cambridge University. Guest +was a fellow of the Royal Society, and an honorary member of the Society +of Antiquaries. He died on the 23rd of November 1880. + + + + +GUEST (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. _Gast_, and Swed. +_gäst_; cognate with Lat. _hostis_, originally a stranger, hence enemy; +cf. "host"), one who receives hospitality in the house of another, his +"host"; hence applied to a parasite. + + + + +GUETTARD, JEAN ÉTIENNE (1715-1786), French naturalist and mineralogist, +was born at Étampes, on the 22nd of September 1715. In boyhood he gained +a knowledge of plants from his grandfather, who was an apothecary, and +later he qualified as a doctor in medicine. Pursuing the study of botany +in various parts of France and other countries, he began to take notice +of the relation between the distribution of plants and the soils and +subsoils. In this way his attention came to be directed to minerals and +rocks. In 1746 he communicated to the Academy of Sciences in Paris a +memoir on the distribution of minerals and rocks, and this was +accompanied by a map on which he had recorded his observations. He thus, +as remarked by W. D. Conybeare, "first carried into execution the idea, +proposed by [Martin] Lister years before, of geological maps." In the +course of his journeys he made a large collection of fossils and figured +many of them, but he had no clear ideas about the sequence of strata. He +made observations also on the degradation of mountains by rain, rivers +and sea; and he was the first to ascertain the existence of former +volcanoes in the district of Auvergne. He died in Paris on the 7th of +January 1786. + + His publications include: _Observations sur les plantes_ (2 vols., + 1747); _Histoire de la découverte faite en France de matières + semblables à celles dont la porcelaine de la Chine est composée_ + (1765); _Mémoires sur différentes parties des sciences et arts_ (5 + vols., 1768-1783); _Mémoire sur la minéralogie du Dauphiné_ (2 vols., + 1779). See _The Founders of Geology_, by Sir A. Geikie (1897). + + + + +GUEUX, LES, or "THE BEGGARS," a name assumed by the confederacy of +nobles and other malcontents, who in 1566 opposed Spanish tyranny in the +Netherlands. The leaders of the nobles, who signed a solemn league known +as "the Compromise," by which they bound themselves to assist in +defending the rights and liberties of the Netherlands against the civil +and religious despotism of Philip II., were Louis, count of Nassau, and +Henry, count of Brederode. On the 5th of April 1566 permission was +obtained for the confederates to present a petition of grievances, +called "the Request," to the regent, Margaret, duchess of Parma. About +250 nobles marched to the palace accompanied by Louis of Nassau and +Brederode. The regent was at first alarmed at the appearance of so large +a body, but one of her councillors, Berlaymont by name, was heard to +exclaim, "What, madam, is your highness afraid of these beggars (_ces +gueux_)?" The appellation was not forgotten. At a great feast held by +some 300 confederates at the Hôtel Culemburg three days later, Brederode +in a speech declared that if need be they were all ready to become +"beggars" in their country's cause. The words caught on, and the hall +resounded with loud cries of "_Vivent les gueux!_" The name became +henceforward a party appellation. The patriot party adopted the emblems +of beggarhood, the wallet and the bowl, as trinkets to be worn on their +hats or their girdles, and a medal was struck having on one side the +head of Philip II., on the other two clasped hands with the motto +"_Fidèle au roy, jusques à porter la besace_." The original league of +"Beggars" was short-lived, crushed by the iron hand of Alva, but its +principles survived and were to be ultimately triumphant. + +In the year 1569 the prince of Orange, who had now openly placed himself +at the head of the party of revolt, granted letters of marque to a +number of vessels manned by crews of desperadoes drawn from all +nationalities. These fierce corsairs under the command of a succession +of daring and reckless leaders--the best-known of whom is William de la +Marek, lord of Lumey--were called "_Gueux de mer_," or "Sea Beggars." At +first they were content with plundering both by sea and land and +carrying their booty to the English ports where they were able to refit +and replenish their stores. This went on till 1572, when Queen Elizabeth +suddenly refused to admit them to her harbours. Having no longer any +refuge, the Sea Beggars in desperation made an attack upon Brill, which +they seized by surprise in the absence of the Spanish garrison on the +1st of April 1572. Encouraged by their unhoped-for success, they now +sailed to Flushing, which was also taken by a _coup de main._ The +capture of these two towns gave the signal for a general revolt of the +northern Netherlands, and is regarded as the real beginning oí the War +of Dutch Independence. + + + + +GUEVARA, ANTONIO DE (c. 1490-1544), Spanish chronicler and moralist, +was a native of the province of Alava, and passed some of his earlier +years at the court of Isabella, queen of Castile. In 1528 he entered the +Franciscan order, and afterwards accompanied the emperor Charles V. +during his journeys to Italy and other parts of Europe. After having +held successively the offices of court preacher, court historiographer, +bishop of Guadix and bishop of Mondoñedo, he died in 1544. His earliest +work, entitled _Reloj de principes_, published at Valladolid in 1529, +and, according to its author, the fruit of eleven years' labour, is a +didactic novel, designed, after the manner of Xenophon's _Cyropaedia_, +to delineate, in a somewhat ideal way for the benefit of modern +sovereigns, the life and character of an ancient prince, Marcus +Aurelius, distinguished for wisdom and virtue. It was often reprinted in +Spanish; and before the close of the century had also been translated +into Latin, Italian, French and English, an English translation being +by J. Bourchier (London, 1546) and another being by T. North. It is +difficult now to account for its extraordinary popularity, its thought +being neither just nor profound, while its style is stiff and affected. +It gave rise to a literary controversy, however, of great bitterness and +violence, the author having ventured without warrant to claim for it an +historical character, appealing to an imaginary "manuscript in +Florence." Other works of Guevara are the _Decada de los Césares_ +(Valladolid, 1539), or "Lives of the Ten Roman Emperors," in imitation +of the manner of Plutarch and Suetonius; and the _Epistolas familiares_ +(Valladolid, 1539-1545), sometimes called "The Golden Letters," often +printed in Spain, and translated into all the principal languages of +Europe. They are in reality a collection of stiff and formal essays +which have long ago fallen into merited oblivion. Guevara, whose +influence upon the Spanish prose of the 16th century was considerable, +also wrote _Libro de los inventores del arte de marear_ (Valladolid, +1539, and Madrid, 1895). + + + + +GUEVARA, LUIS VELEZ DE (1579-1644), Spanish dramatist and novelist, was +born at Écija on the 1st of August 1579. After graduating as a sizar at +the university of Osuna in 1596, he joined the household of Rodrigo de +Castro, cardinal-archbishop of Seville, and celebrated the marriage of +Philip II. in a poem signed "Velez de Santander," a name which he +continued to use till some years later. He appears to have served as a +soldier in Italy and Algiers, returning to Spain in 1602 when he entered +the service of the count de Saldaña, and dedicated himself to writing +for the stage. He died at Madrid on the 10th of November 1644. He was +the author of over four hundred plays, of which the best are _Reinar +despues de morir_, _Más pesa el rey que la sangre_, _La Luna de la +Sierra_ and _El Diablo está en Cantillana_; but he is most widely known +as the author of _El Diablo cojuelo_ (1641), a fantastic novel which +suggested to Le Sage the idea of his _Diable boiteux_. + + + + +GUGLIELMI, PIETRO (1727-1804), Italian composer, was born at Massa +Carrara in May 1727, and died in Rome on the 19th of November 1804. He +received his first musical education from his father, and afterwards +studied under Durante at the Conservatorio di Santa Maria di Loreto at +Naples. His first operatic work, produced at Turin in 1755, established +his reputation, and soon his fame spread beyond the limits of his own +country, so that in 1762 he was called to Dresden to conduct the opera +there. He remained for some years in Germany, where his works met with +much success, but the greatest triumphs were reserved for him in +England. He went to London, according to Burney, in 1768, but according +to Florimo in 1772, returning to Naples in 1777. He still continued to +produce operas at an astounding rate, but was unable to compete +successfully with the younger masters of the day. In 1793 he became +_maestro di cappella_ at St Peter's, Rome. He was a very prolific +composer of Italian comic opera, and there is in most of his scores a +vein of humour and natural gaiety not surpassed by Cimarosa himself. In +serious opera he was less successful. But here also he shows at least +the qualities of a competent musician. Considering the enormous number +of his works, his unequal workmanship and the frequent instances of +mechanical and slip-shod writing in his music need not surprise us. The +following are among the most celebrated of his operas: _I Due Gemelli_, +_La Serva inamorata_, _La Pastorella nobile_, _La Bella Peccatrice_, +_Rinaldo_, _Artaserse_, _Didone_ and _Enea e Lavinia_. He also wrote +oratorios and miscellaneous pieces of orchestral and chamber music. Of +his eight sons two at least acquired fame as musicians--Pietro Carlo +(1763-1827), a successful imitator of his father's operatic style, and +Giacomo, an excellent singer. + + + + +GUIANA (_Guyana_, _Guayana_[1]), the general name given in its widest +acceptation to the part of South America lying to the north-east from 8° +40´ N. to 3° 30´ S. and from 50° W. to 68° 30´ W. Its greatest length, +from Cabo do Norte to the confluence of the Rio Xie and Rio Negro, is +about 1250 m., its greatest breadth, from Barima Point in the mouth of +the Orinoco to the confluence of the Rio Negro and Amazon, 800 m. Its +area is roughly 690,000 sq. m. Comprised in this vast territory are +Venezuelan (formerly Spanish) Guiana, lying on both sides of the Orinoco +and extending S. and S.W. to the Rio Negro and Brazilian settlements; +British Guiana, extending from Venezuela to the left bank of the +Corentyn river; Dutch Guiana (or Surinam), from the Corentyn to the +Maroni river; French Guiana (or Cayenne), from the Maroni to the Oyapock +river;[2] Brazilian (formerly Portuguese) Guiana, extending from the +southern boundaries of French, Dutch, British and part of Venezuelan +Guiana, to the Amazon and the Negro. Of these divisions the first and +last are now included in Venezuela and Brazil respectively; British, +Dutch and French Guiana are described in order below, and are alone +considered here. + +[Illiustration: Map of Guiana.] + +In their physical geography the three Guianas present certain common +characteristics. In each the principal features are the rivers and their +branch streams. In each colony the northern portion consists of a +fluviomarine deposit extending inland and gradually rising to a height +of 10 to 15 ft. above the sea. This alluvial plain varies in width from +50 m. to 18 m. and is traversed by ridges of sand and shells, roughly +parallel to what is now the coast, indicating the trend of former shore +lines. By the draining and diking of these lands the plantations have +been formed along the coast and up the rivers. These low lands are +attached to a somewhat higher plateau, which towards the coast is +traversed by numerous huge sand-dunes and inland by ranges of hills +rising in places to as much as 2000 ft. The greater part of this belt of +country, in which the auriferous districts principally occur, is covered +with a dense growth of jungle and high forest, but savannahs, growing +only a long wiry grass and poor shrubs, intrude here and there, being in +the S.E. much nearer to the coast than in the N.W. The hinterlands +consist of undulating open savannahs rising into hills and mountains, +some grass-covered, some in dense forest. + + _Geology_[3].--Guiana is formed almost entirely of gneiss and + crystalline schists penetrated by numerous dikes of diorite, diabase, + &c. The gold of the placer deposits appears to be derived, not from + quartz reefs, but from the schists and intrusive rocks, the selvages + of the diabase dikes sometimes containing as much as 5 oz. of gold to + the ton. In British Guiana a series of conglomerates, red and white + sandstone and red shale, rests upon the gneiss and forms the + remarkable table-topped mountains Roraima, Kukenaam, &c. The beds are + horizontal, and according to Brown and Sawkins, three layers of + greenstone, partly intrusive and partly contemporaneous, are + interstratified with the sedimentary deposits. The age of these beds + is uncertain, but they evidently correspond with the similar series + which occurs in Brazil, partly Palaeozoic and partly Cretaceous. In + Dutch Guiana there are a few small patches supposed to belong to the + Cretaceous period. Along the coast, and in the lower parts of the + river valleys, are deposits which are mainly Quaternary but may also + include beds of Tertiary age. + +_History._--The coast of Guiana was sighted by Columbus in 1498 when he +discovered the island of Trinidad and the peninsula of Paria, and in the +following year by Alonzo de Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci; and in 1500 +Vincente Yañez Pinzon ventured south of the equator, and sailing +north-west along the coast discovered the Amazon; he is believed to have +also entered some of the other rivers of Guiana, one of which, now +called Oyapock, is marked on early maps as Rio Pinzon. Little, however, +was known of Guiana until the fame of the fabled golden city Manoa or El +Dorado tempted adventurers to explore its rivers and forests. From +letters of these explorers found in captured ships, Sir Walter Raleigh +was induced to ascend the Orinoco in search of El Dorado in 1595, to +send Lawrence Keymis on the same quest in the following year, and in +1617 to try once again, with the same intrepid lieutenant, an expedition +fraught with disaster for both of them. As early as 1580 the Dutch had +established a systematic trade with the Spanish main, but so far as is +known their first voyage to Guiana was in 1598. By 1613 they had three +or four settlements on the coast of Demerara and Essequibo, and in about +1616 some Zeelanders settled on a small island, called by them _Kyk ober +al_ ("see over all"), in the confluence of the Cuyuni and Mazaruni +rivers. While the Dutch traders were struggling for a footing in +Essequibo and Demerara, English and French traders were endeavouring to +form settlements on the Oyapock river, in Cayenne and in Surinam, and by +1652 the English had large interests in the latter and the French in +Cayenne. In 1663 Charles II. issued letters patent to Lord Willoughby of +Parham and Lawrence Hyde, second son of the earl of Clarendon, granting +them the district between the Copenam and Maroni rivers, a province +described as extending from E. to W. some 120 m. This colony was, +however, formally ceded to the Netherlands in 1667 by the peace of +Breda, Great Britain taking possession of New York. Meanwhile the Dutch +West India Company, formed in 1621, had taken possession of Essequibo, +over which colony it exercised sovereign rights until 1791. In 1624 a +Dutch settlement was effected in the Berbice river, and from this grew +Berbice, for a long time a separate and independent colony. In 1657 the +Zeelanders firmly established themselves in the Pomeroon, Moruca and +Demerara rivers, and by 1674 the Dutch were colonizing all the territory +now known as British and Dutch Guiana. The New Dutch West Indian +Company, founded in that year to replace the older company which had +failed, received Guiana by charter from the states-general in 1682. In +the following year the company sold one-third of their territory to the +city of Amsterdam, and another third to Cornelis van Aerssens, lord of +Sommelsdijk. The new owners and the company incorporated themselves as +the Chartered Society of Surinam, and Sommelsdijk agreed to fill the +post of governor of the colony at his own expense. The lucrative trade +in slaves was retained by the West Indian Company, but the society could +import them on its own account by paying a fine to the company. +Sommelsdijk's rule was wise and energetic. He repressed and pacified the +Indian tribes, erected forts and disciplined the soldiery, constructed +the canal which bears his name, established a high court of justice and +introduced the valuable cultivation of the cocoa-nut. But on the 17th of +June 1688 he was massacred in a mutiny of the soldiers. The "third" +which Sommelsdijk possessed was offered by his widow to William III. of +England, but it was ultimately purchased by the city of Amsterdam for +700,000 fl. The settlements in Essequibo progressed somewhat slowly, and +it was not until immigration was attracted in 1740 by offers to +newcomers of free land and immunity for a decade from taxation that +anything like a colony could be said to exist there. In 1732 Berbice +placed itself under the protection of the states-general of Holland and +was granted a constitution, and in 1773 Demerara, till then a dependency +of Essequibo, was constituted as a separate colony. In 1781 the three +colonies, Demerara, Essequibo and Berbice, were captured by British +privateers, and were placed by Rodney under the governor of Barbados, +but in 1782 they were taken by France, then an ally of the Netherlands, +and retained until the peace of 1783, when they were restored to +Holland. In 1784 Essequibo and Demerara were placed under one governor, +and Georgetown--then called Stabroek--was fixed on as the seat of +government. The next decade saw a series of struggles between the +colonies and the Dutch West India company, which ended in the company +being wound up and in the three colonies being governed directly by the +states-general. In 1796 the British again took possession, and retained +the three colonies until the peace of Amiens in 1802, when they were +once again restored to Holland, only to be recaptured by Great Britain +in 1803, in which year the history proper of British Guiana began. + + + British Guiana. + +I. BRITISH GUIANA, the only British possession in S. America, was +formally ceded in 1814-1815. The three colonies were in 1831 +consolidated into one colony divided into three counties, Berbice +extending from the Corentyn river to the Abary creek, Demerara from the +Abary to the Boerasirie creek, Essequibo from the Boerasirie to the +Venezuelan frontier. This boundary-line between British Guiana and +Venezuela was for many years the subject of dispute. The Dutch, while +British Guiana was in their possession, claimed the whole watershed of +the Essequibo river, while the Venezuelans asserted that the Spanish +province of Guayana had extended up to the left bank of the Essequibo. +In 1840 Sir Robert Schomburgk had suggested a demarcation, afterwards +known as the "Schomburgk line"; and subsequently, though no agreement +was arrived at, certain modifications were made in this British claim. +In 1886 the government of Great Britain declared that it would +thenceforward exercise jurisdiction up to and within a boundary known as +"the modified Schomburgk line." Outposts were located at points on this +line, and for some years Guianese police and Venezuelan soldiers faced +one another across the Amacura creek in the Orinoco mouth and at Yuruan +up the Cuyuni river. In 1897 the dispute formed the subject of a message +to congress from the president of the United States, and in consequence +of this intervention the matter was submitted to an international +commission, whose award was issued at Paris in 1899 (see VENEZUELA). By +this decision neither party gained its extreme claim, the line laid down +differing but little from the original Schomburgk line. The demarcation +was at once undertaken by a joint commission appointed by Venezuela and +British Guiana and was completed in 1904. It was not found practicable, +owing to the impassable nature of the country, to lay down on earth that +part of the boundary fixed by the Paris award between the head of the +Wenamu creek and the summit of Mt. Roraima, and the boundary +commissioners suggested a deviation to follow the watersheds of the +Caroni, Cuyuni and Mazaruni rivers, a suggestion accepted by the two +governments. In 1902 the delimitation of the boundary between British +Guiana and Brazil was referred to the arbitration of the king of Italy, +and by his reward, issued in June 1904, the substantial area in dispute +was conceded to British Guiana. The work of demarcation has since been +carried out. + +_Towns, &c._--The capital of British Guiana is Georgetown, at the mouth +of the Demerara river, on its right bank, with a population of about +50,000. New Amsterdam, on the right bank of the Berbice river, has a +population of about 7500. Each possesses a mayor and town council, with +statutory powers to impose rates. There are nineteen incorporated +villages, and ten other locally governed areas known as country +districts, the affairs of which are controlled by local authorities, +known as village councils and country authorities respectively. + +_Population._--The census of 1891 gave the population of British Guiana +as 278,328. There was no census taken in 1901. By official estimates the +population at the end of 1904 was 301,923. Of these some 120,000 were +negroes and 124,000 East Indians; 4300 were Europeans, other than +Portuguese, estimated at about 11,600, and some 30,000 of mixed race. +The aborigines--Arawaks, Caribs, Wapisianas, Warraws, &c.--who numbered +about 10,000 in 1891, are now estimated at about 6500. In 1904 the +birth-rate for the whole colony was 30.3 per 1000 and the death-rate +28.8. + + _Physical Geography._--The surface features of British Guiana may be + divided roughly into four regions: first, the alluvial seaboard, flat + and below the level of high-water; secondly, the forest belt, swampy + along the rivers but rising into undulating lands and hills between + them; thirdly, the savannahs in and inland of the forest belt, + elevated table-lands, grass-covered and practically treeless; and + fourthly, the mountain ranges. The eastern portion of the colony, from + the source of its two largest rivers, the Corentyn and Essequibo, is a + rough inclined plain, starting at some 900 ft. above sea-level at the + source of the Takutu in the west, but only some 400 at that of the + Corentyn in the west, and sloping down gradually to the low alluvial + flats about 3 ft. below high-water line. The eastern part is generally + forested; the western is an almost level savannah, with woodlands + along the rivers. The northern portion of British Guiana, the + alluvial flats alluded to already, consists of a fluviomarine deposit + extending inland from 25 m. to 30 m., gradually rising to about 12 ft. + above high-water mark and ending against beds of sandy clay, the + residua of igneous rocks decomposed _in situ_, which form an extensive + undulating region rising to 150 ft. above the sea and stretching back + to the forest-covered hills. Roughly parallel to the existing + coast-line are narrow reefs of sand and sea-shells, which are dunes + indicating the trend of former limits of the sea, and still farther + back are the higher "sand hills," hills of granite or diabase with a + thick stratum of coarse white sand superimposed. From the coast-line + seawards the ocean deepens very gradually, and at low tide extensive + flats of sand and of mixed clay and sand (called locally "caddy") are + left bare, these flats being at times covered with a deposit of thin + drift mud. + + Two great parallel mountain systems cross the colony from W. to E., + the greater being that of the Pacaraima and Merumé Mts., and the + lesser including the Kanuku Mts. (2000 ft.), while the Acarai Mts., a + densely-wooded range rising to 2500 ft., form the southern boundary of + British Guiana and the watershed between the Essequibo and the Amazon. + These mountains rise generally in a succession of terraces and broad + plateaus, with steep or even sheer sandstone escarpments. They are + mostly flat-topped, and their average height is about 3500 ft. The + Pacaraima Mts., however, reach 8635 ft. at Roraima, and the latter + remarkable mountain rises as a perpendicular wall of red rock 1500 ft. + in height springing out of the forest-clad slopes below the summit, + and was considered inaccessible until in December 1884 Messrs im Thurn + and Perkins found a ledge by which the top could be reached. The + summit is a table-land some 12 sq. m. in area. Mt. Kukenaam is of + similar structure and also rises above 8500 ft. Other conspicuous + summits (about 7000 ft.) are Iwalkarima, Eluwarima, Ilutipu and + Waiakapiapu. The southern portion of the Pacaraima range comprises + rugged hills and rock-strewn valleys, but to the N., where the + sandstone assumes the table-shaped form, there are dense forests, and + the scenery is of extraordinary grandeur. Waterfalls frequently + descend the cliffs from a great height (nearly 2000 ft. sheer at + Roraima and Kukenaam). The sandstone formation can be traced from the + northern Pacaraima range on the N.W. to the Corentyn in the S.E. It is + traversed in places by dikes and sills of diabase or dolerite, while + bosses of more or less altered gabbro rise through it. The surface of + a large part of the colony is composed of gneiss, and of gneissose + granite, which is seen in large water-worn bosses in the river beds. + Intrusive granite is of somewhat rare occurrence; where found, it + gives rise to long low rolls of hilly country and to cataracts in the + rivers. Extensive areas of the country consist of quartz-porphyry, + porphyrites and felstone, and of more or less schistose rocks derived + from them. These rocks are closely connected with the gneissose + granites and gneiss, and there are reasons for believing that the + latter are the deep-seated portions of them and are only visible where + they have been exposed by denudation. Long ranges of hills, varying in + elevation from a few hundreds to from 2000 ft. to 3000 ft., traverse + the plains of the gneissose districts. These are caused either by old + intrusions of diabase and gabbro which have undergone modifications, + or by later ones of dolerite. These ranges are of high importance, as + the rocks comprising them are the main source of gold in British + Guiana. + + _Rivers._--The principal physical features of British Guiana are its + rivers and their branches, which form one vast network of waterways + all over it, and are the principal, indeed practically the only, + highways inland from the coast. Chief among them are the Waini, the + Essequibo, and its tributaries the Mazaruni and Cuyuni, the Demerara, + the Berbice and the Corentyn. The Essequibo rises in the Acarai Mts., + in 0° 41´ N. and about 850 ft. above the sea, and flows northwards for + about 600 m. until it discharges itself into the ocean by an estuary + nearly 15 m. in width. In this estuary are several large and fertile + islands, on four of which sugar used to be grown. Now but one, + Wakenaam, can boast of a factory. The Essequibo can be entered only by + craft drawing less than 20 ft. and is navigable for these vessels for + not more than 50 m., its subsequent course upwards being frequently + broken by cataracts and rapids. Some 7 m. below the first series of + rapids it is joined by the Mazaruni, itself joined by the Cuyuni some + 4 m. farther up. It has a remarkable course from its source in the + Merume Mountains, about 2400 ft. above the sea. It flows first south, + then west, north-west, north, and finally south-east to within 20 m. + of its own source, forming many fine falls, and its course thereafter + is still very tortuous. In 4° N. and 58° W., the Essequibo is joined + by the Rupununi, which, rising in a savannah at the foot of the + Karawaimento Mts., has a northerly and easterly course of fully 200 m. + In 3° 37´ N. the Awaricura joins the Rupununi, and by this tributary + the Pirara, a tributary of the Amazon, may be reached,--an example of + the interesting series of _itabos_ connecting nearly all S. American + rivers with one another. Another large tributary of the Essequibo is + the Potaro, on which, at 1130 ft. above sea-level and in 5° 8´ N. and + 59° 19´ W., is the celebrated Kaieteur fall, discovered in 1870 by Mr + C. Barrington Brown while engaged on a geological survey. This fall is + produced by the river flowing from a tableland of sandstone and + conglomerate into a deep valley 822 ft. below. For the first 741 ft. + the water falls as a perpendicular column, thence as a sloping + cataract to the still reach below. The river 200 yds. above the fall + is about 400 ft. wide, while the actual waterway of the fall itself + varies from 120 ft. in dry weather to nearly 400 ft. in rainy seasons. + The Kaieteur, which it took Mr Brown a fortnight to reach from the + coast, can now be reached on the fifth day from Georgetown. Among + other considerable tributaries of the Essequibo are the Siparuni, + Burro-Burro, Rewa, Kuyuwini and Kassi-Kudji. The Demerara river, the + head-waters of which are known only to Indians, rises probably near 5° + N., and after a winding northerly course of some 200 m. enters the + ocean in 6° 50´ N. and 58° 20´ W. A bar of mud and sand prevents the + entrance of vessels drawing more than 19 ft. The river is from its + mouth, which is nearly 2 m. wide, navigable for 70 m. to all vessels + which can enter. The Berbice river rises in about 3° 40´ N., and in 3° + 53´ N. is within 9 m. of the Essequibo. At its mouth it is about 2½ m. + wide, and is navigable for vessels drawing not more than 12 ft. for + about 105 m. and for vessels drawing not more than 7 ft. for fully 175 + m. Thence upwards it is broken by great cataracts. The Canje creek + joins the Berbice river close to the sea. The Corentyn river rises in + 1° 48´ 30´´ N., about 140 m. E. of the Essequibo, and flowing + northwards enters the Atlantic by an estuary some 14 m. wide. The + divide between its head-waters and those of streams belonging to the + Amazon system is only some 400 ft. in elevation. It is navigable for + about 150 m., some of the reaches being of great width and beauty. The + upper reaches are broken by a series of great cataracts, some of + which, until the discovery of Kaieteur, were believed to be the + grandest in British Guiana. Among other rivers are the Pomeroon, + Moruca and Barima, while several large streams or creeks fall directly + into the Atlantic, the largest being the Abary, Mahaicony and Mahaica, + between Berbice and Demerara, and the Boerasirie between Demerara and + Essequibo. The colour of the water of the rivers and creeks is in + general a dark brown, caused by the infusion of vegetable matter, but + where the streams run for a long distance through savannahs they are + of a milky colour. + + _Climate._--The climate is, as tropical countries go, not unhealthy. + Malarial fevers are common but preventible; and phthisis is prevalent, + not because the climate is unsuitable to sufferers from pulmonary + complaints, but because of the ignorance of the common people of the + elementary principles of hygiene, an ignorance which the state is + endeavouring to lessen by including the teaching of hygiene in the + syllabus of the primary schools. The temperature is uniform on the + coast for the ten months from October to July, the regular N.E. trade + winds keeping it down to an average of 80° F. In August and September + the trades die away and the heat becomes oppressive. In the interior + the nights are cold and damp. Hurricanes, indeed even strong gales, + are unknown; a tidal wave is an impossibility; and the nature of the + soil of the coast lands renders earthquakes practically harmless. + Occasionally there are severe droughts, and the rains are sometimes + unduly prolonged, but usually the year is clearly divided into two wet + and two dry seasons. The long wet season begins in mid-April and lasts + until mid-August. The long dry season is from September to the last + week in November. December and January constitute the short rainy + season, and February and March the short dry season. The rainfall + varies greatly in different parts of the colony; on the coast it + averages about 80 in. annually. + + _Flora._--The vegetation is most luxuriant and its growth perpetual. + Indigenous trees and plants abound in the utmost variety, while many + exotics have readily adapted themselves to local conditions. Along the + coast is a belt of courida and mangrove--the bark of the latter being + used for tanning--forming a natural barrier to the inroads of the sea, + but one which--very unwisely--has been in parts almost ruined to allow + of direct drainage. The vast forests afford an almost inexhaustible + supply of valuable timbers; greenheart and mora, largely used in + shipbuilding and for wharves and dock and lock gates; silverbally, + yielding magnificent planks for all kinds of boats; and cabinet woods, + such as cedar and crabwood. There may be seen great trees, struggling + for life one with the other, covered with orchids--some of great + beauty and value--and draped with falling _lianas_ and vines. Giant + palms fringe the river-banks and break the monotony of the mass of + smaller foliage. Many of the trees yield gums, oils and febrifuges, + the bullet tree being bled extensively for _balata_, a gum used + largely in the manufacture of belting. Valuable varieties of rubber + have also been found in several districts, and since early in 1905 + have attracted the attention of experts from abroad. On the coast + plantains, bananas and mangoes grow readily and are largely used for + food, while several districts are admirably adapted to the growth of + limes. Oranges, pineapples, star-apples, granadillas, guavas are among + the fruits; Indian corn, cassava, yams, eddoes, tannias, sweet + potatoes and ochroes are among the vegetables, while innumerable + varieties of peppers are grown and used in large quantities by all + classes. The dainty avocado pear, purple and green, grows readily. In + the lagoons and trenches many varieties of water-lilies grow wild, the + largest being the famous _Victoria regia_. + + _Fauna._--Guiana is full of wild animals, birds, insects and reptiles. + Among the wild animals, one and all nocturnal, are the mipourrie or + tapir, manatee, acouri and labba (both excellent eating), sloth, + ant-eater, armadillo, several kinds of deer, baboons, monkeys and the + puma and jaguar. The last is seen frequently down on the coast, + attracted from the forest by the cattle grazing on the front and back + pasture lands of the estates. Among the birds may be mentioned the + carrion crow (an invaluable scavenger), vicissi and muscovy ducks, + snipe, teal, plover, pigeon, the ubiquitous kiskadee or _qu'est que + dit_, a species of shrike--his name derived from his shrill call--the + canary and the twa-twa, both charming whistlers. These are all found + on the coast. In the forest are maam (partridge), maroudi (wild + turkey), the beautiful bell-bird with note like a silver gong, the + quadrille bird with its tuneful oft-repeated bar, great flocks of + macaws and parrots, and other birds of plumage of almost indescribable + richness and variety. On the coast the trenches and canals are full of + alligators, but the great cayman is found only in the rivers of the + interior. Among the many varieties of snakes are huge constricting + camoudies, deadly bushmasters, labarrias and rattlesnakes. Among other + reptiles are the two large lizards, the salumpenta (an active enemy of + the barn-door fowl), and the iguana, whose flesh when cooked resembles + tender chicken. The rivers, streams and trenches abound with fishes, + crabs and shrimps, the amount of the latter consumed being enormous, + running into tons weekly as the coolies use them in their curries and + the blacks in their foo-foo. + +_Government and Administration._--Executive power is vested in a +governor, who is advised in all administrative matters by an executive +council, consisting of five official and three unofficial members +nominated by the crown. Legislative authority is vested in the Court of +Policy, consisting of the governor, who presides and without whose +permission no legislation can be initiated, seven other official members +and eight elected members. This body has, however, no financial +authority, all taxation and expenditure being dealt with by the Combined +Court, consisting of the Court of Policy combined with six financial +representatives. The elected members of the Court of Policy and the +financial representatives are elected by their several constituencies +for five years. Qualification for the Court of Policy is the ownership, +or possession under lease for a term of twenty-one years, of eighty +acres of land, of which at least forty acres are under cultivation, or +of house property to the value of $7500. A financial representative must +be similarly qualified or be in receipt of a clear income of not less +than £300 per annum. Every male is entitled to be registered as a voter +who (in addition to the usual formal qualifications) owns (during six +months prior to registration) three acres of land in cultivation or a +house of the annual rental or value of £20; or is a secured tenant for +not less than three years of six acres of land in cultivation or for one +year of a house of £40 rental; or has an income of not less than £100 +per annum; or has during the previous twelve months paid £4, 3s. 4d. in +direct taxation. Residence in the electoral district for six months +prior to registration is coupled with the last two alternative +qualifications. Plural voting is legal but no plumping is allowed. The +combined court is by this constitution, which was granted in 1891, +allowed the use of all revenues due to the crown in return for a civil +list voted for a term now fixed at three years. English is the official +and common language. The Roman-Dutch law, modified by orders-in-council +and local statutes, governs actions in the civil courts, but the +criminal law is founded on that of England. Magistrates have in civil +cases jurisdiction up to £20, while an appeal lies from their decisions +in any criminal or civil case. The supreme court consists of a chief +justice and two puisne judges, and has various jurisdictions. The full +court, consisting of the three judges or any two of them, has +jurisdiction over all civil matters, but an appeal lies to His Majesty +in privy council in cases involving £500 and upwards. A single judge +sits in insolvency, in actions involving not over £520, and in appeals +from magistrates' decisions. The appeal full court, consisting of three +judges, sits to hear appeals from decisions of a single judge in the +limited civil, appellate and insolvency courts. Criminal courts are held +four times a year in each county, a single judge presiding in each +court. A court of crown cases reserved is formed by the three judges, of +whom two form a quorum provided the chief-justice is one of the two. +There are no imperial troops now stationed in British Guiana, but there +is a semi-military police force, a small militia and two companies of +volunteers. The Church of England and the Church of Scotland are both +established, and grants-in-aid are also given to the Roman Catholic and +Wesleyan churches and to several other denominations. + + The revenue and expenditure now each amount annually to an average of + a little over £500,000. About one-half of the revenue is produced by + import duties, and about £90,000 by excise. The public debt on the + 31st of March 1905 stood at £989,620. + + The system of primary education is denominational and is mainly + supported from the general revenue. During 1904-1905, 213 schools + received grants-in-aid amounting to £23,500, the average cost per + scholar being a little over £1. These grants are calculated on the + results of examinations held annually, an allowance varying from 4s. + 4½d. to 1s. 0½d. being made for each pass in reading, writing, + arithmetic, school-garden work, nature study, singing and drill, + English, geography, elementary hygiene and sewing. Secondary education + is provided in Georgetown at some private establishments, and for boys + at Queen's College, an undenominational government institution where + the course of instruction is the same as at a public school in + England, and the boys are prepared for the Cambridge local + examinations, on the result of which annually depend the Guiana + scholarship--open to boys and girls, and carrying a university or + professional training in England--and two scholarships at Queen's + College. + + _Industries and Trade._--At the end of the third decade of the 19th + century the principal exports were sugar, rum, molasses, cotton and + coffee. In 1830, 9,500,000 lb. of coffee were sent abroad, but after + the emancipation of the slaves it almost ceased as an export, and the + little that is now grown is practically entirely consumed in the + colony. The cultivation of cotton ceased in 1844, and, but for a short + revival during the American civil war, has never prospered since. + Efforts have been made to resuscitate its growth, but the experiments + of the Board of Agriculture have only shown that Sea Island cotton is + not adaptable to local conditions, and that no other known variety can + as yet be recommended. To-day the principal exports are sugar, rum, + molasses, molascuit--a cattle food made from molasses--gold, timber, + balata, shingles and cattle. The annual value of the total exports is + just under £2,000,000, of which about two-thirds go to Great Britain + and British possessions. The cultivation of rice has made great + strides in recent years, and, where difficulties of drainage and + irrigation can be economically overcome, promises to increase rapidly. + In 1873, 32,000,000 lb. of rice were imported, whereas in 1904-1905, + the quantity imported having fallen to 20,500,000 lb., there were over + 18,000 acres under rice cultivation, and exportation, principally to + the British West Indies, had commenced. The cultivation of the + sugar-cane, and its manufacture into sugar and its by-products, still + remains, in spite of numerous fluctuations, the staple industry. The + provision of a trustworthy labour supply for the estates is of great + importance, and local scarcity has made it necessary since 1840 to + import it under a system of indenture. In that year and until 1867, + liberated Africans were brought from Rio de Janeiro, Havana, Sierra + Leone and St Helena, and in 1845 systematic immigration from India + commenced and has since been carried on annually--save in 1849-1850. + In 1853 immigration from China was tried, and was carried on by the + government from 1859 to 1866, when it ceased owing to a convention + arranged at Peking, stipulating that all immigrants should on the + expiry of their term of indenture be entitled to be sent back at the + expense of the colony, a liability it could not afford to incur. To + reduce the cost of supervision and kindred expenses, and consequently + of the cane and its manufacture into sugar, the policy of + centralization has been universally adopted, and forty-six estates now + produce as much sugar as three times that number did in 1875. During + recent years Canada has come forward as a large buyer of Guiana's + sugar, and in 1904-1905 the same amount went there as to the United + States, in each case over 44,000 tons, whereas in 1901-1902 the United + States took 85,000 tons and Canada under 8000 tons. Practically all + the rum and molascuit go to England, and the molasses to Holland and + Portuguese possessions. The lands on the coast and on the river banks + up to the sand hills are of marked fertility, and can produce almost + any tropical vegetable or fruit. Cultivation, however, save on the + sugar, coffee and cocoa estates, and by a few exceptional small + farmers, is carried on in a haphazard and half-hearted manner, and the + problem of agricultural development is one of great difficulty for the + government. Much of the privately-owned land is not beneficially + occupied, and in many cases it is not possible even to learn to whom + it belongs, and though there are vast tracts of uncultivated crown + land where a large farm or a small homestead can be easily and cheaply + acquired, the difficulties involved in clearing, draining, and in some + cases of protecting it by dams, are prohibitive to all but the + exceptionally determined. + + Prospecting for gold began in 1880, and from 1884 to 1893-1894 the + output, chiefly from alluvial workings, increased from 250 oz. to + nearly 140,000 oz. annually. The industry then received a serious + check by the failure of several mines, and for nearly a decade was + almost entirely in the hands of the small tributor, known locally as a + pork-knocker. There has been some revival, chiefly due to foreign + enterprise. At Omai on the Essequibo river a German syndicate worked a + large concession on the hydraulic process of placer mining with + considerable success, and more recently took to dredging on its + flats. In the Puruni (a tributary of the Mazaruni) American + capitalists, working the Peters' mine, have established their workings + to a considerable depth, besides constructing a road, 60 m. in length, + from Kartabo point, at the confluence of the Guyuni and Mazaruni, to + the Puruni river opposite the mine. An English syndicate started + dredging in the Conawarook, a tributary of the Essequibo. The + principal gold districts are on the Essequibo and its tributaries--the + chief being the Cuyuni, Mazaruni, Potaro and Conawarook--and on the + Barima, Barama and Waini rivers in the north-west district. There have + been smaller workings, mostly unsuccessful, in the Demerara and + Berbice rivers. + + Diamonds and other precious stones have been found in small + quantities, and since 1900 efforts have been made to extend the + output, nearly 11,000 carats weight of diamonds being exported in + 1904. But though the small stones found were of good water, the cost + of transport to the diamond fields, on the Mazaruni river, was heavy, + and after 1904 the industry declined. Laws dealing with gold and + precious stones passed in 1880, 1886 and 1887, and regulations in + 1899, were codified in 1902 and amended in 1905. + + Timber is cut, and balata and rubber collected, from crown lands by + licences issued from the department of Lands and Mines. Wood-cutting, + save on concessions held by a local company owning an up-country line + of railway connecting the Demerara and Essequibo rivers, is limited to + those parts of the forest which are close to the lower stretches of + the rivers and creeks, the overland haulage of the heavy logs being + both difficult and costly, while transport through the upper reaches + of the rivers is impossible on account of the many cataracts and + rapids. The average annual value of imports is £1,500,000, of which + about two-thirds are from Great Britain and British possessions. Of + the vessels trading with the colony, most are under the British flag, + the remainder being principally American and Norwegian. + + The money of account is dollars and cents, but, with the exception of + the notes of the two local banks, the currency is British sterling. + The unit of land measure is the Rhynland rood, roughly equal to 12 ft. + 4 in. A Rhynland acre contains 300 square roods. + + _Inland Communication, &c._--The public roads extend along the coast + from the Corentyn river to some 20 m. N. of the Essequibo mouth on the + Aroabisci coast, and for a short distance up each of the principal + rivers and creeks entering the sea between these points. A line of + railway 60½ m. in length runs from Georgetown to Rosignol on the left + bank of the Berbice river opposite New Amsterdam; and another line 15 + m. long starts from Vreed-en-hoop, on the left bank of the Demerara + river opposite Georgetown, and runs to Greenwich Park on the right + bank of the Essequibo river some 3 m. from its mouth. A light railway, + metre gauge, 18½ m. in length, connects Wismar (on the left bank of + the Demerara river some 70 m. from its mouth) with Rockstone (on the + right bank of the Essequibo, and above the first series of cataracts + in that river). Steamers run daily to and from Georgetown and Wismar, + and launches to and from Rockstone and Tumatumari Fall on the Potaro, + and all expeditions for the goldfields of the Essequibo and its + tributaries above Rockstone travel by this route. Another steamer goes + twice a week to Bartica at the confluence of the Essequibo and + Mazaruni, and another weekly to Mt. Everard on the Barima, from which + termini expeditions start to the other gold and diamond fields. + Steamers also run from Georgetown to New Amsterdam and up the Berbice + river for about 100 m. Above the termini of these steamer routes all + travelling is done in keelless _bateaux_, propelled by paddlers and + steered when coming through the rapids at both bow and stern by + certificated bowmen and steersmen. Owing to the extreme dangers of + this inland travelling, stringent regulations have been framed as to + the loading of boats, supply of ropes and qualifications of men in + charge, and the shooting of certain falls is prohibited. Voyages + up-country are of necessity slow, but the return journey is made with + comparatively great rapidity, distances laboriously covered on the + up-trip in three days being done easily in seven hours when coming + back. + + From England British Guiana is reached in sixteen days by the steamers + of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, and in nineteen days by those + of the direct line from London and Glasgow. There are also regular + services from Canada, the United States, France and Holland. + +_History._--When taken over in 1803 the prospects of three British +colonies were by no means promising, and during the next decade the +situation became very critical. Owing to the increased output of sugar +by conquered Dutch and French colonies the English market was glutted +and the markets of the continent of Europe were not available, Bonaparte +having closed the ports. The years 1811 and 1812 were peculiarly +disastrous, especially to those engaged in the manufacture of sugar, and +at a public meeting held in Georgetown early in the latter year it was +stated that the produce of the colony ordinarily worth £1,860,000 had on +account of deteriorated value decreased by fully one-third. At this +meeting it was resolved to petition the imperial parliament to allow the +interchange of produce with the United States; a resolution which was +unfortunately rendered abortive by the outbreak of war between England +and the States in 1812, the trade of British Guiana being instead +actually harried by American privateers. In his address to the Combined +Court on the 20th of October 1812 the governor (General Carmichael) +stated that a vessel with government stores had been captured by an +American privateer, and in February 1813 the imperial government sent +H.M.S. "Peacock" to protect the coast. On the 23rd of that month in +cruising along the east coast of Demerara the "Peacock" met the American +privateer "Hornet," and though, after a gallant struggle, in which +Captain Peake, R.N., was killed, the English ship was sunk with nearly +all her crew, the colony did not suffer from any further depredations. +In the following years news of the agitation in England in favour of +emancipation gradually became known to the slaves and caused +considerable unrest among them, culminating in 1823 in a serious +outbreak on the estates on the east coast of Demerara. Negroes, +demanding their freedom, attacked the houses of several managers, and +although at most points these attacks were repulsed with but little loss +on either side, the situation was so serious as to necessitate the +calling out of the military. The ringleaders were arrested and promptly +and vigorously dealt with, while a special court-martial was appointed +to try the Rev. John Smith, of the London Missionary Society, who it was +alleged had fostered the rising by his teachings to the slave +congregation at his chapel in Le Ressouvenir. This trial was stigmatized +as unfair by the missionary party in England, but on the whole appears +to have been conducted decently by an undoubtedly unbiassed court. It is +difficult now to form any very definite conclusion. Mr Smith certainly +had great influence over the slaves, and while his teaching prior to the +outbreak was at least ill-advised, he made no efforts while the +disturbances were going on to use his influence on the side of law and +order; indeed all he could say in his own defence was that he was +ignorant of what was going on, a statement it is impossible to believe +to have been strictly veracious. He was found guilty and sentenced to be +hanged. It is obvious that it was never intended to carry out this +sentence, and on the 29th of November the governor announced that he +felt it imperative on him to transmit the findings of the court for His +Majesty's consideration. The question of Smith's guilt or innocence +created a great deal of feeling in England, the anti-slavery and +missionary societies making it a basis for increased agitation in favour +of the slaves; but the imperial government evidently agreed with the +colonial executive in holding that he could not be exonerated of grave +responsibility, as the order of the king was that while the sentence of +death was remitted Mr Smith was to be dismissed from the colony and to +enter into a recognizance in £2000 not to return to British Guiana or to +reside in any other West Indian colony. This order reached Georgetown in +April 1824, but Mr Smith had died in the city jail on the 6th of +February of a pulmonary complaint from which he had been suffering for +some time. + +Sir Benjamin d'Urban was governor from April 1824 to May 1833, the +principal event of his administration being the consolidation in 1831 of +the three colonies into one colony divided into three counties, Berbice, +Demerara and Essequibo. + +Governor d'Urban was succeeded in June 1833 by Sir James Carmichael +Smyth, who began his administration by a proclamation to the slaves +stating that while the king intended to improve their condition, the +details of his plans were not as yet completed, and warning them against +impatience or insubordination. When the resolutions foreshadowing +emancipation, passed by the House of Commons on the 12th of June 1833, +reached the colony, the planters, to whom the governor's proclamation +had been most distasteful, were thunderstruck and even the government +was surprised. Naturally the slaves were wildly jubilant. Emancipation +brought troublous times through which the governor steered the colony +with great tact and firmness, serious troubles being nipped in the bud +solely by his great personality, and the subsequent conflicts with the +apprentices might have been obviated had he lived longer. He died at +Camp House on the 4th of March 1838. + +In the years following emancipation the colony was in a serious +condition. The report of a commission in 1850 proved that it was +virtually ruined, and only by the introduction of immigrants to provide +a reliable labour supply were the sugar estates saved from total +extinction. By 1853 the colony had begun to make headway, and Sir Henry +Barkly, the then governor, was able to state in his speech to the +Combined Court in January that its progress was in every way +satisfactory. During Governor Barkly's administration the long series of +struggles between the legislature and the executive terminated, and when +he left in May 1853 he did so with the respect and good-will of all +classes. The strengthening of the labour supply was not effected without +troubles. In 1847 the negroes in Berbice attacked the persons and +property of the Portuguese immigrants, the riots spreading to Demerara +and Essequibo, and not until the military were called out were the +disturbances quelled. Similar riots in 1862 were only stopped by the +prompt and firm action of the new governor, Mr (afterwards Sir) Francis +Hincks, while rows between negroes and Chinese and negroes and East +Indians were frequent. Gradually, however, things quieted down, and +until 1883 the estates as a whole did well. In 1884 the price of sugar +fell so seriously as to make the prospects of the colony very gloomy, +and for nearly two decades proprietors had to be content with a price +kept artificially low by bounty-fed beet-sugar, many estates being +ruined, while those that survived only did so by the application of +every economy, and by their owners availing themselves of every new +discovery in the sciences of cultivation and manufacture. + +The year 1889 was marked by an outbreak on the part of a section of the +negro population in Georgetown directed against the Portuguese residents +there. A Portuguese had murdered his black paramour and had been +convicted and sentenced to death. The governor commuted the sentence to +penal servitude for life. Shortly after this a Portuguese stall-holder +in the market assaulted a small black boy whom he suspected of +pilfering, the latter having to be taken to a hospital, while the +former, after being taken to a police station was, through some +misunderstanding or informality, at once released. Almost immediately +excitable and unreasoning negroes were rushing about loudly proclaiming +that the boy was dead, that the Portuguese were allowed to kill black +people and to go free, and calling on one another to take their own +revenge. Mobs gathered quickly, attacked individual Portuguese and +wrecked their shops and houses, and not until the city had been given up +for two days to scenes of disgraceful disorder were the efforts of the +police and special constables successful in quelling the disturbances. +The damage done amounted to several thousands of dollars, the Portuguese +owners being eventually compensated from general revenue. + +In 1884 the dispute as to the boundary with Venezuela became acute. It +was reported to the colonial government that the government of Venezuela +had granted to an American syndicate a concession which covered much of +the territory claimed by Great Britain, and although prompt +investigation by an agent despatched by the governor did not then +disclose any trace of interference with British claims, a further visit +in January 1885, made in consequence of reports that servants of the +Manoa Company had torn down notices posted by Mr McTurk on his former +visit, discovered that the British notices had been covered over by +Venezuelan ones and resulted in the government of Great Britain +declaring that it would thenceforward exercise jurisdiction up to and +within a boundary known as "the modified Schomburgk line." Outposts were +located at points on this line, and for some years Guianese police and +Venezuelan soldiers faced one another across the Amacura creek in the +Orinoco mouth and at Yuruan up the Cuyuni river. Guianese officers were, +however, presumably instructed not actively to oppose acts of aggression +by the Venezuelan government, for in January 1895 Venezuelan soldiers +arrested Messrs D. D. Barnes and A. H. Baker, inspectors of police in +charge at Yuruan station, conveyed them through Venezuela to Caracas, +eventually allowing them to take steamer to Trinidad. For this act +compensation was demanded and was eventually paid by Venezuela. The +diplomatic question as to the boundary--the results of which are stated +above--was passed out of the hands of the colony; see the account of the +arbitration under VENEZUELA. + +The last two months of 1905 were marked by serious disturbances in +Georgetown, and in a lesser degree on the east and west banks of the +Demerara river. On the 29th of November the dock labourers employed on +the wharves in Georgetown struck for higher wages, and large crowds +invaded the principal stores in the city, compelling men willing to work +to desist and in some cases assaulting those who opposed them. By the +evening of the 30th of November they had got so far out of hand as to +necessitate the reading of the Riot Act and a proclamation by the +governor (Sir F. M. Hodgson) forbidding all assemblies. On the morning +of the 1st of December serious disturbances broke out at Ruimvelt, a +sugar estate directly south of Georgetown, where the cane-cutters had +suddenly struck for higher pay, and the police were compelled to fire on +the mob, killing some and wounding others. All through that day mobs in +all parts of the city assaulted any white man they met, houses were +invaded and windows smashed, and on two further occasions the police had +to fire. At night torrential rains forced the rioters to shelter, and +enabled the police to get rest, their places being taken by pickets of +militiamen and special constables. On Saturday, the 2nd of December, the +police had got the upper hand, and the arrival that night of H.M.S. +"Sappho" and on Sunday of H.M.S. "Diamond" gave the government complete +control of the situation. Threatened troubles on the sugar estates on +the west bank were suppressed by the prompt action of the governor, and +the arrest of large numbers of the rioters and their immediate trial by +special courts restored thorough order. + + AUTHORITIES.--See Raleigh's _Voyages for the Discovery of Guiana + 1595-1596_, ("Hakluyt" series); Laurence Keymis' _Relation of the + second Voyage to Guiana (1596)_, ("Hakluyt" series); Sir R. H. + Schomburgk, _Description of British Guiana_ (London, 1840); C. + Waterton, _Wanderings in South America, 1812-1825_ (London, 1828); J. + Rodway, _History of British Guiana_ (Georgetown, 1891-1894); H. G. + Dalton, History of British Guiana (London, 1855); J. W. Boddam + Whetham, _Roraima and British Guiana_ (London, 1879); C. P. Lucas, + _Historical Geography of British Colonies_; E. F. im Thurn, _Among the + Indians of Guiana_ (London, 1883); _British Guiana Directory_ + (Georgetown, 1906); G. D. Bayley, _Handbook of British Guiana_ + (Georgetown, 1909). (A. G. B.*) + + + Dutch Guiana. + +II. DUTCH GUIANA, or _Surinam_, has an area of about 57,900 sq. m. +British Guiana bounds it on the west and French on the east (the long +unsettled question of the French boundary is dealt with in section III., +FRENCH GUIANA). The various peoples inhabiting Surinam are distributed +according to the soil and the products. The Indians (Caribs, Arawaks, +Warrous) live on the savannahs, or on the upper Nickerie, Coppename and +Maroni, far from the plantations, cultivating their fields of manioc or +cassava, and for the rest living by fishing and hunting. They number +about 2000. The bush negroes (Marrons) dwell between 3° and 4° N., near +the isles and cataracts. They are estimated at 10,000, and are employed +in the transport of men and goods to the goldfields, the navigation of +the rivers in trade with the Indians, and in the transport of wood to +Paramaribo and the plantations. They are the descendants of runaway +slaves, and before missionaries had worked among them their paganism +retained curious traces of their former connexion with Christianity. +Their chief god was Gran Gado (grand-god), his wife Maria, and his son +Jesi Kist. Various minor deities were also worshipped, Ampuka the +bush-god, Toni the water-god, &c. Their language was based on a bastard +English, mingled with many Dutch, Portuguese and native elements. Their +chiefs are called _gramman_ or grand man; but the authority of these +men, and the peculiarities of language and religion, have in great +measure died out owing to modern intercourse with the Dutch and others. +The inhabitants of Paramaribo and the plantations comprise a variety of +races, represented by Chinese, Javanese, coolies from India and the West +Indies, negroes and about 2000 whites. Of non-Christian immigrants there +are about 6000 Mahommedans and 12,000 Hindus; and Jews number about +1200. The total population was given in 1907 as 84,103, exclusive of +Indians, &c., in the forests. Nearly one-half of this total are in +Paramaribo and one-half in the districts. The population has shown a +tendency to move from the districts to the town; thus in 1852 there were +6000 persons in the town and 32,000 in the districts. + +The principal settlements have been made in the lower valley of the +Surinam, or between that river and the Saramacca on the W. and the +Commewyne on the E. The Surinam is the chief of a number of large rivers +which rise in the Tumuc Humac range or the low hills between it and the +sea, which they enter on the Dutch seaboard, between the Corentyn and +the Maroni (Dutch _Corantijn_ and _Marowijne_), which form the +boundaries with British and French territories respectively. Between the +rivers of Dutch Guiana there are remarkable cross channels available +during the floods at least. As the Maroni communicates with the Cottica, +which is in turn a tributary of the Commewyne, a boat can pass from the +Maroni to Paramaribo; thence by the Sommelsdijk canal it can reach the +Saramacca; and from the Saramacca it can proceed up the Coppename, and +by means of the Nickerie find its way to the Corentyn. The rivers are +not navigable inland to any considerable extent, as their courses are +interrupted by rapids. The interior of the country consists for the most +part of low hills, though an extreme height of 3800 ft. is known in the +Wilhelmina Kette, in the west of the colony, about 3° 50´ to 4° N. The +hinterland south of this latitude, and that part of the Tumuc Humac +range along which the Dutch frontier runs, are, however, practically +unexplored. Like the other territories of Guiana the Dutch colony is +divided physically into a low coast-land, savannahs and almost +impenetrable forest. + +Meteorological observations have been carried on at five stations +(Paramaribo, Coronie, Sommelsdijk, Nieuw-Nickerie and Groningen). The +mean range of temperature for the day, month and year shows little +variation, being respectively 77.54°-88.38° F., 76.1°-78.62° F. and +70.52°-90.14° F. The north-east trade winds prevail throughout the year, +but the rainfall varies considerably; for December and January the mean +is respectively 8.58 and 9.57 in., for May and June 11.26 and 10.31 in., +but for February and March 7.2 and 6.81 in., and for September 2.48 and +2.0 in. The seasons comprise a long and a short dry season, and a period +of heavy and of slight rainfall. + + _Products and Trade._--It has been found exceedingly difficult to + exploit the produce of the forests. The most important crops and those + supplying the chief exports are cocoa, coffee and sugar, all + cultivated on the larger plantations, with rice, maize and bananas on + the smaller or coast lands. Most of the larger plantations are + situated on the lower courses of the Surinam, Commewyne, Nickerie and + Cottica, and on the coast lands, rarely in the upper parts. Goldfields + lie in the older rocks (especially the slate) of the upper Surinam, + Saramacca and Maroni. The first section of a railway designed to + connect the goldfields with Paramaribo was opened in 1906. The annual + production of gold amounts in value to about £100,000, but has shown + considerable fluctuation. Agriculture is the chief means of + subsistence. About 42,000 acres are under cultivation. Of 30,000, + persons whose occupation is given in official statistics, close upon + 21,000 are engaged in agriculture or on the plantations, 2400 in + gold-mining and only 1000 in trade. The exports increased in value + from £200,800 in 1875 to £459,800 in 1899, and imports from £260,450 + in 1875 to £510,180 in 1899; but the average value of exports over + five years subsequently was only £414,000, while that of imports was + £531,000. + + _Administration._--The colony is under a governor, who is president of + an executive council, which also includes a vice-president and three + members nominated by the crown. The legislative body is the states, + the members of which are elected for six years by electors, of whom + there is one for every 200 holders of the franchise. The colony is + divided into sixteen districts. For the administration of justice + there are three cantonal courts, two district courts, and the supreme + court at Paramaribo, whose president and permanent members are + nominated by the crown. The average local revenue (1901-1906) was + about £276,000 and the expenditure about £317,000; both fluctuated + considerably, and a varying subvention is necessary from the home + government (£16,000 in 1902, £60,400 in 1906; the annual average is + about £37,000). There are a civic guard of about 1800 men and a + militia of 500, with a small garrison. + +_History._--The history of the Dutch in Guiana, and the compression of +their influence within its present limits, belongs to the general +history of Guiana (above). Surinam and the Dutch islands of the West +Indies were placed under a common government in 1828, the governor +residing at Paramaribo, but in 1845 they were separated. Slavery was +abolished in 1863. Labour then became difficult to obtain, and in 1870 a +convention was signed between Holland and England for the regulation of +the coolie traffic, and a Dutch government agent for Surinam was +appointed at Calcutta. The problem was never satisfactorily solved, but +the interest of the mother-country in the colony greatly increased +during the last twenty years of the 19th century, as shown by the +establishment of the Surinam Association, of the Steam Navigation +Company's service to Paramaribo, and by the formation of a botanical +garden for experimental culture at that town, as also by geological and +other scientific expeditions, and the exhibition at Haarlem in 1898. + + AUTHORITIES.--Among the older works on Surinam the first rank is held + by Jan Jacob Hartsinck's masterly _Beschryving van Guiana, of de Wilde + Kust, in Zuid Amerika_ (2 vols., Amsterdam, 1770). Extracts from this + work, selected for their bearing upon British boundary questions, were + translated and annotated by J. A. J. de Villiers (London, 1897). A + valuable _Geschiedenis der Kolonie van Suriname_, by a number of + "learned Jews," was published at Amsterdam in 1791 and it was + supplemented and so far superseded by Wolbers, _Geschiedenis van + Suriname_ (Amsterdam, 1861). See further W. G. Palgrave, _Dutch + Guiana_ (London, 1876); A. Kappler, _Surinam, sein Land, &c._ + (Stuttgart, 1887); Prince Roland Bonaparte, _Les Habitants de Surinam_ + (Paris, 1884); K. Martin, "Bericht über eine Reise ins Gebiet des + Oberen-Surinam," _Bijdragen v. h. Inst. voor Taal Land en + Volkenkunde_, i. 1. (The Hague); Westerouen van Meeteren, _La Guyane + néerlandaise_ (Leiden, 1884); H. Ten Kate, "Een en ander over + Suriname," _Gids_ (1888); G. Verschuur, "Voyages aux trois Guyanes," + _Tour du monde_ (1893). pp. 1, 49, 65; W. L. Loth, _Beknopte + Aardrijkskundige beschrijving van Suriname_ (Amsterdam, 1898), and + _Tijdschrift van het Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_ (1878), 79, 93; Asch + van Wyck, "La Colonie de Surinam," _Les Pays-Bas_ (1898); L. Thompson, + _Overzicht der Geschiedenis van Suriname_ (The Hague, 1901); + _Catalogus der Nederl. W. I. ten Toonstelling te Haarlem_ (1899); + _Guide à travers la section des Indes néerlandaises_, p. 323 + (Amsterdam, 1899); _Surinaamsche Almanak_ (Paramaribo, annually). For + the language of the bush-negroes see Wullschlaegel, _Kurzgefasste + neger-englische Grammatik_ (Bautzen, 1854), and _Deutsch + neger-englisches Wörterbuch_ (Lobau, 1865). + + + French Guiana. + +III. FRENCH GUIANA (_Guyane_).--This colony is situated between Dutch +Guiana and Brazil. A delimitation of the territory belonging to France +and the Netherlands was arrived at in 1891, by decision of the emperor +of Russia. This question originated in the arrangement of 1836, that the +river Maroni should form the frontier. It turned on the claim of the Awa +or the Tapanahoni to be recognized as the main head-stream of the +Maroni, and the final decision, in indicating the Awa, favoured the +Dutch. In 1905 certain territory lying between the upper Maroni and the +Itany, the possession of which had not then been settled, was acquired +by France by agreement between the French and Dutch governments. The +question of the exploitation of gold in the Maroni was settled by +attributing alternate reaches of the river to France and Holland; while +France obtained the principal islands in the lower Maroni. The +additional territory thus attached to the French colony amounted to 965 +sq. m. In December 1900 the Swiss government as arbitrators fixed the +boundary between French Guiana and Brazil as the river Oyapock and the +watershed on the Tumuc Humac mountains, thus awarding to France about +3000 of the 100,000 sq. m. which she claimed. This dispute was of +earlier origin than that with the Dutch; dissensions between the French +and the Portuguese relative to territory north of the Amazon occurred in +the 17th century. In 1700 the Treaty of Lisbon made the contested area +(known as the Terres du Cap du Nord) neutral ground. The treaty of +Utrecht in 1713 indicated as the French boundary a river which the +French afterwards claimed to be the Araguary, but the Portuguese +asserted that the Oyapock was intended. After Brazil had become +independent the question dragged on until in 1890-1895 there were +collisions in the contested territory between French and Brazilian +adventurers. This compelled serious action, and a treaty of arbitration, +preliminary to the settlement, was signed at Rio de Janeiro in 1897. +French Guiana, according to official estimate, has an area of about +51,000 sq. m. The population is estimated at about 30,000; its movement +is not rapid. Of this total 12,350 live at Cayenne, 10,100 were in the +communes, 5700 formed the penal population, 1500 were native Indians +(Galibi, Emerillon, Oyampi) and 500 near Maroni were negroes. Apart from +Cayenne, which was rebuilt after the great fire of 1888, the centres of +population are unimportant: Sinnamarie with 1500 inhabitants, Mana with +1750, Roura with 1200 and Approuague with 1150. In 1892 French Guiana +was divided into fourteen communes, exclusive of the Maroni district. +Belonging to the colony are also the three Safety Islands (Royale, +Joseph and Du Diable--the last notable as the island where Captain +Dreyfus was imprisoned), the Enfant Perdu Island and the five Remire +Islands. + + A considerable portion of the low coast land is occupied by marshes, + with a dense growth of mangroves or, in the drier parts, with the + pinot or wassay palm (_Euterpe oleracea_). Settlements are confined + almost entirely to the littoral and alluvial districts. The + forest-clad hills of the hinterland do not generally exceed 1500 ft. + in elevation; that part of the Tumuc Humac range which forms the + southern frontier may reach an extreme elevation of 2600 ft. But the + dense tropical forests attract so much moisture from the ocean winds + that the highlands are the birthplace of a large number of rivers + which in the rainy season especially pour down vast volumes of water. + Not less than 15 are counted between the Maroni and the Oyapock. + South-eastward from the Maroni the first of importance is the Mana, + which is navigable for large vessels 10 m. from its mouth, and for + smaller vessels 27 m. farther. Passing the Sinnamary and the Kourou, + the Oyock is next reached, near the mouth of which is Cayenne, the + capital of the colony, and thereafter the Approuage. All these rivers + take their rise in a somewhat elevated area about the middle of the + colony; those streams which rise farther south, in the Tumuc Humac + hills, are tributaries of the two frontier rivers, the Maroni on the + one hand or the Oyapock on the other. + + _Climate and Products._--The rainy season begins in November or + December, and lasts till the latter part of June; but there are + usually three or four weeks of good weather in March. During the rest + of the year there is often hardly a drop of rain for months, but the + air is always very moist. At Cayenne the average annual rainfall + amounts to fully 130 in., and it is naturally heavier in the interior. + During the hotter part of the year--August, September, October--the + temperature usually rises to about 86° F., but it hardly ever exceeds + 88°; in the colder season the mean is 79° and it seldom sinks so low + as 70°. Between day and night there is very little thermometric + difference. The prevailing winds are the N.N.E. and the S.E.; and the + most violent are those of the N.E. During the rainy season the winds + keep between N. and E., and during the dry season between S. and E. + Hurricanes are unknown. In flora and fauna French Guiana resembles the + rest of the Guianese region. Vegetation is excessively rich. Among + leguminous trees, which are abundantly represented, the wacapou is the + finest of many hardwood trees. Caoutchouc and various palms are also + common. The manioc is a principal source of food; rice is an important + object of cultivation; and maize, yams, arrowroot, bananas and the + bread-fruit are also to be mentioned. Vanilla is one of the common + wild plants of the country. The clove tree has been acclimatized, and + in the latter years of the empire it formed a good source of wealth; + the cinnamon tree was also successfully introduced in 1772, but like + that of the pepper-tree and the nutmeg its cultivation is neglected. A + very small portion of the territory indeed is devoted to agriculture, + although France has paid some attention to the development of this + branch of activity. In 1880 a colonial garden was created near + Cayenne; since 1894 an experimental garden has been laid out at + Baduel. About 8200 acres are cultivated, of which 5400 acres are under + cereals and rice, the remaining being under coffee (introduced in + 1716), cacao, cane and other cultures. The low lands between Cayenne + and Oyapock are capable of bearing colonial produce, and the savannahs + might support large herds; cereals, root-crops and vegetables might + easily be grown on the high grounds, and timber working in the + interior should be profitable. + + Gold-mining is the most important industry in the colony. Placers of + great wealth have been discovered on the Awa, on the Dutch frontier + and at Carsevenne in the territory which formed the subject of the + Franco-Brazilian dispute. But wages are high and transport is costly, + and the amount of gold declared at Cayenne did not average more than + 130,550 oz. annually in 1900-1905. Silver and iron have been found in + various districts; kaolin is extracted in the plains of Montsinéry; + and phosphates have been discovered at several places. Besides + gold-workings, the industrial establishments comprise saw-mills, + distilleries, brick-works and sugar-works. + + _Trade and Communications._--The commerce in 1885 amounted to £336,000 + for imports and to £144,000 for exports; in 1897 the values were + respectively £373,350 and £286,400, but in 1903, while imports had + increased in value only to £418,720, exports had risen to £493,213. + The imports consist of wines, flour, clothes, &c.; the chief are gold, + phosphates, timber, cocoa and rosewood essence. Cayenne is the only + considerable port. One of the drawbacks to the development of the + colony is the lack of labour. Native labour is most difficult to + obtain, and attempts to utilize convict labour have not proved very + successful. Efforts to supply the need by immigration have not done so + completely. The land routes are not numerous. The most important are + that from Cayenne to Mana by way of Kourou, Sinnamarie and Iracoubo, + and that from Cayenne along the coast to Kaw and the mouth of the + Approuague. Towards the interior there are only foot-paths, badly + made. By water, Cayenne is in regular communication with the Safety + Islands (35 m.), and the mouth of the Maroni (80 m.), with Fort de + France in the island of Martinique, where travellers meet the mail + packet for France, and with Boston (U.S.A.). There is a French cable + between Cayenne and Brest. + + _Administration._--The colony is administered by a + commissioner-general assisted by a privy council, including the + secretary general and chief of the judicial service, the military, + penitentiary and administrative departments. In 1879 an elective + general council of sixteen members was constituted. There are a + tribunal of first instance and a higher tribunal at Cayenne, besides + four justices of peace, one of whom has extensive jurisdiction in + other places. Of the £256,000 demanded for the colony in the colonial + budget for 1906, £235,000 represented the estimated expenditure on the + penal settlement, so that the cost of the colony was only about + £21,000. The local budget for 1901 balanced at £99,000 and in 1905 at + £116,450. Instruction is given in the college of Cayenne and in six + primary schools. At the head of the clergy is an apostolic prefect. + The armed force consists of two companies of marine infantry, half a + battery of artillery, and a detachment of gendarmerie, and comprises + about 380 men. The penal settlement was established by a decree of + 1852. From that year until 1867, 18,000 exiles had been sent to + Guiana, but for the next twenty years New Caledonia became the chief + penal settlement in the French colonies. But in 1885-1887 French + Guiana was appointed as a place of banishment for confirmed criminals + and for convicts sentenced to more than eight years' hard labour. A + large proportion of these men have been found unfit for employment + upon public works. + +_History._--The Sieur La Revardière, sent out in 1604 by Henry IV. to +reconnoitre the country, brought back a favourable report; but the death +of the king put a stop to the projects of formal colonization. In 1626 a +small body of traders from Rouen settled on the Sinnamary, and in 1635 a +similar band founded Cayenne. The Compagnie du Cap Nord, founded by the +people of Rouen in 1643 and conducted by Poncet de Brétigny, the +Compagnie de la France Équinoxiale, established in 1645, and the second +Compagnie de la France Équinoxiale, or Compagnie des Douze Seigneurs, +established in 1652, were failures, the result of incompetence, +mismanagement and misfortune. From 1654 the Dutch held the colony for a +few years. The French Compagnie des Indes Occidentales, chartered in +1664 with a monopoly of Guiana commerce for forty years, proved hardly +more successful than its predecessors; but in 1674 the colony passed +under the direct control of the crown, and the able administration of +Colbert began to tell favourably on its progress, although in 1686 an +unsuccessful expedition against the Dutch in Surinam set back the +advance of the French colony until the close of the century. + +The year 1763 was marked by a terrible disaster. Choiseul, the prime +minister, having obtained for himself and his cousin Praslin a +concession of the country between the Kourou and the Maroni, sent out +about 12,000 volunteer colonists, mainly from Alsace and Lorraine. They +were landed at the mouth of the Kourou, where no preparation had been +made for their reception, and where even water was not to be obtained. +Mismanagement was complete; there was (for example) a shop for skates, +whereas the necessary tools for tillage were wanting. By 1765 no more +than 918 colonists remained alive, and these were a famished +fever-stricken band. A long investigation in Paris resulted in the +imprisonment of the incompetent leaders of the expedition. Several minor +attempts at colonization in Guiana were made in the latter part of the +century; but they all seemed to suffer from the same fatal prestige of +failure. During the revolution band after band of political prisoners +were transported to Guiana. The fate of the royalists, nearly 600 in +number, who were exiled on the 18th Fructidor (1797), was especially +sad. Landed on the Sinnamary without shelter or food, two-thirds of them +perished miserably. In 1800 Victor Hugues was appointed governor, and he +managed to put the colony in a better state; but in 1809 his work was +brought to a close by the invasion of the Portuguese and British. + +Though French Guiana was nominally restored to the French in 1814, it +was not really surrendered by the Portuguese till 1817. Numerous efforts +were now made to establish the colony firmly, although its past +misfortunes had prejudiced the public mind in France against it. In 1822 +the first steam sugar mills were introduced; in 1824 an agricultural +colony (Nouvelle Angoulême) was attempted in the Mana district, which, +after failure at first, became comparatively successful. The +emancipation of slaves and the consequent dearth of labour almost ruined +the development of agricultural resources about the middle of the +century, but in 1853 a large body of African immigrants was introduced. +The discovery of gold on the Approuague in 1855 caused feverish +excitement, and seriously disturbed the economic condition of the +country. + + AUTHORITIES.--A detailed bibliography of French Guiana will be found + in Ternaux-Compans, _Notice historique de la Guyane française_ (Paris, + 1843). Among more recent works, see E. Bassières, _Notice sur la + Guyane_, issued on the occasion of the Paris Exhibition (1900); + _Publications de la société d'études pour la colonisation de la Guyane + française_ (Paris, 1843-1844); H. A. Coudreau, _La France équinoxiale_ + (1887), _Dialectes indiens de Guyane_ (1891), _Dix ans de Guyane_ + (1892), and _Chez nos Indiens_ (1893), all at Paris; G. Brousseau, + _Les Richesses de la Guyane française_ (Paris, 1901); L. F. Viala, + _Les Trois Guyanes_ (Montpellier, 1893). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The origin of the name is somewhat obscure, and has been + variously interpreted. But the late Col. G. E. Church supplies the + following note, which has the weight of his great authority: "I + cannot confirm the suggestion of Schomburgk that Guayaná 'received + its name from a small river, a tributary of the Orinoco', supposed to + be the Waini or Guainia. In South America, east of the Andes, it was + the common custom of any tribe occupying a length of river to call it + simply 'the river'; but the other tribes designated any section of it + by the name of the people living on its banks. Many streams, + therefore, had more than a dozen names. It is probable that no + important river had one name alone throughout its course, prior to + the time of the Conquest. The radical _wini_, _waini_, _wayni_, is + found as a prefix, and very frequently as a termination, to the names + of numerous rivers, not only throughout Guayaná but all over the + Orinoco and Amazon valleys. For instance, Paymary Indians called the + portion of the Purús river which they occupied the _Waini_. It simply + means water, or a fountain of water, or a river. The alternative + suggestion that Guayaná is an Indian word signifying 'wild coast,' I + also think untenable. This term, applied to the north-east frontage + of South America between the Orinoco and the Amazon, is found on the + old Dutch map of Hartsinck, who calls it 'Guiana Caribania of de + Wilde Kust,' a name which must have well described it when, in 1580, + some Zealanders, of the Netherlands, sent a ship to cruise along it, + from the mouth of the Amazon to that of the Orinoco, and formed the + first settlement near the river Pomeroon. The map of Firnao Vaz + Dourado, 1564, calls the northern part of South America, including + the present British Guiana, 'East Peru.' An anonymous Spanish map, + about 1566, gives Guayaná as lying on the east side of the Orinoco + just above its mouth. About 1660, Sebastien de Ruesta, cosmographer + of the _Casa de Contractacion de Seville_, shows Guayaná covering the + British, French and Dutch Guayanás. According to the map of Nicolas + de Fer, 1719, a tribe of Guayazis (Guyanas) occupied the south side + of the Amazon river, front of the island of Tupinambará, east of the + mouth of the Madeira. Aristides Rojas, an eminent Venezuelan scholar, + says that the Mariches Indians, near Caracas, inhabited a site called + Guayaná long before the discovery of South America by the Spaniards. + Coudreau in his _Chez nos Indiens_ mentions that the _Roucouyennes_ + of Guayaná take their name from a large tree in their forests, 'which + appears to be the origin of the name Guayane.' According to Michelana + y Rojas, in their report to the Venezuelan government on their + voyages in the basin of the Orinoco, 'Guyana derives its name from + the Indians who live between the Caroni river and the Sierra de + Imataca, called Guayanos.' My own studies of aboriginal South America + lead me to support the statement of Michelana y Rojas, but with the + following enlargement of it: The Portuguese, in the early part of the + 16th century, found that the coast and mountain district of Rio de + Janeiro, between Cape São Thome and Angra dos Reis, belonged to the + formidable _Tamoyos_. South of these, for a distance of about 300 m. + of the ocean slope of the coast range, were the _Guayaná_ tribes, + called by the early writers _Guianás_, _Goyaná_, _Guayaná_, _Goaná_ + and, plural, _Goaynázés_, _Goayanázes_ and _Guayanázes_. They were + constantly at feud with the _Tamoyos_ and with their neighbours on + the south, the _Carijos_, as well as with the vast Tapuya hordes of + the Sertão of the interior. Long before the discovery, they had been + forced to abandon their beautiful lands, but had recuperated their + strength, returned and reconquered their ancient habitat. Meanwhile, + however, many of them had migrated northward, some had settled in the + _Sertão_ back of Bahia and Pernambuco, others on the middle Amazon + and in the valley of the Orinoco, but a large number had crossed the + lower Amazon and occupied an extensive area of country to the north + of it, about the size of Belgium, along the Tumuchumac range of + highlands, and the upper Paron and Maroni rivers, as well as a large + district on the northern slope of the above-named range. In their new + home they became known as _Roucouyennes_, because, like the + Mundurucus of the middle Amazon, they rubbed and painted themselves + with _roucou_ or _urucu_ (Bixa Orellana); but other surrounding + tribes called them Ouayanás, that is Guayanás--the Gua, so common to + the Guarani-Tupi tongue, having become corrupted into _Oua_. Porto + Seguro says of the so-called Tupis, 'at other times they gave + themselves the name of _Guayá_ or _Guayaná_, which probably means + "brothers," from which comes _Guayazes_ and _Guayanazes_.... The + latter occupied the country just south of Rio de Janeiro.... The + masters of the Capitania of St Vincente called themselves _Guianas_.' + Guinila, referring to north-eastern South America (1745), speaks of + five missions being formed to civilize the '_Nacion Guayana_.' In + view of the above, it may be thought reasonable to assume that the + vast territory now known as _Guayaná_ (British, Dutch, French, + Brazilian and Venezuelan) derives its name from its aborigines who + were found there at the time of the discovery, and whose original + home was the region I have indicated." + + [2] This is the boundary generally accepted; but it is in dispute. + + [3] See C. B. Brown and J. G. Sawkins, _Reports on the Physical, + Descriptive and Economic Geology of British Guiana_ (London, 1875); + C. Velain, "Esquisse géologique de la Guyane française et des bassins + du Parou et du Yari (affluents de l'Amazone) d'après les explorations + du Dr Crevaux," _Bull. Soc. Géogr._ ser. 7, vol. vi. (Paris, 1885), + pp. 453-492 (with geological map); E. Martin, _Geologische Studien + über Niederländisch-West-Indien, auf Grund eigener + Untersuchungsreisen_ (Leiden, 1888); W. Bergt, "Zur Geologie des + Coppename- und Nickerietales in Surinam (Hollandisch-Guyana)," + _Samml. d. Geol. Reichsmus._ (Leiden), ser. 2, Bd. ii. Heft 2, pp. + 93-163 (with 3 maps); and for British Guiana, the official reports on + the geology of various districts, by J. B. Harrison, C. W. Anderson, + H. I. Perkins, published at Georgetown. + + + + +GUIART (or GUIARD), GUILLAUME (d. c. 1316), French chronicler and poet, +was probably born at Orleans, and served in the French army in Flanders +in 1304. Having been disabled by a wound he began to write, lived at +Arras and then in Paris, thus being able to consult the large store of +manuscripts in the abbey of St Denis, including the _Grandes chroniques +de France_. Afterwards he appears as a _ménestrel de bouche_. Guiart's +poem _Branche des royaulx lignages_, was written and then rewritten +between 1304 and 1307, in honour of the French king Philip IV., and in +answer to the aspersions of a Flemish poet. Comprising over 21,000 +verses it deals with the history of the French kings from the time of +Louis VIII.; but it is only really important for the period after 1296 +and for the war in Flanders from 1301 to 1304, of which it gives a +graphic account, and for which it is a high authority. It was first +published by J. A. Buchon (Paris, 1828), and again in tome xxii. of the +_Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France_ (Paris, 1865). + + See A. Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de France_, tome iii. + (Paris, 1903). + + + + +GUIBERT, or WIBERT (c. 1030-1100), of Ravenna, antipope under the title +of Clement III. from the 25th of June 1080 until September 1100, was +born at Parma between 1020 and 1030 of the noble imperialist family, +Corregio. He entered the priesthood and was appointed by the empress +Agnes, chancellor and, after the death of Pope Victor II. (1057), +imperial vicar in Italy. He strove to uphold the imperial authority +during Henry IV.'s minority, and presided over the synod at Basel (1061) +which annulled the election of Alexander II. and created in the person +of Cadalous, bishop of Parma, the antipope Honorius II. Guibert lost the +chancellorship in 1062. In 1073, through the influence of Empress Agnes +and the support of Cardinal Hildebrand, he obtained the archbishopric of +Ravenna and swore fealty to Alexander II. and his successors. He seems +to have been at first on friendly terms with Gregory VII., but soon +quarrelled with him over the possession of the city of Imola, and +henceforth was recognized as the soul of the imperial faction in the +investiture contest. He allied himself with Cencius, Cardinal Candidus +and other opponents of Gregory at Rome, and, on his refusal to furnish +troops or to attend the Lenten synod of 1075, he was ecclesiastically +suspended by the pope. He was probably excommunicated at the synod of +Worms (1076) with other Lombard bishops who sided with Henry IV., and +at the Lenten synod of 1078 he was banned by name. The emperor, having +been excommunicated for the second time in March 1080, convened nineteen +bishops of his party at Mainz on the 31st of May, who pronounced the +deposition of Gregory; and on the 25th of June he caused Guibert to be +elected pope by thirty bishops assembled at Brixen. Guibert, whilst +retaining possession of his archbishopric, accompanied his imperial +master on most of the latter's military expeditions. Having gained Rome, +he was installed in the Lateran and consecrated as Clement III. on the +24th of March 1084. One week later, on Easter Sunday, he crowned Henry +IV. and Bertha in St Peter's. Clement survived not only Gregory VII. but +also Victor III. and Urban II., maintaining his title to the end and in +great measure his power over Rome and the adjoining regions. +Excommunication was pronounced against him by all his rivals. He was +driven out of Rome finally by crusaders in 1097, and sought refuge in +various fortresses on his own estates. St Angelo, the last Guibertist +stronghold in Rome, fell to Urban II. on the 24th of August 1098. +Clement, on the accession of Paschal II. in 1099, prepared to renew his +struggle but was driven from Albano by Norman troops and died at Civita +Castellana in September 1100. His ashes, which were said by his +followers to have worked miracles, were thrown into the water by Paschal +II. + + See J. Langen, _Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis + Innocenz III._ (Bonn, 1893); Jaffé-Wattenbach, _Regesta pontif. + Roman_. (2nd ed., 1885-1888); K. J. von Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_, + vol. v. (2nd ed.); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol. + iv., trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); and O. Köhncke, + _Wibert von Ravenna_ (Leipzig, 1888). (C. H. Ha.) + + + + +GUIBERT (1053-1124), of Nogent, historian and theologian, was born of +noble parents at Clermont-en-Beauvoisis, and dedicated from infancy to +the church. He received his early education at the Benedictine abbey of +Flavigny (Flaviacum) or St Germer, where he studied with great zeal, +devoting himself at first to the secular poets, an experience which left +its imprint on his works; later changing to theology, through the +influence of Anselm of Bec, afterwards of Canterbury. In 1104, he was +chosen to be head of the abbey of Notre Dame de Nogent and henceforth +took a prominent part in ecclesiastical affairs. His autobiography (_De +vita sua, sive monodiarum_), written towards the close of his life, +gives many picturesque glimpses of his time and the customs of his +country. The description of the commune of Laon is an historical +document of the first order. The same local colour lends charm to his +history of the first crusade (_Gesta Dei per Francos_) written about +1110. But the history is largely a paraphrase, in ornate style, of the +_Gesta Francorum_ of an anonymous Norman author (see CRUSADES); and when +he comes to the end of his authority, he allows his book to degenerate +into an undigested heap of notes and anecdotes. At the same time his +high birth and his position in the church give his work an occasional +value. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Guibert's works, edited by d'Achery, were first + published in 1651, in 1 vol. folio, at Paris (_Venerabilis Guiberti + abbatis B. Mariae de Novigento opera omnia_), and republished in + Migne's _Patrologia Latina_, vols. clvi. and clxxxiv. They include, + besides minor works, a treatise on homiletics ("Liber quo ordine sermo + fieri debeat"); ten books of _Moralia_ on Genesis, begun in 1084, but + not completed until 1116, composed on the model of Gregory the Great's + _Moralia in Jobum_; five books of _Tropologiae_ on Hosea, Amos and the + Lamentations; a treatise on the _Incarnation_, against the Jews; four + books _De pignoribus sanctorum_, a remarkably free criticism on the + abuses of saint and relic worship; three books of autobiography, _De + vita sua, sive monodiarum_; and eight books of the _Historia quae + dicitur Gesta Dei per Francos, sive historia Hierosolymitana_ (the + ninth book is by another author). Separate editions exist of the last + named, in J. Bongars, _Gesta Dei per Francos_, i., and _Recueil des + historiens des croisades, hist. Occid._, iv. 115-263. It has been + translated into French in Guizot's _Collection_, ix. 1-338. See H. von + Sybel, _Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges_ (Leipzig, 1881); B. Monod, + _Le Moine Guibert et son temps_ (Paris, 1905); and _Guibert de Nogent; + histoire de sa vie_, edited by G. Bourgin (Paris, 1907). + + + + +GUIBERT, JACQUES ANTOINE HIPPOLYTE, COMTE DE (1743-1790), French general +and military writer, was born at Montauban, and at the age of thirteen +accompanied his father, Charles Bénoit, comte de Guibert (1715-1786), +chief of staff to Marshal de Broglie, throughout the war in Germany, +and won the cross of St Louis and the rank of colonel in the expedition +to Corsica (1767). In 1770 he published his _Essai général de tactique_ +in London, and this celebrated work appeared in numerous subsequent +editions and in English, German and even Persian translations (extracts +also in Liskenne and Sauvan, _Bibl. historique et militaire_, Paris, +1845). Of this work (for a detailed critique of which see Max Jähns, +_Gesch. d. Kriegswissenschaften_, vol. iii. pp. 2058-2070 and references +therein) it may be said that it was the best essay on war produced by a +soldier during a period in which tactics were discussed even in the +salon and military literature was more abundant than at any time up to +1871. Apart from technical questions, in which Guibert's enlightened +conservatism stands in marked contrast to the doctrinaire +progressiveness of Menil Durand, Folard and others, the book is chiefly +valued for its broad outlook on the state of Europe, especially of +military Europe in the period 1763-1792. One quotation may be given as +being a most remarkable prophecy of the impending revolution in the art +of war, a revolution which the "advanced" tacticians themselves scarcely +foresaw. "The standing armies, while a burden on the people, are +inadequate for the achievement of great and decisive results in war, and +meanwhile the mass of the people, untrained in arms, degenerates.... The +hegemony over Europe will fall to that nation which ... becomes +possessed of manly virtues and _creates a national army_"--a prediction +fulfilled almost to the letter within twenty years of Guibert's death. +In 1773 he visited Germany and was present at the Prussian regimental +drills and army manoeuvres; Frederick the Great, recognizing Guibert's +ability, showed great favour to the young colonel and freely discussed +military questions with him. Guibert's _Journal d'un voyage en +Allemagne_ was published, with a memoir, by Toulongeon (Paris, 1803). +His _Défense du système de guerre moderne_, a reply to his many critics +(Neuchâtel, 1779) is a reasoned and scientific defence of the Prussian +method of tactics, which formed the basis of his work when in 1775 he +began to co-operate with the count de St Germain in a series of +much-needed and successful reforms in the French army. In 1777, however, +St Germain fell into disgrace, and his fall involved that of Guibert who +was promoted to the rank of _maréchal de camp_ and relegated to a +provincial staff appointment. In his semi-retirement he vigorously +defended his old chief St Germain against his detractors. On the eve of +the Revolution he was recalled to the War Office, but in his turn he +became the object of attack and he died, practically of disappointment, +on the 6th of May 1790. Other works of Guibert, besides those mentioned, +are: _Observations sur la constitution politique et militaire des armées +de S. M. Prussienne_ (Amsterdam, 1778), _Éloges_ of Marshal Catinat +(1775), of Michel de l'Hôpital (1778), and of Frederick the Great +(1787). Guibert was a member of the Academy from 1786, and he also wrote +a tragedy, _Le Connétable de Bourbon_ (1775) and a journal of travels in +France and Switzerland. + + See Toulongeon, _Éloge véridique de Guibert_ (Paris, 1790); Madame de + Stäel, _Éloge de Guibert_; Bardin, _Notice historique du général + Guibert_ (Paris, 1836); Flavian d'Aldeguier, _Discours sur la vie et + les écrits du comte de Guibert_ (Toulouse, 1855); Count Forestie, + _Biographie du comte de Guibert_ (Montauban, 1855); Count zur Lippe, + "Friedr. der Grosse und Oberst Guibert" (_Militär-Wochenblatt_, 1873, + 9 and 10). + + + + +GUICCIARDINI, FRANCESCO (1483-1540), the celebrated Italian historian +and statesman, was born at Florence in the year 1483, when Marsilio +Ficino held him at the font of baptism. His family was illustrious and +noble; and his ancestors for many generations had held the highest posts +of honour in the state, as may be seen in his own genealogical _Ricordi +autobiografici e di famiglia_ (_Op. ined._ vol. x.). After the usual +education of a boy in grammar and elementary classical studies, his +father, Piero, sent him to the universities of Ferrara and Padua, where +he stayed until the year 1505. The death of an uncle, who had occupied +the see of Cortona with great pomp, induced the young Guicciardini to +hanker after an ecclesiastical career. He already saw the scarlet of a +cardinal awaiting him, and to this eminence he would assuredly have +risen. His father, however, checked this ambition, declaring that, +though he had five sons, he would not suffer one of them to enter the +church in its then state of corruption and debasement. Guicciardini, +whose motives were confessedly ambitious (see _Ricordi, Op. ined._ x. +68), turned his attention to law, and at the age of twenty-three was +appointed by the Signoria of Florence to read the _Institutes_ in +public. Shortly afterwards he engaged himself in marriage to Maria, +daughter of Alamanno Salviati, prompted, as he frankly tells us, by the +political support which an alliance with that great family would bring +him (ib. x. 71). He was then practising at the bar, where he won so much +distinction that the Signoria, in 1512, entrusted him with an embassy to +the court of Ferdinand the Catholic. Thus he entered on the real work of +his life as a diplomatist and statesman. His conduct upon that legation +was afterwards severely criticized; for his political antagonists +accused him of betraying the true interests of the commonwealth, and +using his influence for the restoration of the exiled house of Medici to +power. His Spanish correspondence with the Signoria (_Op. ined._ vol. +vi.) reveals the extraordinary power of observation and analysis which +was a chief quality of his mind; and in Ferdinand, hypocritical and +profoundly dissimulative, he found a proper object for his scientific +study. To suppose that the young statesman learned his frigid statecraft +in Spain would be perhaps too simple a solution of the problem offered +by his character, and scarcely fair to the Italian proficients in +perfidy. It is clear from Guicciardini's autobiographical memoirs that +he was ambitious, calculating, avaricious and power-loving from his +earliest years; and in Spain he had no more than an opportunity of +studying on a large scale those political vices which already ruled the +minor potentates of Italy. Still the school was pregnant with +instructions for so apt a pupil. Guicciardini issued from this first +trial of his skill with an assured reputation for diplomatic ability, as +that was understood in Italy. To unravel plots and weave counterplots; +to meet treachery with fraud; to parry force with sleights of hand; to +credit human nature with the basest motives, while the blackest crimes +were contemplated with cold enthusiasm for their cleverness, was +reckoned then the height of political sagacity. Guicciardini could play +the game to perfection. In 1515 Leo X. took him into service, and made +him governor of Reggio and Modena. In 1521 Parma was added to his rule, +and in 1523 he was appointed viceregent of Romagna by Clement VII. These +high offices rendered Guicciardini the virtual master of the papal +states beyond the Apennines, during a period of great bewilderment and +difficulty. The copious correspondence relating to his administration +has recently been published (_Op. ined._ vols. vii., viii.). In 1526 +Clement gave him still higher rank as lieutenant-general of the papal +army. While holding this commission, he had the humiliation of +witnessing from a distance the sack of Rome and the imprisonment of +Clement, without being able to rouse the perfidious duke of Urbino into +activity. The blame of Clement's downfall did not rest with him; for it +was merely his duty to attend the camp, and keep his master informed of +the proceedings of the generals (see the Correspondence, _Op. ined._ +vols. iv., v.). Yet Guicciardini's conscience accused him, for he had +previously counselled the pope to declare war, as he notes in a curious +letter to himself written in 1527 (_Op. ined._, x. 104). Clement did +not, however, withdraw his confidence, and in 1531 Guicciardini was +advanced to the governorship of Bologna, the most important of all the +papallord-lieutenancies (Correspondence, _Op. ined._ vol. ix.). This +post he resigned in 1534 on the election of Paul III., preferring to +follow the fortunes of the Medicean princes. It may here be noticed that +though Guicciardini served three popes through a period of twenty years, +or perhaps because of this, he hated the papacy with a deep and frozen +bitterness, attributing the woes of Italy to the ambition of the church, +and declaring he had seen enough of sacerdotal abominations to make him +a Lutheran (see _Op. ined._ i. 27, 104, 96, and _Ist. d' It._, ed. Ros., +ii. 218). The same discord between his private opinions and his public +actions may be traced in his conduct subsequent to 1534. As a political +theorist, Guicciardini believed that the best form of government was a +commonwealth administered upon the type of the Venetian constitution +(_Op. ined._ i. 6; ii. 130 sq.); and we have ample evidence to prove +that he had judged the tyranny of the Medici at its true worth (_Op. +ined._ i. 171, on the tyrant; the whole _Storia Fiorentina_ and +_Reggimento di Firenze_, ib. i. and iii., on the Medici). Yet he did not +hesitate to place his powers at the disposal of the most vicious members +of that house for the enslavement of Florence. In 1527 he had been +declared a rebel by the Signoria on account of his well-known Medicean +prejudices; and in 1530, deputed by Clement to punish the citizens after +their revolt, he revenged himself with a cruelty and an avarice that +were long and bitterly remembered. When, therefore, he returned to +inhabit Florence in 1534, he did so as the creature of the dissolute +Alessandro de' Medici. Guicciardini pushed his servility so far as to +defend this infamous despot at Naples in 1535, before the bar of Charles +V., from the accusations brought against him by the Florentine exiles +(_Op. ined._ vol. ix.). He won his cause; but in the eyes of all +posterity he justified the reproaches of his contemporaries, who +describe him as a cruel, venal, grasping seeker after power, eager to +support a despotism for the sake of honours, offices and emoluments +secured for himself by a bargain with the oppressors of his country. +Varchi, Nardi, Jacopo Pitti and Bernardo Segni are unanimous upon this +point; but it is only the recent publication of Guicciardini's private +MSS. that has made us understand the force of their invectives. To plead +loyalty or honest political conviction in defence of his Medicean +partianship is now impossible, face to face with the opinions expressed +in the _Ricordi politici_ and the _Storia Fiorentina_. Like Machiavelli, +but on a lower level, Guicciardini was willing to "roll stones," or to +do any dirty work for masters whom, in the depth of his soul, he +detested and despised. After the murder of Duke Alessandro in 1537, +Guicciardini espoused the cause of Cosimo de' Medici, a boy addicted to +field sports, and unused to the game of statecraft. The wily old +diplomatist hoped to rule Florence as grand vizier under this +inexperienced princeling. He was mistaken, however, in his schemes, for +Cosimo displayed the genius of his family for politics, and coldly +dismissed his would-be lord-protector. Guicciardini retired in disgrace +to his villa, where he spent his last years in the composition of the +_Storia d'Italia_. He died in 1540 without male heirs. + +Guicciardini was the product of a cynical and selfish age, and his life +illustrated its sordid influences. Of a cold and worldly temperament, +devoid of passion, blameless in his conduct as the father of a family, +faithful as the servant of his papal patrons, severe in the +administration of the provinces committed to his charge, and +indisputably able in his conduct of affairs, he was at the same time, +and in spite of these qualities, a man whose moral nature inspires a +sentiment of liveliest repugnance. It is not merely that he was +ambitious, cruel, revengeful and avaricious, for these vices have +existed in men far less antipathetic than Guicciardini. Over and above +those faults, which made him odious to his fellow-citizens, we trace in +him a meanness that our century is less willing to condone. His +phlegmatic and persistent egotism, his sacrifice of truth and honour to +self-interest, his acquiescence in the worst conditions of the world, if +only he could use them for his own advantage, combined with the glaring +discord between his opinions and his practice, form a character which +would be contemptible in our eyes were it not so sinister. The social +and political decrepitude of Italy, where patriotism was unknown, and +only selfishness survived of all the motives that rouse men to action, +found its representative and exponent in Guicciardini. When we turn from +the man to the author, the decadence of the age and race that could +develop a political philosophy so arid in its cynical despair of any +good in human nature forces itself vividly upon our notice. Guicciardini +seems to glory in his disillusionment, and uses his vast intellectual +ability for the analysis of the corruption he had helped to make +incurable. If one single treatise of that century should be chosen to +represent the spirit of the Italian people in the last phase of the +Renaissance, the historian might hesitate between the _Principe_ of +Machiavelli and the _Ricordi politici_ of Guicciardini. The latter is +perhaps preferable to the former on the score of comprehensiveness. It +is, moreover, more exactly adequate to the actual situation, for the +_Principe_ has a divine spark of patriotism yet lingering in the cinders +of its frigid science, an idealistic enthusiasm surviving in its moral +aberrations; whereas a great Italian critic of this decade has justly +described the _Ricordi_ as "Italian corruption codified and elevated to +a rule of life." Guicciardini is, however, better known as the author of +the _Storia d'Italia_, that vast and detailed picture of his country's +sufferings between the years 1494 and 1532. Judging him by this +masterpiece of scientific history, he deserves less commendation as a +writer than as a thinker and an analyst. The style is wearisome and +prolix, attaining to precision at the expense of circumlocution, and +setting forth the smallest particulars with the same distinctness as the +main features of the narrative. The whole tangled skein of Italian +politics, in that involved and stormy period, is unravelled with a +patience and an insight that are above praise. It is the crowning merit +of the author that he never ceases to be an impartial spectator--a cold +and curious critic. We might compare him to an anatomist, with knife and +scalpel dissecting the dead body of Italy, and pointing out the symptoms +of her manifold diseases with the indifferent analysis of one who has no +moral sensibility. This want of feeling, while it renders Guicciardini a +model for the scientific student, has impaired the interest of his +history. Though he lived through that agony of the Italian people, he +does not seem to be aware that he is writing a great historical tragedy. +He takes as much pains in laying bare the trifling causes of a petty war +with Pisa as in probing the deep-seated ulcer of the papacy. Nor is he +capable of painting the events in which he took a part, in their +totality as a drama. Whatever he touches, lies already dead on the +dissecting table, and his skill is that of the analytical pathologist. +Consequently, he fails to understand the essential magnitude of the +task, or to appreciate the vital vigour of the forces contending in +Europe for mastery. This is very noticeable in what he writes about the +Reformation. Notwithstanding these defects, inevitable in a writer of +Guicciardini's temperament, the _Storia d'Italia_ was undoubtedly the +greatest historical work that had appeared since the beginning of the +modern era. It remains the most solid monument of the Italian reason in +the 16th century, the final triumph of that Florentine school of +philosophical historians which included Machiavelli, Segni, Pitti, +Nardi, Varchi, Francesco Vettori and Donato Giannotti. Up to the year +1857 the fame of Guicciardini as a writer, and the estimation of him as +a man, depended almost entirely upon the _History of Italy_, and on a +few ill-edited extracts from his aphorisms. At that date his +representatives, the counts Piero and Luigi Guicciardini, opened their +family archives, and committed to Signor Giuseppe Canestrini the +publication of his hitherto inedited MSS. in ten important volumes. The +vast mass of documents and finished literary work thus given to the +world has thrown a flood of light upon Guicciardini, whether we consider +him as author or as citizen. It has raised his reputation as a political +philosopher into the first rank, where he now disputes the place of +intellectual supremacy with his friend Machiavelli; but it has coloured +our moral judgment of his character and conduct with darker dyes. From +the stores of valuable materials contained in those ten volumes, it will +be enough here to cite (1) the _Ricordi politici_, already noticed, +consisting of about 400 aphorisms on political and social topics; (2) +the observations on Machiavelli's _Discorsi_, which bring into +remarkable relief the views of Italy's two great theorists on statecraft +in the 16th century, and show that Guicciardini regarded Machiavelli +somewhat as an amiable visionary or political enthusiast; (3) the +_Storia Fiorentina_, an early work of the author, distinguished by its +animation of style, brilliancy of portraiture, and liberality of +judgment; and (4) the _Dialogo del reggimento di Firenze_, also in all +probability an early work, in which the various forms of government +suited to an Italian commonwealth are discussed with infinite subtlety, +contrasted, and illustrated from the vicissitudes of Florence up to the +year 1494. To these may be added a series of short essays, entitled +_Discorsi politici_, composed during Guicciardini's Spanish legation. It +is only after a careful perusal of these minor works that the student of +history may claim to have comprehended Guicciardini, and may feel that +he brings with him to the consideration of the _Storia d' Italia_ the +requisite knowledge of the author's private thoughts and jealously +guarded opinions. Indeed, it may be confidently affirmed that those who +desire to gain an insight into the true principles and feelings of the +men who made and wrote history in the 16th century will find it here far +more than in the work designed for publication by the writer. Taken in +combination with Machiavelli's treatises, the _Opere inedite_ furnish a +comprehensive body of Italian political philosophy anterior to the date +of Fra Paolo Sarpi. (J. A. S.) + + See Rosini's edition oí the _Storia d' Italia_ (10 vols., Pisa, 1819), + and the _Opere inedite_, in 10 vols., published at Florence, 1857. A + complete and initial edition of Guicciardini's works is now in + preparation in the hands of Alessandro Gherardi of the Florence + archives. Among the many studies on Guicciardini we may mention + Agostino Rossi's _Francesco Guicciardini e il governo Fiorentino_ (2 + vols., Bologna, 1896), based on many new documents; F. de Sanctis's + essay "L'Uomo del Guicciardini," in his _Nuovi Saggi critici_ (Naples, + 1879), and many passages in Professor P. Villari's _Machiavelli_ (Eng. + trans., 1892); E. Benoist's _Guichardin, historien et homme d'état + italien an XVI^e siècle_ (Paris, 1862), and C. Gioda's _Francesco + Guicciardini e le sue opere inedite_ (Bologna, 1880) are not without + value, but the authors had not had access to many important documents + since published. See also Geoffrey's article "Une Autobiographie de + Guichardin d'après ses oeuvres inédites," in the _Revue des deux + mondes_ (1st of February 1874). + + + + +GUICHARD, KARL GOTTLIEB (1724-1775), soldier and military writer, known +as QUINTUS ICILIUS, was born at Magdeburg in 1724, of a family of French +refugees. He was educated for the Church, and at Leiden actually +preached a sermon as a candidate for the pastorate. But he abandoned +theology for more secular studies, especially that of ancient history, +in which his learning attracted the notice of the prince of Orange, who +promised him a vacant professorship at Utrecht. On his arrival, however, +he found that another scholar had been elected by the local authorities, +and he thereupon sought and obtained a commission in the Dutch army. He +made the campaigns of 1747-48 in the Low Countries. In the peace which +followed, his combined military and classical training turned his +thoughts in the direction of ancient military history. His notes on this +subject grew into a treatise, and in 1754 he went over to England in +order to consult various libraries. In 1757 his _Mémoires militaires sur +les Grecs et les Romains_ appeared at the Hague, and when Carlyle wrote +his _Frederick the Great_ it had reached its fifth edition. Coming back, +with English introductions, to the Continent, he sought service with +Ferdinand of Brunswick, who sent him on to Frederick the Great, whom he +joined in January 1758 at Breslau. The king was very favourably +impressed with Guichard and his works, and he remained for nearly 18 +months in the royal suite. His Prussian official name of Quintus Icilius +was the outcome of a friendly dispute with the king (see Nikolai, +_Anekdoten_, vi. 129-145; Carlyle, _Frederick the Great_, viii. +113-114). Frederick in discussing the battle of Pharsalia spoke of a +centurion Quintus Caecilius as Q. Icilius. Guichard ventured to correct +him, whereupon the king said, "_You_ shall be Quintus Icilius," and as +Major Quintus Icilius he was forthwith gazetted to the command of a free +battalion. This corps he commanded throughout the later stages of the +Seven Years' War, his battalion, as time went on, becoming a regiment of +three battalions, and Quintus himself recruited seven more battalions of +the same kind of troops. His command was almost always with the king's +own army in these campaigns, but for a short time it fought in the +western theatre under Prince Henry. When not on the march he was always +at the royal headquarters, and it was he who brought about the famous +interview between the king and Gellert (see Carlyle, _Frederick the +Great_, ix. 109; Gellert, _Briefwechsel mit Demoiselle Lucius_, ed. +Ebert, Leipzig, 1823, pp. 629-631) on the subject of national German +literature. On 22nd January 1761 Quintus was ordered to sack the castle +of Hubertusburg (a task which Major-General Saldern had point-blank +refused to undertake, from motives of conscience), and carried out his +task, it is said, to his own very considerable profit. The place cannot +have been seriously injured, as it was soon afterwards the meeting-place +of the diplomatists whose work ended in the peace of Hubertusburg, but +the king never ceased to banter Quintus on his supposed depredations. +The very day of Frederick's triumphant return from the war saw the +disbanding of most of the free battalions, including that of Quintus, +but the major to the end of his life remained with the king. He was made +lieutenant-colonel in 1765, and in 1773, in recognition of his work +_Mémoires critiques et historiques sur plusieurs points d'antiquités +militaires_, dealing mainly with Caesar's campaigns in Spain (Berlin, +1773), was promoted colonel. He died at Potsdam, 1775. + + + + +GUICHEN, LUC URBAIN DE BOUËXIC, COMTE DE (1712-1790), French admiral, +entered the navy in 1730 as "garde de la Marine," the first rank in the +corps of royal officers. His promotion was not rapid. It was not till +1748 that he became "lieutenant de vaisseau," which was, however, a +somewhat higher rank than the lieutenant in the British navy, since it +carried with it the right to command a frigate. He was "capitaine de +vaisseau," or post captain, in 1756. But his reputation must have been +good, for he was made chevalier de Saint Louis in 1748. In 1775 he was +appointed to the frigate "Terpsichore," attached to the training +squadron, in which the duc de Chartres, afterwards notorious as the duc +d'Orléans and as Philippe Égalité, was entered as volunteer. In the next +year he was promoted chef d'escadre, or rear-admiral. When France had +become the ally of the Americans in the War of Independence, he hoisted +his flag in the Channel fleet, and was present at the battle of Ushant +on the 27th of July 1779. In March of the following year he was sent to +the West Indies with a strong squadron and was there opposed to Sir +George Rodney. In the first meeting between them on the 17th of April to +leeward of Martinique, Guichen escaped disaster only through the clumsy +manner in which Sir George's orders were executed by his captains. +Seeing that he had to deal with a formidable opponent, Guichen acted +with extreme caution, and by keeping the weather gauge afforded the +British admiral no chance of bringing him to close action. When the +hurricane months approached (July to September) he left the West Indies, +and his squadron, being in a bad state from want of repairs, returned +home, reaching Brest in September. Throughout all this campaign Guichen +had shown himself very skilful in handling a fleet, and if he had not +gained any marked success, he had prevented the British admiral from +doing any harm to the French islands in the Antilles. In December 1781 +the comte de Guichen was chosen to command the force which was entrusted +with the duty of carrying stores and reinforcements to the West Indies. +On the 12th Admiral Kempenfelt, who had been sent out by the British +Government with an unduly weak force to intercept him, sighted the +French admiral in the Bay of Biscay through a temporary clearance in a +fog, at a moment when Guichen's warships were to leeward of the convoy, +and attacked the transports at once. The French admiral could not +prevent his enemy from capturing twenty of the transports, and driving +the others into a panic-stricken flight. They returned to port, and the +mission entrusted to Guichen was entirely defeated. He therefore +returned to port also. He had no opportunity to gain any +counterbalancing success during the short remainder of the war, but he +was present at the final relief of Gibraltar by Lord Howe. His death +occurred on the 13th of January 1790. The comte de Guichen was, by the +testimony of his contemporaries, a most accomplished and high-minded +gentleman. It is probable that he had more scientific knowledge than any +of his English contemporaries and opponents. But as a commander in war +he was notable chiefly for his skill in directing the orderly movements +of a fleet, and seems to have been satisfied with formal operations, +which were possibly elegant but could lead to no substantial result. He +had none of the combative instincts of his countryman Suffren, or of the +average British admiral. + + See vicomte de Noailles, _Marins et soldats français en Amérique_ + (1903); and E. Chevalier, _Histoire de la marine française pendant la + guerre de l'indépendence américaine_ (1877). (D. H.) + + + + +GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. _gyde_, from the Fr. _guide_; the earlier French +form was _guie_, English "guy," the _d_ was due to the Italian form +_guida_; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being +connected with the base seen in O. Eng. _witan_, to know), an agency for +directing or showing the way, specifically a person who leads or directs +a stranger over unknown or unmapped country, or conducts travellers and +tourists through a town, or over buildings of interest. In European wars +up to the time of the French Revolution, the absence of large scale +detailed maps made local guides almost essential to the direction of +military operations, and in the 18th century the general tendency to the +stricter organization of military resources led in various countries to +the special training of guide officers (called _Feldjäger_, and +considered as general staff officers in the Prussian army), whose chief +duty it was to find, and if necessary establish, routes across country +for those parts of the army that had to move parallel to the main road +and as nearly as possible at deploying interval from each other, for in +those days armies were rarely spread out so far as to have the use of +two or more made roads. But the necessity for such precautions died away +when adequate surveys (in which guide officers were, at any rate in +Prussia, freely employed) were carried out, and, as a definite term of +military organization to-day, "guide" possesses no more essential +peculiarity than fusilier, grenadier or rifleman. The genesis of the +modern "Guide" regiments is perhaps to be found in a short-lived Corps +of Guides formed by Napoleon in Italy in 1796, which appears to have +been a personal escort or body guard composed of men who knew the +country. In the Belgian army of to-day the Guide regiments correspond +almost to the Guard cavalry of other nations; in the Swiss army the +squadrons of "Guides" act as divisional cavalry, and in this role +doubtless are called upon on occasion to lead columns. The "Queen's own +Corps of Guides" of the Indian army consists of infantry companies and +cavalry squadrons. In drill, a "guide" is an officer or non-commissioned +officer told off to regulate the direction and pace of movements, the +remainder of the unit maintaining their alignment and distances by him. + +A particular class of guides are those employed in mountaineering; these +are not merely to show the way but stand in the position of professional +climbers with an expert knowledge of rock and snowcraft, which they +impart to the amateur, at the same time assuring the safety of the +climbing party in dangerous expeditions. This professional class of +guides arose in the middle of the 19th century when Alpine climbing +became recognized as a sport (see MOUNTAINEERING). It is thus natural to +find that the Alpine guides have been requisitioned for mountaineering +expeditions all over the world. In climbing in Switzerland, the central +committee of the Swiss Alpine Club issues a guides' tariff which fixes +the charges for guides and porters; there are three sections, for the +Valais and Vaudois Alps, for the Bernese Oberland, and for central and +eastern Switzerland. The names of many of the great guides have become +historical. In Chamonix a statue has been raised to Jacques Balmat, who +was the first to climb Mont Blanc in 1786. Of the more famous guides +since the beginning of Alpine climbing may be mentioned Auguste Balmat, +Michel Cros, Maquignay, J. A. Carrel, who went with E. Whymper to the +Andes, the brothers Lauener, Christian Almer and Jakob and Melchior +Anderegg. + +"Guide" is also applied to a book, in the sense of an elementary primer +on some subject, or of one giving full information for travellers of a +country, district or town. In mechanical usage, the term "guide" is of +wide application, being used of anything which steadies or directs the +motion of an object, as of the "leading" screw of a screw-cutting lathe, +of a loose pulley used to steady a driving-belt, or of the bars or rods +in a steam-engine which keep the sliding blocks moving in a straight +line. The doublet "guy" is thus used of a rope which steadies a sail +when it is being raised or lowered, or of a rope, chain or stay +supporting a funnel, mast, derrick, &c. + + + + +GUIDI, CARLO ALESSANDRO (1650-1712), Italian lyric poet, was born at +Pavia in 1650. As chief founder of the well-known Roman academy called +"L'Arcadia," he had a considerable share in the reform of Italian +poetry, corrupted at that time by the extravagance and bad taste of the +poets Marini and Achillini and their school. The poet Guidi and the +critic and jurisconsult Gravina checked this evil by their influence and +example. The genius of Guidi was lyric in the highest degree; his songs +are written with singular force, and charm the reader, in spite of +touches of bombast. His most celebrated song is that entitled _Alla +Fortuna_ (To Fortune), which certainly is one of the most beautiful +pieces of poetry of the 17th century. Guidi was squint-eyed, humpbacked, +and of a delicate constitution, but possessed undoubted literary +ability. His poems were printed at Parma in 1671, and at Rome in 1704. +In 1681 he published at Parma his lyric tragedy _Amalasunta in Italy_, +and two pastoral dramas _Daphne_ and _Endymion_. The last had the honour +of being mentioned as a model by the critic Gravina, in his treatise on +poetry. Less fortunate was Guidi's poetical version of the six homilies +of Pope Clement XI., first as having been severely criticized by the +satirist Settano, and next as having proved to be the indirect cause of +the author's death. A splendid edition of this version had been printed +in 1712, and, the pope being then in San Gandolfo, Guidi went there to +present him with a copy. On the way he found out a serious typographical +error, which he took so much to heart that he was seized with an +apoplectic fit at Frascati and died on the spot. Guidi was honoured with +the special protection of Ranuccio II., duke of Parma, and of Queen +Christina of Sweden. + + + + +GUIDICCIONI, GIOVANNI (1480-1541), Italian poet, was born at Lucca in +1480, and died at Macerata in 1541. He occupied a high position, being +bishop of Fossombrone and president of Romagna. The latter office nearly +cost him his life; a murderer attempted to kill him, and had already +touched his breast with his dagger when, conquered by the resolute +calmness of the prelate, he threw away the weapon and fell at his feet, +asking forgiveness. The _Rime_ and _Letters_ of Guidiccioni are models +of elegant and natural Italian style. The best editions are those of +Genoa (1749), Bergamo (1753) and Florence (1878). + + + + +GUIDO OF AREZZO (possibly to be identified with Guido de St Maur des +Fosses), a musician who lived in the 11th century. He has by many been +called the father of modern music, and a portrait of him in the +refectory of the monastery of Avellana bears the inscription _Beatus +Guido, inventor musicae_. Of his life little is known, and that little +is chiefly derived from the dedicatory letters prefixed to two of his +treatises and addressed respectively to Bishop Theodald (not Theobald, +as Burney writes the name) of Arezzo, and Michael, a monk of Pomposa and +Guido's pupil and friend. Occasional references to the celebrated +musician in the works of his contemporaries are, however, by no means +rare, and from these it may be conjectured with all but absolute +certainty that Guido was born in the last decade of the 10th century. +The place of his birth is uncertain in spite of some evidence pointing +to Arezzo; on the title-page of all his works he is styled _Guido +Aretinus_, or simply _Aretinus_. At his first appearance in history +Guido was a monk in the Benedictine monastery of Pomposa, and it was +there that he taught singing and invented his educational method, by +means of which, according to his own statement, a pupil might learn +within five months what formerly it would have taken him ten years to +acquire. Envy and jealousy, however, were his only reward, and by these +he was compelled to leave his monastery--"inde est, quod me vides +prolixis finibus exulatum," as he says himself in the second of the +letters above referred to. According to one account, he travelled as far +as Bremen, called there by Archbishop Hermann in order to reform the +musical service. But this statement has been doubted. Certain it is that +not long after his flight from Pomposa Guido was living at Arezzo, and +it was here that, about 1030, he received an invitation to Rome from +Pope John XIV. He obeyed the summons, and the pope himself became his +first and apparently one of his most proficient pupils. But in spite of +his success Guido could not be induced to remain in Rome, the +insalubrious air of which seems to have affected his health. In Rome he +met again his former superior, the abbot of Pomposa, who seems to have +repented of his conduct, and to have induced Guido to return to Pomposa; +and here all authentic records of Guido's life cease. We only know that +he died, on the 17th of May 1050, as prior of Avellana, a monastery of +the Camaldulians; such at least is the statement of the chroniclers of +that order. It ought, however, to be added that the Camaldulians claim +the celebrated musician as wholly their own, and altogether deny his +connexion with the Benedictines. + +The documents discovered by Dom Germain Morin, the Belgian Benedictine, +about 1888, point to the conclusion that Guido was a Frenchman and lived +from his youth upwards in the Benedictine monastery of St Maur des +Fosses where he invented his novel system of notation and taught the +brothers to sing by it. In codex 763 of the British Museum the composer +of the "Micrologus" and other works by Guido of Arezzo is always +described as Guido de Sancto Mauro. + +There is no doubt that Guido's method shows considerable progress in the +evolution of modern notation. It was he who for the first time +systematically used the lines of the staff, and the intervals or +_spatia_ between them. There is also little doubt that the names of the +first six notes of the scale, _ut_, _re_, _mi_, _fa_, _sol_, _la_, still +in use among Romance nations, were introduced by Guido, although he +seems to have used them in a relative rather than in an absolute sense. +It is well known that these words are the first syllables of six lines +of a hymn addressed to St John the Baptist, which may be given here:-- + + _Ut_ queant laxis _re_sonare fibris + _Mi_ra gestorum _fa_muli tuorum, + _Sol_ve polluti _la_bii reatum, + Sancte Joannes. + +In addition to this Guido is generally credited with the introduction of +the F clef. But more important than all this, perhaps, is the thoroughly +practical tone which Guido assumes in his theoretical writings, and +which differs greatly from the clumsy scholasticism of his +contemporaries and predecessors. + + The most important of Guido's treatises, and those which are generally + acknowledged to be authentic, are _Micrologus Guidonis de disciplina + artis musicae_, dedicated to Bishop Theodald of Arezzo, and comprising + a complete theory of music, in 20 chapters; _Musicae Guidonis regulae + rhythmicae in antiphonarii sui prologum prolatae_, written in trochaic + decasyllabics of anything but classical structure; _Aliae Guidonis + regulae de ignoto cantu, identidem in antiphonarii sui prologum + prolatae_; and the _Epistola Guidonis Michaeli monacho de ignoto + cantu_, already referred to. These are published in the second volume + of Gerbert's _Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra_. A very + important manuscript unknown to Gerbert (the _Codex bibliothecae + Uticensis_, in the Paris library) contains, besides minor treatises, + an antiphonarium and gradual undoubtedly belonging to Guido. + + See also L. Angeloni, _G. d'Arezzo_ (1811); Kiesewetter, _Guido von + Arezzo_ (1840); Kornmüller, "Leben und Werken Guidos von Arezzo," in + Habert's _Jahrb._ (1876); Antonio Brandi, _G. Aretino_ (1882); G. B. + Ristori, _Biografia di Guido monaco d'Arezzo_ (1868). + + + + +GUIDO OF SIENA. The name of this Italian painter is of considerable +interest in the history of art, on the ground that, if certain +assumptions regarding him could be accepted as true, he would be +entitled to share with Cimabue, or rather indeed to supersede him in, +the honour of having given the first onward impulse to the art of +painting. The case stands thus. In the church of S. Domenico in Siena is +a large painting of the "Virgin and Child Enthroned," with six angels +above, and in the Benedictine convent of the same city is a triangular +pinnacle, once a portion of the same composition, representing the +Saviour in benediction, with two angels; the entire work was originally +a triptych, but is not so now. The principal section of this picture has +a rhymed Latin inscription, giving the painter's name as Gu ... o de +Senis, with the date 1221: the genuineness of the inscription is not, +however, free from doubt, and especially it is maintained that the date +really reads as 1281. In the general treatment of the picture there is +nothing to distinguish it particularly from other work of the same early +period; but the heads of the Virgin and Child are indisputably very +superior, in natural character and graceful dignity, to anything to be +found anterior to Cimabue. The question therefore arises, Are these +heads really the work of a man who painted in 1221? Crowe and +Cavalcaselle pronounce in the negative, concluding that the heads are +repainted, and are, as they now stand, due to some artist of the 14th +century, perhaps Ugolino da Siena; thus the claims of Cimabue would +remain undisturbed and in their pristine vigour. Beyond this, little is +known of Guido da Siena. There is in the Academy of Siena a picture +assigned to him, a half-figure of the "Virgin and Child," with two +angels, dating probably between 1250 and 1300; also in the church of S. +Bernardino in the same city a Madonna dated 1262. Milanesi thinks that +the work in S. Domenico is due to Guido Graziani, of whom no other +record remains earlier than 1278, when he is mentioned as the painter of +a banner. Guido da Siena appears always to have painted on panel, not in +fresco on the wall. He has been termed, very dubiously, a pupil of +Pietrolino, and the master of "Diotisalvi," Mino da Turrita and +Berlinghieri da Lucca. + + + + +GUIDO RENI (1575-1642), a prime master in the Bolognese school of +painting, and one of the most admired artists of the period of incipient +decadence in Italy, was born at Calvenzano near Bologna on the 4th of +November 1575. His father was a musician of repute, a player on the +flageolet; he wished to bring the lad up to perform on the harpsichord. +At a very childish age, however, Guido displayed a determined bent +towards the art of form, scribbling some attempt at a drawing here, +there and everywhere. He was only nine years of age when Denis Calvart +took notice of him, received him into his academy of design by the +father's permission, and rapidly brought him forward, so that by the age +of thirteen Guido had already attained marked proficiency. Albani and +Domenichino became soon afterwards pupils in the same academy. With +Albani Guido was very intimate up to the earlier period of manhood, but +they afterwards became rivals, both as painters and as heads of +ateliers, with a good deal of asperity on Albani's part; Domenichino was +also pitted against Reni by the policy of Annibale Caracci. Guido was +still in the academy of Calvart when he began frequenting the opposition +school kept by Lodovico Caracci, whose style, far in advance of that of +the Flemish painter, he dallied with. This exasperated Calvart. Him +Guido, not yet twenty years of age, cheerfully quitted, transferring +himself openly to the Caracci academy, in which he soon became +prominent, being equally skilful and ambitious. He had not been a year +with the Caracci when a work of his excited the wonder of Agostino and +the jealousy of Annibale. Lodovico cherished him, and frequently painted +him as an angel, for the youthful Reni was extremely handsome. After a +while, however, Lodovico also felt himself nettled, and he patronized +the competing talents of Giovanni Barbiere. On one occasion Guido had +made a copy of Annibale's "Descent from the Cross"; Annibale was asked +to retouch it, and, finding nothing to do, exclaimed pettishly, "He +knows more than enough" ("Costui ne sa troppo"). On another occasion +Lodovico, consulted as umpire, lowered a price which Reni asked for an +early picture. This slight determined the young man to be a pupil no +more. He left the Caracci, and started on his own account as a +competitor in the race for patronage and fame. A renowned work, the +story of "Callisto and Diana," had been completed before he left. + +Guido was faithful to the eclectic principle of the Bolognese school of +painting. He had appropriated something from Calvart, much more from +Lodovico Caracci; he studied with much zest after Albert Dürer; he +adopted the massive, sombre and partly uncouth manner of Caravaggio. One +day Annibale Caracci made the remark that a style might be formed +reversing that of Caravaggio in such matters as the ponderous shadows +and the gross common forms; this observation germinated in Guido's mind, +and he endeavoured after some such style, aiming constantly at suavity. +Towards 1602 he went to Rome with Albani, and Rome remained his +headquarters for twenty years. Here, in the pontificate of Paul V. +(Borghese), he was greatly noted and distinguished. In the garden-house +of the Rospigliosi Palace he painted the vast fresco which is justly +regarded as his masterpiece--"Phoebus and the Hours preceded by Aurora." +This exhibits his second manner, in which he had deviated far indeed +from the promptings of Caravaggio. He founded now chiefly upon the +antique, more especially the Niobe group and the "Venus de' Medici," +modified by suggestions from Raphael, Correggio, Parmigiano and Paul +Veronese. Of this last painter, although on the whole he did not get +much from him, Guido was a particular admirer; he used to say that he +would rather have been Paul Veronese than any other master--Paul was +more nature than art. The "Aurora" is beyond doubt a work of pre-eminent +beauty and attainment; it is stamped with pleasurable dignity, and, +without being effeminate, has a more uniform aim after graceful +selectness than can readily be traced in previous painters, greatly +superior though some of them had been in impulse and personal fervour of +genius. The pontifical chapel of Montecavallo was assigned to Reni to +paint; but, being straitened in payments by the ministers, the artist +made off to Bologna. He was fetched back by Paul V. with ceremonious +éclat, and lodging, living and equipage were supplied to him. At another +time he migrated from Rome to Naples, having received a commission to +paint the chapel of S. Gennaro. The notorious cabal of three painters +resident in Naples--Corenzio, Caracciolo and Ribera--offered, however, +as stiff an opposition to Guido as to some other interlopers who +preceded and succeeded him. They gave his servant a beating by the hands +of two unknown bullies, and sent by him a message to his master to +depart or prepare for death; Guido waited for no second warning, and +departed. He now returned to Rome; but he finally left that city +abruptly, in the pontificate of Urban VIII., in consequence of an +offensive reprimand administered to him by Cardinal Spinola. He had +received an advance of 400 scudi on account of an altarpiece for St +Peter's, but after some lapse of years had made no beginning with the +work. A broad reminder from the cardinal put Reni on his mettle; he +returned the 400 scudi, quitted Rome within a few days, and steadily +resisted all attempts at recall. He now resettled in Bologna. He had +taught as well as painted in Rome, and he left pupils behind him; but on +the whole he did not stamp any great mark upon the Roman school of +painting, apart from his own numerous works in the papal city. + +In Bologna Guido lived in great splendour, and established a celebrated +school, numbering more than two hundred scholars. He himself drew in it, +even down to his latest years. On first returning to this city, he +charged about £21 for a full-length figure (mere portraits are not here +in question), half this sum for a half-length, and £5 for a head. These +prices must be regarded as handsome, when we consider that Domenichino +about the same time received only £10, 10s. for his very large and +celebrated picture, the "Last Communion of St Jerome." But Guido's +reputation was still on the increase, and in process of time he +quintupled his prices. He now left Bologna hardly at all; in one +instance, however, he went off to Ravenna, and, along with three pupils, +he painted the chapel in the cathedral with his admired picture of the +"Israelites gathering Manna." His shining prosperity was not to last +till the end. Guido was dissipated, generously but indiscriminately +profuse, and an inveterate gambler. The gambling propensity had been his +from youth, but until he became elderly it did not noticeably damage his +fortunes. It grew upon him, and in a couple of evenings he lost the +enormous sum of 14,400 scudi. The vice told still more ruinously on his +art than on his character. In his decline he sold his time at so much +per hour to certain picture dealers; one of them, the Shylock of his +craft, would stand by, watch in hand, and see him work. +Half-heartedness, half-performance, blighted his product: +self-repetition and mere mannerism, with affectation for sentiment and +vapidity for beauty, became the art of Guido. Some of these trade-works, +heads or half-figures, were turned out in three hours or even less. It +is said that, tardily wise, Reni left off gambling for nearly two +years; at last he relapsed, and his relapse was followed not long +afterwards by his death, caused by malignant fever. This event took +place in Bologna on the 18th of August 1642; he died in debt, but was +buried with great pomp in the church of S. Domenico. + + Guido was personally modest, although he valued himself on his + position in the art, and would tolerate no slight in that relation; he + was extremely upright, temperate in diet, nice in his person and his + dress. He was fond of stately houses, but could feel also the charm of + solitude. In his temper there was a large amount of suspiciousness; + and the jealousy which his abilities and his successes excited, now + from the Caracci, now from Albani, now from the monopolizing league of + Neapolitan painters, may naturally have kept this feeling in active + exercise. Of his numerous scholars, Simone Cantarini, named II + Pesarese, counts as the most distinguished; he painted an admirable + head of Reni, now in the Bolognese Gallery. The portrait in the Uffizi + Gallery of Florence is from Reni's own hand. Two other good scholars + were Giacomo Semenza and Francesco Gessi. + + The character of Guido's art is so well known as hardly to call for + detailed analysis, beyond what we have already intimated. His most + characteristic style exhibits a prepense ideal, of form rather than + character, with a slight mode of handling, and silvery, somewhat cold, + colour. In working from the nude he aimed at perfection of form, + especially marked in the hands and feet. But he was far from always + going to choice nature for his model; he transmuted _ad libitum_, and + painted, it is averred, a Magdalene of demonstrative charms from a + vulgar-looking colour-grinder. His best works have beauty, great + amenity, artistic feeling and high accomplishment of manner, all + alloyed by a certain core of commonplace; in the worst pictures the + commonplace swamps everything, and Guido has flooded European + galleries with trashy and empty pretentiousness, all the more noxious + in that its apparent grace of sentiment and form misleads the unwary + into approval, and the dilettante dabbler into cheap raptures. Both in + Rome and wherever else he worked he introduced increased softness of + style, which was then designated as the modern method. His pictures + are mostly Scriptural or mythologic in subject, and between two and + three hundred of them are to be found in various European + collections--more than a hundred of these containing life-sized + figures. The portraits which he executed are few--those of Sixtus V., + Cardinal Spada and the so-called Beatrice Cenci being among the most + noticeable. The identity of the last-named portrait is very dubious; + it certainly cannot have been painted direct from Beatrice, who had + been executed in Rome before Guido ever resided there. Many etchings + are attributed to him--some from his own works, and some after other + masters; they are spirited, but rather negligent. + + Of other works not already noticed, the following should be named:--in + Rome (the Vatican), the "Crucifixion of St Peter," an example of the + painter's earlier manner; in S. Lorenzo in Lucina, "Christ Crucified"; + in Forlì, the "Conception"; in Bologna, the "Alms of St Roch" (early), + the "Massacre of the Innocents," and the "Pietà, or Lament over the + Body of Christ" (in the church of the Mendicanti), which is by many + regarded as Guido's prime executive work; in the Dresden Gallery, an + "Ecce Homo"; in Milan (Brera Gallery), "Saints Peter and Paul"; in + Genoa (church of S. Ambrogio), the "Assumption of the Virgin"; in + Berlin, "St Paul the Hermit and St Anthony in the Wilderness." The + celebrated picture of "Fortune" (in the Capitol) is one of Reni's + finest treatments of female form; as a specimen of male form, the + "Samson Drinking from the Jawbone of an Ass" might be named beside it. + One of his latest works of mark is the "Ariadne," which used to be in + the Gallery of the Capitol. The Louvre contains twenty of his + pictures, the National Gallery of London seven, and others were once + there, now removed to other public collections. The most interesting + of the seven is the small "Coronation of the Virgin," painted on + copper, an elegantly finished work, more pretty than beautiful. It was + probably painted before the master quitted Bologna for Rome. + + For the life and works of Guido Reni, see Bolognini, _Vita di Guido + Reni_ (1839); Passeri, _Vite de' pittori_; and Malvasia, _Felsina + Pittrice_; also Lanzi, _Storia pitiorica_. (W. M. R.) + + + + +GUIENNE, an old French province which corresponded roughly to the +_Aquitania Secunda_ of the Romans and the archbishopric of Bordeaux. In +the 12th century it formed with Gascony the duchy of Aquitaine, which +passed under the dominion of the kings of England by the marriage of +Eleanor of Aquitaine to Henry II.; but in the 13th, through the +conquests of Philip Augustus, Louis VIII. and Louis IX., it was confined +within the narrower limits fixed by the treaty of Paris (1259). It is at +this point that Guienne becomes distinct from Aquitaine. It then +comprised the Bordelais (the old countship of Bordeaux), the Bazadais, +part of Périgord, Limousin, Quercy and Rouergue, the Agenais ceded by +Philip III. (the Bold) to Edward I. (1279), and (still united with +Gascony) formed a duchy extending from the Charente to the Pyrenees. +This duchy was held on the terms of homage to the French kings, an +onerous obligation; and both in 1296 and 1324 it was confiscated by the +kings of France on the ground that there had been a failure in the +feudal duties. At the treaty of Brétigny (1360) Edward III. acquired the +full sovereignty of the duchy of Guienne, together with Aunis, +Saintonge, Angoumois and Poitou. The victories of du Guesclin and Gaston +Phoebus, count of Foix, restored the duchy soon after to its +13th-century limits. In 1451 it was conquered and finally united to the +French crown by Charles VII. In 1469 Louis XI. gave it in exchange for +Champagne and Brie to his brother Charles, duke of Berry, after whose +death in 1472 it was again united to the royal dominion. Guienne then +formed a government which from the 17th century onwards was united with +Gascony. The government of Guienne and Gascony, with its capital at +Bordeaux, lasted till the end of the _ancien régime_. Under the +Revolution the departments formed from Guienne proper were those of +Gironde, Lot-et-Garonne, Dordogne, Lot, Aveyron and the chief part of +Tarn-et-Garonne. + + + + +GUIGNES, JOSEPH DE (1721-1800), French orientalist, was born at Pontoise +on the 19th of October 1721. He succeeded Fourmont at the Royal Library +as secretary interpreter of the Eastern languages. A _Mémoire historique +sur l'origine des Huns et des Turcs_, published by de Guignes in 1748, +obtained his admission to the Royal Society of London in 1752, and he +became an associate of the French Academy of Inscriptions in 1754. Two +years later he began to publish his learned and laborious _Histoire +générale des Huns, des Mongoles, des Turcs et des autres Tartares +occidentaux_ (1756-1758); and in 1757 he was appointed to the chair of +Syriac at the Collège de France. He maintained that the Chinese nation +had originated in Egyptian colonization, an opinion to which, in spite +of every argument, he obstinately clung. He died in Paris in 1800. The +_Histoire_ had been translated into German by Dähnert (1768-1771). De +Guignes left a son, Christian Louis Joseph (1759-1845), who, after +learning Chinese from his father, went as consul to Canton, where he +spent seventeen years. On his return to France he was charged by the +government with the work of preparing a Chinese-French-Latin dictionary +(1813). He was also the author of a work of travels (_Voyages à Pékin, +Manille, et l'île de France_, 1808). + + See Quérard, _La France littéraire_, where a list of the memoirs + contributed by de Guignes to the _Journal des savants_ is given. + + + + +GUILBERT, YVETTE (1869- ), French _diseuse_, was born in Paris. She +served for two years until 1885 in the Magasin du Printemps, when, on +the advice of the journalist, Edmond Stoullig, she trained for the stage +under Landrol. She made her début at the Bouffes du Nord, then played at +the Variétés, and in 1890 she received a regular engagement at the +Eldorado to sing a couple of songs at the beginning of the performance. +She also sang at the Ambassadeurs. She soon won an immense vogue by her +rendering of songs drawn from Parisian lower-class life, or from the +humours of the Latin Quarter, "_Quatre z'étudiants_" and the "_Hôtel du +numéro trois_" being among her early triumphs. Her adoption of an +habitual yellow dress and long black gloves, her studied simplicity of +diction, and her ingenuous delivery of songs charged with _risqué_ +meaning, made her famous. She owed something to M. Xanrof, who for a +long time composed songs especially for her, and perhaps still more to +Aristide Bruant, who wrote many of her _argot_ songs. She made +successful tours in England, Germany and America, and was in great +request as an entertainer in private houses. In 1895 she married Dr M. +Schiller. In later years she discarded something of her earlier manner, +and sang songs of the "pompadour" and the "crinoline" period in costume. +She published the novels _La Vedette_ and _Les Demi-vieilles_, both in +1902. + + + + +GUILDFORD, a market town and municipal borough, and the county town of +Surrey, England, in the Guildford parliamentary division, 29 m. S.W. of +London by the London and South Western railway; served also by the +London, Brighton, and South Coast and the South Eastern and Chatham +railways. Pop. (1901) 15,938. It is beautifully situated on an +acclivity of the northern chalk Downs and on the river Wey. Its older +streets contain a number of picturesque gabled houses, with quaint +lattices and curious doorways. The ruins of a Norman castle stand finely +above the town and are well preserved; while the ground about them is +laid out as a public garden. Beneath the Angel Inn and a house in the +vicinity are extensive vaults, apparently of Early English date, and +traditionally connected with the castle. The church of St Mary is Norman +and Early English, with later additions and considerably restored; its +aisles retain their eastward apses and it contains many interesting +details. The church of St Nicholas is a modern building on an ancient +site, and that of Holy Trinity is a brick structure of 1763, with later +additions, also on the site of an earlier church, from which some of the +monuments are preserved, including that of Archbishop Abbot (1640). The +town hall dates from 1683 and contains a number of interesting pictures. +Other public buildings are the county hall, corn-market and institute +with museum and library. Abbot's Hospital, founded by Archbishop Abbot +in 1619, is a beautiful Tudor brick building. The county hospital (1866) +was erected as a memorial to Albert, Prince Consort. The Royal Free +Grammar School, founded in 1509, and incorporated by Edward VI., is an +important school for boys. At Cranleigh, 6 m. S.E., is a large +middle-class county school. The town has flour mills, iron foundries and +breweries, and a large trade in grain; while fairs are held for live +stock. There is a manufacture of gunpowder in the neighbouring village +of Chilworth. Guildford is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of +Winchester. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. +Area, 2601 acres. + +Guildford (Gyldeford, Geldeford), occurs among the possessions of King +Alfred, and was a royal borough throughout the middle ages. It probably +owed its rise to its position at the junction of trade routes. It is +first mentioned as a borough in 1131. Henry III. granted a charter to +the men of Guildford in 1256, by which they obtained freedom from toll +throughout the kingdom, and the privilege of having the county court +held always in their town. Edward III. granted charters to Guildford in +1340, 1346 and 1367; Henry VI. in 1423; Henry VII. in 1488. Elizabeth in +1580 confirmed earlier charters, and other charters were granted in +1603, 1626 and 1686. The borough was incorporated in 1486 under the +title of the mayor and good men of Guildford. During the middle ages the +government of the town rested with a powerful merchant gild. Two members +for Guildford sat in the parliament of 1295, and the borough continued +to return two representatives until 1867 when the number was reduced to +one. By the Redistribution Act of 1885 Guildford became merged in the +county for electoral purposes. Edward II. granted to the town the right +of having two fairs, at the feast of St Matthew (21st of September) and +at Trinity respectively. Henry VII. granted fairs on the feast of St +Martin (11th of November) and St George (23rd of April). Fairs in May +for the sale of sheep and in November for the sale of cattle are still +held. The market rights date at least from 1276, and three weekly +markets are still held for the sale of corn, cattle and vegetables +respectively. The cloth trade which formed the staple industry at +Guildford in the middle ages is now extinct. + + + + +GUILDHALL, the hall of the corporation of the city of London, England. +It faces a courtyard opening out of Gresham Street. The date of its +original foundation is not known. An ancient crypt remains, but the hall +has otherwise undergone much alteration. It was rebuilt in 1411, +beautified by the munificence of successive officials, damaged in the +Great Fire of 1666, and restored in 1789 by George Dance; while the hall +was again restored, with a new roof, in 1870. This fine chamber, 152 ft. +in length, is the scene of the state banquets and entertainments of the +corporation, and of the municipal meetings "in common hall." The +building also contains a council chamber and various court rooms, with a +splendid library, open to the public, a museum and art gallery +adjoining. The hall contains several monuments and two giant figures of +wood, known as Gog and Magog. These were set up in 1708, but the +appearance of giants in city pageants is of much earlier date. + + + + +GUILFORD, BARONS AND EARLS OF. FRANCIS NORTH, 1st Baron Guilford +(1637-1685), was the third son of the 4th Baron North (see NORTH, +BARONS), and was created Baron Guilford in 1683, after becoming lord +keeper in succession to Lord Nottingham. He had been an eminent lawyer, +solicitor-general (1671), attorney-general (1673), and chief-justice of +the common pleas (1675), and in 1679 was made a member of the council of +thirty and on its dissolution of the cabinet. He was a man of wide +culture and a stanch royalist. In 1672 he married Lady Frances Pope, +daughter and co-heiress of the earl of Downe, who inherited the Wroxton +estate; and he was succeeded as 2nd baron by his son Francis +(1673-1729), whose eldest son Francis (1704-1790), after inheriting +first his father's title as 3rd baron, and then (in 1734) the barony of +North from his kinsman the 6th Baron North, was in 1752 created 1st earl +of Guilford. His first wife was a daughter of the earl of Halifax, and +his son and successor Frederick was the English prime minister, commonly +known as Lord North, his courtesy title while the 1st earl was alive. + +FREDERICK NORTH, 2nd earl of Guilford, but better known by his courtesy +title of Lord North (1732-1792), prime minister of England during the +important years of the American War, was born on the 13th of April 1732, +and after being educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, was sent to +make the grand tour of the continent. On his return he was, though only +twenty-two years of age, at once elected M.P. for Banbury, of which town +his father was high steward; and he sat for the same town in parliament +for nearly forty years. In 1759 he was chosen by the duke of Newcastle +to be a lord of the treasury, and continued in the same office under +Lord Bute and George Grenville till 1765. He had shown himself such a +ready debater that on the fall of the first Rockingham ministry in 1766 +he was sworn of the privy council, and made paymaster-general by the +duke of Grafton. His reputation for ability grew so high that in +December 1767, on the death of the brilliant Charles Townshend, he was +made chancellor of the exchequer. His popularity with both the House of +Commons and the people continued to increase, for his temper was never +ruffled, and his quiet humour perpetually displayed; and, when the +retirement of the duke of Grafton was necessitated by the hatred he +inspired and the attacks of Junius, no better successor could be found +for the premiership than the chancellor of the exchequer. Lord North +succeeded the duke in March 1770, and continued in office for twelve of +the most eventful years in English history. George III. had at last +overthrown the ascendancy of the great Whig families, under which he had +so long groaned, and determined to govern as well as rule. He knew that +he could only govern by obtaining a majority in parliament to carry out +his wishes, and this he had at last obtained by a great expenditure of +money in buying seats and by a careful exercise of his patronage. But in +addition to a majority he must have a minister who would consent to act +as his lieutenant, and such a minister he found in Lord North. How a man +of undoubted ability such as Lord North was could allow himself to be +thus used as a mere instrument cannot be explained; but the confidential +tone of the king's letters seems to show that there was an unusual +intimacy between them, which may account for North's compliance. The +path of the minister in parliament was a hard one; he had to defend +measures which he had not designed, and of which he had not approved, +and this too in a House of Commons in which all the oratorical ability +of Burke and Fox was against him, and when he had only the purchased +help of Thurlow and Wedderburne to aid him. The most important events of +his ministry were those of the American War of Independence. He cannot +be accused of causing it, but one of his first acts was the retention of +the tea-duty, and he it was also who introduced the Boston Port Bill in +1774. When the war had broken out he earnestly counselled peace, and it +was only the earnest solicitations of the king not to leave his +sovereign again at the mercy of the Whigs that induced him to defend a +war which from 1779 he knew to be both hopeless and impolitic. At last, +in March 1782, he insisted on resigning after the news of Cornwallis's +surrender at Yorktown, and no man left office more blithely. He had been +well rewarded for his assistance to the king: his children had good +sinecures; his half-brother, Brownlow North (1741-1820), was bishop of +Winchester; he himself was chancellor of the university of Oxford, +lord-lieutenant of the county of Somerset, and had finally been made a +knight of the Garter, an honour which has only been conferred on three +other members of the House of Commons, Sir R. Walpole, Lord Castlereagh +and Lord Palmerston. Lord North did not remain long out of office, but +in April 1783 formed his famous coalition with his old subordinate, C. +J. Fox (q.v.), and became secretary of state with him under the nominal +premiership of the duke of Portland. He was probably urged to this +coalition with his old opponent by a desire to show that he could act +independently of the king, and was not a mere royal mouthpiece. The +coalition ministry went out of office on Fox's India Bill in December +1783, and Lord North, who was losing his sight, then finally gave up +political ambition. He played, when quite blind, a somewhat important +part in the debates on the Regency Bill in 1789, and in the next year +succeeded his father as earl of Guilford. He did not long survive his +elevation, and died peacefully on the 5th of August 1792. It is +impossible to consider Lord North a great statesman, but he was a most +good-tempered and humorous member of the House of Commons. In a time of +unexampled party feeling he won the esteem and almost the love of his +most bitter opponents. Burke finely sums up his character in his _Letter +to a Noble Lord_: "He was a man of admirable parts, of general +knowledge, of a versatile understanding, fitted for every sort of +business; of infinite wit and pleasantry, of a delightful temper, and +with a mind most disinterested. But it would be only to degrade myself," +he continues, "by a weak adulation, and not to honour the memory of a +great man, to deny that he wanted something of the vigilance and spirit +of command which the times required." + +By his wife Anne (d. 1797), daughter of George Speke of White +Lackington, Somerset, Guilford had four sons, the eldest of whom, George +Augustus (1757-1802), became 3rd earl on his father's death. This earl +was a member of parliament from 1778 to 1792 and was a member of his +father's ministry and also of the royal household; he left no sons when +he died on the 20th of April 1802 and was succeeded in the earldom by +his brother Francis (1761-1817), who also left no sons. The youngest +brother, Frederick (1766-1827), who now became 5th earl of Guilford, was +remarkable for his great knowledge and love of Greece and of the Greek +language. He had a good deal to do with the foundation of the Ionian +university at Corfu, of which he was the first chancellor and to which +he was very liberal. Guilford, who was governor of Ceylon from 1798 to +1805, died unmarried on the 14th of October 1827. His cousin, Francis +(1772-1861), a son of Brownlow North, bishop of Winchester from 1781 to +1820, was the 6th earl, and the latter's descendant, Frederick George +(b. 1876), became 8th earl in 1886. + +On the death of the 3rd earl of Guilford in 1802 the barony of North +fell into abeyance between his three daughters, the survivor of whom, +Susan (1797-1884). wife of John Sidney Doyle, who took the name of +North, was declared by the House of Lords in 1841 to be Baroness North, +and the title passed to her son, William Henry John North, the 11th +baron (b. 1836) (see NORTH, BARONS). + + For the Lord Keeper Guilford see the _Lives_ by the Hon. R. North, + edited by A. Jessopp (1890); and E. Foss, _The Judges of England_, + vol. vii. (1848-1864). For the prime minister, Lord North, see + _Correspondence of George III._ with Lord North, edited by W. B. Donne + (1867); Horace Walpole, _Journal of the Reign of George III._ (1859), + and _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._, edited by G. F. R. Barker + (1894); Lord Brougham, _Historical Sketches of Statesmen_, vol. i. + (1839); Earl Stanhope, _History of England_ (1858); Sir T. E. May, + _Constitutional History of England_ (1863-1865); and W. E. H. Lecky, + _History of England in the 18th century_ (1878-1890). + + + + +GUILFORD, a township, including a borough of the same name, in New Haven +county, Connecticut, U.S.A., on Long Island Sound and at the mouth of +the Menunkatuck or West river, about 16 m. E. by S. of New Haven. Pop. +of the township, including the borough (1900), 2785, of whom 387 were +foreign-born; (1910) 3001; pop. of the borough (1910), 1608. The borough +is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railroad. On a plain is +the borough green of nearly 12 acres, which is shaded by some fine old +elms and other trees, and in which there is a soldiers' monument. About +the green are several churches and some of the better residences. On an +eminence commanding a fine view of the Sound is an old stone house, +erected in 1639 for a parsonage, meeting-house and fortification; it was +made a state museum in 1898, when extensive alterations were made to +restore the interior to its original appearance. The Point of Rocks, in +the harbour, is an attractive resort during the summer season. There are +about 12 ft. of water on the harbour bar at high tide. The principal +industries of Guilford are coastwise trade, the manufacture of iron +castings, brass castings, wagon wheels and school furniture, and the +canning of vegetables. Near the coast are quarries of fine granite; the +stone for the pedestal of the Statue of Liberty on Bedloe's Island, in +New York Harbour, was taken from them. + +Guilford was founded In 1639 as an independent colony by a company of +twenty-five or more families from Kent, Surrey and Sussex, England, +under the leadership of Rev. Henry Whitfield (1597-1657). While still on +shipboard twenty-five members of the company signed a plantation +covenant whereby they agreed not to desert the plantation which they +were about to establish. Arriving at New Haven early in July 1639, they +soon began negotiations with the Indians for the purchase of land, and +on the 29th of September a deed was signed by which the Indians conveyed +to them the territory between East River and Stony Creek for "12 coates, +12 Fathoms of Wampam, 12 glasses (mirrors), 12 payer of shooes, 12 +Hatchetts, 12 paire of Stockings, 12 Hooes, 4 kettles, 12 knives, 12 +Hatts, 12 Porringers, 12 spoones, and 2 English coates." Other purchases +of land from the Indians were made later. Before the close of the year +the company removed from New Haven and established the new colony; it +was known by the Indian name Menuncatuck for about four years and the +name Guilford (from Guildford, England) was then substituted. As a +provisional arrangement, civil power for the administration of justice +and the preservation of the peace was vested in four persons until such +time as a church should be organized. This was postponed until 1643 when +considerations of safety demanded that the colony should become a member +of the New Haven Jurisdiction, and then only to meet the requirements +for admission to this union were the church and church state modelled +after those of New Haven. Even then, though suffrage was restricted to +church members, Guilford planters who were not church members were +required to attend town meetings and were allowed to offer objections to +any proposed order or law. From 1661 until the absorption of the members +of the New Haven Jurisdiction by Connecticut, in 1664, William Leete +(1611-1683), one of the founders of Guilford, was governor of the +Jurisdiction, and under his leadership Guilford took a prominent part in +furthering the submission to Connecticut, which did away with the church +state and the restriction of suffrage to freemen. Guilford was the +birthplace of Fitz-Greene Halleck (1790-1867), the poet; of Samuel +Johnson (1696-1771), the first president of King's College (now Columbia +University); of Abraham Baldwin (1754-1807), prominent as a statesman +and the founder of the University of Georgia; and of Thomas Chittenden, +the first governor of Vermont. The borough was incorporated in 1815. + + See B. C. Steiner, _A History of the Plantation of Menunca-Tuck and of + the Original Town of Guilford, Connecticut_ (Baltimore, 1897), and + _Proceedings at the Celebration of the 250th Anniversary of the + Settlement of Guilford, Connecticut_ (New Haven, 1889). + + + + +GUILLAUME, JEAN BAPTISTE CLAUDE EUGÈNE (1822-1905), French sculptor, was +born at Montbard on the 4th of July 1822, and studied under Cavelier, +Millet, and Barrias, at the École des Beaux-Arts, which he entered in +1841, and where he gained the _prix de Rome_ in 1845 with "Theseus +finding on a rock his Father's Sword." He became director of the École +des Beaux-Arts in 1864, and director-general of Fine Arts from 1878 to +1879, when the office was suppressed. Many of his works have been bought +for public galleries, and his monuments are to be found in the public +squares of the chief cities of France. At Rheims there is his bronze +statue of "Colbert," at Dijon his "Rameau" monument. The Luxembourg +Museum has his "Anacreon" (1852), "Les Gracques" (1853), "Faucheur" +(1855), and the marble bust of "Mgr Darboy"; the Versailles Museum the +portrait of "Thiers"; the Sorbonne Library the marble bust of "Victor le +Clerc, doyen de la faculté des lettres." Other works of his are at +Trinity Church, St Germain l'Auxerrois, and the church of St Clotilde, +Paris. Guillaume was a prolific writer, principally on sculpture and +architecture of the Classic period and of the Italian Renaissance. He +was elected member of the Académie Française in 1862, and in 1891 was +sent to Rome as director of the Académie de France in that city. He was +also elected an honorary member of the Royal Academy, London, 1869, on +the institution of that class. + + + + +GUILLAUME DE LORRIS (fl. 1230), the author of the earlier section of the +_Roman de la rose_, derives his surname from a small town about +equidistant from Montargis and Gien, in the present department of +Loiret. This and the fact of his authorship may be said to be the only +things positively known about him. The rubric of the poem, where his own +part finishes, attributes Jean de Meun's continuation to a period forty +years later than William's death and the consequent interruption of the +romance. Arguing backwards, this death used to be put at about 1260; but +Jean de Meun's own work has recently been dated earlier, and so the +composition of the first part has been thrown back to a period before +1240. The author represents himself as having dreamed the dream which +furnished the substance of the poem in his twentieth year, and as having +set to work to "rhyme it" five years later. The later and longer part of +the _Roman_ shows signs of greater intellectual vigour and wider +knowledge than the earlier and shorter, but Guillaume de Lorris is to +all appearance more original. The great features of his four or five +thousand lines are, in the first place, the extraordinary vividness and +beauty of his word-pictures, in which for colour, freshness and +individuality he has not many rivals except in the greatest masters, +and, secondly, the fashion of allegorical presentation, which, hackneyed +and wearisome as it afterwards became, was evidently in his time new and +striking. There are of course traces of it before, as in some romances, +such as those of Raoul de Houdenc, in the troubadours, and in other +writers; but it was unquestionably Guillaume de Lorris who fixed the +style. + + For an attempt to identify Guillaume de Lorris see L. Jarry, + _Guillaume de Lorris et le testament d'Alphonse de Poitiers_ (1881). + Also Paulin Paris in the _Hist. litt. de la France_, vol. xxiii. + + + + +GUILLAUME DE PALERME (WILLIAM OF PALERNE), hero of romance. The French +verse romance was written at the desire of a Countess Yolande, generally +identified with Yolande, daughter of Baldwin IV., count of Flanders. The +English poem in alliterative verse was written about 1350 by a poet +called William, at the desire of Humphrey Bohun, earl of Hereford, (d. +1361). Guillaume, a foundling supposed to be of low degree, is brought +up at the court of the emperor of Rome, and loves his daughter Melior +who is destined for a Greek prince. The lovers flee into the woods +disguised in bear-skins. Alfonso, who is Guillaume's cousin and a +Spanish prince, has been changed into a wolf by his step-mother's +enchantments. He provides food and protection for the fugitives, and +Guillaume eventually triumphs over Alfonso's father, and wins back from +him his kingdom. The benevolent werwolf is disenchanted, and marries +Guillaume's sister. + + See _Guillaume de Palerne_, ed. H. Michelant (Soc. d. anc. textes fr., + 1876); _Hist. litt. de la France_, xxii. 829; _William of Palerme_, + ed. Sir F. Madden (Roxburghe Club, 1832), and W. W. Skeat (E. E. Text + Soc., extra series No. 1, 1867); M. Kaluza, in _Eng. Studien_ + (Heilbronn, iv. 196). The prose version of the French romance, printed + by N. Bonfons, passed through several editions. + + + + +GUILLAUME D'ORANGE (d. 812), also known as Guillaume Fierabrace, St +Guillaume de Gellone, and the Marquis au court nez, was the central +figure of the southern cycle of French romance, called by the +_trouvères_ the _geste_ of Garin de Monglane. The cycle of Guillaume has +more unity than the other great cycles of Charlemagne or of Doon de +Mayence, the various poems which compose it forming branches of the main +story rather than independent epic poems. There exist numerous cyclic +MSS. in which there is an attempt at presenting a continuous _histoire +poétique_ of Guillaume and his family. MS. Royal 20 D xi. in the British +Museum contains eighteen _chansons_ of the cycle. Guillaume, son of +Thierry or Theodoric and of Alde, daughter of Charles Martel, was born +in the north of France about the middle of the 8th century. He became +one of the best soldiers and trusted counsellors of Charlemagne, and In +790 was made count of Toulouse, when Charles's son Louis the Pious was +put under his charge. He subdued the Gascons, and defended Narbonne +against the infidels. In 793 Hescham, the successor of Abd-al-Rahman +II., proclaimed a holy war against the Christians, and collected an army +of 100,000 men, half of which was directed against the kingdom of the +Asturias, while the second invaded France, penetrating as far as +Narbonne. Guillaume met the invaders near the river Orbieux, at +Villedaigne, where he was defeated, but only after an obstinate +resistance which so far exhausted the Saracens that they were compelled +to retreat to Spain. He took Barcelona from the Saracens in 803, and in +the next year founded the monastery of Gellone (now Saint Guilhem-le +Désert), of which he became a member in 806. He died there in the odour +of sanctity on the 28th of May 812. + +No less than thirteen historical personages bearing the name of William +(Guillaume) have been thought by various critics to have their share in +the formation of the legend. William, count of Provence, son of Boso +II., again delivered southern France from a Saracen invasion by his +victory at Fraxinet in 973, and ended his life in a cloister. William +Tow-head (_Tête d'étoupe_), duke of Aquitaine (d. 983), showed a +fidelity to Louis IV. paralleled by Guillaume d'Orange's service to +Louis the Pious. The cycle of twenty or more _chansons_ which form the +_geste_ of Guillaume reposes on the traditions of the Arab invasions of +the south of France, from the battle of Poitiers (732) under Charles +Martel onwards, and on the French conquest of Catalonia from the +Saracens. In the Norse version of the Carolingian epic Guillaume appears +in his proper historical environment, as a chief under Charlemagne; but +he plays a leading part in the _Couronnement Looys_, describing the +formal associations of Louis the Pious in the empire at Aix (813, the +year after Guillaume's death), and after the battle of Aliscans it is +from the emperor Louis that he seeks reinforcements. This anachronism +arises from the fusion of the epic Guillaume with the champion of Louis +IV., and from the fact that he was the military and civil chief of Louis +the Pious, who was titular king of Aquitaine under his father from the +time when he was three years old. The inconsistencies between the real +and the epic Guillaume are often left standing in the poems. The +personages associated with Guillaume in his Spanish wars belong to +Provence, and have names common in the south. The most famous of these +are Beuves de Comarchis, Ernaud de Girone, Garin d'Anséun, Aïmer le +chétif, so called from his long captivity with the Saracens. The +separate existence of Aïmer, who refused to sleep under a roof, and +spent his whole life in warring against the infidel, is proved. He was +Hadhemar, count of Narbonne, who in 809 and 810 was one of the leaders +sent by Louis against Tortosa. No doubt the others had historical +prototypes. In the hands of the _trouvères_ they became all brothers of +Guillaume, and sons of Aymeri de Narbonne,[1] the grandson of Garin de +Monglane, and his wife Ermenjart. Nevertheless when Guillaume seeks help +from Louis the emperor he finds all his relations in Laon, in accordance +with his historic Frankish origin. + +The central fact of the _geste_ of Guillaume is the battle of the +Archamp or Aliscans, in which perished Guillaume's heroic nephew, Vezian +or Vivien, a second Roland. At the eleventh hour he summoned Guillaume +to his help against the overwhelming forces of the Saracens. Guillaume +arrived too late to help Vivien, was himself defeated, and returned +alone to his wife Guibourc, leaving his knights all dead or prisoners. +This event is related in a Norman-French transcript of an old French +_chanson de geste_, the _Chançun de Willame_--which only was brought to +light in 1901 at the sale of the books of Sir Henry Hope Edwardes--in +the _Covenant Vivien_, a recension of an older French chanson and in +_Aliscans_. _Aliscans_ continues the story, telling how Guillaume +obtained reinforcements from Laon, and how, with the help of the comic +hero, the scullion Rainouart or Rennewart, he avenged the defeat of +Aliscans and his nephew's death. Rainouart turns out to be the brother +of Guillaume's wife Guibourc, who was before her marriage the Saracen +princess and enchantress Orable. Two other poems are consecrated to his +later exploits, _La Bataille Loquifer_, the work of a French Sicilian +poet, Jendeu de Brie (fl. 1170), and _Le Moniage Rainouart_. The +staring-point of Herbert le duc of Dammartin (fl. 1170) in _Foucon de +Candie_ (Candie=Gandia in Spain?) is the return of Guillaume from the +battle; and the Italian compilation _I Nerbonesi_, based on these and +other _chansons_, seems in some cases to represent an earlier tradition +than the later of the French _chansons_, although its author Andrea di +Barberino wrote towards the end of the 14th century. The minnesinger +Wolfram von Eschenbach based his _Willehalm_ on a French original which +must have differed from the versions we have. The variations in the +story of the defeat of Aliscans or the Archant, and the numerous +inconsistencies of the narratives even when considered separately have +occupied many critics. Aliscans (Aleschans, Alyscamps, Elysii Campi) +was, however, generally taken to represent the battle of Villedaigne, +and to take its name from the famous cemetery outside Arles. Wolfram von +Eschenbach even mentions the tombs which studded the field of battle. +Indications that this tradition was not unassailable were not lacking +before the discovery of the _Chançun de Willame_, which, although +preserved in a very corrupt form, represents the earliest recension we +have of the story, dating at least from the beginning of the 12th +century. It seems probable that the Archant was situated in Spain near +Vivien's headquarters at Tortosa, and that Guillaume started from +Barcelona, not from Orange, to his nephew's help. The account of the +disaster was modified by successive _trouvères_, and the uncertainty of +their methods may be judged by the fact that in the _Chançun de Willame_ +two consecutive accounts (11. 450-1326 and 11. 1326-2420) of the fight +appear to be set side by side as if they were separate episodes. _Le +Couronnement Looys_, already mentioned, _Le Charroi de Nîmes_ (12th +century) in which Guillaume, who had been forgotten in the distribution +of fiefs, enumerates his services to the terrified Louis, and _Aliscans_ +(12th century), with the earlier _Chançun_, are among the finest of the +French epic poems. The figure of Vivien is among the most heroic +elaborated by the _trouvères_, and the giant Rainouart has more than a +touch of Rabelaisian humour. + + The _chansons de geste_ of the cycle of Guillaume are: _Enfances Garin + de Monglane_ (15th century) and _Garin de Monglane_ (13th century), on + which is founded the prose romance of _Guérin de Monglane_, printed in + the 15th century by Jehan Trepperel and often later; _Girars de Viane_ + (13th century, by Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube), ed. P. Tarbé (Reims, + 1850); _Hernaut de Beaulande_ (fragment 14th century); _Renier de + Gennes_, which only survives in its prose form; _Aymeri de Narbonne_ + (c. 1210) by Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube, ed. L. Demaison (Soc. des anc. + textes fr., Paris, 2 vols., 1887); _Les Enfances Guillaume_ (13th + century); _Les Narbonnais_, ed. H. Suchier (Soc. des anc. textes fr., + 2 vols., 1898), with a Latin fragment dating from the 11th century, + preserved at the Hague; _Le Couronnement Looys_ (ed. E. Langlois, + 1888), _Le Charroi de Nîmes_, _La Prise d'Orange_, _Le Covenant + Vivien_, _Aliscans_, which were edited by W. J. A. Jonckbloet in vol. + i. of his _Guillaume d'Orange_ (The Hague, 1854); a critical text of + _Aliscans_ (Halle, 1903, vol. i.) is edited by E. Wienbeck, W. + Hartnacke and P. Rasch; _Loquifer_ and _Le Moniage Rainouart_ (12th + century); _Bovon de Commarchis_ (13th century), recension of the + earlier Siège de Barbastre, by Adenès li Rois, ed. A. Scheler + (Brussels, 1874); _Guibert d'Andrenas_ (13th century); _La Prise de + Cordres_ (13th century); _La Mort Aimeri de Narbonne_, ed. J. Couraye + de Parc (Soc. des Anciens Textes français, Paris, 1884); _Foulque de + Candie_ (ed. P. Tarbé, Reims, 1860); _Le Moniage Guillaume_ (12th + century); _Les Enfances Vivien_ (ed. C. Wahlund and H. v. Feilitzen, + Upsala and Paris, 1895); _Chançun de Willame_ (Chiswick Press, 1903), + described by P. Meyer in _Romania_ (xxxiii. 597-618). The ninth branch + of the _Karlamagnus Saga_ (ed. C. R. Unger, Christiania, 1860) deals + with the _geste_ of Guillaume. _I Nerbonesi_ is edited by J. G. Isola + (Bologna, 1877, &c.). + + See C. Révillout, _Étude hist. et litt. sur la vita sancti Willelmi_ + (Montpellier, 1876); W. J. A. Jonckbloet, _Guillaume d'Orange_ (2 + vols., 1854, The Hague); L. Clarus (ps. for W. Volk), _Herzog Wilhelm + von Aquitanien_ (Münster, 1865); P. Paris, _in Hist. litt. de la + France_ (vol. xxii., 1852); L. Gautier, _Épopées françaises_ (vol. + iv., 2nd ed., 1882); R. Weeks, _The newly discovered Chançun de + Willame_ (Chicago, 1904); A. Thomas, _Études romanes_ (Paris, 1891), + on Vivien; L. Saltet, "S. Vidian de Martres-Tolosanes" in _Bull. de + litt. ecclés._ (Toulouse, 1902); P. Becker, _Die altfrz. Wilhelmsage + u. ihre Beziehung zu Wilhelm dem Heiligen_ (Halle, 1896), and _Der + südfranzösische Sagenkreis und seine Probleme_ (Halle, 1898); A. + Jeanroy, "Études sur le cycle de Guillaume au court nez" (in + _Romania_, vols. 25 and 26, 1896-1897); H. Suchier, "Recherches sur + ... Guillaume d'Orange" (in _Romania_, vol. 32, 1903). The conclusions + arrived at by earlier writers are combated by Joseph Bédier in the + first volume, "Le Cycle de Guillaume d'Orange" (1908), of his + _Légendes épiques_, in which he constructs a theory that the cycle of + Guillaume d'Orange grew up round the various shrines on the pilgrim + route to Saint Gilles of Provence and Saint James of Compostella--that + the _chansons de geste_ were, in fact, the product of 11th and 12th + century trouvères, exploiting local ecclesiastical traditions, and + were not developed from earlier poems dating back perhaps to the + lifetime of Guillaume of Toulouse, the saint of Gellone. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The poem of _Aymeri de Narbonne_ contains the account of the + young Aymeri's brilliant capture of Narbonne, which he then receives + as a fief from Charlemagne, of his marriage with Ermenjart, sister of + Boniface, king of the Lombards, and of their children. The fifth + daughter, Blanchefleur, is represented as the wife of Louis the + Pious. The opening of this poem furnished, though indirectly, the + matter of the _Aymerillot_ of Victor Hugo's _Légende des siècles_. + + + + +GUILLEMOT (Fr. _guillemot_[1]), the name accepted by nearly all modern +authors for a sea-bird, the _Colymbus troile_ of Linnaeus and the _Uria +troile_ of Latham, which nowadays it seems seldom if ever to bear among +those who, from their vocation, are most conversant with it, though, +according to Willughby and Ray his translator, it was in their time so +called "by those of Northumberland and Durham." Around the coasts of +Britain it is variously known as the frowl, kiddaw or skiddaw, langy +(cf. Ice. _Langvia_), lavy, marrock, murre, scout (cf. COOT), scuttock, +strany, tinker or tinkershire and willock. In former days the guillemot +yearly frequented the cliffs on many parts of the British coasts in +countless multitudes, and this is still the case in the northern parts +of the United Kingdom; but more to the southward nearly all its smaller +settlements have been rendered utterly desolate by the wanton and cruel +destruction of their tenants during the breeding season, and even the +inhabitants of those which were more crowded had become so thinned that, +but for the intervention of the Sea Birds Preservation Act (32 & 33 +Vict. cap. 17), which provided under penalty for the safety of this and +certain other species at the time of year when they were most exposed to +danger, they would unquestionably by this time have been exterminated so +far as England is concerned. + +Part of the guillemot's history is still little understood. We know that +it arrives at its wonted breeding stations on its accustomed day in +spring, that it remains there till, towards the end of the summer, its +young are hatched and able, as they soon are, to encounter the perils of +a seafaring life, when away go all, parents and progeny. After that time +it commonly happens that a few examples are occasionally met with in +bays and shallow waters. Tempestuous weather will drive ashore a large +number in a state of utter destitution--many of them indeed are not +unfrequently washed up dead--but what becomes of the bulk of the birds, +not merely the comparatively few thousands that are natives of Britain, +but the tens and hundreds of thousands, not to say millions, that are in +summer denizens of more northern latitudes, no one can say. This mystery +is not peculiar to the guillemot, but is shared by all the _Alcidae_ +that inhabit the Atlantic Ocean. Examples stray every season across the +Bay of Biscay, are found off the coasts of Spain and Portugal, enter +the Mediterranean and reach Italian waters, or, keeping farther south, +may even touch the Madeiras, Canaries or Azores; but these bear no +proportion whatever to the mighty hosts of whom they are literally the +"scouts," and whose position and movements they no more reveal than do +the vedettes of a well-appointed army. The common guillemot of both +sides of the Atlantic is replaced farther northward by a species with a +stouter bill, the _U. arra_ or _U. bruennichi_ of ornithologists, and on +the west coast of North America by the _U. californica_. The habits of +all these are essentially the same, and the structural resemblance +between all of them and the Auks is so great that several systematists +have relegated them to the genus _Alca_, confining the genus _Uria_ to +the guillemots of another group, of which the type is the _U. grylla_, +the black guillemot of British authors, the dovekey or Greenland dove of +sailors, the tysty of Shetlanders. This bird assumes in summer an +entirely black plumage with the exception of a white patch on each wing, +while in winter it is beautifully marbled with white and black. Allied +to it as species or geographical races are the _U. mandti_, _U. columba_ +and _U. carbo_. All these differ from the larger guillemots by laying +two or three eggs, which are generally placed in some secure niche, +while the members of the other group lay but a single egg, which is +invariably exposed on a bare ledge. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The word, however, seems to be cognate with or derived from the + Welsh and Manx _Guillem_, or _Gwilym_ as Pennant spells it. The + association may have no real meaning, but one cannot help comparing + the resemblance between the French _guillemot_ and _Guillaume_ with + that between the English willock (another name for the bird) and + William. + + + + +GUILLOCHE, a French word for an ornament, either painted or carved, +which was one of the principal decorative bands employed by the Greeks +in their temples or on their vases. Guilloches are single, double or +triple; they consist of a series of circles equidistant one from the +other and enclosed in a band which winds round them and interlaces. This +guilloche is of Asiatic origin and was largely employed in the +decoration of the Assyrian palaces, where it was probably copied from +Chaldaean work, as there is an early example at Erech which dates from +the time of Gudea (2294 B.C.). The ornament as painted by the Greeks has +almost entirely disappeared, but traces are found in the temple of +Nemesis at Rhamnus; and on the terra-cotta slabs by which the timber +roofs of Greek temples were protected, it is painted in colours which +are almost as brilliant as when first produced, those of the Treasury of +Gela at Olympia being of great beauty. These examples are double +guilloches, with two rows of circles, each with an independent +interlacing band and united by a small arc with palmette inside; in both +the single and double guilloches of Greek work there is a flower in the +centre of the circles. In the triple guilloche, the centre row of +circles comes half-way between the others, and the enclosing band +crosses diagonally both ways, interlacing alternately. The best example +of the triple guilloche is that which is carved on the torus moulding of +the base and on the small convex moulding above the echinus of the +capitals of the columns of the Erechtheum at Athens. It was largely +employed in Roman work, and the single guilloche is found almost +universally as a border in mosaic pavements, not only in Italy but +throughout Europe. In the Renaissance in Italy it was also a favourite +enrichment for borders and occasionally in France and England. + + + + +GUILLON, MARIE NICOLAS SYLVESTRE (1760-1847), French ecclesiastic, was +born in Paris on the 1st of January 1760. He was librarian and almoner +in the household of the princess de Lamballe, and when in 1792 she was +executed, he fled to the provinces, where under the name of Pastel he +practised medicine. A man of facile conscience, he afterwards served in +turn under Napoleon, the Bourbons and the Orleanists, and became canon +of St Denis, bishop of Morocco and dean of the Sorbonne. + + Among his many literary works are a _Collection des brefs du pape Pie + VI_ (1798), _Bibliothèque choisie des pères grecs et latins_ (1822, 26 + vols.) and a French translation of Cyprian with notes (1837, 2 vols.). + + + + +GUILLOTINE, the instrument for inflicting capital punishment by +decapitation, introduced into France at the period of the Revolution. It +consists of two upright posts surmounted by a cross beam, and grooved so +as to guide an oblique-edged knife, the back of which is heavily +weighted to make it fall swiftly and with force when the cord by which +it is held aloft is let go. Some ascribe the invention of the machine +to the Persians; and previous to the period when it obtained notoriety +under its present name it had been in use in Scotland, England and +various parts of the continent. There is still preserved In the +antiquarian museum of Edinburgh the rude guillotine called the "maiden" +by which the regent Morton was decapitated in 1581. The last persons +decapitated by the Scottish "maiden" were the marquis of Argyll in 1661 +and his son the earl of Argyll in 1685. It would appear that no similar +machine was ever in general use in England; but until 1650 there existed +in the forest of Hardwick, which was coextensive with the parish of +Halifax, West Riding, Yorkshire, a mode of trial and execution called +the gibbet law, by which a felon convicted of theft within the liberty +was sentenced to be decapitated by a machine called the Halifax gibbet. +A print of it is contained in a small book called _Halifax and its +Gibbet Law_ (1708), and in Gibson's edition of Camden's _Britannia_ +(1722). In Germany the machine was in general use during the middle +ages, under the name of the _Diele_, the _Hobel_ or the _Dolabra_. Two +old German engravings, the one by George Penez, who died in 1550, and +the other by Heinrich Aldegrever, with the date 1553, represent the +death of a son of Titus Manlius by a similar instrument, and its +employment for the execution of a Spartan is the subject of the +engraving of the eighteenth symbol in the volume entitled _Symbolicae +quaestiones de universo genere_, by Achilles Bocchi (1555). From the +13th century it was used in Italy under the name of _Mannaia_ for the +execution of criminals of noble birth. The _Chronique de Jean d'Anton_, +first published in 1835, gives minute details of an execution in which +it was employed at Genoa in 1507; and it is elaborately described by +Père Jean Baptiste Labat in his _Voyage en Espagne et en Italie en +1730_. It is mentioned by Jacques, viscomte de Puységur, in his +_Mémoires_ as in use in the south of France, and he describes the +execution by it of Marshal Montmorency at Toulouse in 1632. For about a +century it had, however, fallen into general disuse on the continent; +and Dr Guillotine, who first suggested its use in modern times, is said +to have obtained his information regarding it from the description of an +execution that took place at Milan in 1702, contained in an anonymous +work entitled _Voyage historique et politique de Suisse, d'Italie, et +d'Allemagne_. + +Guillotine, who was born at Saintes, May 28, 1738, and elected to the +Constituent Assembly in 1789, brought forward on the 1st December of +that year two propositions regarding capital punishment, the second of +which was that, "in all cases of capital punishment it shall be of the +same kind--that is, decapitation--and it shall be executed by means of a +machine." The reasons urged in support of this proposition were that in +cases of capital punishment the privilege of execution by decapitation +should no longer be confined to the nobles, and that it was desirable to +render the process of execution as swift and painless as possible. The +debate was brought to a sudden termination in peals of laughter caused +by an indiscreet reference of Dr Guillotine to his machine, but his +ideas seem gradually to have leavened the minds of the Assembly, and +after various debates decapitation was adopted as the method of +execution in the penal code which became law on the 6th October 1791. At +first it was intended that decapitation should be by the sword, but on +account of a memorandum by M. Sanson, the executioner, pointing out the +expense and certain other inconveniences attending that method, the +Assembly referred the question to a committee, at whose request Dr +Antoine Louis, secretary to the Academy of Surgeons, prepared a +memorandum on the subject. Without mentioning the name of Guillotine, it +recommended the adoption of an instrument similar to that which was +formerly suggested by him. The Assembly decided in favour of the report, +and the contract was offered to the person who usually provided the +instruments of justice; but, as his terms were considered exorbitant, an +agreement was ultimately come to with a German of the name of Schmidt, +who, under the direction of M. Louis, furnished a machine for each of +the French departments. After satisfactory experiments had been made +with the machine on several dead bodies in the hospital of Bicêtre, it +was erected on the Place de Grève for the execution of the highwayman +Pelletier on the 25th April 1792. While the experiments regarding the +machine were being carried on, it received the name _Louisette_ or _La +Petite Louison_, but the mind of the nation seems soon to have reverted +to Guillotine, who first suggested its use; and in the _Journal des +révolutions de Paris_ for 28th April 1792 it is mentioned as _la +guillotine_, a name which it thenceforth bore both popularly and +officially. In 1795 the question was much debated as to whether or not +death by the guillotine was instantaneous, and in support of the +negative side the case of Charlotte Corday was adduced whose +countenance, it is said, blushed as if with indignation when the +executioner, holding up the head to the public gaze, struck it with his +fist. The connexion of the instrument with the horrors of the Revolution +has hindered its introduction into other countries, but in 1853 it was +adopted under the name of _Fallschwert_ or _Fallbeil_ by the kingdom of +Saxony; and it is used for the execution of sentences of death in +France, Belgium and some parts of Germany. It has often been stated that +Dr Guillotine perished by the instrument which bears his name, but it is +beyond question that he survived the Revolution and died a natural death +in 1814. + + See Sédillot, _Réflexions historiques et physiologiques sur le + supplice de la guillotine_ (1795); Sue, _Opinion sur le supplice de la + guillotine_, (1796); Réveillé-Parise, _Étude biographique sur + Guillotine_ (Paris, 1851); _Notice historique et physiologique sur le + supplice de la guillotine_ (Paris, 1830); Louis Dubois, _Recherches + historiques et physiologiques sur la guillotine et détails sur Sanson_ + (Paris, 1843); and a paper by J. W. Croker in the _Quarterly Review_ + for December 1843, reprinted separately in 1850 under the title _The + Guillotine, a historical Essay_. + + + + +GUILT, a lapse from duty, a crime, now usually the fact of wilful +wrong-doing, the condition of being guilty of a crime, hence conduct +deserving of punishment. The O. Eng. form of the word is _gylt_. The +_New English Dictionary_ rejects for phonetic reasons the usually +accepted connexion with the Teutonic root _gald_-, to pay, seen in Ger. +_gelten_, to be of value, _Geld_, money, payment, English "yield." + + + + +GUIMARÃES (sometimes written _Guimaraens_), a town of northern Portugal, +in the district of Braga, formerly included in the province of +Entre-Minho-e-Douro; 36 m. N.E. of Oporto by the Trofa-Guimarães branch +of the Oporto-Corunna railway. Pop. (1900) 9104. Guimarães is a very +ancient town with Moorish fortifications; and even the quarters which +are locally described as "new" date partly from the 15th century. It +occupies a low hill, skirted on the north-west by a small tributary of +the river Ave. The citadel, founded in the 11th century by Count Henry +of Burgundy, was in 1094 the birthplace of his son Alphonso, the first +king of Portugal. The font in which Alphonso was baptized is preserved, +among other interesting relics, in the collegiate church of Santa Maria +da Oliveira, "St Mary of the Olive," a Romanesque building of the 14th +century, which occupies the site of an older foundation. This church +owes its name to the legend that the Visigothic king Wamba (672-680) +here declined the crown of Spain, until his olive wood spear-shaft +blossomed as a sign that he should consent. The convent of São Domingos, +now a museum of antiquities, has a fine 12th-13th century cloister; the +town hall is built in the blend of Moorish and Gothic architecture known +as Manoelline. Guimarães has a flourishing trade in wine and farm +produce; it also manufactures cutlery, linen, leather and preserved +fruits. Near the town are Citania, the ruins of a prehistoric Iberian +city, and the hot sulphurous springs of Taipas, frequented since the 4th +century, when Guimarães itself was founded. + + + + +GUIMARD, MARIE MADELEINE (1743-1816), French dancer, was born in Paris +on the 10th of October 1743. For twenty-five years she was the star of +the Paris Opéra. She made herself even more famous by her love affairs, +especially by her long liaison with the prince de Soubise. She bought a +magnificent house at Pantin, and built a private theatre connected with +it, where Collé's _Partie de chasse de Henri IV_ which was prohibited in +public, and most of the _Proverbes_ of Carmontelle (Louis Carrogis, +1717-1806), and similar licentious performances were given to the +delight of high society. In 1772, in defiance of the archbishop of +Paris, she opened a gorgeous house with a theatre seating five hundred +spectators in the Chaussée d'Antin. In this Temple of Terpsichore, as +she named it, the wildest orgies took place. In 1786 she was compelled +to get rid of the property, and it was disposed of by lottery for her +benefit for the sum of 300,000 francs. Soon after her retirement in 1789 +she married Jean Etienne Despréaux (1748-1820), dancer, song-writer and +playwright. + + + + +GUIMET, JEAN BAPTISTE (1795-1871), French industrial chemist, was born +at Voiron on the 20th of July 1795. He studied at the École +Polytechnique in Paris, and in 1817 entered the Administration des +Poudres et Salpêtres. In 1828 he was awarded the prize offered by the +Société d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale for a process of +making artificial ultramarine with all the properties of the substance +prepared from lapis lazuli; and six years later he resigned his official +position in order to devote himself to the commercial production of that +material, a factory for which he established at Fleurieux sur Saône. He +died on the 8th of April 1871. + +His son ÉMILE ÉTIENNE GUIMET, born at Lyons on the 26th of June 1836, +succeeded him in the direction of the factory, and founded the Musée +Guimet, which was first located at Lyons in 1879 and was handed over to +the state and transferred to Paris in 1885. Devoted to travel, he was in +1876 commissioned by the minister of public instruction to study the +religions of the Far East, and the museum contains many of the fruits of +this expedition, including a fine collection of Japanese and Chinese +porcelain and many objects relating not merely to the religions of the +East but also to those of Ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome. He wrote +_Lettres sur l'Algérie_ (1877) and _Promenades japonaises_ (1880), and +also some musical compositions, including a grand opera, _Taï-Tsoung_ +(1894). + + + + +GUINEA, the general name applied by Europeans to part of the western +coast region of equatorial Africa, and also to the gulf formed by the +great bend of the coast line eastward and then southward. Like many +other geographical designations the use of which is controlled neither +by natural nor political boundaries, the name has been very differently +employed by different writers and at different periods. In the widest +acceptation of the term, the Guinea coast may be said to extend from 13° +N. to 16° S., from the neighbourhood of the Gambia to Cape Negro. +Southern or Lower Guinea comprises the coasts of Gabun and Loango (known +also as French Congo) and the Portuguese possessions on the south-west +coast, and Northern or Upper Guinea stretches from the river Casamance +to and inclusive of the Niger delta, Cameroon occupying a middle +position. In a narrower use of the name, Guinea is the coast only from +Cape Palmas to the Gabun estuary. Originally, on the other hand, Guinea +was supposed to begin as far north as Cape Nun, opposite the Canary +Islands, and Gomes Azurara, a Portuguese historian of the 15th century, +is said to be the first authority who brings the boundary south to the +Senegal. The derivation of the name is uncertain, but is probably taken +from Ghinea, Ginnie, Genni or Jenné, a town and kingdom in the basin of +the Niger, famed for the enterprise of its merchants and dating from the +8th century A.D. The name Guinea is found on maps of the middle of the +14th century, but it did not come into general use in Europe till +towards the close of the 15th century.[1] + +Although the term Gulf of Guinea is applied generally to that part of +the coast south of Cape Palmas and north of the mouth of the Congo, +particular indentations have their peculiar designations. The bay formed +by the configuration of the land between Cape St Paul and the Nun mouth +of the Niger is known as the Bight of Benin, the name being that of the +once powerful native state whose territory formerly extended over the +whole district. The Bight of Biafra, or Mafra (named after the town of +Mafra in southern Portugal), between Capes Formosa and Lopez, is the +most eastern part of the Gulf of Guinea; it contains the islands +Fernando Po, Prince's and St Thomas's. The name Biafra--as indicating +the country--fell into disuse in the later part of the 19th century. + +The coast is generally so low as to be visible to navigators only within +a very short distance, the mangrove trees being their only sailing +marks. In the Bight of Biafra the coast forms an exception, being high +and bold, with the Cameroon Mountains for background. At Sierra Leone +also there is high land. The coast in many places maintains a dead level +for 30 to 50 m. inland. Vegetation is exceedingly luxuriant and varied. +The palm-oil tree is indigenous and abundant from the river Gambia to +the Congo. The fauna comprises nearly all the more remarkable of African +animals. The inhabitants are the true Negro stock. + +By the early traders the coast of Upper Guinea was given names founded +on the productions characteristic of the different parts. The Grain +coast, that part of the Guinea coast extending for 500 m. from Sierra +Leone eastward to Cape Palmas received its name from the export of the +seeds of several plants of a peppery character, called variously grains +of paradise, Guinea pepper and melegueta. The name Grain coast was first +applied to this region in 1455. It was occasionally styled the Windy or +Windward coast, from the frequency of short but furious tornadoes +throughout the year. Towards the end of the 18th century, Guinea pepper +was supplanted in Europe by peppers from the East Indies. The name now +is seldom used, the Grain coast being divided between the British colony +of Sierra Leone and the republic of Liberia. The Ivory coast extends +from Cape Palmas to 3° W., and obtained its name from the quantity of +ivory exported therefrom. It is now a French possession. Eastwards of +the Ivory coast are the Gold and Slave coasts. The Niger delta was for +long known as the Oil rivers. To two regions only of the coast is the +name Guinea officially applied, the French and Portuguese colonies north +of Sierra Leone being so styled. + +Of the various names by which the divisions of Lower Guinea were known, +Loango was applied to the country south of the Gabun and north of the +Congo river. It is now chiefly included in French Congo. Congo was used +to designate the country immediately south of the river of the same +name, usually spoken of until the last half of the 19th century as the +Zaire. Congo is now one of the subdivisions of Portuguese West Africa +(see ANGOLA). It must not be confounded with the Belgian Congo. + +Few questions in historical geography have been more keenly discussed +than that of the first discovery of Guinea by the navigators of modern +Europe. Lancelot Malocello, a Genoese, in 1270 reached at least as far +as the Canaries. The first direct attempt to find a sea route to India +was, it is said, also made by Genoese, Ugolino and Guido de Vivaldo, +Tedisio Doria and others who equipped two galleys and sailed south along +the African coast in 1291. Beyond the fact that they passed Cape Nun +there is no trustworthy record of their voyage. In 1346 a Catalan +expedition started for "the river of gold" on the Guinea coast; its fate +is unknown. The French claim that between 1364 and 1410 the people of +Dieppe sent out several expeditions to Guinea; and Jean de Béthencourt, +who settled in the Canaries about 1402, made explorations towards the +south. At length the consecutive efforts of the navigators employed by +Prince Henry of Portugal--Gil Eannes, Diniz Diaz, Nuno Tristam, Alvaro +Fernandez, Cadamosto, Usodimare and Diego Gomez--made known the coast as +far as the Gambia, and by the end of the 15th century the whole region +was familiar to Europeans. + + For further information see SENEGAL, GOLD COAST, IVORY COAST, FRENCH + GUINEA, PORTUGUESE GUINEA, LIBERIA, &c. For the history of European + discoveries, consult G. E. de Azurara, _Chronica de descobrimento e + conquista de Guiné_, published, with an introduction, by Barros de + Santarem (Paris, 1841), English translation, _The Discovery and + Conquest of Guinea_, by C. R. Beazley and E. Prestage (Hakluyt Society + publications, 2 vols., London, 1896-1899, vol. ii. has an + introduction on the early history of African exploration, &c. with + full bibliographical notes). L. Estancelin, _Recherches sur les + voyages et découvertes des navigateurs normands en Afrique_ (Paris, + 1832); Villault de Bellefond, _Relation des costes d'Afrique appellées + Guinée_ (Paris, 1669); Père Labat, _Nouvelle Relation de l'Afrique + occidentale_ (Paris, 1728); Desmarquets, _Mém. chron. pour servir à + l'hist. de Dieppe_ (1875); Santarem, _Priorité de la découverte des + pays situés sur la côte occidentale d'Afrique_ (Paris, 1842); R. H. + Major, _Life of Prince Henry the Navigator_ (London, 1868); and the + elaborate review of Major's work by M. Codine in the _Bulletin de la + Soc. de Géog._ (1873); A. E. Nordenskiöld, _Periplus_ (Stockholm, + 1897); _The Story of Africa_, vol. i. (London, 1892), edited by Dr + Robert Brown. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Guinea may, however, be derived from Ghana (or Ghanata) the name + of the oldest known state in the western Sudan. Ghana dates, + according to some authorities, from the 3rd century A.D. From the 7th + to the 12th century it was a powerful empire, its dominions + extending, apparently, from the Atlantic to the Niger bend. At one + time Jenné was included within its borders. Ghana was finally + conquered by the Mandingo kings of Melle in the 13th century. Its + capital, also called Ghana, was west of the Niger, and is generally + placed some 200 m. west of Jenné. In this district L. Desplagnes + discovered in 1907 numerous remains of a once extensive city, which + he identified as those of Ghana. The ruins lie 25 m. W. of the Niger, + on both banks of a marigot, and are about 40 m. N. by E. of Kulikoro + (see _La Géographie_, xvi. 329). By some writers Ghana city is, + however, identified with Walata, which town is mentioned by Arab + historians as the capital of Ghanata. The identification of Ghana + city with Jenné is not justified, though Idrisi seems to be + describing Jenné when writing of "Ghana the Great." + + + + +GUINEA, a gold coin at one time current in the United Kingdom. It was +first coined in 1663, in the reign of Charles II., from gold imported +from the Guinea coast of West Africa by a company of merchants trading +under charter from the British crown--hence the name. Many of the first +guineas bore an elephant on one side, this being the stamp of the +company; in 1675 a castle was added. Issued at the same time as the +guinea were five-guinea, two-guinea and half-guinea pieces. The current +value of the guinea on its first issue was twenty shillings. It was +subsidiary to the silver coinage, but this latter was in such an +unsatisfactory state that the guinea in course of time became +over-valued in relation to silver, so much so that in 1694 it had risen +in value to thirty shillings. The rehabilitation of the silver coinage +in William III.'s reign brought down the value of the guinea to 21s. 6d. +in 1698, at which it stood until 1717, when its value was fixed at +twenty-one shillings. This value the guinea retained until its +disappearance from the coinage. It was last coined in 1813, and was +superseded in 1817 by the present principal gold coin, the sovereign. In +1718 the quarter-guinea was first coined. The third-guinea was first +struck in George III.'s reign (1787). To George III.'s reign also +belongs the "spade-guinea," a guinea having the shield on the reverse +pointed at the base or spade-shaped. It is still customary to pay +subscriptions, professional fees and honoraria of all kinds, in terms of +"guineas," a guinea being twenty-one shillings. + + + + +GUINEA FOWL, a well-known domestic gallinaceous bird, so called from the +country whence in modern times it was brought to Europe, the _Meleagris_ +and _Avis_ or _Gallina Numidica_ of ancient authors.[1] Little is +positively known of the wild stock to which we owe our tame birds, nor +can the period of its reintroduction (for there is apparently no +evidence of its domestication being continuous from the time of the +Romans) be assigned more than roughly to that of the African discoveries +of the Portuguese. It does not seem to have been commonly known till the +middle of the 16th century, when John Caius sent a description and +figure, with the name _Gallus Mauritanus_, to Gesner, who published both +in his _Paralipomena_ in 1555, and in the same year Belon also gave a +notice and woodcut under the name of _Poulle de la Guinée_; but while +the former authors properly referred their bird to the ancient +_Meleagris_, the latter confounded the _Meleagris_ and the turkey. + +The ordinary guinea fowl of the poultry-yard (see also POULTRY AND +POULTRY-FARMING) is the _Numida meleagris_ of ornithologists. The chief +or only changes which domestication seems to have induced in its +appearance are a tendency to albinism generally shown in the plumage of +its lower parts, and frequently, though not always, the conversion of +the colour of its legs and feet from dark greyish-brown to bright +orange. That the home of this species is West Africa from the Gambia[2] +to the Gaboon is certain, but its range in the interior is quite +unknown. It appears to have been imported early into the Cape Verd +Islands, where, as also in some of the Greater Antilles and in +Ascension, it has run wild. Representing the species in South Africa we +have the _N. coronata_, which is very numerous from the Cape Colony to +Ovampoland, and the _N. cornuta_ of Drs Finsch and Hartlaub, which +replaces it in the west as far as the Zambesi. Madagascar also has its +peculiar species, distinguishable by its red crown, the _N. mitrata_ of +Pallas, a name which has often been misapplied to the last. This bird +has been introduced to Rodriguez, where it is now found wild. Abyssinia +is inhabited by another species, the _N. ptilorhyncha_,[3] which differs +from all the foregoing by the absence of any red colouring about the +head. Very different from all of them, and the finest species known, is +the _N. vulturina_ of Zanzibar, conspicuous by the bright blue in its +plumage, the hackles that adorn the lower part of its neck, and its long +tail. By some writers it is thought to form a separate genus, +_Acryllium_. All these guinea fowls except the last are characterized by +having the crown bare of feathers and elevated into a bony "helmet," but +there is another group (to which the name _Guttera_ has been given) in +which a thick tuft of feathers ornaments the top of the head. This +contains four or five species, all inhabiting some part or other of +Africa, the best known being the _N. cristata_ from Sierra Leone and +other places on the western coast. This bird, apparently mentioned by +Marcgrave more than 200 years ago, but first described by Pallas, is +remarkable for the structure--unique, if not possessed by its +representative forms--of its _furcula_, where the head, instead of being +the thin plate found in all other _Gallinae_, is a hollow cup opening +upwards, into which the trachea dips, and then emerges on its way to the +lungs. Allied to the genus _Numida_, but readily distinguished form +among other characters by the possession of spurs and the absence of a +helmet, are two very rare forms, _Agelastes_ and _Phasidus_, both from +western Africa. Of their habits nothing is known. All these birds are +beautifully figured in Elliot's _Monograph of the Phasianidae_, from +drawings by Wolf. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Columella (_De re rustica_, viii. cap. 2) distinguishes the + _Meleagris_ from the _Gallina Africana_ or _Numidica_, the latter + having, he says, a red wattle (_palea_, a reading obviously + preferable to _galea_), while it was blue in the former. This would + look as if the _Meleagris_ had sprung from what is now called _Numida + ptilorhyncha_, while the _Gallina Africana_ originated in the _N. + meleagris_, species which have a different range, and if so the fact + would point to two distinct introductions--one by Greeks, the other + by Latins. + + [2] Specimens from the Gambia are said to be smaller, and have been + described as distinct under the name of _N. rendalli_. + + [3] Darwin (_Anim. and Pl. under Domestication_, i. 294), gives this + as the original stock of the modern domestic birds, but obviously by + an accidental error. As before observed, it may possibly have been + the true [Greek: meleagris] of the Greeks. + + + + +GUINEA-WORM (_Dracontiasis_), a disease due to the _Filaria medinensis_, +or _Dracunculus_, or Guinea-worm, a filarious nematode like a +horse-hair, whose most frequent habitat is the subcutaneous and +intramuscular tissues of the legs and feet. It is common on the Guinea +coast, and in many other tropical and subtropical regions and has been +familiarly known since ancient times. The condition of dracontiasis due +to it is a very common one, and sometimes amounts to an epidemic. The +black races are most liable, but Europeans of almost any social rank and +of either sex are not altogether exempt. The worm lives in water, and, +like the _Filaria sanguinis hominis_, appears to have an intermediate +host for its larval stage. It is doubtful whether the worm penetrates +the skin of the legs directly; it is not impossible that the +intermediate host (a cyclops) which contains the larvae may be swallowed +with the water, and that the larvae of the _Dracunculus_ may be set free +in the course of digestion. + + + + +GÜINES, a town in the interior of Havana province, Cuba, about 30 m. +S.E. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 8053. It is situated on a plain, in the +midst of a rich plantation district, chiefly devoted to the cultivation +of tobacco. The first railway in Cuba was built from Havana to Güines +between 1835 and 1838. One of the very few good highways of the island +also connects Güines with the capital. The pueblo of Güines, which was +built on a great private estate of the same name, dates back to about +1735. The church dates from 1850. Güines became a "villa" in 1814, and +was destroyed by fire in 1817. + + + + +GUINGAMP, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement +in the department of Côtes-du-Nord, on the right bank of the Trieux, 20 +m. W.N.W. of St Brieuc on the railway to Brest. Pop. (1906), town 6937, +commune 9212. Its chief church, Notre-Dame de Bon-Secours, dates from +the 14th to the 16th centuries; two towers rise on each side of the +richly sculptured western portal and a third surmounts the crossing. A +famous statue of the Virgin, the object of one of the most important +"pardons" or religious pilgrimages in Brittany, stands in one of the two +northern porches. The central square is decorated by a graceful fountain +in the Renaissance style, restored in 1743. Remains of the ramparts and +of the château of the dukes of Penthièvre, which belong to the 15th +century, still survive. Guingamp is the seat of a sub-prefect and of a +tribunal of first instance. It is an important market for dairy-cattle, +and its industries include flour-milling, tanning and leather-dressing. +Guingamp was the chief town of the countship (subsequently the duchy) of +Penthièvre. The Gothic chapel of Grâces, near Guingamp, contains fine +sculptures. + + + + +GUINNESS, the name of a family of Irish brewers. The firm was founded by +ARTHUR GUINNESS, who about the middle of the 18th century owned a modest +brewing-plant at Leixlip, a village on the upper reaches of the river +Liffey. In or about 1759 Arthur Guinness, seeking to extend his trade, +purchased a small porter brewery belonging to a Mr Rainsford at St +James's Gate, Dublin. By careful attention to the purity of his product, +coupled with a shrewd perception of the public taste, he built up a +considerable business. But his third son, BENJAMIN LEE GUINNESS +(1798-1868), may be regarded as the real maker of the firm, into which +he was taken at an early age, and of which about 1825 he was given sole +control. Prior to that date the trade in Guinness's porter and stout had +been confined to Ireland, but Benjamin Lee Guinness at once established +agencies in the United Kingdom, on the continent, in the British +colonies and in America. The export trade soon assumed huge proportions; +the brewery was continually enlarged, and when in 1855 his father died, +Benjamin Lee Guinness, who in 1851 was elected first lord mayor of +Dublin, found himself sole proprietor of the business and the richest +man in Ireland. Between 1860 and 1865 he devoted a portion of this +wealth to the restoration of St Patrick's cathedral, Dublin. The work, +the progress of which he regularly superintended himself, cost £160,000. +Benjamin Lee Guinness represented the city of Dublin in parliament as a +Conservative from 1865 till his death, and in 1867 was created a +baronet. He died in 1868, and was succeeded in the control of the +business by Sir Arthur Edward Guinness (b. 1840), his eldest, and Edward +Cecil Guinness (b. 1847), his third, son. SIR ARTHUR EDWARD GUINNESS, +who for some time represented Dublin in parliament, was in 1880 raised +to the peerage as Baron Ardilaun, and about the same time disposed of +his share in the brewery to his brother Edward Cecil Guinness. In 1886 +EDWARD CECIL GUINNESS disposed of the brewery, the products of which +were then being sent all over the world, to a limited company, in which +he remained the largest shareholder. Edward Cecil Guinness was created a +baronet in 1885, and in 1891 was raised to the peerage as Baron Iveagh. + +The Guinness family have been distinguished for their philanthropy and +public munificence. Lord Ardilaun gave a recreation ground to Dublin, +and the famous Muckross estate at Killarney to the nation. Lord Iveagh +set aside £250,000 for the creation of the Guinness trust (1889) for the +erection and maintenance of buildings for the labouring poor in London +and Dublin, and was a liberal benefactor to the funds of Dublin +university. + + + + +GUINOBATAN, a town of the province of Albay, Luzon, Philippine Islands, +on the Inaya river, 9 m. W. by N. of the town of Albay. Pop. (1903), +20,027. Its chief interest is in hemp, which is grown in large +quantities in the neighbouring country. + + + + +GUIPÚZCOA, a maritime province of northern Spain, included among the +Basque provinces, and bounded on the N. by the Bay of Biscay; W. by the +province of Biscay (_Vizcaya_); S. and S.E. by. Álava and Navarre: and +N.E. by the river Bidassoa,[1] which separates it from France. Pop. +(1900), 195,850; area, 728 sq. m. Situated on the northern slope of the +great Cantabrian chain at its junction with the Pyrenees, the province +has a great variety of surface in mountain, hill and valley; and its +scenery is highly picturesque. The coast is much indented, and has +numerous harbours, but none of very great importance; the chief are +those of San Sebastian, Pasajes, Guetaria, Deva and Fuenterrabia. The +rivers (Deva, Urola, Oria, Urumea, Bidassoa) are all short, rapid and +unnavigable. The mountains are for the most part covered with forests of +oak, chestnut or pine; holly and arbutus are also common, with furze and +heath in the poorer parts. The soil in the lower valleys is generally of +hard clay and unfertile; it is cultivated with great care, but the grain +raised falls considerably short of what is required for home +consumption. The climate, though moist, is mild, pleasant and healthy; +fruit is produced in considerable quantities, especially apples for +manufacture into _zaragua_ or cider. The chief mineral products are +iron, lignite, lead, copper, zinc and cement. Ferruginous and sulphurous +springs are very common, and are much frequented every summer by +visitors from all parts of the kingdom. There are excellent fisheries, +which supply the neighbouring provinces with cod, tunny, sardines and +oysters; and the average yearly value of the coasting trade exceeds +£400,000. By Irun, Pasajes and the frontier roads £4,000,000 of imports +and £3,000,000 of exports pass to and from France, partly in transit for +the rest of Europe. Apart from the four Catalan provinces, no province +has witnessed such a development of local industries as Guipúzcoa. The +principal industrial centres are Irun, Renteria, Villabona, Vergara and +Azpéitia for cotton and linen stuffs; Zumarraga for osiers; Eibar, +Plasencia and Elgoibar for arms and cannon and gold incrustations; Irun +for soap and carriages; San Sebastian, Irun and Onate for paper, glass, +chemicals and saw-mills; Tolosa for paper, timber, cloths and furniture; +and the banks of the bay of Pasajes for the manufacture of liqueurs of +every kind, and the preparation of wines for export and for consumption +in the interior of Spain. This last industry occupies several thousand +French and Spanish workmen. An arsenal was established at Azpéitia +during the Carlist rising of 1870-1874; but the manufacture of ordnance +and gunpowder was subsequently discontinued. The main line of the +northern railway from Madrid to France runs through the province, giving +access, by a loop line, to the chief industrial centres. The +custom-house through which it passes on the frontier is one of the most +important in Spain. Despite the steep gradients, where traffic is hardly +possible except by ox-carts, there are over 350 m. of admirably +engineered roads, maintained solely by the local tax-payers. After San +Sebastian, the capital (pop. 1900, 37,812), the chief towns are +Fuenterrabia (4345) and Irun (9912). Other towns with more than 6000 +inhabitants are Azpéitia (6066), Eibar (6583), Tolosa (8111) and Vergara +(6196). Guipúzcoa is the smallest and one of the most densely peopled +provinces of Spain; for its constant losses by emigration are +counterbalanced by a high birth-rate and the influx of settlers from +other districts who are attracted by its industrial prosperity. + + For an account of its inhabitants and their customs, language and + history, see BASQUES and BASQUE PROVINCES. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A small island in the Bidassoa, called La Isla de los Faisanes, + or l'Isle de la Conférence, is celebrated as the place where the + marriage of the duke of Guienne was arranged between Louis XI. and + Henry IV. in 1463, where Francis I., the prisoner of Charles V., was + exchanged for his two sons in 1526, and where in 1659 "the Peace of + the Pyrenees" was concluded between D. Luis de Haro and Cardinal + Mazarin. + + + + +GUIRAUD, ERNEST (1837-1892), French composer, was born at New Orleans on +the 26th of June 1837. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire, where he +won the _grand prix de Rome_. His father had gained the same distinction +many years previously, this being the only instance of both father and +son obtaining this prize. Ernest Guiraud composed the following operas: +_Sylvie_ (1864); _Le Kobold_ (1870), _Madame Turlupin_ (1872), +_Piccolino_ (1876), _Galante Aventure_ (1882), and also the ballet +_Gretna Green_, given at the Opéra in 1873. His opera _Frédégonde_ was +left in an unfinished condition and was completed by Camille +Saint-Saëns. Guiraud, who was a fellow-student and intimate friend of +Georges Bizet, was for some years professor of composition at the +Conservatoire. He was the author of an excellent treatise on +instrumentation. He died in Paris on the 6th of May 1892. + + + + +GUISBOROUGH, or GUISBROUGH, a market town in the Cleveland parliamentary +division of the North Riding of Yorkshire, England, 10 m. E.S.E. of +Middlesbrough by a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. of urban +district (1901), 5645. It is well situated in a narrow, fertile valley +at the N. foot of the Cleveland Hills. The church of St Nicholas is +Perpendicular, greatly restored. Other buildings are the town hall, and +the modern buildings of the grammar school founded in 1561. Ruins of an +Augustinian priory, founded in 1129, are beautifully situated near the +eastern extremity of the town. The church contains some fine Decorated +work, and the chapter house and parts of the conventual buildings may be +traced. Considerable fragments of Norman and transitional work remain. +Among the historic personages who were buried within its walls was +Robert Bruce, lord of Annandale, the competitor for the throne of +Scotland with John Baliol, and the grandfather of King Robert the Bruce. +About 1 m. S.E. of the town there is a sulphurous spring discovered in +1822. The district neighbouring to Guisborough is rich in iron-stone. +Its working forms the chief industry of the town, and there are also +tanneries and breweries. + + + + +GUISE, a town of northern France, in the department of Aisne, on the +Oise, 31 m. N. of Laon by rail. Pop. (1906), 7562. The town was formerly +the capital of the district of Thiérache and afterwards of a countship +(see below). There is a château dating in part from the middle of the +16th century. Camille Desmoulins was in 1762 born in the town, which has +erected a statue to him. The chief industry is the manufacture of iron +stoves and heating apparatus, carried on on the co-operative system in +works founded by J. B. A. Godin, who built for his workpeople the huge +buildings known as the _familistère_, in front of which stands his +statue. A board of trade-arbitration is among the public institutions. + + + + +GUISE, HOUSE OF, a cadet branch of the house of Lorraine (q.v.). René +II., duke of Lorraine (d. 1508), united the two branches of the house of +Lorraine. From his paternal grandmother, Marie d'Harcourt, René +inherited the countships of Aumale, Mayenne, Elbeuf, Lillebonne, Brionne +and other French fiefs, in addition to the honours of the elder branch, +which included the countship of Guise, the dowry of Marie of Blois on +her marriage in 1333 with Rudolph or Raoul of Lorraine. René's eldest +surviving son by his marriage with Philippa, daughter of Adolphus of +Egmont, duke of Gelderland, was Anthony, who succeeded his father as +duke of Lorraine (d. 1544), while the second, Claude, count and +afterwards duke of Guise, received the French fiefs. The Guises, though +naturalized in France, continued to interest themselves in the fortunes +of Lorraine, and their enemies were always ready to designate them as +foreigners. The partition between the brothers Anthony and Claude was +ratified by a further agreement in 1530, reserving the lapsed honours of +the kingdoms of Jerusalem, Sicily, Aragon, the duchy of Anjou and the +countships of Provence and Maine to the duke of Lorraine. Of the other +sons of René II., John (1498-1550) became the first cardinal of +Lorraine, while Ferri, Louis and Francis fell fighting in the French +armies at Marignano (1515), Naples (1528) and Pavia (1525) respectively. + +CLAUDE OF LORRAINE, count and afterwards 1st duke of Guise (1496-1550), +was born on the 20th of October 1496. He was educated at the French +court, and at seventeen allied himself to the royal house of France by a +marriage with Antoinette de Bourbon (1493-1583) daughter of François, +Count of Vendôme. Guise distinguished himself at Marignano (1515), and +was long in recovering from the twenty-two wounds he received in the +battle; in 1521 he fought at Fuenterrabia, when Louise of Savoy ascribed +the capture of the place to his efforts; in 1522 he defended northern +France, and forced the English to raise the siege of Hesdin; and in 1523 +he obtained the government of Champagne and Burgundy, defeating at +Neufchâteau the imperial troops who had invaded his province. In 1525 +he destroyed the Anabaptist peasant army, which was overrunning +Lorraine, at Lupstein, near Saverne (Zabern). On the return of Francis +I. from captivity, Guise was erected into a duchy in the peerage of +France, though up to this time only princes of the royal house had held +the title of duke and peer of France. The Guises, as cadets of the +sovereign house of Lorraine and descendants of the house of Anjou, +claimed precedence of the Bourbon princes. Their pretensions and +ambitions inspired distrust in Francis I., although he rewarded Guise's +services by substantial gifts in land and money. The duke distinguished +himself in the Luxemburg campaign in 1542, but for some years before his +death he effaced himself before the growing fortunes of his sons. He +died on the 12th of April 1550. + +He had been supported in all his undertakings and intrigues by his +brother JOHN, cardinal of Lorraine (1498-1550), who had been made +coadjutor of Metz at the age of three. The cardinal was archbishop of +Reims, Lyons and Narbonne, bishop of Metz, Toul, Verdun, Thérouanne, +Luçon, Albi, Valence, Nantes and Agen, and before he died had squandered +most of the wealth which he had derived from these and other benefices. +Part of his ecclesiastical preferments he gave up in favour of his +nephews. He became a member of the royal council in 1530, and in 1536 +was entrusted with an embassy to Charles V. Although a complaisant +helper in Francis I.'s pleasures, he was disgraced in 1542, and retired +to Rome. He died at Nogent-sur-Yonne on the 18th of May 1550. He was +extremely dissolute, but as an open-handed patron of art and learning, +as the protector and friend of Erasmus, Marot and Rabelais he did +something to counter-balance the general unpopularity of his calculating +and avaricious brother. + + Claude of Guise had twelve children, among them Francis, 2nd duke of + Guise; Charles, 2nd cardinal of Lorraine (1524-1574), who became + archbishop of Reims in 1538 and cardinal in 1547; Claude, marquis of + Mayenne, duke of Aumale (1526-1573), governor of Burgundy, who married + Louise de Brézé, daughter of Diane de Poitiers, thus securing a + powerful ally for the family; Louis (1527-1578), bishop of Troyes, + archbishop of Sens and cardinal of Guise; René, marquis of Elbeuf + (1536-1566), from whom descended the families of Harcourt, Armagnac, + Marsan and Lillebonne; Mary of Lorraine (q.v.), generally known as + Mary of Guise, who after the death of her second husband, James V. of + Scotland, acted as regent of Scotland for her daughter Mary, queen of + Scots; and Francis (1534-1563), grand prior of the order of the + Knights of Malta. The solidarity of this family, all the members of + which through three generations cheerfully submitted to the authority + of the head of the house, made it a formidable factor in French + politics. + +FRANCIS OF LORRAINE, 2nd duke of Guise (1519-1563), "le grand Guise," +was born at Bar on the 17th of February 1519. As count of Aumale he +served in the French army, and was nearly killed at the siege of +Boulogne in 1545 by a wound which brought him the name of "Balafré." +Aumale was made (1547) a peerage-duchy in his favour, and on the +accession of Henry II. the young duke, who had paid assiduous court to +Diane de Poitiers, shared the chief honours of the kingdom with the +constable Anne de Montmorency. Both cherished ambitions for their +families, but the Guises were more unscrupulous in subordinating the +interests of France to their own. Montmorency's brutal manners, however, +made enemies where Guise's grace and courtesy won him friends. Guise was +a suitor for the hand of Jeanne d'Albret, princess of Navarre, who +refused, however, to become a sister-in-law of a daughter of Diane de +Poitiers and remained one of the most dangerous and persistent enemies +of the Guises. He married in December 1548 Anne of Este, daughter of +Ercole II., duke of Ferrara, and through her mother Renée, a +granddaughter of Louis XII. of France. In the same year he had put down +a peasant rising in Saintonge with a humanity that compared very +favourably with the cruelty shown by Montmorency to the town of +Bordeaux. He made preparations in Lorraine for the king's German +campaign of 1551-52. He was already governor of Dauphiné, and now became +grand chamberlain, prince of Joinville, and hereditary seneschal of +Champagne, with large additions to his already considerable revenues. He +was charged with the defence of Metz, which Henry II. had entered in +1551. He reached the city in August 1552, and rapidly gave proof of his +great powers as a soldier and organizer by the skill with which the +place, badly fortified and unprovided with artillery, was put in a state +of defence. Metz was invested by the duke of Alva in October with an +army of 60,000 men, and the emperor joined his forces in November. An +army of brigands commanded by Albert of Brandenburg had also to be +reckoned with. Charles was obliged to raise the siege on the 2nd of +January 1553, having lost, it is said, 30,000 men before the walls. +Guise used his victory with rare moderation and humanity, providing +medical care for the sick and wounded left behind in the besiegers' +camp. The subsequent operations were paralysed by the king's suspicion +and carelessness, and the constable's inactivity, and a year later Guise +was removed from the command. He followed the constable's army as a +volunteer, and routed the army of Charles V. at the siege of Renty on +the 12th of August 1554. Montmorency's inaction rendered the victory +fruitless, and a bitter controversy followed between Guise and the +constable's nephew Coligny, admiral of France, which widened a breach +already existing. + +The conclusion of a six years' truce at Vaucelles (1556) disappointed +Guise's ambitions, and he was the main mover in the breach of the treaty +in 1558, when he was sent at the head of a French army to Italy to the +assistance of Pope Paul IV. against Spain. Guise, who perhaps had in +view the restoration to his family of the Angevin dominion of Naples and +Sicily, crossed the Alps early in 1557 and after a month's delay in +Rome, where he failed to receive the promised support, marched on the +kingdom of Naples, then occupied by the Spanish troops under Alva. He +seized and sacked Campli (April 17th), but was compelled to raise the +siege of Civitella. Meanwhile the pope had veered round to a Spanish +alliance, and Guise, seeing that no honour was to be gained in the +campaign, wisely spared his troops, so that his army was almost intact +when, in August, he was hastily summoned home to repel the Spanish army +which had invaded France from the north, and had taken St Quentin. On +reaching Paris in October Guise was made lieutenant-general of the +kingdom, and proceeded to prepare for the siege of Calais. The town was +taken, after six days' fighting, on the 6th of January 1558, and this +success was followed up by the capture of Guînes, Thionville and Arlon, +when the war was ended by the treaty of Câteau Cambrésis (1559). +Although his brother, the cardinal of Lorraine, was one of the +negotiators, this peace was concluded against the wishes of Guise, and +was regarded as a triumph of the constable's party. The Guises were +provided with a weapon against Montmorency by the bishop of Arras +(afterwards Cardinal Granvella), who gave to the cardinal of Lorraine at +an interview at Péronne in 1558 an intercepted letter proving the +Huguenot leanings of the constable's nephews. + +On the accession in 1559 of Francis II., their nephew by marriage with +Mary Stuart, the royal authority was practically delegated to Guise and +the cardinal, who found themselves beyond rivalry for the time being. +They had, however, to cope with a new and dangerous force in Catherine +de' Medici, who was now for the first time free to use her political +ability. The incapacity, suspicion and cruelty of the cardinal, who +controlled the internal administration, roused the smaller nobility +against the Lorraine princes. A conspiracy to overturn their government +was formed at Nantes, with a needy Périgord nobleman named La Renaudie +as its nominal head, though the agitation had in the first instance been +fostered by the agents of Louis I., prince of Condé. The Guises were +warned of the conspiracy while the court was at Blois, and for greater +security removed the king to Amboise. La Renaudie, nothing daunted, +merely postponed his plans; and the conspirators assembled in small +parties in the woods round Amboise. They had, however, been again +betrayed and many of them were surrounded and taken before the _coup_ +could be delivered; one party, which had seized the château of Noizay, +surrendered on a promise of amnesty given "on his faith as a prince" by +James of Savoy, duke of Nemours, a promise which, in spite of the duke's +protest, was disregarded. On the 19th of March 1560, La Renaudie and +the rest of the conspirators openly attacked the château of Amboise. +They were repelled; their leader was killed; and a large number were +taken prisoners. The merciless vengeance of the Guises was the measure +of their previous fears. For a whole week the torturings, quarterings +and hangings went on, the bodies being cast into the Loire, the young +king and queen witnessing the bloody spectacle day by day from a balcony +of the château. + +The cruel repression of this "conspiracy of Amboise" inspired bitter +hatred of the Guises, since they were avenging a rising rather against +their own than the royal authority. They now entrenched themselves with +the king at Orleans, and the Bourbon princes, Anthony, king of Navarre, +and his brother Condé, were summoned to court. The Guises convened a +special commission to try Condé, who was condemned to death; but the +affair was postponed by the chancellor, and the death of Francis II. in +December saved Condé. Guise then made common cause with his old rival +Montmorency and with the Marshal de Saint André against Catherine, the +Bourbons and Coligny. This alliance, constituted on the 6th of April +1561, and known as the triumvirate, aimed at the annulment of the +concessions made by Catherine to the Huguenots. The cardinal of Lorraine +fomented the discord which appeared between the clergy of the two +religions when they met at the colloquy of Poissy in 1561, but in spite +of the extreme Catholic views he there professed, he was at the time in +communication with the Lutheran princes of Germany, and in February 1562 +met the duke of Württemberg at Zabern to discuss the possibility of a +religious compromise. + +The signal for civil war was given by an attack of Guise's escort on a +Huguenot congregation at Vassy (1st of March 1562). Although Guise did +not initiate the massacre, and although, when he learned what was going +on, he even tried to restrain his soldiers, he did not disavow their +action. When Catherine de' Medici forbade his entry into Paris, he +accepted the challenge, and on the 16th of March he entered the city, +where he was a popular hero, at the head of 2000 armed nobles. The +provost of the merchants offered to put 20,000 men and two million +livres at his disposal. In September he joined Montmorency in besieging +Rouen, which was sacked as if it had been a foreign city, in spite of +Guise's efforts to save it from the worst horrors. At the battle of +Dreux (19th of December 1562) he commanded a reserve army, with which he +saved Montmorency's forces from destruction and inflicted a crushing +defeat on the Huguenots. The prince of Condé was his prisoner, while the +capture of Montmorency by the Huguenots and the assassination of the +Marshal de Saint-André after the battle left Guise the undisputed head +of the Catholic party. He was appointed lieutenant-general of the +kingdom, and on the 5th of February 1563 he appeared with his army +before Orleans. On the 19th, however, he was shot by the Huguenot Jean +Poltrot de Méré as he was returning to his quarters, and died on the +24th of the effects of the wound. Guise's splendid presence, his +generosity and humanity and his almost unvarying success on the +battlefield made him the idol of his soldiers. He attended personally to +the minutest details, and Monluc complains that he even wrote out his +own orders. The mistakes and cruelties associated with his name were +partly due to the evil counsels of his brother Charles, the cardinal, +whose cowardice and insincerity were the scorn of his contemporaries. +The negotiations of the Guises with Spain dated from the interview with +Granvella at Péronne, in 1558, and after the death of his brother the +cardinal of Lorraine was constantly in communication with the Spanish +court, offering, in the event of the failure of direct heirs to the +Valois kings, to deliver up the frontier fortresses and to acknowledge +Philip II. as king of France. His death in 1574 temporarily weakened the +extreme Catholic party. + + Of the children of Francis "le Balafré" five survived him: Henry, 3rd + duke of Guise; Charles, duke of Mayenne (1554-1611) (q.v.), who + consolidated the League; Catherine (1552-1596), who married Louis of + Bourbon, duke of Montpensier, and encouraged the fanaticism of the + Parisian leaguers; Louis, second cardinal of Guise, afterwards of + Lorraine (1555-1588), who was assassinated with his brother Henry; and + Francis (1558-1573). + +HENRY OF LORRAINE, 3rd duke of Guise (1550-1588), born on the 31st of +December 1550, was thirteen years old at the time of his father's death, +and grew up under the domination of a passionate desire for revenge. +Catherine de' Medici refused to take steps against Coligny, who was +formally accused by the duchess of Guise and her brothers-in-law of +having incited the murder. In 1566 she insisted on a formal +reconciliation at Moulins between the Guises and Coligny, at which, +however, none of the sons of the murdered man was present. Henry and his +brothers were, however, compelled in 1572 to sign an ambiguous assent to +this agreement. Guise's widow married James of Savoy, duke of Nemours, +and the young duke at sixteen went to fight against the Turks in +Hungary. On the fresh outbreak of civil war in 1567 he returned to +France and served under his uncle Aumale. In the autumn of 1568 he +received a considerable command, and speedily came into rivalry with +Henry of Valois, duke of Anjou. He had not inherited his father's +generalship, and his rashness and headstrong valour more than once +brought disaster on his troops, but the showy quality of his fighting +brought him great popularity in the army. In the defence of Poitiers in +1569 with his brother, the duke of Mayenne, he showed more solid +abilities as a soldier. On the conclusion of peace in 1570 he returned +to court, where he made no secret of his attachment to Margaret of +Valois. His pretensions were violently resented by her brothers, who +threatened his life, and he saved himself by a precipitate marriage with +Catherine of Cleves (daughter of Francis of Cleves, duke of Nevers, and +Margaret of Bourbon), the widow of a Huguenot nobleman, Antoine de Crog, +prince of Porcien. Presently he ended his disgrace by an apparent +reconciliation with Henry of Valois and an alliance with Catherine de' +Medici. He was an accomplice in the first attack on Coligny's life, and +when permission for the massacre of Saint Bartholomew had been extorted +from Charles IX. he roused Paris against the Huguenots, and satisfied +his personal vengeance by superintending the murder of Coligny. He was +now the acknowledged chief of the Catholic party, and the power of his +family was further increased by the marriage (1575) of Henry III. with +Louise of Vaudémont, who belonged to the elder branch of the house of +Lorraine. In a fight at Dormans (10th of October 1575), the only +Catholic victory in a disastrous campaign, Guise received a face wound +which won for him his father's name of Balafré and helped to secure the +passionate attachment of the Parisians. He refused to acquiesce in the +treaty of Beaulieu (5th of May 1576), and with the support of the +Jesuits proceeded to form a "holy league" for the defence of the Roman +Catholic Church. The terms of enrolment enjoined offensive action +against all who refused to join. This association had been preceded by +various provincial leagues among the Catholics, notably one at Péronne. +Condé had been imposed on this town as governor by the terms of the +peace, and the local nobility banded together to resist him. This, like +the Holy League itself, was political as well as religious in its aims, +and was partly inspired by revolt against the royal authority. In the +direction of the League Guise was hampered by Philip of Spain, who +subsidized the movement, while he also had to submit to the dictation of +the Parisian democracy. Ulterior ambitions were freely ascribed to him. +It was asserted that papers seized from his envoy to Rome, Jean David, +revealed a definite design of substituting the Lorraines, who +represented themselves as the successors of Charlemagne, for the Valois; +but these papers were probably a Huguenot forgery. Henry III. eventually +placed himself at the head of the League, and resumed the war against +the Huguenots; but on the conclusion of peace (September 1577) he seized +the opportunity of disbanding the Catholic associations. The king's +jealousy of Guise increased with the duke's popularity, but he did not +venture on an open attack, nor did he dare to avenge the murder by +Guise's partisans of one of his personal favourites, Saint-Mégrin, who +had been set on by the court to compromise the reputation of the duchess +of Guise.[1] + +Meanwhile the duke had entered on an equivocal alliance with Don John of +Austria. He was also in constant correspondence with Mary of Lorraine, +and meditated a descent on Scotland in support of the Catholic cause. +But the great riches of the Guises were being rapidly dissipated, and in +1578 the duke became a pensioner of Philip II. When in 1584 the death of +the duke of Anjou made Henry of Navarre the next heir to the throne, the +prospect of a Huguenot dynasty roused the Catholics to forget their +differences, and led to the formation of a new league of the Catholic +nobles. At the end of the same year Guise and his brother, the duke of +Mayenne, with the assent of other Catholic nobles, signed a treaty at +Joinville with Philip II., fixing the succession to the crown on +Charles, cardinal of Bourbon, to the exclusion of the Protestant princes +of his house. In March 1585 the chiefs of the League issued the +Declaration of Péronne, exposing their grievances against the government +and announcing their intention to restore the dignity of religion by +force of arms. On the refusal of Henry III. to accept Spanish help +against his Huguenot subjects, war broke out. The chief cities of France +declared for the League, and Guise, who had recruited his forces in +Germany and Switzerland, took up his headquarters at Châlons, while +Mayenne occupied Dijon, and his relatives, the dukes of Elbeuf, Aumale +and Mercoeur,[2] roused Normandy and Brittany. Henry III. accepted, or +feigned to accept, the terms imposed by the Guises at Nemours (7th of +July 1585). The edicts in favour of the Huguenots were immediately +revoked. Guise added to his reputation as the Catholic champion by +defeating the German auxiliaries of the Huguenots at Vimory (October +1587) and Auneau (November 1587). The protestations of loyalty to Henry +III. which had marked the earlier manifestoes of the League were +modified. Obedience to the king was now stated to depend on his giving +proof of Catholic zeal and showing no favour to heresy. In April 1588 +Guise arrived in Paris, where he put himself at the head of the Parisian +mob, and on the 12th of May, known as the Day of the Barricades, he +actually had the crown within his grasp. He refused to treat with +Catherine de' Medici, who was prepared to make peace at any cost, but +restrained the populace from revolution and permitted Henry to escape +from Paris. Henry came to terms with the League in May, and made Guise +lieutenant-general of the royal armies. The estates-general, which were +assembled at Blois, were devoted to the Guise interest, and alarmed the +king by giving voice to the political as well as the religious +aspirations of the League. Guise remained at the court of Blois after +receiving repeated warnings that Henry meditated treason. On the 25th of +December he was summoned to the king's chamber during a sitting of the +royal council, and was murdered by assassins carefully posted by Henry +III. himself. The cardinal of Lorraine was murdered in prison on the +next day. The history of the Guises thenceforward centres in the duke of +Mayenne (q.v.). + + By his wife, Catherine of Cleves, the third duke had fourteen + children: among them Charles, 4th duke of Guise (1571-1640); Claude, + duke of Chevreuse (1578-1657), whose wife, Marie de Rohan, duchess of + Chevreuse, became famous for her intrigues; Louis (1585-1621), 3rd + cardinal of Guise, archbishop of Reims, remembered for his liaison + with Charlotte des Essarts, mistress of Henry IV. + +CHARLES, 4th duke of Guise (1571-1640), was imprisoned for three years +after his father's death. He married Henriette Catherine de Joyeuse, +widow of the duke of Montpensier. His eldest son predeceased him, and he +was succeeded by his second son HENRY (1614-1664), who had been +archbishop of Reims, but renounced the ecclesiastical estate and became +5th duke. He made an attempt (1647) on the crown of Naples, and was a +prisoner in Spain from 1648 to 1652. A second expedition to Naples in +1654 was a fiasco. He was succeeded by his nephew, LOUIS JOSEPH +(1650-1671), as 6th duke. With his son, FRANCIS JOSEPH (1670-1675), the +line failed; and the title and estates passed to his great-aunt, Marie +of Lorraine, duchess of Guise (1615-1688), daughter of the 4th duke, and +with her the title became extinct. The title is now vested in the family +of the Bourbon-Orleans princes. + + +GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF GUISE + + René II. (who united the two branches of the house of Lorraine), duke + of Lorraine, and Philippa of Gelderland, had (besides two older boys + who died in childhood, and four unmarried daughters) + + | + +--------------+--------------+------+-----+------------+-----------+ + | | | | | | + Antoine, Claude, John, Ferri, Louis, Francis, + duke of 1st duke of 1st cardinal killed at killed at killed at + Lorraine, Guise, of Lorraine. Marignano. Naples. Pavia. + +1544, +1550, + ancestor of = Antoinette + the dukes of of Bourbon. + Lorraine and the | + house of Mercoeur. | + | + +--------------+------------+-------------+------------+----------+------------+---------+ + | | | | | | | | + Francis, Charles, Claude, Louis, Francis, René, Marie = And + 2nd duke of 2nd cardinal marquis of 1st cardinal grand marquis (1) duke of five + Guise, of Lorraine, Mayenne and of Guise, prior. of Elbeuf, Longueville, others. + +1563. +1574. and duke of +1578 +1566. (2) James V. + = Anne of Aumale, | of Scotland. + Este. +1573. | | + | = Louise de Brézé. | Mary Stuart, + | | | queen of + | Charles, Charles, Scots. + | duke of Aumale, duke of Elbeuf, + | +1631. +1605. + | + +----+-------------+-------------+----------------+-------------------+ + | | | | | + Henry, Charles, Louis, Catherine = And five others. + 3rd duke, duke of 2nd cardinal Louis de Bourbon, + +1588 Mayenne, of Guise, duke of + =Catherine +1611. +1588. Montpensier. + of Cleves | + (and had | + 14 children). | + | Henry, + | duke of Mayenne, + | +1621. + | + ---+--------------------+-------------------------+---------------------+ + | | | | + Charles, Claude, Louis, And eleven more. + 4th duke of Guise, duke of Chevreuse, 3rd cardinal of Guise, + +1640. = Marie de Rohan, +1621. + | widow of the duke of Luynes. + | + +------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+ + | | | | + Henry, Marie, Louis, And eight + archbishop of Reims, called Mlle. de Guise, chevalier of Guise and more. + and 5th duke, succeeded to the duchy duke of Joyeuse, + +1664. in 1675 and sold her +1654. + rights to Louis Augustus, | + duke of Maine. Louis-Joseph, + 6th duke of Guise, + +1671. + | + Francis-Joseph, + 7th and last duke of Guise, + +1675. + + AUTHORITIES.--A number of contemporary documents relating to the + Guises are included by L. Cimber and F. Danjou in their _Archives + curieuses de l'histoire de France_ (Paris, 1834, &c.). Vol. iii. + contains a soldier's diary of the siege of Metz, first published in + Italian (Lyons, 1553), accounts of the sieges of Calais (Tours, 1558). + of Thionville (Paris, 1558); vol. iv. an account of the tumult of + Amboise from the _Mémoires_ of Condé, and four accounts of the affair + of Vassy; vol. v. four accounts of the battle of Dreux, one dictated + by Guise, and accounts of the murder of Guise; vol. xi. accounts of + the Parisian revolution of 1558; and vol. xii. numerous pamphlets and + pieces dealing with the murder of Henry of Guise and his brother. An + account of the murder of Guise and of the subsequent measures taken by + Mayenne, which was supplied by the Venetian ambassador, G. Mocenigo, + to his government, is printed by H. Brown in the _Eng. Hist. Rev._ + (April 1895). For the foreign policy of the Guises, and especially + their relations with Scotland, there is abundant material in the + English _Calendar of State Papers_ of Queen Elizabeth (Foreign Series) + and in the correspondence of Cardinal Granvella. The memoirs of + Francis, duke of Guise, covering the years 1547 to 1563, were + published by Michel and Poujoulat in series 1, vol. iv. of their + _Coll. de mémoires_. Among contemporary memoirs see especially those + of the prince of Condé, of Blaise de Monluc and of Gaspard de + Saulx-Tavannes. See also _La Vie de F. de Lorraine, duc de Guise_ + (Paris, 1681), by J. B. H. du Trousset de Valincourt; A. de Ruble, + _L'Assassinat de F. de Lorraine, duc de Guise_ (1897), where there is + a list of the MS. sources available for a history of the house; R. de + Bouillé, _Hist. des ducs de Guise_ (4 vols., 1849); H. Forneron, _Les + Guise et leur époque_ (2 vols., 1887). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] This incident supplied Alexandre Dumas _père_ with the subject of + his _Henri III et sa cour_ (1829). + + [2] Philippe-Emmanuel of Lorraine, duke of Mercoeur, a cadet of + Lorraine and brother of Louise de Vaudémont, Henry III.'s queen. His + wife, Mary of Luxemburg, descended from the dukes of Brittany, and he + was made governor of the province in 1582. He aspired to separate + sovereignty, and called his son prince and duke of Brittany. + + + + +GUITAR (Fr. _guitarre_, Ger. _Guitarre_, Ital. _chitarra_, Span. +_guitarra_), a musical instrument strung with gut strings twanged by the +fingers, having a body with a flat back and graceful incurvations in +complete contrast to the members of the family of lute (i.e.), whose +back is vaulted. The construction of the instrument is of paramount +importance in assigning to the guitar its true position in the history +of musical instruments, midway between the cithara (i.e.) and the +violin. The medieval stringed instruments with neck fall into two +classes, characterized mainly by the construction of the body: (1) Those +which, like their archetype the cithara, had a body composed of a flat +or delicately arched back and soundboard joined by ribs. (2) Those +which, like the lyre, had a body consisting of a vaulted back over which +was glued a flat soundboard without the intermediary of ribs; this +method of construction predominates among Oriental Instruments and is +greatly inferior to the first. A striking proof of this inferiority is +afforded by the fact that instruments with vaulted backs, such as the +rebab or rebec, although extensively represented during the middle ages +in all parts of Europe by numerous types, have shown but little or no +development during the course of some twelve centuries, and have dropped +out one by one from the realm of practical music without leaving a +single survivor. The guitar must be referred to the first of these +classes. + +[Illustration: Notation.] + +[Illustration: Real Sounds.] + +The back and ribs of the guitar are of maple, ash or cherry-wood, +frequently inlaid with rose-wood, mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell, &c., +while the soundboard is of pine and has one large ornamental rose sound +hole. The bridge, to which the strings are fastened, is of ebony with an +ivory nut which determines the one end of the vibrating strings, while +the nut at the end of the fingerboard determines the other. The neck and +fingerboard are made of hard wood, such as ebony, beech or pear. The +head, bent back from the neck at an obtuse angle contains two parallel +barrels or long holes through which the pegs or metal screws pass, three +on each side of the head. The correct positions for stopping the +intervals are marked on the fingerboard by little metal ridges called +frets. The modern guitar has six strings, three of gut and three of silk +covered with silver wire, tuned as shown. To the thumb are assigned the +three deepest strings, while the first, second and third fingers are +used to twang the highest strings. It is generally stated that the sixth +or lowest string was added in 1790 by Jacob August Otto of Jena, who was +the first in Germany to take up the construction of guitars after their +introduction from Italy in 1788 by the duchess Amalie of Weimar. Otto[1] +states that it was Capellmeister Naumann of Dresden who requested him to +make him a guitar with six strings by adding the low E, a spun wire +string. The original guitar brought from Italy by the duchess Amalie had +five strings,[2] the lowest A being the only one covered with wire. Otto +also covered the D in order to increase the fulness of the tone. In +Spain six-stringed guitars and vihuelas were known in the 16th century; +they are described by Juan Bermudo[3] and others.[4] The lowest string +was tuned to G. Other Spanish guitars of the same period had four, five +or seven strings or courses of strings in pairs of unisons. They were +always twanged by the fingers. + +[Illustration: From Juan Bermudo. + +FIG. 1.--Spanish Guitar with seven Strings. 1555. _Vihuela da Mano_.] + + The guitar is derived from the cithara[5] both structurally and + etymologically. It is usually asserted that the guitar was introduced + into Spain by the Arabs, but this statement is open to the gravest + doubts. There is no trace among the instruments of the Arabs known to + us of any similar to the guitar in construction or shape, although a + guitar (fig. 2) with slight incurvations was known to the ancient + Egyptians.[6] There is also extant a fine example of the guitar, with + ribs and incurvations and a long neck provided with numerous frets, on + a Hittite bas-relief on the dromos at Euyuk (_c_. 1000 B.C.) in + Cappadocia.[7] Unless other monuments of much later date should come + to light showing guitars with ribs, we shall be justified in assuming + that the instrument, which required skill in construction, died out in + Egypt and in Asia before the days of classic Greece, and had to be + evolved anew from the cithara by the Greeks of Asia Minor. That the + evolution should take place within the Byzantine Empire or in Syria + would be quite consistent with the traditions of the Greeks and their + veneration for the cithara, which would lead them to adapt the neck + and other improvements to it, rather than adopt the rebab, the tanbur + or the barbiton from the Persians or Arabians. This is, in fact, what + seems to have taken place. It is true that in the 14th century in an + enumeration of musical instruments by the Archipreste de Hita, a + _guitarra morisca_ is mentioned and unfavourably compared with the + _guitarra latina_; moreover, the Arabs of the present day still use an + instrument called _kuitra_ (which in N. Africa would be guithara), but + it has a vaulted back, the body being like half a pear with a long + neck; the strings are twanged by means of a quill. The Arab instrument + therefore belongs to a different class, and to admit the instrument as + the ancestor of the Spanish guitar would be tantamount to deriving the + guitar from the lute.[8] + + By piecing together various indications given by Spanish writers, we + obtain a clue to the identity of the medieval instruments, which, in + the absence of absolute proof, is entitled to serious consideration. + From Bermudo's work, quoted above, we learn that the guitar and the + _vihuela da mano_ were practically identical, differing only in + accordance and occasionally in the number of strings.[9] Three kinds + of vihuelas were known in Spain during the middle ages, distinguished + by the qualifying phrases _da arco_ (with bow), _da mano_ (by hand), + _da penola_ (with quill). Spanish scholars[10] who have inquired into + this question of identity state that the _guitarra latina_ was + afterwards known as the _vihuela da mano_, a statement fully supported + by other evidence. As the Arab _kuitra_ was known to be played by + means of a quill, we shall not be far wrong in identifying it with the + _vihuela da penola_. The word _vihuela_ or _vigola_ is connected with + the Latin _fidicula_ or _fides_, a stringed instrument mentioned by + Cicero[11] as being made from the wood of the plane-tree and having + many strings. The remaining link in the chain of identification is + afforded by St Isidore, bishop of Seville in the 7th century, who + states that fidicula was another name for cithara, "Veteres aut + citharas fidicula vel fidice nominaverunt."[12] The fidicula therefore + was the cithara, either in its original classical form or in one of + the transitions which transformed it into the guitar. The existence of + a superior _guitarra latina_ side by side with the _guitarra morisca_ + is thus explained. It was derived directly from the classical cithara + introduced by the Romans into Spain, the archetype of the structural + beauty which formed the basis of the perfect proportions and delicate + structure of the violin. In an inventory[13] made by Philip van Wilder + of the musical instruments which had belonged to Henry VIII. is the + following item bearing on the question: "foure gitterons with iiii. + cases _they are called Spanishe Vialles_." _Vial_ or _viol_ was the + English equivalent of _vihuela_. The transitions whereby the cithara + acquired a neck and became a guitar are shown in the miniatures (fig. + 3) of a single MS., the celebrated Utrecht Psalter, which gave rise to + so many discussions. The Utrecht Psalter was executed in the diocese + of Reims in the 9th century, and the miniatures, drawn by an + Anglo-Saxon artist attached to the Reims school, are unique, and + illustrate the Psalter, psalm by psalm. It is evident that the + Anglo-Saxon artist, while endowed with extraordinary talent and vivid + imagination, drew his inspiration from an older Greek illustrated + Psalter from the Christian East,[14] where the evolution of the guitar + took place. + + [Illustration: From Denon's _Voyage in Egypt_. + + FIG. 2.--Ancient Egyptian Guitar. 1700 to 1200 B.C.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Instrumentalists from the Utrecht Psalter, 9th + century: (a) The bass rotta, first transition of cithara in (C); + (b, c, d), Transitions showing the addition of neck to the body of + the cithara.] + + [Illustration: From Dr H. Janitschek's _Geschichte der deutschen + Malerei_. + + FIG. 4.--Representation of a European Guitar. A.D. 1180.] + + One of the earliest representations (fig. 4) of a guitar in Western + Europe occurs in a Passionale from Zwifalten A.D. 1180, now in the + Royal Library at Stuttgart.[15] St Pelagia seated on an ass holds a + rotta, or cithara in transition, while one of the men-servants leading + her ass holds her guitar. Both instruments have three strings and the + characteristic guitar outline with incurvations, the rotta differing + in having no neck. Mersenne[16] writing early in the 17th century + describes and figures two Spanish guitars, one with four, the other + with five strings; the former had a cittern head, the latter the + straight head bent back at an obtuse angle from the neck, as in the + modern instrument; he gives the Italian, French and Spanish tablatures + which would seem to show that the guitar already enjoyed a certain + vogue in France and Italy as well as in Spain. Mersenne states that + the proportions of the guitar demand that the length of the neck from + shoulder to nut shall be equal to the length of the body from the + centre of the rose to the tail end. From this time until the middle of + the 19th century the guitar enjoyed great popularity on the continent, + and became the fashionable instrument in England after the Peninsular + War, mainly through the virtuosity of Ferdinand Sor, who also wrote + compositions for it. This popularity of the guitar was due less to its + merits as a solo instrument than to the ease with which it could be + mastered sufficiently to accompany the voice. The advent of the + Spanish guitar in England led to the wane in the popularity of the + cittern, also known at that time in contradistinction as the English + or wire-strung guitar, although the two instruments differed in many + particulars. As further evidence of the great popularity of the guitar + all over Europe may be instanced the extraordinary number of books + extant on the instrument, giving instructions how to play the guitar + and read the tablature.[17] (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Über den Bau der Bogeninstrumente_ (Jena, 1828), pp. 94 and 95. + + [2] See Pietro Millioni, _Vero e facil modo d' imparare a sonare et + accordare da se medesimo la chitarra spagnola_, with illustration + (Rome, 1637). + + [3] _Declaracion de instrumentos musicales_ (Ossuna, 1555), fol. + xciii. _b_ and fol. xci. _a_. See also illustration of _vihuela da + mano_. + + [4] See also G. G. Kapsperger, _Libro primo di Villanelle con l' + infavolutura del chitarone et alfabeto per la chitarra spagnola_ + (three books, Rome, 1610-1623). + + [5] See Kathleen Schlesinger, _The Instruments of the Orchestra_, + part ii. "Precursors of the Violin Family," pp. 230-248. + + [6] See Denon's _Voyage in Egypt_ (London, 1807, pl. 55). + + [7] Illustrated from a drawing in Perrot and Chipiez, "Judée + Sardaigne, Syrie, Cappadoce." Vol. iv. of _Hist. de l'art dans + l'antiquité_, Paris, 1887, p. 670. Also see plate from a photograph + by Prof. John Garstang, in Kathleen Schlesinger, _op. cit._ + + [8] See Biernath, _Die Guitarre_ (1908). + + [9] See also Luys Milan, _Libro de musica de vihuela da mano, + Intitulado Il Maestro_, where the accordance is D, G, C, E, A, D from + bass to treble. + + [10] Mariano Soriano, _Fuertes Historia de la musica española_ + (Madrid, 1855), i. 105, and iv. 208, &c. + + [11] _De natura deorum_, ii. 8, 22. + + [12] See _Etymologiarium_, lib. iii., cap. 21. + + [13] See British Museum, Harleian MS. 1419, fol. 200. + + [14] The literature of the Utrecht Psalter embraces a large number of + books and pamphlets in many languages of which the principal are here + given: Professor J. O. Westwood, _Facsimiles of the Miniatures and + Ornaments of Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS._ (London, 1868); Sir Thos. + Duffus-Hardy, _Report on the Athanasian Creed in connection with the + Utrecht Psalter_ (London, 1872); _Report on the Utrecht Psalter_, + addressed to the Trustees of the British Museum (London, 1874); Sir + Thomas Duffus-Hardy, _Further Report on the Utrecht Psalter_ (London, + 1874); Walter de Gray Birch, _The History, Art and Palaeography of + the MS. styled the Utrecht Psalter_ (London, 1876); Anton Springer, + "Die Psalterillustrationen im frühen Mittelalter mit besonderer + Rücksicht auf den Utrecht Psalter," _Abhandlungen der kgl. sächs. + Ges. d. Wissenschaften, phil.-hist. Klasse_, Bd. viii. pp. 187-296, + with 10 facsimile plates in autotype from the MS.; Adolf Goldschmidt, + "Der Utrecht Psalter," in _Repertorium für Kunstwissenschaft_, Bd. + xv. (Stuttgart, 1892), pp. 156-166; Franz Friedrich Leitschuh, + _Geschichte der karolingischen Malerei, ihr Bilderkreis und seine + Quellen_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 321-330; Adolf Goldschmidt, _Der Albani + Psalter in Hildesheim_, &c. (Berlin, 1895); Paul Durrieu, _L'Origine + du MS. célèbre dit le Psaultier d'Utrecht_ (Paris, 1895); Hans + Graeven, "Die Vorlage des Utrecht Psalters," paper read before the + XI. International Oriental Congress, Paris, 1897. See also + _Repertorium für Kunstwissenschaft_ (Stuttgart, 1898), Bd. xxi. pp. + 28-35; J. J. Tikkanen, _Abendländische Psalter-Illustration im + Mittelalter_, part iii. "Der Utrecht Psalter" (Helsingfors, 1900), + 320 pp. and 77 ills. (Professor Tikkanen now accepts the Greek or + Syrian origin of the Utrecht Psalter); Georg Swarzenski, "Die + karolingische Malerei und Plastik in Reims." in _Jahrbuch d. kgl. + preussischen Kunstsammlungen_, Bd. xxiii. (Berlin, 1902), pp. 81-100; + Ormonde M. Dalton, "The Crystal of Lothair," in _Archäologie_, vol. + lix. (1904); Kathleen Schlesinger, _The Instruments of the + Orchestra_, part ii. "The Precursors of the Violin Family," chap. + viii. "The Question of the Origin of the Utrecht Psalter," pp. + 352-382 (with illustrations), where all the foregoing are summarized. + + [15] Reproduced in Hubert Janitschek's _Geschichte der deutschen + Malerei_, Bd. iii. of _Gesch. der deutschen Kunst_ (Berlin, 1890), p. + 118. + + [16] _Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636), livre ii. prop. xiv. + + [17] See C. F. Becker, _Darstellung der musik. Literatur_ (Leipzig, + 1836); and Wilhelm Tappert, "Zur Geschichte der Guitarre," in + _Monatshefte für Musikgeschichte_ (Berlin, 1882), No. 5. pp. 77-85. + + + + +GUITAR FIDDLE (_Troubadour Fiddle_), a modern name bestowed +retrospectively upon certain precursors of the violin possessing +characteristics of both guitar and fiddle. The name "guitar fiddle" is +intended to emphasize the fact that the instrument in the shape of the +guitar, which during the middle ages represented the most perfect +principle of construction for stringed instruments with necks, adopted +at a certain period the use of the bow from instruments of a less +perfect type, the rebab and its hybrids. The use of the bow with the +guitar entailed certain constructive changes in the instrument: the +large central rose sound-hole was replaced by lateral holes of various +shapes; the flat bridge, suitable for instruments whose strings were +plucked, gave place to the arched bridge required in order to enable the +bow to vibrate each string separately; the arched bridge, by raising the +strings higher above the soundboard, made the stopping of strings on the +neck extremely difficult if not impossible; this matter was adjusted by +the addition of a finger-board of suitable shape and dimensions (fig. +1). At this stage the guitar fiddle possesses the essential features of +the violin, and may justly claim to be its immediate predecessor[1] not +so much through the viols which were the outcome of the Minnesinger +fiddle with sloping shoulders, as through the intermediary of the +Italian _lyra_, a guitar-shaped bowed instrument with from 7 to 12 +strings. + +[Illustration: From Ruhlmann's _Geschichte der Bogeninstrumente_. + +FIG. 1.--Typical Alto Guitar Fiddle, 15th century (Pinakothek, Munich).] + + From such evidence as we now possess, it would seem that the evolution + of the early guitar with a neck from the Greek cithara took place + under Greek influence in the Christian East. The various stages of + this transition have been definitely established by the remarkable + miniatures of the Utrecht Psalter.[2] Two kinds of citharas are shown: + the antique rectangular,[3] and the later design with rounded body + having at the point where the arms are added indications of the waist + or incurvations characteristic of the outline of the Spanish + guitar.[4] The first stage in the transition is shown by a cithara or + rotta[5] in which arms and transverse bar are replaced by a kind of + frame repeating the outline of the body and thus completing the second + lobe of the Spanish guitar. The next stages in the transition are + concerned with the addition of a neck[6] and of frets.[7] All these + instruments are twanged by the fingers. One may conclude that the use + of the bow was either unknown at this time (c. 6th century A.D.), or + that it was still confined to instruments of the rebab type. The + earliest known representation of a guitar fiddle complete with bow[8] + (fig. 2) occurs in a Greek Psalter written and illuminated in Caesarea + by the archpriest Theodorus in 1066 (British Museum, Add. MS. 19352). + Instances of perfect guitar fiddles abound in the 13th century MSS. + and monuments, as for instance in a picture by Cimabue (1240-1302). in + the Pitti Gallery in Florence.[9] + + [Illustration: From a Byzantine MS. in the British Museum. + + FIG. 2.--Earliest example of the Guitar Fiddle. A.D. 1066.] + + An evolution on parallel lines appears also to have taken place from + the antique rectangular cithara[10] of the _citharoedes_, which was a + favourite in Romano-Christian art.[11] In this case examples + illustrative of the transitions are found represented in great variety + in Europe. The old German rotta[12] of the 6th century preserved in + the Völker Museum, Berlin, and the instruments played by King David in + two early Anglo-Saxon illuminated MSS., one a Psalter (Cotton MS. + Vesp. A. i. British Museum) finished in A.D. 700, the other "A + Commentary on the Psalms by Cassiodorus _manu Bedae_" of the 8th + century preserved in the Cathedral Library at Durham[13] form examples + of the first stage of transition. From such types as these the + rectangular _crwth_ or crowd was evolved by the addition of a + finger-board and the reduction in the number of strings, which follows + as a natural consequence as soon as an extended compass can be + obtained by stopping the strings. By the addition of a neck we obtain + the clue to the origin of rectangular citterns with rounded corners + and of certain instruments played with the bow whose bodies or + sound-chests have an outline based upon the rectangle with various + modifications. We may not look upon this type of guitar fiddle as due + entirely to western or southern European initiative; its origin like + that of the type approximating to the violin is evidently Byzantine. + It is found among the frescoes which cover walls and barrel vaults in + the palace of Kosseir 'Amra,[14] believed to be that of Caliph Walid + II. (A.D. 744) of the Omayyad dynasty, or of Prince Ahmad, the + Abbasid (862-866). The instrument, a cittern with four strings, is + being played by a bear. Other examples occur in the Stuttgart + Carolingian Psalter[15] (10th century); in MS. 1260 (Bibl. Imp. Paris) + _Tristan and Yseult_; as guitar fiddle in the Liber Regalis preserved + in Westminster Abbey (14th century); in the Sforza Book[16] + (1444-1476), the Book of Hours executed for Bona of Savoy, wife of + Galeazzo Maria Sforza; on one of the carvings of the 13th century in + the Cathedral of Amiens. It has also been painted by Italian artists + of the 15th and 16th centuries. (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See "The Precursors of the Violin Family," by Kathleen + Schlesinger, part ii. of _An Illustrated Handbook on the Instruments + of the Orchestra_ (London, 1908), chs. ii. and x. + + [2] See Kathleen Schlesinger, _op. cit._ part ii., the "Utrecht + Psalter," pp. 127-135, and the "Question of the Origin of the Utrecht + Psalter," pp. 136-166, where the subject is discussed and + illustrated. + + [3] _Idem_, see pl. vi. (2) to the right centre. + + [4] _Idem_, see pl. iii. centre and figs. 118 and 119. + + [5] _Idem_, see fig. 117, p. 341, and figs. 172 and 116. + + [6] _Idem_, see fig. 121, p. 246, figs. 122, 123, 125 and 126 pl. + iii. vi. (1) and (2). + + [7] _Idem_, see fig. 126, p. 350, and pl. iii. right centre. + + [8] _Idem_, see fig. 173, p. 448. + + [9] _Idem_, see fig. 205, p. 480. + + [10] See _Museo Pio Clementino_, by Visconti (Milan, 1818). + + [11] See for example _Georgics_, iv. 471-475 in the Vatican Virgil + (Cod. 3225), in facsimile (Rome, 1899) (British Museum press-mark 8, + tab. f. vol. ii.). + + [12] This rotta was found in an Alamannic tomb of the 4th to the 7th + centuries at Oberflacht in the Black Forest. A facsimile is preserved + in the collection of the Kgl. Hochschule, Berlin, illustrations in + "Grabfunde am Berge Lupfen bei Oberflacht, 1846," _Jahresberichte d. + Württemb. Altertums-Vereins_, iii. (Stuttgart, 1846), tab. viii. also + Kathleen Schlesinger, _op. cit._ part ii. fig. 168 (drawing from the + facsimile). + + [13] Reproductions of both miniatures are to be found in Professor J. + O. Westwood's _Facsimiles of the Miniatures and Ornaments of + Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS._ (London, 1868). + + [14] An illustration occurs in the fine publication of the Austrian + Academy of Sciences, _Kusejr 'Amra_ (Vienna, 1907, pl. xxxiv.). + + [15] See reproduction of some of the miniatures in Jacob and H. von + Hefner-Alteneck, _Trachten des christlichen Mittelalters_ (Darmstadt. + 1840-1854, 3 vols.), and in _Trachten, Kunstwerke und Gerätschaften + vom frühen Mittelalter_ (Frankfort-on-Main, 1879-1890), + + [16] Add. MS. 34294, British Museum, vol. ii. fol. 83, 161, vol. iii. + fol. 402, vol. iv. fols. 534 and 667. + + + + +GUITRY, LUCIEN GERMAIN (1860- ), French actor, was born in Paris. He +became prominent on the French stage at the Porte Saint-Martin theatre +in 1900, and the Variétés in 1901, and then became a member of the +Comédie Française, but he resigned very soon in order to become director +of the Renaissance, where he was principally associated with the actress +Marthe Brandès, who had also left the Comédie. Here he established his +reputation, in a number of plays, as the greatest contemporary French +actor in the drama of modern reality. + + + + +GUIZOT, FRANÇOIS PIERRE GUILLAUME (1787-1874), historian, orator and +statesman, was born at Nîmes on the 4th of October 1787, of an +honourable Protestant family belonging to the _bourgeoisie_ of that +city. It is characteristic of the cruel disabilities which still weighed +upon the Protestants of France before the Revolution, that his parents, +at the time of their union, could not be publicly or legally married by +their own pastors, and that the ceremony was clandestine. The liberal +opinions of his family did not, however, save it from the sanguinary +intolerance of the Reign of Terror, and on the 8th April 1794 his father +perished at Nîmes upon the scaffold. Thenceforth the education of the +future minister devolved entirely upon his mother, a woman of slight +appearance and of homely manners, but endowed with great strength of +character and clearness of judgment. Madame Guizot was a living type of +the Huguenots of the 16th century, stern in her principles and her +faith, immovable in her convictions and her sense of duty. She formed +the character of her illustrious son and shared every vicissitude of his +life. In the days of his power her simple figure, always clad in deep +mourning for her martyred husband, was not absent from the splendid +circle of his political friends. In the days of his exile in 1848 she +followed him to London, and there at a very advanced age closed her life +and was buried at Kensal Green. Driven from Nîmes by the Revolution, +Madame Guizot and her son repaired to Geneva, where he received his +education. In spite of her decided Calvinistic opinions, the theories of +Rousseau, then much in fashion, were not without their influence on +Madame Guizot. She was a strong Liberal, and she even adopted the notion +inculcated in the _Émile_ that every man ought to learn a manual trade +or craft. Young Guizot was taught to be a carpenter, and he so far +succeeded in his work that he made a table with his own hands, which is +still preserved. Of the progress of his graver studies little is known, +for in the work which he entitled _Memoirs of my own Times_ Guizot +omitted all personal details of his earlier life. But his literary +attainments must have been precocious and considerable, for when he +arrived in Paris in 1805 to pursue his studies in the faculty of laws, +he entered at eighteen as tutor into the family of M. Stapfer, formerly +Swiss minister in France, and he soon began to write in a journal edited +by M. Suard, the _Publiciste_. This connexion introduced him to the +literary society of Paris. In October 1809, being then twenty-two, he +wrote a review of M. de Chateaubriand's _Martyrs_, which procured for +him the approbation and cordial thanks of that eminent person, and he +continued to contribute largely to the periodical press. At Suard's he +had made the acquaintance of Pauline Meulan, an accomplished lady of +good family, some fourteen years older than himself, who had been forced +by the hardships of the Revolution to earn her living by literature, and +who also was engaged to contribute a series of articles to Suard's +journal. These contributions were interrupted by her illness, but +immediately resumed and continued by an unknown hand. It was discovered +that François Guizot had quietly supplied the deficiency on her behalf. +The acquaintance thus begun ripened into friendship and love, and in +1812 Mademoiselle de Meulan consented to marry her youthful ally. She +died in 1827; she was the author of many esteemed works on female +education. An only son, born in 1819, died in 1837 of consumption. In +1828 Guizot married Elisa Dillon, niece of his first wife, and also an +author. She died in 1833, leaving a son, Maurice Guillaume (1833-1892), +who attained some reputation as a scholar and writer. + +During the empire, Guizot, entirely devoted to literary pursuits, +published a collection of French synonyms (1809), an essay on the fine +arts (1811), and a translation of Gibbon with additional notes in 1812. +These works recommended him to the notice of M. de Fontanes, then +grand-master of the university of France, who selected Guizot for the +chair of modern history at the Sorbonne in 1812. His first lecture +(which is reprinted in his _Memoirs_) was delivered on the 11th of +December of that year. The customary compliment to the all-powerful +emperor he declined to insert in it, in spite of the hints given him by +his patron, but the course which followed marks the beginning of the +great revival of historical research in France in the 19th century. He +had now acquired a considerable position in the society of Paris, and +the friendship of Royer-Collard and the leading members of the liberal +party, including the young duc de Broglie. Absent from Paris at the +moment of the fall of Napoleon in 1814, he was at once selected, on the +recommendation of Royer-Collard, to serve the government of Louis XVIII. +in the capacity of secretary-general of the ministry of the interior, +under the abbé de Montesquiou. Upon the return of Napoleon from Elba he +immediately resigned, on the 25th of March 1815 (the statement that he +retained office under General Carnot is incorrect), and returned to his +literary pursuits. After the Hundred Days, he repaired to Ghent, where +he saw Louis XVIII., and in the name of the liberal party pointed out to +his majesty that a frank adoption of a liberal policy could alone secure +the duration of the restored monarchy--advice which was ill-received by +M. de Blacas and the king's confidential advisers. This visit to Ghent, +at the time when France was a prey to a second invasion, was made a +subject of bitter reproach to Guizot in after life by his political +opponents, as an unpatriotic action. "The Man of Ghent" was one of the +terms of insult frequently hurled against him in the days of his power. +But the reproach appears to be wholly unfounded. The true interests of +France were not in the defence of the falling empire, but in +establishing a liberal policy on a monarchical basis and in combating +the reactionary tendencies of the ultra-royalists. It is at any rate a +remarkable circumstance that a young professor of twenty-seven, with +none of the advantages of birth or political experience, should have +been selected to convey so important a message to the ears of the king +of France, and a proof, if any were wanting, that the Revolution had, as +Guizot said, "done its work." + +On the second restoration, Guizot was appointed secretary-general of the +ministry of justice under M. de Barbé-Marbois, but resigned with his +chief in 1816. Again in 1819 he was appointed general director of +communes and departments in the ministry of the interior, but lost his +office with the fall of Decazes in February 1820. During these years +Guizot was one of the leaders of the _Doctrinaires_, a small party +strongly attached to the charter and the crown, and advocating a policy +which has become associated (especially by Faguet) with the name of +Guizot, that of the _juste milieu_, a _via media_ between absolutism and +popular government. Their opinions had more of the rigour of a sect than +the elasticity of a political party. Adhering to the great principles of +liberty and toleration, they were sternly opposed to the anarchical +traditions of the Revolution. They knew that the elements of anarchy +were still fermenting in the country; these they hoped to subdue, not by +reactionary measures, but by the firm application of the power of a +limited constitution, based on the suffrages of the middle class and +defended by the highest literary talent of the times. Their motives +were honourable. Their views were philosophical. But they were opposed +alike to the democratical spirit of the age, to the military traditions +of the empire, and to the bigotry and absolutism of the court. The fate +of such a party might be foreseen. They lived by a policy of resistance; +they perished by another revolution (1830). They are remembered more for +their constant opposition to popular demands than by the services they +undoubtedly rendered to the cause of temperate freedom. + +In 1820, when the reaction was at its height after the murder of the duc +de Berri, and the fall of the ministry of the duc Decazes, Guizot was +deprived of his offices, and in 1822 even his course of lectures were +interdicted. During the succeeding years he played an important part +among the leaders of the liberal opposition to the government of Charles +X., although he had not yet entered parliament, and this was also the +time of his greatest literary activity. In 1822 he had published his +lectures on representative government (_Histoire des origines du +gouvernement représentatif_, 1821-1822, 2 vols.; Eng. trans. 1852); also +a work on capital punishment for political offences and several +important political pamphlets. From 1822 to 1830 he published two +important collections of historical sources, the memoirs of the history +of England in 26 volumes, and the memoirs of the history of France in 31 +volumes, and a revised translation of Shakespeare, and a volume of +essays on the history of France. The most remarkable work from his own +pen was the first part of his _Histoire de la révolution d'Angleterre +depuis Charles I^er à Charles II._ (2 vols., 1826-1827; Eng. trans., 2 +vols., Oxford, 1838), a book of great merit and impartiality, which he +resumed and completed during his exile in England after 1848. The +Martignac administration restored Guizot in 1828 to his professor's +chair and to the council of state. Then it was that he delivered the +celebrated courses of lectures which raised his reputation as an +historian to the highest point of fame, and placed him amongst the best +writers of France and of Europe. These lectures formed the basis of his +general _Histoire de la civilisation en Europe_ (1828; Eng. trans, by W. +Hazlitt, 3 vols., 1846), and of his _Histoire de la civilisation en +France_ (4 vols., 1830), works which must ever be regarded as classics +of modern historical research. + +Hitherto Guizot's fame rested on his merits as a writer on public +affairs and as a lecturer on modern history. He had attained the age of +forty-three before he entered upon the full display of his oratorical +strength. In January 1830 he was elected for the first time by the town +of Lisieux to the chamber of deputies, and he retained that seat during +the whole of his political life. Guizot immediately assumed an important +position in the representative assembly, and the first speech he +delivered was in defence of the celebrated address of the 221, in answer +to the menacing speech from the throne, which was followed by the +dissolution of the chamber, and was the precursor of another revolution. +On his returning to Paris from Nîmes on the 27th of July, the fall of +Charles X. was already imminent. Guizot was called upon by his friends +Casimir-Périer, Laffitte, Villemain and Dupin to draw up the protest of +the liberal deputies against the royal ordinances of July, whilst he +applied himself with them to control the revolutionary character of the +late contest. Personally, Guizot was always of opinion that it was a +great misfortune for the cause of parliamentary government in France +that the infatuation and ineptitude of Charles X. and Prince Polignac +rendered a change in the hereditary line of succession inevitable. But, +though convinced that it was inevitable, he became one of the most +ardent supporters of Louis-Philippe. In August 1830 Guizot was made +minister of the interior, but resigned in November. He had now passed +into the ranks of the conservatives, and for the next eighteen years was +the most determined foe of democracy, the unyielding champion of "a +monarchy limited by a limited number of bourgeois." + +In 1831 Casimir-Périer formed a more vigorous and compact +administration, which was terminated in May 1832 by his death; the +summer of that year was marked by a formidable republican rising in +Paris, and it was not till the 11th of October 1832 that a stable +government was formed, in which Marshal Soult was first minister, the +duc de Broglie took the foreign office, Thiers the home department, and +Guizot the department of public instruction. This ministry, which lasted +for nearly four years, was by far the ablest that ever served Louis +Philippe. Guizot, however, was already marked with the stigma of +unpopularity by the more advanced liberal party. He remained unpopular +all his life, "not," said he, "that I court unpopularity, but that I +think nothing about it." Yet never were his great abilities more useful +to his country than whilst he filled this office of secondary rank but +of primary importance in the department of public instruction. The +duties it imposed on him were entirely congenial to his literary tastes, +and he was master of the subjects they concerned. He applied himself in +the first instance to carry the law of the 28th of June 1833, and then +for the next three years to put it into execution. In establishing and +organizing primary education in France, this law marked a distinct epoch +in French history. In fifteen years, under its influence, the number of +primary schools rose from ten to twenty-three thousand; normal schools +for teachers, and a general system of inspection, were introduced; and +boards of education, under mixed lay and clerical authority, were +created. The secondary class of schools and the university of France +were equally the subject of his enlightened protection and care, and a +prodigious impulse was given to philosophical study and historical +research. The branch of the Institute of France known as the "Académie +des Sciences Morales et Politiques," which had been suppressed by +Napoleon, was revived by Guizot. Some of the old members of this learned +body--Talleyrand, Siéyès, Roederer and Lakanal--again took their seats +there, and a host of more recent celebrities were added by election for +the free discussion of the great problems of political and social +science. The "Société de l'Histoire de France" was founded for the +publication of historical works; and a vast publication of medieval +chronicles and diplomatic papers was undertaken at the expense of the +state (see HISTORY; and FRANCE, _History_, section _Sources_). + +The object of the cabinet of October 1832 was to organize a conservative +party, and to carry on a policy of resistance to the republican faction +which threatened the existence of the monarchy. It was their pride and +their boast that their measures never exceeded the limits of the law, +and by the exercise of legal power alone they put down an insurrection +amounting to civil war in Lyons and a sanguinary revolt in Paris. The +real strength of the ministry lay not in its nominal heads, but in the +fact that in this government and this alone Guizot and Thiers acted in +cordial co-operation. The two great rivals in French parliamentary +eloquence followed for a time the same path; but neither of them could +submit to the supremacy of the other, and circumstances threw Thiers +almost continuously on a course of opposition, whilst Guizot bore the +graver responsibilities of power. + +Once again indeed, in 1839, they were united, but it was in opposition +to M. Molé, who had formed an intermediate government, and this +coalition between Guizot and the leaders of the left centre and the +left, Thiers and Odilon Barrot, due to his ambition and jealousy of +Molé, is justly regarded as one of the chief inconsistencies of his +life. Victory was secured at the expense of principle, and Guizot's +attack upon the government gave rise to a crisis and a republican +insurrection. None of the three chiefs of that alliance took ministerial +office, however, and Guizot was not sorry to accept the post of +ambassador in London, which withdrew him for a time from parliamentary +contests. This was in the spring of 1840, and Thiers succeeded shortly +afterwards to the ministry of foreign affairs. + +Guizot was received with marked distinction by the queen and by the +society of London. His literary works were highly esteemed, his +character was respected, and France was never more worthily represented +abroad than by one of her greatest orators. He was known to be well +versed in the history and the literature of England, and sincerely +attached to the alliance of the two nations and the cause of peace. But, +as he himself remarked, he was a stranger to England and a novice in +diplomacy; and unhappily the embroiled state of the Syrian question, on +which the French government had separated itself from the joint policy +of Europe, and possibly the absence of entire confidence between the +ambassador and the minister of foreign affairs, placed him in an +embarrassing and even false position. The warnings he transmitted to +Thiers were not believed. The warlike policy of Thiers was opposed to +his own convictions. The treaty of the 15th of July was signed without +his knowledge and executed in the teeth of his remonstrances. For some +weeks Europe seemed to be on the brink of war, until the king put an end +to the crisis by refusing his assent to the military preparations of +Thiers, and by summoning Guizot from London to form a ministry and to +aid his Majesty in what he termed "ma lutte tenace contre l'anarchie." +Thus began, under dark and adverse circumstances, on the 29th of October +1840, the important administration in which Guizot remained the +master-spirit for nearly eight years. He himself took the office of +minister for foreign affairs, to which he added some years later, on the +retirement of Marshal Soult, the ostensible rank of prime minister. His +first care was the maintenance of peace and the restoration of amicable +relations with the other powers of Europe. If he succeeded, as he did +succeed, in calming the troubled elements and healing the wounded pride +of France, the result was due mainly to the indomitable courage and +splendid eloquence with which he faced a raging opposition, gave unity +and strength to the conservative party, who now felt that they had a +great leader at their head, and appealed to the thrift and prudence of +the nation rather than to their vanity and their ambition. In his +pacific task he was fortunately seconded by the formation of Sir Robert +Peel's administration in England, in the autumn of 1841. Between Lord +Palmerston and Guizot there existed an incompatibility of character +exceedingly dangerous in the foreign ministers of two great and in some +respects rival countries. With Lord Palmerston in office, Guizot felt +that he had a bitter and active antagonist in every British agent +throughout the world; the combative element was strong in his own +disposition; and the result was a system of perpetual conflict and +counter-intrigues. Lord Palmerston held (as it appears from his own +letters) that war between England and France was, sooner or later, +inevitable. Guizot held that such a war would be the greatest of all +calamities, and certainly never contemplated it. In Lord Aberdeen, the +foreign secretary of Sir Robert Peel, Guizot found a friend and an ally +perfectly congenial to himself. Their acquaintance in London had been +slight, but it soon ripened into mutual regard and confidence. They were +both men of high principles and honour; the Scotch Presbyterianism which +had moulded the faith of Lord Aberdeen was reflected in the Huguenot +minister of France; both were men of extreme simplicity of taste, joined +to the refinement of scholarship and culture; both had an intense +aversion to war and felt themselves ill-qualified to carry on those +adventurous operations which inflamed the imagination of their +respective opponents. In the eyes of Lord Palmerston and Thiers their +policy was mean and pitiful; but it was a policy which secured peace to +the world, and united the two great and free nations of the West in what +was termed the _entente cordiale_. Neither of them would have stooped to +snatch an advantage at the expense of the other; they held the common +interest of peace and friendship to be paramount; and when differences +arose, as they did arise, in remote parts of the world,--in Tahiti, in +Morocco, on the Gold Coast,--they were reduced by this principle to +their proper insignificance. The opposition in France denounced Guizot's +foreign policy as basely subservient to England. He replied in terms of +unmeasured contempt,--"You may raise the pile of calumny as high as you +will; vous n'arriverez jamais à la hauteur de mon dédain!" The +opposition in England attacked Lord Aberdeen with the same reproaches, +but in vain. King Louis Philippe visited Windsor. The queen of England +(in 1843) stayed at the Château d'Eu. In 1845 British and French troops +fought side by side for the first time in an expedition to the River +Plate. + +The fall of Sir Robert Peel's government in 1846 changed these intimate +relations; and the return of Lord Palmerston to the foreign office led +Guizot to believe that he was again exposed to the passionate rivalry of +the British cabinet. A friendly understanding had been established at Eu +between the two courts with reference to the future marriage of the +young queen of Spain. The language of Lord Palmerston and the conduct of +Sir Henry Bulwer (afterwards Lord Dalling) at Madrid led Guizot to +believe that this understanding was broken, and that it was intended to +place a Coburg on the throne of Spain. Determined to resist any such +intrigue, Guizot and the king plunged headlong into a counter-intrigue, +wholly inconsistent with their previous engagements to England, and +fatal to the happiness of the queen of Spain. By their influence she was +urged into a marriage with a despicable offset of the house of Bourbon, +and her sister was at the same time married to the youngest son of the +French king, in direct violation of Louis Philippe's promises. This +transaction, although it was hailed at the time as a triumph of the +policy of France, was in truth as fatal to the monarch as it was +discreditable to the minister. It was accomplished by a mixture of +secrecy and violence. It was defended by subterfuges. By the +dispassionate judgment of history it has been universally condemned. Its +immediate effect was to destroy the Anglo-French alliance, and to throw +Guizot into closer relations with the reactionary policy of Metternich +and the Northern courts. + +The history of Guizot's administration, the longest and the last which +existed under the constitutional monarchy of France, bears the stamp of +the great qualities and the great defects of his political character, +for he was throughout the master-spirit of that government. His first +object was to unite and discipline the conservative party, which had +been broken up by previous dissensions and ministerial changes. In this +he entirely succeeded by his courage and eloquence as a parliamentary +leader, and by the use of all those means of influence which France too +liberally supplies to a dominant minister. No one ever doubted the +purity and disinterestedness of Guizot's own conduct. He despised money; +he lived and died poor; and though he encouraged the fever of +money-getting in the French nation, his own habits retained their +primitive simplicity. But he did not disdain to use in others the baser +passions from which he was himself free. Some of his instruments were +mean; he employed them to deal with meanness after its kind. Gross +abuses and breaches of trust came to light even in the ranks of the +government, and under an incorruptible minister the administration was +denounced as corrupt. _Licet uti alieno vitio_ is a proposition as false +in politics as it is in divinity. + +Of his parliamentary eloquence it is impossible to speak too highly. It +was terse, austere, demonstrative and commanding,--not persuasive, not +humorous, seldom adorned, but condensed with the force of a supreme +authority in the fewest words. He was essentially a ministerial speaker, +far more powerful in defence than in opposition. Like Pitt he was the +type of authority and resistance, unmoved by the brilliant charges, the +wit, the gaiety, the irony and the discursive power of his great rival. +Nor was he less a master of parliamentary tactics and of those sudden +changes and movements in debate which, as in a battle, sometimes change +the fortune of the day. His confidence in himself, and in the majority +of the chamber which he had moulded to his will, was unbounded; and long +success and the habit of authority led him to forget that in a country +like France there was a people outside the chamber elected by a small +constituency, to which the minister and the king himself were held +responsible. + +A government based on the principle of resistance and repression and +marked by dread and distrust of popular power, a system of diplomacy +which sought to revive the traditions of the old French monarchy, a +sovereign who largely exceeded the bounds of constitutional power and +whose obstinacy augmented with years, a minister who, though far removed +from the servility of the courtier, was too obsequious to the personal +influence of the king, were all singularly at variance with the promises +of the Revolution of July, and they narrowed the policy of the +administration. Guizot's view of politics was essentially historical and +philosophical. His tastes and his acquirements gave him little insight +into the practical business of administrative government. Of finance he +knew nothing; trade and commerce were strange to him; military and naval +affairs were unfamiliar to him; all these subjects he dealt with by +second hand through his friends, P. S. Dumon (1797-1870), Charles Marie +Tanneguy, Comte Duchâtel (1803-1867), or Marshal Bugeaud. The +consequence was that few measures of practical improvement were carried +by his administration. Still less did the government lend an ear to the +cry for parliamentary reform. On this subject the king's prejudices were +insurmountable, and his ministers had the weakness to give way to them. +It was impossible to defend a system which confined the suffrage to +200,000 citizens, and returned a chamber of whom half were placemen. +Nothing would have been easier than to strengthen the conservative party +by attaching the suffrage to the possession of land in France, but blank +resistance was the sole answer of the government to the just and +moderate demands of the opposition. Warning after warning was addressed +to them in vain by friends and by foes alike; and they remained +profoundly unconscious of their danger till the moment when it +overwhelmed them. Strange to say, Guizot never acknowledged either at +the time or to his dying day the nature of this error; and he speaks of +himself in his memoirs as the much-enduring champion of liberal +government and constitutional law. He utterly fails to perceive that a +more enlarged view of the liberal destinies of France and a less intense +confidence in his own specific theory might have preserved the +constitutional monarchy and averted a vast series of calamities, which +were in the end fatal to every principle he most cherished. But with the +stubborn conviction of absolute truth he dauntlessly adhered to his own +doctrines to the end. + +The last scene of his political life was singularly characteristic of +his inflexible adherence to a lost cause. In the afternoon oí the 23rd +of February 1848 the king summoned his minister from the chamber, which +was then sitting, and informed him that the aspect of Paris and the +country during the banquet agitation for reform, and the alarm and +division of opinion in the royal family, led him to doubt whether he +could retain his ministry. That doubt, replied Guizot, is decisive of +the question, and instantly resigned, returning to the chamber only to +announce that the administration was at an end and that Molé had been +sent for by the king. Molé failed in the attempt to form a government, +and between midnight and one in the morning Guizot, who had according to +his custom retired early to rest, was again sent for to the Tuileries. +The king asked his advice. "We are no longer the ministers of your +Majesty," replied Guizot; "it rests with others to decide on the course +to be pursued. But one thing appears to be evident: this street riot +must be put down; these barricades must be taken; and for this purpose +my opinion is that Marshal Bugeaud should be invested with full power, +and ordered to take the necessary military measures, and as your Majesty +has at this moment no minister, I am ready to draw up and countersign +such an order." The marshal, who was present, undertook the task, +saying, "I have never been beaten yet, and I shall not begin to-morrow. +The barricades shall be carried before dawn." After this display of +energy the king hesitated, and soon added: "I ought to tell you that M. +Thiers and his friends are in the next room forming a government!" Upon +this Guizot rejoined, "Then it rests with them to do what they think +fit," and left the palace. Thiers and Barrot decided to withdraw the +troops. The king and Guizot next met at Claremont. This was the most +perilous conjuncture of Guizot's life, but fortunately he found a safe +refuge in Paris for some days in the lodging of a humble miniature +painter whom he had befriended, and shortly afterwards effected his +escape across the Belgian frontier and thence to London, where he +arrived on the 3rd of March. His mother and daughters had preceded him, +and he was speedily installed in a modest habitation in Pelham Crescent, +Brompton. + +The society of England, though many persons disapproved of much of his +recent policy, received the fallen statesman with as much distinction +and respect as they had shown eight years before to the king's +ambassador. Sums of money were placed at his disposal, which he +declined. A professorship at Oxford was spoken of, which he was unable +to accept. He stayed in England about a year, devoting himself again to +history. He published two more volumes on the English revolution, and in +1854 his _Histoire de la république d'Angleterre et de Cromwell_ (2 +vols., 1854), then his _Histoire du protectorat de Cromwell et du +rétablissement des Stuarts_ (2 vols., 1856). He also published an essay +on Peel, and amid many essays on religion, during the ten years +1858-1868, appeared the extensive _Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire de +mon temps_, in nine volumes. His speeches were included in 1863 in his +_Histoire parlementaire de la France_ (5 vols. of parliamentary +speeches, 1863). + +Guizot survived the fall of the monarchy and the government he had +served twenty-six years. He passed abruptly from the condition of one of +the most powerful and active statesmen in Europe to the condition of a +philosophical and patriotic spectator of human affairs. He was aware +that the link between himself and public life was broken for ever; and +he never made the slightest attempt to renew it. He was of no party, a +member of no political body; no murmur of disappointed ambition, no +language of asperity, ever passed his lips; it seemed as if the fever of +oratorical debate and ministerial power had passed from him and left him +a greater man than he had been before, in the pursuit of letters, in the +conversation of his friends, and as head of the patriarchal circle of +those he loved. The greater part of the year he spent at his residence +at Val Richer, an Augustine monastery near Lisieux in Normandy, which +had been sold at the time of the first Revolution. His two daughters, +who married two descendants of the illustrious Dutch family of De Witt, +so congenial in faith and manners to the Huguenots of France, kept his +house. One of his sons-in-law farmed the estate. And here Guizot devoted +his later years with undiminished energy to literary labour, which was +in fact his chief means of subsistence. Proud, independent, simple and +contented he remained to the last; and these years of retirement were +perhaps the happiest and most serene portion of his life. + +Two institutions may be said even under the second empire to have +retained their freedom--the Institute of France and the Protestant +Consistory. In both of these Guizot continued to the last to take an +active part. He was a member of three of the five academies into which +the Institute of France is divided. The Academy of Moral and Political +Science owed its restoration to him, and he became in 1832 one of its +first associates. The Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres elected +him in 1833 as the successor to M. Dacier; and in 1836 he was chosen a +member of the French Academy, the highest literary distinction of the +country. In these learned bodies Guizot continued for nearly forty years +to take a lively interest and to exercise a powerful influence. He was +the jealous champion of their independence. His voice had the greatest +weight in the choice of new candidates; the younger generation of French +writers never looked in vain to him for encouragement; and his constant +aim was to maintain the dignity and purity of the profession of letters. + +In the consistory of the Protestant church in Paris Guizot exercised a +similar influence. His early education and his experience of life +conspired to strengthen the convictions of a religious temperament. He +remained through life a firm believer in the truths of revelation, and a +volume of _Meditations on the Christian Religion_ was one of his latest +works. But though he adhered inflexibly to the church of his fathers and +combated the rationalist tendencies of the age, which seemed to threaten +it with destruction, he retained not a tinge of the intolerance or +asperity of the Calvinistic creed. He respected in the Church of Rome +the faith of the majority of his countrymen; and the writings of the +great Catholic prelates, Bossuet and Bourdaloue, were as familiar and +as dear to him as those of his own persuasion, and were commonly used by +him in the daily exercises of family worship. + +In these literary pursuits and in the retirement of Val Richer years +passed smoothly and rapidly away; and as his grandchildren grew up +around him, he began to direct their attention to the history of their +country. From these lessons sprang his last and not his least work, the +_Histoire de France racontée à mes petits enfants_, for although this +publication assumed a popular form, it is not less complete and profound +than it is simple and attractive. The history came down to 1789, and was +continued to 1870 by his daughter Madame Guizot de Witt from her +father's notes. + +Down to the summer of 1874 Guizot's mental vigour and activity were +unimpaired. His frame, temperate in all things, was blessed with a +singular immunity from infirmity and disease; but the vital power ebbed +away, and he passed gently away on the 12th of September 1874, reciting +now and then a verse of Corneille or a text of Scripture. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See his own _Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire de mon + temps_ (8 vols., 1858-1861); _Lettres de M. Guizot à sa famille et à + ses amis_ (1884); C. A. Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_ (vol. i., + 1857) and _Nouveaux Lundis_ (vols. i. and ix., 1863-1872); E. Scherer, + _Études critiques sur la littérature contemporaine_ (vol. iv., 1873); + Mme de Witt, _Guizot dans sa famille_ (1880); Jules Simon, _Thiers, + Guizot et Rémusat_ (1885); E. Faguet, _Politiques et moralistes au + XIX^e siècle_ (1891); G. Bardoux, _Guizot_ (1894) in the series of + "Les Grands Écrivains français"; Maurice Guizot, _Les Années de + retraite de M. Guizot_ (1901); and for a long list of books and + articles on Guizot in periodicals see H. P. Thieme, _Guide + bibliographique de la littérature française de 1800 à 1906_ (_s.v._ + Guizot, Paris, 1907). For a notice of his first wife see C. A. + Sainte-Beuve, _Portraits de femmes_ (1884), and Ch. de Rémusat, + _Critiques et études littéraires_ (vol. ii., 1847). + (H. R.; J. T. S.*) + + + + +GUJARAT or GUZERAT, a region of India, in the Bombay Presidency. In the +widest sense of the name it includes the whole of the country where the +Gujarati language is spoken, i.e. the northern districts and states of +the Presidency from Palanpur to Damaun, with Kathiawar and Cutch. But it +is more properly confined to the country north of the Nerbudda and east +of the Rann of Cutch and Kathiawar. In this sense it has an area of +29,071 sq. m., with a population in 1901 of 4,798,504. It includes the +states distributed among the agencies of Palanpur, Mahi Kantha, Rewa +Kantha and Cambay, with most of Baroda and the British districts of +Ahmedabad, Kaira, Panch Mahals and Broach. Less than one-fourth is +British territory. The region takes its name from the Gujars, a tribe +who passed into India from the north-west, established a kingdom in +Rajputana, and spread south in A.D. 400-600. The ancient Hindu capital +was Anhilvada; the Mahommedan dynasty, which ruled from 1396 to 1572, +founded Ahmedabad, which is still the largest city; but Gujarat owed +much of its historical importance to the seaports of Broach, Cambay and +Surat. Its fertile plain, with a regular rainfall and numerous rivers, +has caused it to be styled the "garden of India." It suffered, however, +severely from the famine of 1899-1901. For an account of the history, +geography, &c., of Gujarat see the articles on the various states and +districts. Gujarat gives its name to the vernacular of northern Bombay, +viz. Gujarati, one of the three great languages of that Presidency, +spoken by more than 9 millions. It has an ancient literature and a +peculiar character. As the language of the Parsis it is prominent in the +Bombay press; and it is also the commercial language of Bombay city, +which lies outside the territorial area of Gujarat. + + See J. Campbell, _History of Gujarat_ (Bombay, 1896); Sir E. C. + Bayley, _The Muhammedan Kingdom of Gujarat_ (1886); A. K. Forbes, _Ras + Mala_ (1856). + + + + +GUJARATI and RAJASTHANI, the names of two members of the western +sub-group of the Intermediate Group of Indo-Aryan languages (q.v.). The +remaining member of this sub-group is Panjabi or Punjabi (see +HINDOSTANI). In 1901 the speakers of those now dealt with numbered: +Gujarati, 9,439,925, and Rajasthani, 10,917,712. The two languages are +closely connected and might almost be termed co-dialects of the same +form of speech. Together they occupy an almost square block of country, +some 400 m. broad, reaching from near Agra and Delhi on the river Jumna +to the Arabian Sea. Gujarati (properly _Gujarati_) is spoken in Gujarat, +the northern maritime province of the Bombay Presidency, and also in +Baroda and the native states adjoining. Rajasthani (properly +_Rajasthani_, from "_Rajasthan_," the native name for Rajputana) is +spoken in Rajputana and the adjoining parts of Central India. + +In the articles INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES and PRAKRIT the history of the +earlier stages of the Indo-Aryan vernaculars is given at some length. It +is there shown that, from the most ancient times, there were two main +groups of these forms of speech--one, the language of the Midland, +spoken in the country near the Gangetic Doab, and the other, the +so-called "Outer Band," containing the Midland on three sides, west, +north and south. The country to the west and south-west of the Midland, +in which this outer group of languages was spoken, included the modern +Punjab, Rajputana and Gujarat. In process of time the population of the +Midland expanded and carried its language to its new homes. It occupied +the eastern and central Punjab, and the mixed (or "intermediate") +language which there grew up became the modern Panjabi. To the west it +spread into Rajputana, till its progress was stopped by the Indian +desert, and in Rajputana another intermediate language took rise and +became Rajasthani. As elsewhere explained, the language-wave of the +Midland exercised less and less influence as it travelled farther from +its home, so that, while in eastern Rajputana the local dialect is now +almost a pure midland speech, in the west there are many evident traces +of the old outer language still surviving. To the south-west of +Rajputana there was no desert to stop the wave of Midland expansion, +which therefore rolled on unobstructed into Gujarat, where it reached +the sea. Here the survivals of the old outer language are stronger +still. The old outer Prakrit of north Gujarat was known as "Saurastri," +while the Prakrit of the Midland invaders was called "Sauraseni," and we +may therefore describe Gujarati as being an intermediate language +derived (as explained in the articles PRAKRIT) from a mixture of the +Apabhramsa forms of Saurastri and Sauraseni, in which the latter +predominated. + +It will be observed that, at the present day, Gujarati breaks the +continuity of the outer band of Indo-Aryan languages. To its north it +has Sindhi and to its south Marathi, both outer languages with which it +has only a slight connexion. On the other hand, on the east and +north-east it has Rajasthani, into which it merges so gradually and +imperceptibly that at the conventional border-line, in the state of +Palanpur, the inhabitants of Rajputana say that the local dialect is a +form of Gujarati, while the inhabitants of Gujarat say that it is +Rajasthani. + + + Language. + +Gujarati has no important local dialects, but there is considerable +variation in the speeches of different classes of the community. Parsees +and Mussulmans (when the latter use the language--as a rule the Gujarat +Mussulmans speak Hindostani) have some striking peculiarities of +pronunciation, the most noticeable of which is the disregard by the +latter of the distinction between cerebral and dental letters. The +uneducated Hindus do not pronounce the language in the same way as their +betters, and this difference is accentuated in northern Gujarat, where +the lower classes substitute _e_ for _i_, _c_ for _k_, _ch_ for _kh_, +_s_ for _c_ and _ch_, _h_ for _s_, and drop _h_ as readily as any +cockney. There is also (as in the case of the Mussulmans) a tendency to +confuse cerebral and dental consonants, to substitute _r_ for _d_ and +_l_, to double medial consonants, and to pronounce the letter _a_ as +_å_, something like the _a_ in "all." The Bhils of the hills east of +Gujarat also speak a rude Gujarati, with special dialectic peculiarities +of their own, probably due to the fact that the tribes are of Dravidian +origin. These Bhil peculiarities are further mixed with corruptions of +Marathi idioms in Nimar and Khandesh, where we have almost a new +language. + +Rajasthani has numerous dialects, each state claiming one or more of its +own. Thus, in the state of Jaipur there have been catalogued no less +than ten dialects among about 1,688,000 people. All Rajasthani dialects +can, however, be easily classed in four well-defined groups, a +north-eastern, a southern, a western and an east-central. The +north-eastern (Mewati) is that form of Rajasthani which is merging into +the Western Hindi of the Midland. It is a mixed form of speech, and need +not detain us further. Similarly, the southern (Malvi) is much mixed +with the neighbouring Bundeli form of Western Hindi. The western +(Marwari) spoken in Marwar and its neighbourhood, and the east-central +(Jaipuri) spoken in Jaipur and its neighbourhood, may be taken as the +typical Rajasthani dialects. In the following paragraphs we shall +therefore confine ourselves to Gujarati, Marwari and Jaipuri. + +We know more about the ancient history of Gujarati than we do about that +of any other Indo-Aryan language. The one native grammar of Apabhramsa +Prakrit which we possess in a printed edition, was written by Hemacandra +(12th century A.D.), who lived in what is now north Gujarat, and who +naturally described most fully the particular vernacular with which he +was personally familiar. It was known as the Nagara Apabhramsa, closely +connected (as above explained) with Sauraseni, and was so named after +the Nagara Brahmans of the locality. These men carried on the tradition +of learning inherited from Hemacandra, and we see Gujarati almost in the +act of taking birth in a work called the _Mugdhavabodhamauktika_, +written by one of them only two hundred years after his death. Formal +Gujarati literature is said to commence with the poet Narsingh Meta in +the 15th century. Rajasthani literature has received but small attention +from European or native scholars, and we are as yet unable to say how +far back the language goes. + +Both Gujarati and Rajasthani are usually written in current scripts +related to the well-known Nagari alphabet (see SANSKRIT). The form +employed in Rajputana is known all over northern India as the "Mahajani" +alphabet, being used by bankers or _Mahajans_, most of whom are +Marwaris. It is noteworthy as possessing two distinct characters for _d_ +and _r_. The Gujarati character closely resembles the Kaithi character +of northern India (see BIHARI). The Nagari character is also freely used +in Rajputana, and to a less extent in Gujarat, where it is employed by +the Nagara Brahmans, who claim that their tribe has given the alphabet +its name. + +In the following description of the main features of our two languages, +the reader is presumed to be familiar with the leading facts stated in +the articles INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES and PRAKRIT. The article HINDOSTANI +may also be perused with advantage. + + (Abbreviations. Skr. = Sanskrit. Pr. = Prakrit. Ap. = Apabhramsa. G. = + Gujarati. R. = Rajasthani. H. = Hindostaani.) + + _Vocabulary._--The vocabulary of both Gujarat and Rajasthani is very + free from _tatsama_ words. The great mass of both vocabularies is + _tadbhava_ (see INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES). Rajputana was from an early + period brought into close contact with the Mogul court at Agra and + Delhi, and even in the 13th century A.D. official documents of the + Rajput princes contained many borrowed Persian and Arabic words. + Gujarati, under the influence of the learned Nagara Brahmans, has + perhaps more _tatsama_ words than Rajasthani, but their employment is + not excessive. On the other hand, Parsees and Mussulmans employ + Persian and Arabic words with great freedom; while, owing to its + maritime connexions, the language has also borrowed occasional words + from other parts of Asia and from Europe. This is specially marked in + the strange dialect of the Kathiawar boatmen who travel all over the + world as lascars on the great steamships. Their language is a mixture + of Hindostani and Gujarati with a heterogeneous vocabulary. + + _Phonetics._--With a few exceptions to be mentioned below, the + sound-system of the two languages is the same as that of Sanskrit, and + is represented in the same manner in the Roman character (see + SANSKRIT). The simplest method for considering the subject in regard + to Gujarati is to compare it with the phonetical system of Hindostani + (q.v.). As a rule, Rajasthani closely follows Gujarati and need not be + referred to except in special cases. G. invariably simplifies a medial + Pr. double consonant, lengthening the preceding vowel in compensation. + Thus Skr. _mraksanam_, Ap. _makkhanu_, H. _makkhan_, but G. _makhan_, + butter. In H. this rule is generally observed, but in G. it is + universal, while, on the other hand, in Panjabi the double consonant + is never simplified, but is retained as in Ap. In G. (and sometimes in + R.) when _a_ is followed by _h_ it is changed to _e_, as in H. + _shahr_, G. _seher_, a city. As in other outer languages H. _ai_ and + _au_ are usually represented by a short _e_ and by _å_ (sounded like + the _a_ in "all") respectively. Thus H. _baitha_. G. _betho_, seated; + H. _cautha_, G. _cåtho_ (written _cotho_), fourth. In R. this _e_ is + often further weakened to the sound of _a_ in "man," a change which + is also common in Bengali. Many words which have _i_ in H. have _a_ in + G. and R., thus, H. _likhe_, G. _lakhe_, he writes; H. din, G. and R. + _dan_, a day. Similarly we have _a_ for _u_, as in H. _tum_, G., R. + _tame_, you. In colloquial G. _a_ often becomes _a_, and _i_ becomes + _e_; thus, _pani_ for _pani_, water; _mares_ for _maris_, I shall + strike. As in most Indo-Aryan vernaculars an _a_ after an accented + syllable is very lightly pronounced, and is here represented by a + small ^a above the line. + + The Vedic cerebral _l_ and the cerebral _n_ are very common as medial + letters in both G. and R. (both being unknown to literary H.). The + rule is, as elsewhere in western and southern intermediate and outer + languages, that when n and l represent a double _nn_ (or _nn_) or a + double _ll_ in Pr. they are dental, but when they represent single + medial letters they are cerebralized. Thus Ap. _sonnau_, G. _sonu_, + gold; Ap. _ghanau_, G. _ghanu_, dense; Ap. _callai_, G. _cale_, he + goes; Ap. _calai_, G. _cale_, he moves. In northern G. and in some + caste dialects dental and cerebral letters are absolutely + interchangeable, as in _dah^ado_ or _dahado_, a day; _tu_ or _tu_, + thou; _didho_ or _didho_, given. In G. and R. medial _d_ is pronounced + as a rough cerebral _r_, and is then so transcribed. We have seen that + in the Marwari alphabet there are actually distinct letters for these + two sounds. In colloquial G. _c_ and _ch_ are pronounced _s_, + especially in the north, as in _pas_ for _pac_, five; _pusyo_ for + _puchyo_, he asked. Similarly, in the north, _j_ and _jh_ become _z_, + as in _zad_ for _jhad_, a tree. In some localities (as in Marathi) we + have _ts_ and _dz_ for these sounds, as in _Tsarotar_ (name of a tract + of country) for _Carotar_. On the other hand, _k_, _kh_ and _g_, + especially when preceded or followed by _i_, _e_ or _y_, become in the + north _c_, _ch_ and _j_ respectively; thus, _dic^aro_ for _dik^aro_, a + son; _chetar_ for _khetar_, a field; _lajyo_ for _lagyo_, begun. A + similar change is found in dialectic Marathi, and is, of course, one + of the commonplaces of the philology of the Romance languages. The + sibilants _s_ and _s_ are colloquially pronounced _h_ (as in several + outer languages), especially in the north. Thus _deh_ for _des_, a + country; _hu_ for _su_, what; _ham^ajavyo_ for _sam^ajavyo_, he + explained. An original aspirate is, however, often dropped, as in _'u_ + for _hu_, I; _'ate_ for _hathe_, on the hand. Standard G. is at the + same time fond of pronouncing an _h_ where it is not written, as in + _ame_, we, pronounced _ahme_. In other respects both G. and R. closely + agree in their phonetical systems with the Apabhramsa form of + Sauraseni Prakrit from which the Midland language is derived. + + _Declension._--Gujarati agrees with Marathi (an outer language) as + against Hindostani in retaining the neuter gender of Sanskrit and + Prakrit. Moreover, the neuter gender is often employed to indicate + living beings of which the sex is uncertain, as in the case of + _dik^aru_, a child, compared with _dik^aro_, a son, and _dik^ari_, a + daughter. In R. there are only sporadic instances of the neuter, which + grow more and more rare as we approach the Midland. Nouns in both G. + and R. may be weak or strong as is fully explained in the article + HINDOSTANI. We have there seen that the strong form of masculine nouns + in Western Hindi generally ends in _au_, the _a_ of words like the + Hindostani _ghora_, a horse, being an accident due to the fact that + the Hindostani dialect of Western Hindi borrows this termination from + Panjabi. G. and R. follow Western Hindi, for their masculine strong + forms end in _o_. Feminine strong forms end in _i_ as elsewhere. + Neuter strong forms in G. end in _u_, derived as follows: Skr, + _svarnakam_, Ap. _sonnau_, G. _sonu_, gold. As an example of the three + genders of the same word we may take G. _chok^aro_ (masc.), a boy; + _chok^ari_ (fem.), a girl; _chok^aru_ (neut.), a child. Long forms + corresponding to the Eastern Hindi _ghor^awa_, a horse, are not much + used, but we not infrequently meet another long form made by suffixing + the pleonastic termination _do_ or _ro_ (fem. _di_ or _ri_; G. neut. + _du_ or _ru_) which is directly descended from the Ap. pleonastic + termination _daü_, _dai_, _dau_. We come across this most often in R., + where it is used contemptuously, as in _Turuk-ro_, a Turk. + + In the article HINDOSTANI it is shown that all the oblique cases of + each number in Sanskrit and Prakrit became melted down in the modern + languages into one general oblique case, which, in the Midland, is + derived in the singular from the Ap. termination _-hi_ or _-hi_, and + that even this has survived only in the case of strong masculine + nouns; thus, _ghora_, obl. _ghore_. In G. and R. this same termination + has also survived, but for all nouns as the case sign of the agent and + locative cases. The general oblique case is the same as the + nominative, except in the case of strong masculine and neuter nouns in + _o_ and _u_ respectively, where it ends in _a_, not _e_. This + _a_-termination is characteristic of the outer band of languages, and + is one of the survivals already referred to. It is derived from the + Apabhramsa genitive form in -_aha_, corresponding to the Magadhi Pr. + (an outer Prakrit) termination -_aha_. Thus, G. _chok^aro_, a son; + _chok^aru_, a child; obl. sing. _chok^ara_. + + In G. the nominative and oblique plural for all nouns are formed by + adding _o_ to the oblique form singular, but in the neuter strong + forms the oblique singular is nasalized. The real plural is the same + in form as the oblique singular in the case of masculines, and as a + nasalized oblique singular in the case of neuter strong forms, as in + other modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars, and the added _o_ is a further + plural termination (making a double plural, exactly as it does in the + Ardhamagadhi Prakrit _putta-o_, sons) which is often dropped. The + nasalization of the strong neuter plurals is inherited from Ap., in + which the neuter nom. plural of such nouns ended in -_aai_ In R. the + nominative plural of masculine nouns is the same in form as the + oblique case singular, and the oblique plural ends in _a_. The + feminine has _a_ both in the nominative and in the oblique plural. + These are all explained in the article HINDOSTANI. We thus get the + following paradigms of the declension of nouns. + + +----------------------+--------------+---------------+------------+ + | | Apabhramsa. | Gujarati. | Rajasthani.| + +----------------------+--------------+---------------+------------+ + | Strong Noun Masc.-- | | | | + | "A horse." Sing. Nom.| ghodau | ghodo | ghodo | + | Obl.| ghodaaha | ghoda | ghoda | + | Ag.-Loc.| ghodaahi | ghode, ghodae | ghodai | + | Plur. Nom.| ghodaa | ghoda-o | ghoda | + | Obl.| ghodaaha | ghoda-o | ghoda | + | Ag.-Loc.| ghodaahi | ghoda-o-e | ghoda | + | Strong Noun Neut.-- | | | | + | "Gold." Sing. Nom.| sonnau | sonu | .. | + | Obl.| sonnaaha | sona | .. | + | Ag.-Loc.| sonnaahi | sone, sonae | .. | + | Plur. Nom.| sonnaai | sone | .. | + | Obl.| sonnaaha | sona-o | .. | + | Ag.-Loc.| sonnaahi | sona-o-e | .. | + | Strong Noun Fem.-- | | | | + | "A mare." Sing. Nom.| ghodia | ghodi | ghodi | + | Obl.| ghodiahi | ghodi | ghodi | + | Ag.-Loc.| ghodiae | ghodie | ghodi | + | Plur. Nom.| ghodia-o | ghodi-o | ghodya | + | Obl.| ghodiahu | ghodi-o | ghodya | + | Ag.-Loc.| ghodiahi | ghodi-o-e | ghodya | + | Weak Noun Masc. | | | | + | or Neut.-- | | | | + | "A house." Sing. Nom.| gharu (neut.)| ghar | ghar | + | Obl.| gharaha | ghar | ghar | + | Ag.-Loc.| gharahi | ghare | gharai | + | Plur. Nom.| gharai | ghar-o | ghar | + | Obl.| gharaha | ghar-o | ghara | + | Ag.-Loc.| gharahi | ghar-o-e | ghara | + | Weak Noun Fem.-- | | | | + | "A word." Sing. Nom.| vatta | wat | bat | + | Obl.| vattahi | wat | bat | + | Ag.-Loc.| vattae | wate | bat | + | Plur. Nom.| vatta-o | wat-o | bata | + | Obl.| vattahu | wat-o | bata | + | Ag.-Loc.| vattahi | wat-o-e | bata | + +----------------------+--------------+---------------+------------+ + + The general oblique case can be employed for any case except the + nominative, but, in order to define the meaning, it is customary to + add postpositions as in Hindostani. These are: + + +------------+----------+---------------+----------+----------+ + | | Genitive.| Dative. | Ablative.| Locative.| + +------------+----------+---------------+----------+----------+ + | Gujarati | no | ne | thi | ma | + | Rajasthani | ro, ko | nai, rai, kai | su | mai | + +------------+----------+---------------+----------+----------+ + + The suffix _no_ of the genitive is believed to be a contraction of + _tano_, which is found in old Gujarati poetry, and which, under the + form _tanas_ in Sanskrit and _tanaü_ in Apabhramsa, mean "belonging + to." It is an adjective, and agrees in gender, number and case with + the thing possessed. Thus, _raja-no dik^aro_, the king's son; _raja-ni + dik^ari_, the king's daughter; _raja-nu ghar_, the king's house; + _raja-na dik^ara-ne_, to the king's son (_na_ is in the oblique case + masculine to agree with _dik^ara_); _raja-ne ghare_, in the king's + house. The _ro_ and _ko_ of R. are similarly treated, but, of course, + have no neuter. The dative postpositions are simply locatives of the + genitive ones, as in all modern Indo-Aryan languages (see HINDOSTANI). + _Thi_, the postposition of the G. ablative, is connected with _thawu_, + to be, one of the verbs substantive in that language. The ablative + suffix is made in this way in many modern Indo-Aryan languages (e.g. + Bengali, q.v.). It means literally "having been" and is to be + ultimately referred to the Sanskrit root, _stha_, stand. The + derivation of the other postpositions is discussed in the article + HINDOSTANI. + + Strong adjectives agree with the nouns they qualify in gender, number + and case, as in the examples of the genitive above. Weak adjectives + are immutable. + + Pronouns closely agree with those found in Hindostani. In the table on + following page we give the first two personal pronouns, and the + demonstrative pronoun "this." + + Similarly are formed the remaining pronouns, viz. G. _a_, R. _u_, + he, that; G. _te_, R. _so_ (obl. sing. _ti_), that; G. _je_, R. _jo_, + who; G. _kan_ (obl. _kan_, _ko_, or _ke_), R. _kun_ (obl. _kun_), + who?; G. _su_, R. _kai_, what?; G., R. _koi_, anyone, someone, _kai_ + anything, something. G. has two other demonstratives, _pelo_ and + _olyo_, both meaning "that." The derivation of these and of _su_ has + been discussed without any decisive result. The rest are explained in + the article HINDOSTANI. The reflexive pronoun is G. _ap^ane_, R. + _apa_. It is generally employed as a plural of the first personal + pronoun including the person addressed; thus G. _ap^ane_, we + (including you), but _ame_, we (excluding you). In G. _pote_, obl. + _pota_, is used to mean "self." + + +------------------+-------------------+----------+----------------+ + | | Apabhramsa. | Gujarati.| Rajasthani. | + +------------------+-------------------+----------+----------------+ + | I Nom. | hau | hu | hu, mhu, mai | + | Obl. | mai, mahu, majjhu | ma, maj | ma, mha, mu | + | MY | maharaü | maro | maro, mharo | + | WE Nom. | amhe | ame | mhe | + | Obl. | amhahã | am-o | mha | + | OUR | amharaü | amaro | mha-ro, mha-ko | + | THOU Nom. | tuhu | tu | tu | + | Obl. | tai, tuha, tujjhu | ta, tuj | ta, tha, tu | + | THY | tuharaü | taro | tharo | + | YOU Nom. | tumhe | tame | the, tame | + | Obl. | tumhahã | tam-o | tha, tama | + | YOUR | tumharaü | tamaro | tha-ro, tha-ko | + | THIS, HE Nom. | eho | e | yo | + | Obl. | (?) ehaha, imaha | e | i | + | THESE, THEY Nom. | ei | e-o | e, ye | + | Obl. | eammi, ehana | em | ina, ya. | + +------------------+-------------------+----------+----------------+ + + _Conjugation._--The old present has survived as in Hindostani and + other Indian languages. Taking the base _call_ or _cal_, go, as our + model, we have: + + +-------------+------------+-----------------------+ + | | Apabhramsa.| Gujarati.| Rajasthani.| + +-------------+------------+-----------------------+ + | Sing. 1 | callau | calu | calu | + | 2 | callahi | cale | calai | + | 3 | callai | cale | calai | + | Plur. 1 | callahu | calie | cala | + | 2 | callahu | calo | calo | + | 3 | callahi | cale | calai | + +-------------+------------+-----------------------+ + + The derivation of the G. 1 plural is unknown. That of the other G. and + R. forms is manifest. The imperative closely follows this, but as + usual has no termination in the second person singular. + + In R. the future may be formed by adding _go_ (cf. Hindostani _ga_), + _lo_, or _la_ to the old present. Thus, _calu-go_, _calu-lo_ or + _calu-la_ I shall go. The _go_ and _lo_ agree in gender and number + with the subject, but _la_ is immutable. The termination with _l_ is + also found in Bhojpuri (see BIHARI), in Marathi and in Nepali. For + _go_ see HINDOSTANI. Another form of the future has _s_ or _h_ for its + characteristic letter, and is the only one employed in G. Thus, Ap. + _callisau_ or _callihau_, G. _calis_, R. (Jaipuri) _cal^asyu_, + (Marwari) _cal^ahu_. The other personal terminations differ + considerably from those of the old present, and closely follow Ap. + Thus, Ap. 3 sing. _callisai_ or _callihi_, G. _cal^ase_, Marwari + _cal^ahi_. + + The participles and infinitive are as follows: + + +----------------------+------------+-----------------------+ + | | Apabhramsa.| Gujarati.| Rajasthani.| + +----------------------+------------+-----------------------+ + | Pres. Part. Active | callantau | cal^ato | cal^ato | + | Past. Part. Passive | calliau | calyo | calyo | + | Future Part. Passive | calliavvau | cal^avo | cal^abo | + | Infinitive | .. | cal^avu | cal^abo | + +----------------------+------------+-----------------------+ + + In G. the infinitive is simply the neuter of the future passive + participle. The participles are employed to form finite tenses; thus + G. _hu cal^ato_], I used to go; _hu calyo_, I went. If the verb is + transitive (see HINDOSTANI) the passive meaning of the past participle + comes into force. The subject is put into the case of the agent, and + the participle inflects to agree with the object, or, if there is no + object, is employed impersonally in the neuter (in G.) or in the + masculine (in R.). In Hindostani, if the object is expressed in the + dative, the participle is also employed impersonally, in the + masculine; thus _raja-ne sherni-ko mara_ (masc.), not _mari_, (fem.), + by-the-king, with reference-to-the-tigress, + it-(impersonal)-was-killed, i.e. the king killed the tigress. But in + G. and R., even if the object is in the dative, the past participle + agrees with it; thus, G. _rajae waghan-ne mari_, by-the-king, + with-reference-to-the-tigress, she-was-killed. Other examples from G. + of this passive construction are _me kahyu_, by me it was said, I + said; _tene citthi lakhi_, by him a letter was written, he wrote a + letter; _e baie vag^ada-ma, dahada kadya_, by this lady, in the + wilderness, days were passed, i.e. she passed her days in the + wilderness; _rajae vicaryu_, the king considered. The idiom of R. is + exactly the same in these cases, except that the masculine must be + used where G. has the neuter; thus, _rajaai vicaryo_. The future + passive participle is construed in much the same way, but (as in + Latin) the subject may be put into the dative. Thus, _mare a cåp^adi + vac^avi, mihi ille liber (est) legendus_, I must read that book, but + also _tene_ (agent case) _e kam kar^avu_, by him this business is to + be done. + + G. also forms a past participle in _elo_ (_calelo_), which is one of + the many survivals of the outer language. This -_l_- participle is + typical of most of the languages of the outer band, including Marathi, + Oriya, Bengali, Bihari and Assamese. It is formed by the addition of + the Prakrit pleonastic suffix _-illa-_, which was not used by the + Prakrit of the Midland, but was common elsewhere. Compare, for + instance, the Ardhamagadhi past participle passive _an-illia-_, + brought. + + The usual verbs substantive are as follows: G. _chu_, R. _hu_ or + _chu_, I am, which are conjugated regularly as old presents, and G. + _hato_, R. _ho_ or _cho_, was, which is a past participle, like the + Hindostani (q.v.) _tha_. _Hu_, _hato_ and _ho_ are explained in the + article on that language. _Chu_ is for Skr. _[r°]cchami_, Ap. + _acchau_. The use of this base is one of the outer band survivals. + Even in Prakrit, it is not found (so far as the present writer is + aware) in the Sauraseni of the Midland. Using these as auxiliaries the + finite verb makes a whole series of periphrastic tenses. A present + definite is formed by conjugating the old present tense (not the + present participle) with the present tense of the verb substantive. + Thus, G. _calu chu_, I am going. A similar idiom is found in some + Western Hindi dialects, but Hindostani employs the present participle; + thus, _calta hu_. In G. and R., however, the imperfect is formed with + the present participle as in H. Thus, G. _hu cal^ato hato_, I was + going. So, as in H., we have a perfect _hu calyo_ (or _calelo_) _chu_, + I have gone, and a pluperfect _hu calyo_ (or _calelo_) _hato_, I had + gone. The R. periphrastic tenses are made on the same principles. With + the genitive of the G. future passive participle, _cal^ava-no_, we + have a kind of gerundive, as in _hu cal^avano chu_, I am to be gone, + i.e. I am about to go; _hu cal^avano hato_, I was about to go. + + The same series of derivative verbs occurs in G. and R. as in H. Thus, + we have a potential passive (a simple passive in G.) formed by adding + _a_ to the base, as in G. _lakh^avu_, to write, _lakhavu_, to be + written; and a causal by adding _av_ or _ad_, as in _lakhav^avu_, to + cause to write; _bes^avu_, to sit, _besad^avu_, to seat. A new passive + may be formed in G. from the causal, as in _tap^avu_, to be hot; + _tapav^avu_, to cause to be hot; to heat; _tapavavu_, to be heated. + + Several verbs have irregular past participles. These must be learnt + from the grammars. So also the numerous compound verbs, such as (G.) + _cali sak^avu_, to be able to go; _cali cuk^avu_, to have completed + going; _calya kar^avu_, to be in the habit of going, and so on. + + + Literature. + +Very little is known about the literature of Rajputana, except that it +is of large extent. It includes a number of bardic chronicles of which +only one has been partially edited, but the contents of which have been +described by Tod in his admired _Rajasthan_. It also includes a +considerable religious literature, but the whole mass of this is still +in MS. From those specimens which the present writer has examined, it +would appear that most of the authors wrote in Braj Bhasha, the Hindu +literary dialect of Hindostani (q.v.) In Marwar it is an acknowledged +fact that the literature falls into two branches, one called _Pingal_ +and couched in Braj Bhasha, and the other called _[D.]ingal_ and couched +in Rajasthani. The most admired work in [D.]ingal is the _Raghunath +Rupak_ written by Mansa Ram in the beginning of the 19th century. It is +nominally a treatise on prosody, but, like many other works of the same +kind, it contrives to pay a double debt, for the examples of the metres +are so arranged as to form a complete epic poem celebrating the deeds of +the hero Rama. + +The earliest writer of importance in Gujarati, and its most admired +poet, was Narsingh Meta, who lived in the 15th century A.D. Before him +there were writers on Sanskrit grammar, rhetoric and the like, who +employed an old form of Gujarati for their explanations. Narsingh does +not appear to have written any considerable work, his reputation +depending on his short songs, many of which exhibit much felicity of +diction. He had several successors, all admittedly his inferiors. +Perhaps the most noteworthy of these was Rewa Sankar, the translator of +the _Mahabharata_ (see SANSKRIT: _Literature_). A more important side of +Gujarati literature is its bardic chronicles, the contents of which have +been utilized by Forbes in his _Ras Mala_. Modern Gujarati literature +mostly consists of translations or imitations of English works. + + AUTHORITIES.--Volume ix. of the _Linguistic Survey of India_ contains + a full and complete account of Gujarati and Rajasthani, including + their various dialectic forms. + + For Rajasthani, see S. H. Kellogg, _Grammar of the Hindi Language_ + (2nd ed., London, 1893). In this are described several dialects of + Rajasthani. See also Ram Karn Sarma, _Marwari Vyakarana_ (Jodhpur, + 1901) (a Marwari grammar written in that language), and G. Macalister, + _Specimens of the Dialects spoken in the State of Jaipur_ (contains + specimens, vocabularies and grammars) (Allahabad, 1898). + + For Gujarati, there are numerous grammars, amongst which we may note + W. St C. Tisdall, _Simplified Grammar of the Gujarati Language_ + (London, 1892) and (the most complete) G. P. Taylor, _The Student's + Gujarati Grammar_ (2nd ed., Bombay, 1908). As for dictionaries, the + most authoritative is the _Narma-kos_ of Narmada Sankar (Bhaunagar + and Surat, 1873), in Gujarati throughout. For English readers we may + mention Shahpurji Edalji's (2nd ed., Bombay, 1868), the introduction + to which contains an account of Gujarati literature by J. Glasgow, + Belsare's (Ahmedabad, 1895), and Karbhari's (Ahmedabad, 1899). + (G. A. Gr.) + + + + +GUJRANWALA, a town and district of British India, in the Lahore division +of the Punjab. The town is situated 40 m. N. of Lahore by rail. It is of +modern growth, and owes its importance to the father and grandfather of +Maharaja Ranjit Singh, whose capital it formed during the early period +of the Sikh power. Pop. (1901) 29,224. There are manufactures of +brass-ware, jewellery, and silk and cotton scarves. + +The DISTRICT comprises an area of 3198 sq. m. In 1901 the population was +756,797, showing an increase of 29% in the decade. The district is +divided between a low alluvial tract along the rivers Chenab and Degh +and the upland between them, which forms the central portion of the +Rechna Doab, intermediate between the fertile submontane plains of +Sialkot and the desert expanses of Jhang. Part of the upland tract has +been brought under cultivation by the Chenab canal. The country is very +bare of trees, and the scenery throughout is tame and in the central +plateau becomes monotonous. It seems likely that the district once +contained the capital of the Punjab, at an epoch when Lahore had not +begun to exist. We learn from the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, Hsuan Tsang, +that about the year 630 he visited a town known as Tse-kia (or Taki), +the metropolis of the whole country of the five rivers. A mound near the +modern village of Asarur has been identified as the site of the ancient +capital. Until the Mahommedan invasions little is known of Gujranwala, +except that Taki had fallen into oblivion and Lahore had become the +chief city. Under Mahommedan rule the district flourished for a time; +but a mysterious depopulation fell upon the tract, and the whole region +seems to have been almost entirely abandoned. On the rise of Sikh power, +the waste plains of Gujranwala were seized by various military +adventurers. Charat Singh took-possession of the village of Gujranwala, +and here his grandson the great Maharaja Ranjit Singh was born. The Sikh +rule, which was elsewhere so disastrous, appears to have been an +unmitigated benefit to this district. Ranjit Singh settled large +colonies in the various villages, and encouraged cultivation throughout +the depopulated plain. In 1847 the district came under British influence +in connexion with the regency at Lahore; and in 1849 it was included in +the territory annexed after the second Sikh war. A large export trade is +carried on in cotton, wheat and other grains. The district is served by +the main line and branches of the North-Western railway. + + + + +GUJRAT, a town and district of British India, in the Rawalpindi division +of the Punjab, lying on the south-western border of Kashmir. The town +stands about 5 m. from the right bank of the river Chenab, 70 m. N. of +Lahore by rail. Pop. (1901) 19,410. It is built upon an ancient site, +formerly occupied, according to tradition, by two successive cities, the +second of which is supposed to have been destroyed in 1303, the year of +a Mongol invasion. More than 200 years later either Sher Shah or Akbar +founded the existing town. Though standing in the midst of a Jat +neighbourhood, the fort was first garrisoned by Gujars, and took the +name of Gujrat. Akbar's fort, largely improved by Gujar Singh, stands in +the centre of the town. The neighbouring shrine of the saint Shah Daula +serves as a kind of native asylum for lunatics. The town has +manufactures of furniture, inlaid work in gold and iron, brass-ware, +boots, cotton goods and shawls. + +The DISTRICT OF GUJRAT comprises a narrow wedge of sub-Himalayan plain +country, possessing few natural advantages. From the basin of the Chenab +on the south the general level rises rapidly towards the interior, +which, owing to the great distance of the water beneath the surface, +assumes a dreary and desert aspect. A range of low hills, known as the +Pabbi, traverses the northern angle of Gujrat. They are composed of a +friable Tertiary sandstone and conglomerate, destitute of vegetation, +and presenting a mere barren chaos of naked rock, deeply scored with +precipitous ravines. Immediately below the Pabbi stretches a high +plateau, terminating abruptly in a precipitous bluff some 200 ft. in +height. At the foot of this plateau is a plain, which forms the actual +valley of the Chenab and participates in the irrigation from the river +bed. + +Numerous relics of antiquity stud the surface of the district. Mounds of +ancient construction yield early coins, and bricks are found whose size +and type prove them to belong to the prehistoric period. A mound now +occupied by the village of Moga or Mong has been identified as the site +of Nicaea, the city built by Alexander the Great on the field of his +victory over Porus. The Delhi empire established its authority in this +district under Bahlol Lodi (1451-1489). A century later it was visited +by Akbar, who founded Gujrat as the seat of government. During the decay +of the Mogul power, the Ghakkars of Rawalpindi overran this portion of +the Punjab and established themselves in Gujrat about 1741. Meanwhile +the Sikh power had been asserting itself in the eastern Punjab, and in +1765 the Ghakkar chief was defeated by Sirdar Gujar Singh, chief of the +Bhangi confederacy. On his death, his son succeeded him, but after a few +months' warfare, in 1798, he submitted himself as vassal to the Maharaja +Ranjit Singh. In 1846 Gujrat first came under the supervision of British +officials. Two years later the district became the theatre for the +important engagements which decided the event of the second Sikh war. +After several bloody battles in which the British were unsuccessful, the +Sikh power was irretrievably broken at the engagement which took place +at Gujrat on the 22nd of February 1849. The Punjab then passed by +annexation under British rule. + +The district comprises an area of 2051 sq. m. In 1901 the population was +750,548, showing a decrease of 1%, compared with an increase of 10% in +the previous decade. The district has a large export trade in wheat and +other grains, oil, wool, cotton and hides. The main line and the +Sind-Sagar branch of the North-Western railway traverse it. + + + + +GULA, a Babylonian goddess, the consort of Ninib. She is identical with +another goddess, known as Bau, though it would seem that the two were +originally independent. The name Bau is more common in the oldest period +and gives way in the post-Khammurabic age to Gula. Since it is probable +that Ninib (q.v.) has absorbed the cults of minor sun-deities, the two +names may represent consorts of different gods. However this may be, the +qualities of both are alike, and the two occur as synonymous +designations of Ninib's female consort. Other names borne by this +goddess are Nin-Karrak, Ga-tum-dug and Nin-din-dug, the latter +signifying "the lady who restores to life." The designation well +emphasizes the chief trait of Bau-Gula which is that of healer. She is +often spoken of as "the great physician," and accordingly plays a +specially prominent rôle in incantations and incantation rituals +intended to relieve those suffering from disease. She is, however, also +invoked to curse those who trample upon the rights of rulers or those +who do wrong with poisonous potions. As in the case of Ninib, the cult +of Bau-Gula is prominent in Shirgulla and in Nippur. While generally in +close association with her consort, she is also invoked by herself, and +thus retains a larger measure of independence than most of the goddesses +of Babylonia and Assyria. She appears in a prominent position on the +designs accompanying the Kudurrus boundary-stone monuments of Babylonia, +being represented by a statue, when other gods and goddesses are merely +pictured by their shrines, by sacred animals or by weapons. In +neo-Babylonian days her cult continues to occupy a prominent position, +and Nebuchadrezzar II. speaks of no less than three chapels or shrines +within the sacred precincts of E-Zida in the city of Borsippa, besides a +temple in her honour at Babylon. (M. Ja.) + + + + +GULBARGA, an ancient city of India, situated in the Nizam's dominions, +70 m. S.E. of Sholapur. Pop. (1901) 29,228. Originally a Hindu city, it +was made the capital of the Bahmani kings when that dynasty established +their independence in the Deccan in 1347, and it remained such until +1422. The palaces, mosques and tombs of these kings still stand +half-ruined. The most notable building is a mosque modelled after that +of Cordova in Spain, covering an area of 38,000 sq. ft., which is +almost unique in India as being entirely covered in. Since the opening +of a station on the Great India Peninsula railway, Gulbarga has become a +centre of trade, with cotton-spinning and weaving mills. It is also the +headquarters of a district and division of the same name. The district, +as recently reconstituted, has an area of 6004 sq. m.; pop. (1901), +1,041,067. + + + + +GULF STREAM,[1] the name properly applied to the stream current which +issues from the Gulf of Mexico and flows north-eastward, following the +eastern coast of North America, and separated from it by a narrow strip +of cold water (the _Cold Wall_), to a point east of the Grand Banks off +Newfoundland. The Gulf Stream is a narrow, deep current, and its +velocity is estimated at about 80 m. a day. It is joined by, and often +indistinguishable from, a large body of water which comes from outside +the West Indies and follows the same course. The term was formerly +applied to the drift current which carries the mixed waters of the Gulf +Stream and the Labrador current eastwards across the Atlantic. This is +now usually known as the "Gulf Stream drift," although the name is not +altogether appropriate. See Atlantic. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The word "gulf," a portion of the sea partially enclosed by the + coast-line, and usually taken as referring to a tract of water larger + than a bay and smaller than a sea, is derived through the Fr. + _golfe_, from Late Gr. [Greek: kolphos], class. Gr. [Greek: kolpos], + bosom, hence bay, cf. Lat. sinus. In University slang, the term is + used of the position of those who fail to obtain a place in the + honours list at a public examination, but are allowed a "pass." + + + + +GULFWEED, in botany, a popular name for the seaweed _Sargassum +bacciferum_, one of the brown seaweeds (Phaeophyceae), large quantities +of which are found floating in the Gulf of Mexico, whence it is carried +northwards by the Gulf Stream, small portions sometimes being borne as +far as the coasts of the British Isles. It was observed by Columbus, and +is remarkable among seaweeds for its form, which resembles branches +bearing leaves and berries; the latter, to which the species-name +_bacciferum_ refers, are hollow floats answering the same purpose as the +bladders in another brown seaweed, _Fucus vesiculosus_, which is common +round the British Isles between high and low water. + + + + +GULL, SIR WILLIAM WITHEY, 1st Bart. (1816-1890), English physician, was +the youngest son of John Gull, a barge-owner and wharfinger of +Thorpe-le-Soken, Essex, and was born on the 31st of December 1816 at +Colchester. He began life as a schoolmaster, but in 1837 Benjamin +Harrison, the treasurer of Guy's Hospital, who had noticed his ability, +brought him up to London from the school at Lewes where he was usher, +and gave him employment at the hospital, where he also gained permission +to attend the lectures. In 1843 he was made a lecturer in the medical +school of the hospital, in 1851 he was chosen an assistant physician, +and in 1856 he became full physician. In 1847 he was elected Fullerian +professor of physiology in the Royal Institution, retaining the post for +the usual three years, and in 1848 he delivered the Gulstonian Lectures +at the College of Physicians, where he filled every office of honour but +that of president. He died in London on the 29th of January 1890 after a +series of paralytic strokes, the first of which had occurred nearly +three years previously. He was created a baronet in 1872, in recognition +of the skill and care he had shown in attending the prince of Wales +during his attack of typhoid in 1871. Sir William Gull's fame rested +mainly on his success as a clinical practitioner; as he said himself, he +was "a clinical physician or nothing." This success must be largely +ascribed to his remarkable powers of observation, and to the great +opportunities he enjoyed for gaining experience of disease. He was +sometimes accused of being a disbeliever in drugs. That was not the +case, for he prescribed drugs like other physicians when he considered +them likely to be beneficial. He felt, however, that their +administration was only a part of the physician's duties, and his mental +honesty and outspokenness prevented him from deluding either himself or +his patients with unwarranted notions of what they can do. But though he +regarded medicine as primarily an art for the relief of physical +suffering, he was far from disregarding the scientific side of his +profession, and he made some real contributions to medical science. His +papers were printed chiefly in _Guy's Hospital Reports_ and in the +proceedings of learned societies: among the subjects he wrote about were +cholera, rheumatic fever, taenia, paraplegia and abscess of the brain, +while he distinguished for the first time (1873) the disease now known +as myxoedema, describing it as a "cretinoid state in adults." + + + + +GULL (Welsh _gwylan_, Breton, _goelann_, whence Fr. _goêland_), the name +commonly adopted, to the almost entire exclusion of the O. Eng. MEW +(Icel. _máfur_, Dan. _maage_, Swedish _måse_, Ger. _Meve_, Dutch +_meeuw_, Fr. _mouette_), for a group of sea-birds widely and commonly +known, all belonging to the genus _Larus_ of Linnaeus, which subsequent +systematists have broken up in a very arbitrary and often absurd +fashion. The family _Laridae_ is composed of two chief groups, _Larinae_ +and _Sterninae_--the gulls and the terns, though two other subfamilies +are frequently counted, the skuas (_Stercorariinae_), and that formed by +the single genus _Rhynchops_, the skimmers; but there seems no strong +reason why the former should not be referred to the _Larinae_ and the +latter to the _Sterninae_. + +Taking the gulls in their restricted sense, Howard Saunders, who has +subjected the group to a rigorous revision (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1878, +pp. 155-211), admits forty-nine species of them, which he places in five +genera instead of the many which some prior investigators had sought to +establish. Of the genera recognized by him, _Pagophila_ and +_Rhodostethia_ have but one species each, _Rissa_ and _Xema_ two, while +the rest belong to _Larus_. The _Pagophila_ is the so-called ivory-gull, +_P. eburnea_, names which hardly do justice to the extreme whiteness of +its plumage, to which its jet-black legs offer a strong contrast. The +young, however, are spotted with black. An inhabitant of the most +northern seas, examples, most commonly young birds of the year, find +their way in winter to more temperate shores. Its breeding-place has +seldom been discovered, and the first of its eggs ever seen by +ornithologists was brought home by Sir L. M'Clintock in 1853 from Cape +Krabbe (_Journ. R. Dubl. Society_, i. 60, pl. 1); others were +subsequently obtained by Dr Malmgren in Spitsbergen. Of the species of +_Rissa_, one is the abundant and well-known kittiwake, _R. tridactyla_, +of circumpolar range, breeding, however, also in comparatively low +latitudes, as on the coasts of Britain, and in winter frequenting +southern waters. The other is _R. brevirostris_, limited to the North +Pacific, between Alaska and Kamchatka. The singular fact requires to be +noticed that in both these species the hind toe is generally deficient, +but that examples of each are occasionally found in which this +functionless member has not wholly disappeared. We have then the genus +_Larus_, which ornithologists have attempted most unsuccessfully to +subdivide. It contains the largest as well as the smallest of gulls. In +some species the adults assume a dark-coloured head every +breeding-season, in others any trace of dark colour is the mark of +immaturity. The larger species prey fiercely on other kinds of birds, +while the smaller content themselves with a diet of small animals, often +insects and worms. But however diverse be the appearance, structure or +habits of the extremities of the series of species, they are so closely +connected by intermediate forms that it is hard to find a gap between +them that would justify a generic division. Forty-three species of this +genus are recognized by Saunders. About fifteen belong to Europe and +fourteen to North America, of which (excluding stragglers) some five +only are common to both countries. Our knowledge of the geographical +distribution of several of them is still incomplete. Some have a very +wide range, others very much the reverse, as witness _L. fuliginosus_, +believed to be confined to the Galapagos, and _L. scopulinus_ and _L. +bulleri_ to New Zealand,--the last indeed perhaps only to the South +Island. The largest species of the group are the glaucous gull and +greater black-backed gull, _L. glaucus_ and _L. marinus_, of which the +former is circumpolar, and the latter nearly so--not being hitherto +found between Labrador and Japan. The smallest species is the European +_L. minutus_, though the North American _L. Philadelphia_ does not much +exceed it in size. Many of the gulls congregate in vast numbers to +breed, whether on rocky cliffs of the sea-coast or on healthy islands +in inland waters. Some of the settlements of the black-headed or +"peewit" gull, _L. ridibundus_, are a source of no small profit to their +proprietors,--the eggs, which are rightly accounted a great delicacy, +being taken on an orderly system up to a certain day, and the birds +carefully protected. Ross's or the roseate gull, _Rhodostethia rosea_, +forms a well-marked genus, distinguished not so much by the pink tint of +its plumage (for that is found in other species) but by its small +dove-like bill and wedge-shaped tail. It is an exceedingly scarce bird, +and beyond its having an Arctic habitat, little has yet been ascertained +about it. More rare still is one of the species of _Xema_, _X. +furcatum_, of which only two specimens, both believed to have come from +the Galapagos, have been seen. Its smaller congener Sabine's gull, _X. +sabinii_, is more common, and has been found breeding both in Arctic +America and in Siberia, and several examples, chiefly immature birds, +have been obtained in the British islands. Both species of _Xema_ are +readily distinguished from all other gulls by their forked tails. + (A. N.) + + + + +GULLY, JOHN (1783-1863), English sportsman and politician, was born at +Wick, near Bath, on the 21st of August 1783, the son of an innkeeper. He +came into prominence as a boxer, and in 1805 he was matched against +Henry Pearce, the "Game Chicken," before the duke of Clarence +(afterwards William IV.) and numerous other spectators, and after +fighting sixty-four rounds, which occupied an hour and seventeen +minutes, was beaten. In 1807 he twice fought Bob Gregson, the Lancashire +giant, for two hundred guineas a side, winning on both occasions. As the +landlord of the "Plough" tavern in Carey Street, London, be retired from +the ring in 1808, and took to horse-racing. In 1827 he lost £40,000 by +backing his horse "Mameluke" (for which he had paid four thousand +guineas) for the St Leger. In partnership with Robert Ridskale, in 1832, +he made £85,000 by winning the Derby and St Leger with "St Giles" and +"Margrave." In partnership with John Day he won the Two Thousand Guineas +with "Ugly Buck" in 1844, and two years later he took the Derby and the +Oaks with "Pyrrhus the First" and "Mendicant," in 1854 the Two Thousand +Guineas with "Hermit," and in the same year, in partnership with Henry +Padwick, the Derby with "Andover." Having bought Ackworth Park near +Pontefract he was M.P. from December 1832 to July 1837. In 1862 he +purchased the Wingate Grange estate and collieries. Gully was twice +married and had twelve children by each wife. He died at Durham on the +9th of March 1863. He appears to have been no relation of the subsequent +Speaker, Lord Selby. + + + + +GULPÁÏGÁN (_Jerbádegán_ of the Arab geographers), a district and city in +Central Persia, situated N.W. of Isfahán and S.E. of Irák. Together with +Khunsár it forms a small province, paying a yearly revenue of about +£6000. The city of Gulpáïgán is situated 87 m. N.W. of Isfahán, at an +elevation of 5875 ft. in 33° 24´ N. and 50° 20´ E., and has a population +of about 5000. The district is fertile and produces much grain and some +opium. Sometimes it is under the governor-general of the Isfahán +province, at others it forms part of the province of Irák, and at times, +as in 1906, is under a governor appointed from Teheran. + + + + +GUM (Fr. _gomme_, Lat. _gommi_, Gr. [Greek: kommi], possibly a Coptic +word; distinguish "gum," the fleshy covering of the base of a tooth, in +O. Eng. _góma_, palate, cf. Ger. _Gaumen_, roof of the mouth; the +ultimate origin is probably the root _gha_, to open wide, seen in Gr. +[Greek: chainein], to gape, cf. "yawn"), the generic name given to a +group of amorphous carbo-hydrates of the general formula (C6H10O5)_n, +which exist in the juices of almost all plants, and also occur as +exudations from stems, branches and fruits of plants. They are entirely +soluble or soften in water, and form with it a thick glutinous liquid or +mucilage. They yield mucic and oxalic acids when treated with nitric +acid. In structure the gums are quite amorphous, being neither organized +like starch nor crystallized like sugar. They are odourless and +tasteless, and some yield clear aqueous solutions--the real gums--while +others swell up and will not percolate filter paper--the vegetable +mucilages. The acacias and the Rosaceae yield their gums most abundantly +when sickly and in an abnormal state, caused by a fulness of sap in the +young tissues, whereby the new cells are softened and finally +disorganized; the cavities thus formed fill with liquid, which exudes, +dries and constitutes the gum. + +_Gum arabic_ may be taken as the type of the gums entirely soluble in +water. Another variety, obtained from the _Prosopis dulcis_, a +leguminous plant, is called gum mesquite or mezquite; it comes from +western Texas and Mexico, and is yellowish in colour, very brittle and +quite soluble in water. + + Gum arabic occurs in pieces of varying size, and some kinds are full + of minute cracks. The specific gravity of Turkey picked gum (the + purest variety) is 1.487, or, when dried at 100° C., 1.525. It is + soluble in water to an indefinite extent; boiled with dilute sulphuric + acid it is converted into the sugar galactose. Moderately strong + nitric acid changes it into mucic, saccharic, tartaric and oxalic + acids. Under the influence of yeast it does not enter into the + alcoholic fermentation, but M. P. E. Berthelot, by digesting with + chalk and cheese, obtained from it 12% of its weight of alcohol, along + with calcium lactate, but no appreciable quantity of sugar. Gum arabic + may be regarded as a potassium and calcium salt of gummic or arabic + acid. T. Graham (_Chemical and Physical Researches_) recommended + dialysis as the best mode of preparing gummic acid, and stated that + the power of gum to penetrate the parchment septum is 400 times less + than that of sodium chloride, and, further, that by mixing the gum + with substances of the crystalloid class the diffusibility is lowered, + and may be even reduced to nothing. The mucilage must be acidulated + with hydrochloric acid before dialysing, to set free the gummic acid. + By adding alcohol to the solution, the acid is precipitated as a white + amorphous mass, which becomes glassy at 100°. Its formula is + (C6H10O5)2H2O, and it forms compounds with nearly all bases which are + easily soluble in water. Gummic acid reddens litmus, its reaction + being about equal to carbonic acid. When solutions of gum arabic and + gelatin are mixed, oily drops of a compound of the two are + precipitated, which on standing form a nearly colourless jelly, + melting at 25° C., or by the heat of the hand. This substance can be + washed without decomposition. Gummic acid is soluble in water; when + well dried at 100° C., it becomes transformed into metagummic acid, + which is insoluble, but swells up in water like gum tragacanth. + + Gum arabic, when heated to 150° C. with two parts of acetic anhydride, + swells up to a mass which, when washed with boiling water, and then + with alcohol, gives a white amorphous insoluble powder called acetyl + arabin C6H8(C2H3O)2O5. It is saponified by alkalies, with reproduction + of soluble gum. Gum arabic is not precipitated from solution by alum, + stannous chloride, sulphate or nitrate of copper, or neutral lead + acetate; with basic lead acetate it forms a white jelly, with ferric + chloride it yields a stiff clear gelatinoid mass, and its solutions + are also precipitated by borax. + +The finer varieties are used as an emollient and demulcent in medicine, +and in the manufacture of confectionery; the commoner qualities are used +as an adhesive paste, for giving lustre to crape, silk, &c., in cloth +finishing to stiffen the fibres, and in calico-printing. For labels, +&c., it is usual to mix sugar or glycerin with it to prevent it from +cracking. + +Gum senegal, a variety of gum arabic produced by _Acacia Verek_, occurs +in pieces generally rounded, of the size of a pigeon's egg, and of a +reddish or yellow colour, and specific gravity 1.436. It gives with +water a somewhat stronger mucilage than gum arabic, from which it is +distinguished by its clear interior, fewer cracks and greater toughness. +It is imported from the river Gambia, and from Senegal and Bathurst. + +Chagual gum, a variety brought from Santiago, Chile, resembles gum +senegal. About 75% is soluble in water. Its solution is not thickened by +borax, and is precipitated by neutral lead acetate; and dilute sulphuric +acid converts it into _d_-glucose. + +_Gum tragacanth_, familiarly called gum dragon, exudes from the stem, +the lower part especially, of the various species of _Astragalus_, +especially _A. gummifer_, and is collected in Asia Minor, the chief port +of shipment being Smyrna. Formerly only what exuded spontaneously was +gathered; this was often of a brownish colour; but now the flow of the +gum is aided by incisions cut near the root, and the product is the +fine, white, flaky variety so much valued in commerce. The chief flow of +gum takes place during the night, and hot and dry weather is the most +favourable for its production. + + In colour gum tragacanth is of a dull white; it occurs in horny, + flexible and tough, thin, twisted flakes, translucent, and with + peculiar wavy lines on the surface. When dried at temperatures under + 100° C. it loses about 14% of water, and is then easily powdered. Its + specific gravity is 1.384. With water it swells by absorption, and + with even fifty times its weight of that liquid forms a thick + mucilage. Part of it only is soluble in water, and that resembles + gummic acid in being precipitated by alcohol and ammonium oxalate, but + differs from it in giving a precipitate with neutral lead acetate and + none with borax. The insoluble part of the gum is a calcium salt of + bassorin (C12H20O10), which is devoid of taste and smell, forms a + gelatinoid mass with water, but by continued boiling is rendered + soluble. + +Gum tragacanth is used in calico-printing as a thickener of colours and +mordants; in medicine as a demulcent and vehicle for insoluble powders, +and as an excipient in pills; and for setting and mending beetles and +other insect specimens. It is medicinally superior to gum acacia, as it +does not undergo acetous fermentation. The best pharmacopeial +preparation is the _Mucilago Tragacanthae_. The compound powder is a +useless preparation, as the starch it contains is very liable to +ferment. + +Gum kuteera resembles in appearance gum tragacanth, for which the +attempt has occasionally been made to substitute it. It is said to be +the product of _Sterculia urens_, a plant of the natural order +Sterculiaceae. + +_Cherry tree gum_ is an exudation from trees of the genera _Prunus_ and +_Cerasus_. It occurs in shiny reddish lumps, resembling the commoner +kinds of gum arabic. With water, in which it is only partially soluble, +it forms a thick mucilage. Sulphuric acid converts it into l-arabinose; +and nitric acid oxidizes it to oxalic acid (without the intermediate +formation of mucic acid as in the case of gum arabic). + +_Gum of Bassora_, from Bassora or Bussorah in Asia, is sometimes +imported into the London market under the name of the hog tragacanth. It +is insipid, crackles between the teeth, occurs in variable-sized pieces, +is tough, of a yellowish-white colour, and opaque, and has properties +similar to gum tragacanth. Its specific gravity is 1.36. It contains +only 1% of soluble gum or arabin. Under the name of Caramania gum it is +mixed with inferior kinds of gum tragacanth before exportation. + +_Mucilage._--Very many seeds, roots, &c., when infused in boiling water, +yield mucilages which, for the most part, consist of bassorin. Linseed, +quince seed and marshmallow root yield it in large quantity. In their +reactions the different kinds of mucilage present differences; e.g. +quince seed yields only oxalic acid when treated with nitric acid, and +with a solution of iodine in zinc iodide it gives, after some time, a +beautiful red tint. Linseed does not give the latter reaction; by +treatment with boiling nitric acid it yields mucic and oxalic acids. + + _Gum Resins._--This term is applied to the inspissated milky juices of + certain plants, which consist of gum soluble in water, resin and + essential oil soluble in alcohol, other vegetable matter and a small + amount of mineral matter. They are generally opaque and solid, and + often brittle. When finely powdered and rubbed down with water they + form emulsions, the undissolved resin being suspended in the gum + solution. Their chief uses are in medicine. Examples are ammoniacum, + asafetida, bdellium, euphorbium, gamboge, myrrh, sagapanum and + scammony. + + + + +GÜMBEL, KARL WILHELM VON, BARON (1823-1898), German geologist, was born +at Dannenfels, in the Palatinate of the Rhine, on the 11th of February +1823, and is known chiefly by his researches on the geology of Bavaria. +He received a practical and scientific education in mining at Munich and +Heidelberg, taking the degree of Ph.D. at Munich in 1862; and he was +engaged for a time at the colliery of St Ingbert and as a surveyor in +that district. In 1851, when the Geological Survey of Bavaria was +instituted, Gümbel was appointed chief geologist; in 1863 he was made +honorary professor of geognosy and surveying at the university of +Munich, and in 1879, Oberberg director of the Bavarian mining department +with which the Geological Survey was incorporated. His geological map of +Bavaria appeared in 1858, and the official memoir descriptive of the +detailed work, entitled _Geognostische Beschreibung des Königreichs +Bayern_ was issued in three parts (1861, 1868 and 1879). He subsequently +published his _Geologie von Bayern_ in 2 vols. (1884-1894), an elaborate +treatise on geology, with special reference to the geology of Bavaria. +In the course of his long and active career he engaged in much +palaeontological work: he studied the fauna of the Trias, and in 1861 +introduced the term Rhaetic for the uppermost division of that system; +he supported at first the view of the organic nature of _Eozoon_ (1866 +and 1876), he devoted special attention to Foraminifera, and described +those of the Eocene strata of the northern Alps (1868); he dealt also +with Receptaculites (1875) which he regarded as a genus belonging to the +Foraminifera. He died on the 18th of June 1898. + + + + +GUMBINNEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of East Prussia, +on the Pissa, an affluent of the Pregel, 22 m. by rail S.W. of +Eydtkuhnen on the line to Königsberg. Pop. (1905), 14,194. The +surrounding country is pleasant and fruitful, and the town has spacious +and regular streets shaded by linden trees. It has a Roman Catholic and +three Evangelical churches, a synagogue, a gymnasium, two public +schools, a public library, a hospital and an infirmary. In the market +square there is a statue of the king of Prussia Frederick William I., +who in 1724 raised Gumbinnen to the rank of a town, and in 1732 brought +to it a number of persons who had been driven from Salzburg by religious +persecution. On the bridge over the Pissa a monument has been erected to +the soldiers from the neighbourhood who fell in the Franco-German war of +1870-71. Iron founding and the manufacture of machinery, wool, cotton, +and linen weaving, stocking-making, tanning, brewing and distilling are +the principal industries. There are horse and cattle markets, and some +trade in corn and linseed. + + See J. Schneider, _Aus Gumbinnens Vergangenheit_ (Gumbinnen, 1904). + + + + +GUMBO, or OKRA, termed also _Okro, Ochro, Ketmia, Gubbo_ and Syrian +mallow (Sans. _Tindisa_, Bengali _Dheras_, Pers. _Bámiyah_--the _Bammia_ +of Prosper Alpinus; Fr. _Gombaut_, or better _Gombo_, and _Ketmie +comestible_), _Hibiscus esculentus_, a herbaceous hairy annual plant of +the natural order _Malvaceae_, probably of African origin, and now +naturalized or cultivated in all tropical countries. The leaves are +cordate, and 3 to 5-lobed, and the flowers yellow, with a crimson +centre; the fruit or pod, the _Bendi-Kai_ of the Europeans of southern +India, is a tapering, 10-angled capsule, 4 to 10 in. in length, except +in the dwarf varieties of the plant, and contains numerous oval +dark-coloured seeds, hairy at the base. Three distinct varieties of the +gumbo (_Quiabo_ and _Quimgombo_) in Brazil have been described by +Pacheco. The unripe fruit is eaten either pickled or prepared like +asparagus. It is also an ingredient in various dishes, e.g. the _gumbo_ +of the Southern United States and the _calalou_ of Jamaica; and on +account of the large amount of mucilage it contains, it is extensively +consumed, both fresh and in the form of the prepared powder, for the +thickening of broths and soups. For winter use it is salted or sliced +and dried. The fruit is grown on a very large scale in the vicinity of +Constantinople. It was one of the esculents of Egypt in the time of +Abul-Abbas el-Nebati, who journeyed to Alexandria in 1216 (Wüstenfeld, +_Gesch. d. arab. Ärzte_, p. 118, Gött., 1840), and is still cultivated +by the Egyptians, who called it _Bammgé_. + +The seeds of the gumbo are used as a substitute for coffee. From their +demulcent and emollient properties, the leaves and immature fruit have +long been in repute in the East for the preparation of poultices and +fomentations. Alpinus (1592) mentions the employment of their decoction +in Egypt in ophthalmia and in uterine and other complaints. + + The musk okra (Sans., _Latákasturiká_, cf. the Gr. [Greek: kástor]; + Bengali, _Latákasturi_; Ger. _Bisamkörnerstrauch_; Fr. _Ketmie + musquée_), _Hibiscus Abelmoschus_ (_Abelmoschus moschatus_), + indigenous to India, and cultivated in most warm regions of the globe, + is a suffruticose plant, bearing a conical 5-ridged pod about 3 in. in + length, within which are numerous brown reniform seeds, smaller than + those of _H. esculentus._ The seeds possess a musky odour, due to an + oleo-resin present in the integument, and are known to perfumers under + the name of _ambrette_ as a substitute for musk. They are said to be + used by the Arabs for scenting coffee. The seeds (in the Fantee + language, _Incromahom_) are used in Africa as beads; and powdered and + steeped in rum they are valued in the West Indies as a remedy for + snakebites. The plant yields an excellent fibre, and, being rich in + mucilage, is employed in Upper India for the clarifying of sugar. The + best-perfumed seeds are reported to come from Martinique. + + See P. Alpinus, _De plantis Aegypti_, cap. xxvii. p. 38 (Venice, + 1592); J. Sontheimer's _Abd Allah ibn Ahmad_, &c., i. 118 (Stuttgart, + 1840-1842); P. P. Pacheco, "La Ketmie potagère ou comestible," _La + Belgique horticole_, iv. 63 (1853); Della Sudda, "De l'emploi à + Constantinople de la racine de l'Hibiscus esculentus," _Répert. de + pharm._, January 1860, p. 229; E. J. Waring, _Pharm. of India_, p. 35 + (1868); O. Popp, "Über die Aschenbestandteile der Samen von Acacia + nilotica und Hibiscus esculentus in Ägypten," _Arch. der Pharm._ cxcv. + p. 140 (1871); Drury, _The Useful Plants of India_, pp. 1, 2 (2nd ed., + 1873); U. C. Dutt, _The Mat. Med. of the Hindus_, pp. 123, 321 (1877); + Lanessan, _Hist. des drogues_, i. 181-184 (1878); G. Watt, _Dictionary + of the Economic Products of India_ (1890). + + + + +GUMTI, a river of northern India. It rises in a depression in the +Pilibhit district of the United Provinces, and after a sinuous but +generally south-easterly course of 500 m. past Lucknow and Jaunpur joins +the Ganges in Ghazipar district. At Jaunpur it is a fine stream, spanned +by a 16th-century bridge of sixteen arches, and is navigable by vessels +of 17 tons burden. There is also a small river of the same name in the +Tippera district of eastern Bengal and Assam. + + + + +GUMULJINA, or GUMURDJINA, a town of European Turkey, in the vilayet of +Adrianople. Pop. (1905), about 8000, of whom three-fourths are Turks and +the remainder Greeks, Jews or Armenians. Gumuljina is situated on the +river Karaja-Su, south of the eastern extremity of the Rhodope range of +mountains and 13 m. inland from the Aegean Sea. It has a station on the +railway between Salonica and Dédéagatch. The district produces wheat, +maize, barley and tobacco; sericulture and viticulture are both +practised on a limited scale. A cattle fair is held annually on Greek +Palm Sunday. Copper and antimony are found in the neighbourhood. + + + + +GUMUS, or GUMZ, Negroes of the Shangalla group of tribes, dwelling in +the mountainous district of Fazogli on the Sudan-Abyssinian frontier. +They live in independent groups, some being mountaineers while others +are settled on the banks of the Blue Nile. Gumz in the native tongue +signifies "people," and the sub-tribes have distinctive names. The Gumus +are nature-worshippers, God and the sun being synonymous. On ceremonial +occasions they carry parasols of honour (see SHANGALLA). + + + + +GÜMÜSH-KHANEH, the chief town of a sanjak of the same name in the +Trebizond vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, situated on high ground (4400 ft.) +in the valley of the Kharshut Su, about ½ m. to south of the +Trebizond-Erzerum _chaussée_. The silver mines from which the place +takes its name were noted in ancient times and are mentioned by Marco +Polo. Pop. about 3000, chiefly Greeks, who are in the habit of +emigrating to great distances to work in mines. They practically supply +the whole lead and silver-mining labour in Asiatic Turkey, and in +consequence the Greek bishop of Gümüsh-Khaneh has under his jurisdiction +all the communities engaged in this particular class of mines. + + + + +GUN, a general term for a weapon, tubular in form, from which a +projectile is discharged by means of an explosive. When applied to +artillery the word is confined to those pieces of ordnance which have a +direct as opposed to a high-angle fire, in which case the terms +"howitzer" and "mortar" are used (see ORDNANCE and MACHINE-GUN). "Gun" +as applied to firearms which are carried in the hand and fired from the +shoulder, the old "hand gun," is now chiefly used of the sporting +shot-gun, with which this article mainly deals; in military usage this +type of weapon, whether rifle, carbine, &c., is known collectively as +"small arms" (see RIFLE and PISTOL). The origin of the word, which in +Mid. Eng. is _gonne_ or _gunne_, is obscure, but it has been suggested +by Professor W. W. Skeat that it conceals a female name, _Gunnilde_ or +_Gunhilda_. The names, e.g. Mons Meg at Edinburgh Castle and _faule +Grete_ (heavy Peg), known to readers of Carlyle's _Frederick the Great_, +will be familiar parallelisms. "Gunne" would be a shortened "pet name" +of Gunnhilde. The _New English Dictionary_ finds support for the +suggestion in the fact that in Old Norwegian _gunne_ and _hilde_ both +mean "war," and quotes an inventory of war material at Windsor Castle in +1330-1331, where is mentioned "una magna balista de cornu quae vocatur +Domina Gunilda." Another suggestion for the origin of the word is that +the word represents a shortened form, _gonne_, of a supposed French +_mangonne_, a mangonel, but the French word is _mangonneau_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Hand Gun.] + +Firearms are said to have been first used in European warfare in the +14th century. The hand gun (see fig. 1) came into practical use in 1446 +and was of very rude construction. It consisted of a simple iron or +brass tube with a touch-hole at the top fixed in a straight stock of +wood, the end of which passed under the right armpit when the "gonne" +was about to be fired. A similar weapon (see fig. 2) was also used by +the horse-soldier, with a ring at the end of the stock, by which it was +suspended by a cord round the neck; a forked rest, fitted by a ring to +the saddlebow, served to steady the gun. This rest, when not in use, +hung down in front of the right leg. A match was made of cotton or hemp +spun slack, and boiled in a strong solution of saltpetre or in the lees +of wine. The touch-hole was first placed on the top of the barrel, but +afterwards at the side, with a small pan underneath to hold the priming, +and guarded by a cover moving on a pivot. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Mounted Man with Hand Gun.] + +[Illustration: From General Hardÿ de Périnï's _Turenne et Condé +1626-1675_. + +FIG. 3.--Musketeer, 1626.] + +An improvement in firearms took place in the first year of the reign of +Henry VII., or at the close of Edward IV., by fixing a cock (Fr. +_serpentine_) on the hand gun to hold the match, which was brought down +to the priming by a trigger, whence the term matchlock. This weapon is +still in use among the Chinese, Tatars, Sikhs, Persians and Turks. An +improvement in the stock was also made during this period by forming it +with a wide butt end to be placed against the right breast. Subsequently +the stock was bent, a German invention, and the arm was called a +hackbutt or hagbut, and the smaller variety a demihague. The arquebus +and hackbutt were about a yard in length, including barrel and stock, +and the demihague was about half the size and weight, the forerunner of +the pistol. The arquebus was the standard infantry firearm in Europe +from the battle of Pavia to the introduction of the heavier and more +powerful musket. It did not as a rule require a rest, as did the musket. +The wheel-lock, an improvement on the matchlock, was invented in +Nuremberg in 1517; was first used at the siege of Parma in 1521; was +brought to England in 1530, and continued in partial use there until the +time of Charles II. This wheel-lock consisted of a fluted or grooved +steel wheel which protruded into the priming pan, and was connected with +a strong spring. The cock, also regulated by a spring, was fitted with a +piece of iron pyrites. In order to discharge the gun the lock was wound +up by a key, the cock was let down on the priming pan, the pyrites +resting on the wheel; on the trigger being pressed the wheel was +released and rapidly revolved, emitting sparks, which ignited the powder +in the pan. The complicated and expensive nature of this lock, with its +liability to injury, no doubt prevented its general adoption. + +[Illustration: From General Hardÿ de Périnï's _Turenne et Condé, +1626-1675_. + +FIGS. 4 and 5.--Musketeers, 1675.] + +About 1540 the Spaniards constructed a larger and heavier firearm +(matchlock), carrying a ball of 10 to the pound, called a musket. This +weapon was introduced into England before the middle of the 16th +century, and soon came into general use throughout Europe. The snaphance +was invented about this period in Germany, and from its comparative +cheapness was much used in England, France and Holland. It held a flint +instead of the pyrites of the wheel or firelock, which ignited the +powder in the pan by striking on a piece of furrowed steel, when +released by the trigger, and emitting sparks. + +As a sporting weapon the gun may be said to date from the invention of +the wheel-lock in the beginning of the 16th century, though firearms +were used for sporting purposes in Italy, Spain, Germany, and to some +extent in France, in the 15th century. Before that period the longbow in +England and the crossbow on the Continent were the usual weapons of the +chase. In Great Britain little use appears to have been made of firearms +for game shooting until the latter half of the 17th century, and the +arms then used for the purpose were entirely of foreign make. + +The French gunmakers of St-Étienne claim for their town that it is the +oldest centre of the firearms industry. They do not appear to have made +more than the barrels of the finest sporting arms, and these even were +sometimes made in Paris. The production of firearms by the artists of +Paris reached its zenith about the middle of the 17th century. The +Italian, German, Spanish and Russian gunsmiths also showed great skill +in the elegance and design of their firearms, the Spaniards in +particular being makers of fine barrels. The pistol (q.v.) is understood +to have been made for the first time about 1540 at Pistoia in Italy. +About 1635 the modern firelock or flint-lock was invented, which only +differed from the snaphance by the cover of the pan forming part of the +furrowed steel struck by the flint. Originally the priming was put into +the pan from a flask containing a fine-grained powder called serpentine +powder. Later the top of the cartridge was bitten off and the pan filled +therefrom before loading. The mechanism of the flint-lock musket +rendered all this unnecessary, as, in loading, a portion of the charge +passed through the vent into the pan, where it was held by the cover or +hammer. The matchlock, as a military weapon, gradually gave way to the +firelock, which came into general use in the last half of the 17th +century, and was the weapon of Marlborough's and Wellington's armies. +This was the famous "Brown Bess" of the British army. The highest +development of the flint-lock is found in the fowling-pieces of the end +of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, particularly those made +by Joseph Manton, the celebrated English gunsmith and inventor. The +Napoleonic wars afforded English gunmakers an opportunity, which they +fully utilized, of gaining the supremacy over their foreign competitors +in the gunmaking trade. English gunmakers reduced the weight, improved +the shooting powers, and perfected the lock mechanism of the sporting +gun, and increased the range and efficiency of the rifle. This +transference of the gunmaking craft from the Continent to England was +also assisted by the tyranny of the foreign gunmaking gilds. In 1637 the +London gunmakers obtained their charter of incorporation. The important +gunmaking industry of Birmingham dates from 1603, and soon rivalled that +of London. Double shot-guns do not appear to have been generally used +until the 19th century. The first successful double guns were built with +the barrels over and under, and not side by side, and were invented +about 1616 by one Guilliano Bossi of Rome. In 1784 double shot guns were +described as a novelty. Joseph Manton patented the elevated rib which +rested on the barrels. The general success of the double gun was +eventually due to the light weight which the better material and +workmanship of the best gunmakers made possible, and to the quickness +and certainty of ignition of the modern cartridge. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Moorish Flint-lock.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Indian Matchlock.] + +The objections to the flint-lock were that it did not entirely preserve +the priming from wet, and that the flint sparks sometimes failed to +ignite the charge. In 1807 the Rev. Alexander John Forsyth obtained a +patent for priming with a fulminating powder made of chlorate of potash, +sulphur and charcoal, which exploded by concussion. This important +improvement in firearms was not recognized and adopted by the military +authorities until more than thirty years later. In the meantime it was +gradually developed, and the copper percussion cap invented, by various +gunmakers and private individuals. Thomas Shaw of Philadelphia first +used fulminate in a steel cap in 1814, which he changed to a copper cap +in 1816. It was not until the introduction of the copper cap that the +percussion gun could be considered in every way superior to the flint. +In 1834, in the reign of William IV., Forsyth's invention was tested at +Woolwich by firing 6000 rounds from six flint-lock muskets, and a +similar number from six percussion muskets, in all weathers. This trial +established the percussion principle. The shooting was found to be more +accurate, the recoil less, the charge of powder having been reduced from +6 to 4½ drs., the rapidity of firing greater and the number of +miss-fires much reduced, being as 1 to 26 nearly in favour of the +percussion system. In consequence of this successful trial the military +flint-lock in 1839 was altered to suit the percussion principle. This +was easily accomplished by replacing the hammer and pan by a nipple with +a hole through its centre to the vent or touch-hole, and by replacing +the cock which held the flint by a smaller cock or hammer with a hollow +to fit on the nipple when released by the trigger. On the nipple was +placed the copper cap containing the detonating composition, now made of +three parts of chlorate of potash, two of fulminate of mercury and one +of powdered glass. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 18.] + +In 1840 the Austrian army was supplied with the percussion musket, and +in 1842 a new model percussion musket with a block or back-sight for 150 +yds. was issued to the British army, 11 lb. 6 oz. in weight, 4 ft. 6¾ +in. in length without bayonet, 6 ft. with bayonet and with a barrel 3 +ft. 3 in. in length, firing a bullet of 14½ to the lb. with 4½ drs. of +powder. This musket was larger in bore than that of France, Belgium, +Russia and Austria, and thus had the advantage of being able to fire +their balls, while the English balls could not be fired from their +barrels. But the greater weight and momentum of the English ball was +counteracted by the excess of windage. This percussion musket of 1842, +the latest development of the renowned Brown Bess, continued in use in +the British army until partially superseded in 1851 by the Minié rifle, +and altogether by the Enfield rifle in 1855. For further information as +to the history and development of military, target and sporting rifles +see RIFLE. + + Illustrations are given herewith of a German carbine of the 16th + century, with double wheel-lock (fig. 8); a snaphance (fig. 9); + several forms of the Brown Bess or flint-lock military musket + (English, William III., fig. 10; George II., fig. 11; George III., + fig. 12; French, Napoleon, fig. 13); and of the percussion musket + adopted in the British service in 1839 (fig. 14). Examples of + non-European firearms are shown in figs. 6 and 7, representing a + Moorish flint-lock and an Indian matchlock respectively. Figs. 15-18 + represent various carbines, musketoons and blunderbusses, fig. 15 + showing a small blunderbuss or musketoon of the early 18th century, + fig. 16 a large blunderbuss of 1750, fig. 17 a flint-lock cavalry + carbine of about 1825 and fig. 18 a percussion carbine of 1830. All + these are drawn from arms in the museum of the Royal United Service + Institution, London. + +_Modern Shot Guns._--The modern sporting breech-loaders may be said to +have originated with the invention of the cartridge-case containing its +own means of ignition. The breech-loading mechanism antedated the +cartridge by many years, the earliest breech-loading hand guns dating +back to 1537. Another distinct type of breech-loader was invented in +France about the middle of the 17th century. During the 17th and 18th +centuries breech-loading arms were very numerous and of considerable +variety. The original cartridge, a charge of powder and bullet in a +paper envelope, dates from 1586. These were used with muzzle-loaders, +the base of the cartridge being ripped or bitten off by the soldier +before placing in the barrel. It was only when the detonating cap came +into use that the paper cartridge answered well in breech-loaders. The +modern breech-loader has resulted from a gradual series of improvements, +and not from any one great invention. Its essential feature is the +prevention of all escape of gas at the breech when the gun is fired by +means of an expansive cartridge-case containing its own means of +ignition. The earlier breech-loaders were not gas-tight, because the +cartridge-cases were either consumable or the load was placed in a +strong non-expansive breech-plug. The earliest efficient modern +cartridge-case was the pin-fire, patented by Houiller, a Paris gunsmith, +in 1847, with a thin weak shell which expanded by the force of the +explosion, fitted perfectly in the barrel, and thus formed an efficient +gas check. Probably no invention connected with firearms has wrought +such changes in the principle of gun-construction as those effected by +the expansive cartridge-case. This invention has completely +revolutionized the art of gunmaking, has been successfully applied to +all descriptions of firearms, and has produced a new and important +industry--that of cartridge manufacture. + +About 1836, C. Lefaucheux, a Paris gunsmith, improved the old Pauly +system of breech-loading, but its breech action was a crude mechanism, +with single grip worked by a bottom lever. The double grip for the +barrels was the subsequent invention of a Birmingham gunmaker. The +central-fire cartridge, practically as now in use, was introduced into +England in 1861 by Daw. It is said to have been the invention of Pottet, +of Paris, improved upon by Schneider, and gave rise to considerable +litigation in respect of its patent rights. Daw, who controlled the +English patents, was the only exhibitor of central-fire guns and +cartridges at the International Exhibition of 1862. In his system the +barrels work on a hinge joint, the bottom lever withdraws the +holding-down bolt; the cartridge is of the modern type, the cap being +detonated by a striker passing through the standing breech to the inner +face. The cartridge-case is withdrawn by a sliding extractor fitted to +the breech ends of the barrels. Daw was subsequently defeated in his +control of the patents by Eley Bros., owing to the patent not having +been kept in force in France. The modern breech-loading gun has been +gradually and steadily improved since 1860. Westley Richards adopted and +improved Matthews' top-lever mechanism. About 1866 the rebounding lock +was introduced, and improved in 1869. The treble wedge-fast mechanism +for holding down the barrels was originated by W. W. Greener in 1865, +and perfected in 1873. A very important improvement was the introduction +of the hammerless gun, in which the mechanism for firing is placed +entirely within the gun. This was made possible by the introduction of +the central-fire cartridge. In 1862 Daw, and in 1866 Green, introduced +hammerless guns in which the cocking was effected by the under lever. +These guns did not attain popularity. In 1871 T. Murcott patented a +hammerless gun, the first to obtain distinct success. This also was a +lever-cocking gun. About the same time Needham introduced the principle +of utilizing the weight of the barrels to assist in cocking. In 1875 +Anson and Deeley utilized the fore-end attached to the barrels to cock +the locks. From this date hammerless guns became really popular. +Subsequently minor improvements were made by many other gun-makers, +including alternative movements introduced by Purdey and Rogers. +Improvements were also introduced by Westley Richards, Purdey and +others, including cocking by means of the mainspring. In 1874 J. Needham +introduced the ejector mechanism, by which each empty cartridge-case is +separately and automatically thrown out of the gun when the breech is +opened, the necessary force being provided by the mainspring of the +lock. W. W. Greener and some other gunmakers have since introduced minor +modifications and improvements of this mechanism. Next in turn came +Perks and other inventors, who separated the ejector mechanism from the +lock work. This very decided improvement is universal to-day. A later +innovation in the modern breech-loader is the single trigger mechanism +introduced by some of the leading English gun-makers, by which both +barrels can be fired in succession by a single trigger. This improvement +enables both barrels to be rapidly fired without altering the grip of +the right hand, but deprives the shooter of the power of selecting his +barrel. + +Repeating or magazine shot-guns on the principle of the repeating rifle, +with a magazine below the single firing barrel, are also made by some +American and continental gun-makers, but as yet have not come into +general use, being comparatively cumbersome and not well balanced. The +difficulty of a shifting balance as each cartridge is fired has also yet +to be overcome. Several varieties of a combination rifle and shot-gun +are also made, for a description of which see RIFLE. + +The chief purposes for which modern shot-guns are required are +game-shooting, trap-shooting at pigeons and wild-fowling. The game gun +may be any bore from 32 to 10 gauge. The usual standard bore is 12 gauge +unless it be for a boy, when it is 20 gauge. The usual weight of the +12-bore double-barrelled game gun is from 6 to 7 lb. with barrels 30 in. +long, there, however, being a present tendency to barrels of a shorter +length. These barrels are made of steel, as being a stronger and more +homogeneous material than the barrels formerly produced, which were +mostly of Damascus pattern, a mixture of iron and steel. Steel barrels, +drilled from the solid block, were originally produced by Whitworth. +To-day the makers of steel for this purpose are many. The standard +charge for the 12-bore is 42 grains of smokeless powder and 1 oz. to +1-1/8th oz. of shot. Powder of a lighter gravimetric density is +occasionally employed, when the weight of the charge is reduced to 33 +grains. This charge of powder corresponds to the 3 drams of black powder +formerly used. The ordinary game gun should have a killing circle of 30 +in. at 30 yds. with the first barrel and at 40 yds. with the second. +Improved materials and methods of manufacture, and what is known as +"choke" boring of the barrels, have enabled modern gun-makers to +regulate the shooting of guns to a nicety. Choke-boring is the +constriction of the diameter of the barrel near the muzzle, and was +known in America in the early part of the 19th century. In 1875 Pape of +Newcastle was awarded a prize for the invention of choke-boring, there +being no other claimant. The methods of choke-boring have since been +varied and improved by the leading English gun-makers. The pigeon gun is +usually heavier than the game gun and more choked. It generally weighs +from 7 to 8 lb. Its weight, by club rules, is frequently restricted to +7½ lb. and its bore to 12 gauge. The standard wild-fowling gun is a +double 8-bore with 30-in. barrels weighing 15 lb. and firing a charge of +7 drams of powder and 2¾ to 3 oz. of shot. These guns are also made in +both smaller and larger varieties, including a single barrel 4-bore, +which is the largest gun that can be used from the shoulder, and single +barrel punt guns of 1½-in. bore, weighing 100 lb. While no conspicuous +advance in improved gun-mechanism and invention has been made during the +last few years, the materials and methods of manufacture, and the +quality and exactitude of the gun-maker's work, have continued gradually +and steadily to improve. English, and particularly London-made, guns +stand pre-eminent all over the world. (H. S.-K.) + + + + +GUNA, a town and military station in Central India, in the state of +Gwalior. Pop. (1901) 11,452. After the Mutiny, it became the +headquarters of the Central India Horse, whose commanding officer acts +as ex-officio assistant to the resident of Gwalior; and its trade has +developed rapidly since the opening of a station on a branch of the +Great Indian Peninsula railway in 1899. + + + + +GUNCOTTON, an explosive substance produced by the action of strong +nitric acid on cellulose at the ordinary temperature; chemically it is a +nitrate of cellulose, or a mixture of nitrates, according to some +authorities. The first step in the history of guncotton was made by T. +J. Pelouze in 1838, who observed that when paper or cotton was immersed +in cold concentrated nitric acid the materials, though not altered in +physical appearance, became heavier, and after washing and drying were +possessed of self-explosive properties. At the time these products were +thought to be related to the nitrated starch obtained a little +previously by Henri Braconnot and called _xyloidin_; they are only +related in so far as they are nitrates. C. F. Schönbein of Basel +published his discovery of guncotton in 1846 (_Phil. Mag._ [3], 31, p. +7), and this was shortly after followed by investigations by R. R. +Böttger of Frankfort and Otto and Knop, all of whom added to our +knowledge of the subject, the last-named introducing the use of +sulphuric along with nitric acid in the nitration process. The chemical +composition and constitution of guncotton has been studied by a +considerable number of chemists and many divergent views have been put +forward on the subject. W. Crum was probably the first to recognize that +some hydrogen atoms of the cellulose had been replaced by an oxide of +nitrogen, and this view was supported more or less by other workers, +especially Hadow, who appears to have distinctly recognized that at +least three compounds were present, the most violently explosive of +which constituted the main bulk of the product commonly obtained and +known as guncotton. This particular product was insoluble in a mixture +of ether and alcohol, and its composition could be expressed by the term +tri-nitrocellulose. Other products were soluble in the ether-alcohol +mixture: they were less highly nitrated, and constituted the so-called +collodion guncotton. + +The smallest empirical formula for cellulose (q.v.) may certainly be +written C6H10O5. How much of the hydrogen and oxygen are in the +hydroxylic (OH) form cannot be absolutely stated, but from the study of +the acetates at least three hydroxyl groups may be assumed. The oldest +and perhaps most reasonable idea represents guncotton as cellulose +trinitrate, but this has been much disputed, and various formulae, some +based on cellulose as C12H20O10, others on a still more complex +molecule, have been proposed. The constitution of guncotton is a +difficult matter to investigate, primarily on account of the very +insoluble nature of cellulose itself, and also from the fact that +comparatively slight variations in the concentration and temperature of +the acids used produce considerable differences in the products. The +nitrates are also very insoluble substances, all the so-called solvents +merely converting them into jelly. No method has yet been devised by +which the molecular weight can be ascertained.[1] The products of the +action of nitric acid on cellulose are not nitro compounds in the sense +that picric acid is, but are nitrates or nitric esters. + +Guncotton is made by immersing cleaned and dried cotton waste in a +mixture of strong nitric and sulphuric acids. The relative amounts of +the acids in the mixture and the time of duration of treatment of the +cotton varies somewhat in different works, but the underlying idea is +the same, viz. employing such an excess of sulphuric over nitric that +the latter will be rendered anhydrous or concentrated and maintained as +such in solution in the sulphuric acid, and that the sulphuric acid +shall still be sufficiently strong to absorb and combine with the water +produced during the actual formation of the guncotton. In the recent +methods the cotton remains in contact with the acids for two to four +hours at the ordinary air temperature (15° C.), in which time it is +almost fully nitrated, the main portion, say 90%, having a composition +represented by the formula[2] C6H7O2(NO3)3, the remainder consisting of +lower nitrated products, some oxidation products and traces of unchanged +cellulose and cellulose sulphates. The acid is then slowly run out by an +opening in the bottom of the pan in which the operation is conducted, +and water distributed carefully over its surface displaces it in the +interstices of the cotton, which is finally subjected to a course of +boiling and washing with water. This washing is a most important part of +the process. On its thoroughness depends the removal of small quantities +of products other than the nitrates, for instance, some sulphates and +products from impurities contained in the original cellulose. Cellulose +sulphates are one, and possibly the main, cause of instability in +guncotton, and it is highly desirable that they should be completely +hydrolysed and removed in the washing process. The nitrated product +retains the outward form of the original cellulose. In the course of the +washing, according to a method introduced by Sir F. Abel, the cotton is +ground into a pulp, a process which greatly facilitates the complete +removal of acids, &c. This pulp is finally drained, and is then either +compressed, while still moist, into slabs or blocks when required for +blasting purposes, or it is dried when required for the manufacture of +propellants. Sometimes a small quantity of an alkali (e.g. sodium +carbonate) is added to the final washing water, so that quantities of +this alkaline substance ranging from 0.5% to a little over 1% are +retained by the guncotton. The idea is that any traces of acid not +washed away by the washing process or produced later by a slow +decomposition of the substance will be thereby neutralized and rendered +harmless. Guncotton in an air-dry state, whether in the original form or +after grinding to pulp and compressing, burns with very great rapidity +but does not detonate unless confined. + +Immediately after the discovery of guncotton Schönbein proposed its +employment as a substitute for gunpowder, and General von Lenk carried +out a lengthy and laborious series of experiments intending to adapt it +especially for artillery use. All these and many subsequent attempts to +utilize it, either loose or mechanically compressed in any way, signally +failed. However much compressed by mechanical means it is still a porous +mass, and when it is confined as in a gun the flame and hot gases from +the portion first ignited permeate the remainder, generally causing it +actually to detonate, or to burn so rapidly that its action approaches +detonation. The more closely it is confined the greater is the pressure +set up by a small part of the charge burning, and the more completely +will the explosion of the remainder assume the detonating form. The +employment of guncotton as a propellant was possible only after the +discovery that it could be gelatinized or made into a colloid by the +action of so-called solvents, e.g. ethylacetate and other esters, +acetone and a number of like substances (see CORDITE). + + When quite dry guncotton is easily detonated by a blow on an anvil or + hard surface. If dry and warm it is much more sensitive to percussion + or friction, and also becomes electrified by friction under those + conditions. The amount of contained moisture exerts a considerable + effect on its sensitiveness. With about 2% of moisture it can still be + detonated on an anvil, but the action is generally confined to the + piece struck. As the quantity of contained water increases it becomes + difficult or even impossible to detonate by an ordinary blow. + Compressed dry guncotton is easily detonated by an initiative + detonator such as mercuric fulminate. Guncotton containing more than + 15% of water is uninflammable, may be compressed or worked without + danger and is much more difficult to detonate by a fulminate + detonator than when dry.[3] A small charge of dry guncotton will, + however, detonate the wet material, and this peculiarity is made use + of in the employment of guncotton for blasting purposes. A charge of + compressed wet guncotton may be exploded, even under water, by the + detonation of a small primer of the dry and waterproofed material, + which in turn can be started by a small fulminate detonator. The + explosive wave from the dry guncotton primer is in fact better + responded to by the wet compressed material than the dry, and its + detonation is somewhat sharper than that of the dry. It is not + necessary for the blocks of wet guncotton to be actually in contact if + they be under water, and the peculiar explosive wave can also be + conveyed a little distance by a piece of metal such as a railway rail. + The more nearly the composition of guncotton approaches that + represented by C6H7O2(NO3)3, the more stable is it as regards storing + at ordinary temperatures, and the higher the igniting temperature. + Carefully prepared guncotton after washing with alcohol-ether until + nothing more dissolves may require to be heated to 180-185° C. before + inflaming. Ordinary commercial guncottons, containing from 10 to 15% + of lower nitrated products, will ignite as a rule some 20-25° lower. + + Assuming the above formula to represent guncotton, there is sufficient + oxygen for internal combustion without any carbon being left. The + gaseous mixture obtained by burning guncotton in a vacuum vessel + contains steam, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, nitric + oxide, and methane. When slowly heated in a vacuum vessel until + ignition takes place, some nitrogen dioxide, NO2, is also produced. + When kept for some weeks at a temperature of 100° in steam, a + considerable number of fatty acids, some bases, and glucose-like + substances result. Under different pressures the relative amounts of + the combustion products vary considerably. Under very great pressures + carbon monoxide, steam and nitrogen are the main products, but nitric + oxide never quite disappears. + + Dilute mineral acids have little or no action on guncotton. Strong + sulphuric acid in contact with it liberates first nitric acid and + later oxides of nitrogen, leaving a charred residue or a brown + solution according to the quantity of acid. It sometimes fires on + contact with strong sulphuric acid, especially when slightly warmed. + The alkali hydroxides (e.g. sodium hydroxide) will in a solid state + fire it on contact. Strong or weak solutions of these substances also + decompose it, producing some alkali nitrate and nitrite, the cellulose + molecule being only partially restored, some quantity undergoing + oxidation. Ammonia is also active, but not quite in the same manner as + the alkali hydroxides. Dry guncotton heated in ammonia gas detonates + at about 70°, and ammonium hydroxide solutions of all strengths slowly + decompose it, yielding somewhat complex products. Alkali + sulphohydrates reduce guncotton, or other nitrated celluloses, + completely to cellulose. The production of the so-called "artificial + silk" depends on this action. + + A characteristic difference between guncotton and collodion cotton is + the insolubility of the former in ether or alcohol or a mixture of + these liquids. The so-called collodion cottons are nitrated + celluloses, but of a lower degree of nitration (as a rule) than + guncotton. They are sometimes spoken of as "lower" or "soluble" + cottons or nitrates. The solubility in ether-alcohol may be owing to a + lower degree of nitration, or to the temperature conditions under + which the process of manufacture has been carried on. If guncotton be + correctly represented by the formula C6H7O2(NO3)3, it should contain a + little more than 14% of nitrogen. Guncottons are examined for degree + of nitration by the nitrometer, in which apparatus they are decomposed + by sulphuric acid in contact with mercury, and all the nitrogen is + evolved as nitric oxide, NO, which is measured and the weight of its + contained nitrogen calculated. Ordinary guncottons seldom contain more + than 13% of nitrogen, and in most cases the amount does not exceed + 12.5%. Generally speaking, the lower the nitrogen content of a + guncotton, as found by the nitrometer, the higher the percentage of + matters soluble in a mixture of ether-alcohol. These soluble matters + are usually considered as "lower" nitrates. + + Guncottons are usually tested by the Abel heat test for stability (see + CORDITE). Another heat test, that of Will, consists in heating a + weighed quantity of the guncotton in a stream of carbon dioxide to + 130° C., passing the evolved gases over some red-hot copper, and + finally collecting them over a solution of potassium hydroxide which + retains the carbon dioxide and allows the nitrogen, arising from the + guncotton decomposition, to be measured. This is done at definite time + intervals so that the _rate_ of decomposition can be followed. The + relative stability is then judged by the amount of nitrogen gas + collected in a certain time. Several modifications of this and of the + Abel heat test are also in use. (See EXPLOSIVES.) (W. R. E. H.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The composition of the cellulose nitrates was reviewed by G. + Lunge (_Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc._, 1901, 23, p. 527), who, assuming the + formula C24H40O20 for cellulose, showed how the nitrocelluloses + described by different chemists may be expressed by the formula + C24H_(46-x)O20(NO2)_x, where x has the values 4, 5, 6, ... 12. + + [2] This formula is retained mainly on account of its simplicity. It + also expresses all that is necessary in this connexion. + + [3] Air-dried guncotton will contain 2% or less of moisture. + + + + +GUNDULICH, IVAN (1588-1638), known also as Giovanni Gondola, Servian +poet, was born at Ragusa on the 8th of January 1588. His father, Franco +Gundulich, once the Ragusan envoy to Constantinople and councillor of +the republic, gave him an excellent education. He studied the +"humanities" with the Jesuit, Father Muzzi, and philosophy with Father +Ricasoli. After that he studied Roman law and jurisprudence in general. +He was member of the Lower Council and once served as the chief +magistrate of the republic. He died on the 8th of December 1638. A born +poet, he admired much the Italian poets of his time, from whom he made +many translations into Servian. It is believed that he so translated +Tasso's _Gerusalemme liberata_. He is known to have written eighteen +works, of which eleven were dramas, but of these only three have been +fully preserved, others having perished during the great earthquake and +fire in 1667. Most of those dramas were translations from the Italian, +and were played, seemingly with great success, by the amateurs furnished +by the noble families of Ragusa. But his greatest and justly celebrated +work is an epic, entitled _Osman_, in twenty cantos. It is the first +political epic on the Eastern Question, glorifying the victory of the +Poles over Turks and Tatars in the campaign of 1621, and encouraging a +league of the Christian nations, under the guidance of Vladislaus, the +king of Poland, for the purpose of driving away the Turks from Europe. +The fourteenth and fifteenth cantos are lost. It is generally believed +that the Ragusan government suppressed them from consideration for the +Sultan, the protector of the republic, those two cantos having been +violently anti-Turkish. + + _Osman_ was printed for the first time in Ragusa in 1826, the two + missing cantos being replaced by songs written by Pietro Sorgo (or + Sorkochevich). From this edition the learned Italian, Francesco + Appendini, made an Italian translation published in 1827. Since that + time several other editions have been made. The best are considered to + be the edition of the South Slavonic Academy in Agram (1877) and the + edition published in Semlin (1889) by Professor Yovan Boshkovich. In + the edition of 1844 (Agram) the last cantos, fourteen and fifteen, + were replaced by very fine compositions of the Serbo-Croatian poet, + Mazhuranich (Mazuranic). The complete works of Gundulich have been + published in Agram, 1847, by V. Babukich and by the South Slavonic + Academy of Agram in 1889. (C. Mi.) + + + + +GUNG'L, JOSEF (1810-1889), Hungarian composer and conductor, was born on +the 1st of December 1810, at Zsámbék, in Hungary. After starting life as +a school-teacher, and learning the elements of music from Ofen, the +school-choirmaster, he became first oboist at Graz, and, at twenty-five, +bandmaster of the 4th regiment of Austrian artillery. His first +composition, a Hungarian march, written in 1836, attracted some notice, +and in 1843 he was able to establish an orchestra in Berlin. With this +band he travelled far, even (in 1849) to America. It is worth recording +that Mendelssohn's complete _Midsummer Night's Dream_ music is said to +have been first played by Gung'l's band. In 1853 he became bandmaster to +the 23rd Infantry Regiment at Brünn, but in 1864 he lived at Munich, and +in 1876 at Frankfort, after (in 1873) having conducted with great +success a series of promenade concerts at Covent Garden, London. From +Frankfort Gung'l went to Weimar to live with his daughter, a well-known +German opera singer and local prima donna. There he died, on the 31st of +January 1889. Gung'l's dances number over 300, perhaps the most popular +being the "Amoretten," "Hydropaten," "Casino," "Dreams on the Ocean" +waltzes; "In Stiller Mitternacht" polka, and "Blue Violets" mazurka. His +Hungarian march was transcribed by Liszt. His music is characterized by +the same easy flowing melodies and well-marked rhythm that distinguish +the dances of Strauss, to whom alone he can be ranked second in this +kind of composition. + + + + +GUNNER, or MASTER GUNNER, in the navy, the warrant officer who has +charge of the ordnance and ammunition, and of the training of the men at +gun drill. His functions in this respect are of less relative importance +than they were in former times, when specially trained corps of seamen +gunners had not been formed. + + + + +GUNNING, PETER (1614-1684), English divine, was born at Hoo, in Kent, +and educated at the King's School, Canterbury, and Clare College, +Cambridge, where he became a fellow in 1633. Having taken orders, he +advocated the royalist cause from the pulpit with much eloquence. In +1644 he retired to Oxford, and held a chaplaincy at New College until +the city surrendered to the parliamentary forces in 1646. Subsequently +he was chaplain, first to the royalist Sir Robert Shirley of Eatington +(1629-1656), and then at the Exeter House chapel. After the Restoration +in 1660 he returned to Clare College as master, and was appointed Lady +Margaret professor of divinity. He also received the livings of +Cottesmore, Rutlandshire, and Stoke Bruerne, Northamptonshire. In 1661 +he became head of St John's College, Cambridge, and was elected Regius +professor of divinity. He was consecrated bishop of Chichester in 1669, +and was translated to the see of Ely in 1674-1675. Holding moderate +religious views, he deprecated alike the extremes represented by +Puritanism and Roman Catholicism. + + His works are chiefly reports of his disputations, such as that which + appears in the _Scisme Unmask't_ (Paris, 1658), in which the + definition of a schism is discussed with two Romanist opponents. + + + + +GUNNY, a sort of cloth, the name of which is supposed to be derived from +_ganga_ or _gania_ of Rumphius, or from _gonia_, a vernacular name of +the _Crotolaria juncea_--a plant common in Madras. One of the first +notices of the term itself is to be found in Knox's _Ceylon_, in which +he says: "The filaments at the bottom of the stem (coir from the +coco-nut husk, _Cocos nucifera_) may be made into a coarse cloth called +gunny, which is used for bags and similar purposes." + +Warden, in _The Linen Trade_, says: + + "A very large proportion of the jute grown in Bengal is made into + cloth in the districts where it is cultivated, and this industry forms + the grand domestic manufacture of all the populous eastern districts + of Bengal. It pervades all classes, and penetrates into every + household, almost every one, man, woman and child, being in some way + engaged in it. Boatmen, husbandmen, palankeen carriers, domestic + servants, everyone, in fact, being Hindu--for Mussulmans spin cotton + only--pass their leisure moments, distaff in hand, spinning gunny + twist. It is spun by the takur and dhara, the former being a kind of + spindle, which is turned upon the thigh or the sole of the foot, and + the latter a reel, on which the thread, when sufficiently twisted, is + wound up. Another kind of spinning machine, called a ghurghurea, is + occasionally used. A bunch of the raw material is hung up in every + farmer's house, or on the protruding stick of a thatched roof, and + every one who has leisure forms with these spindles some coarse + pack-thread, of which ropes are twisted for the use of the farm. The + lower Hindu castes, from this pack-thread, spin a finer thread for + being made into cloth, and, there being a loom in nearly every house, + very much of it is woven by the women of the lower class of people. It + is especially the employment of the Hindu widow, as it enables her to + earn her bread without being a burden on her family. The cloth thus + made is of various qualities, such as clothing for the family + (especially the women, a great proportion of whom on all the eastern + frontier wear almost nothing else), coarse fabrics, bedding, rice and + sugar bags, sacking, pack-sheet, &c. Much of it is woven into short + lengths and very narrow widths, two or three of which are sometimes + sewed into one piece before they are sold. That intended for rice and + sugar bags is made about 6 feet long, and from 24 to 27 inches wide, + and doubled. A considerable quantity of jute yarn is dyed and woven + into cloth for various local purposes, and some of it is also sent out + of the district. The principal places where chotee, or jute cloth for + gunny bags, is made are within a radius of perhaps 150 to 200 miles + around Dacca, and there both labour and land are remarkably cheap. The + short, staple, common jute is generally consumed in the local + manufacture, the finer and long stapled being reserved for the export + trade. These causes enable gunny cloth and bags to be sold almost as + cheaply as the raw material, which creates an immense demand for them + in nearly every market of the world." + +Such appeared to be the definition of gunny cloth at the time the above +was written--between 1850 and 1860. Most of the Indian cloth for gunny +bags is now made by power, and within about 20 m. of Calcutta. In many +respects the term gunny cloth is still applied to all and sundry, but +there is no doubt that the original name was intended for cloth which +was similar to what is now known as "cotton bagging." This particular +type of cloth is still largely made in the hand loom, even in Dundee, +this method of manufacture being considered, for certain reasons, more +satisfactory than the power loom method (see JUTE and BAGGING). + + + + +GUNPOWDER, an explosive composed of saltpetre, charcoal and sulphur. +Very few substances have had a greater effect on civilization than +gunpowder. Its employment altered the whole art of war, and its +influence gradually and indirectly permeated and affected the whole +fabric of society. Its direct effect on the arts of peace was but +slight, and had but a limited range, which could not be compared to the +modern extended employment of high explosives for blasting in mining and +engineering work. + +It is probably quite incorrect to speak of the _discovery_ of gunpowder. +From modern researches it seems more likely and more just to think of it +as a thing that has developed, passing through many stages--mainly of +improvement, but some undoubtedly retrograde. There really is not +sufficient solid evidence on which to pin down its invention to one man. +As Lieutenant-Colonel H. W. L. Hime (_Gunpowder and Ammunition_, 1904) +says, the invention of gunpowder was impossible until the properties of +nearly pure saltpetre had become known. The honour, however, has been +associated with two names in particular, Berthold Schwartz, a German +monk, and Friar Roger Bacon. Of the former Oscar Guttmann writes +(_Monumenta pulveris pyrii_, 1904, p. 6): "Berthold Schwartz was +generally considered to be the inventor of gunpowder, and only in +England has Roger Bacon's claim been upheld, though there are English +writers who have pleaded in favour of Schwartz. Most writers are agreed +that Schwartz invented the first firearms, and as nothing was known of +an inventor of gunpowder, it was perhaps considered justifiable to give +Schwartz the credit thereof. There is some ambiguity as to when Schwartz +lived. The year 1354 is sometimes mentioned as the date of his invention +of powder, and this is also to be inferred from an inscription on the +monument to him in Freiburg. But considering there can be no doubt as to +the manufacture in England of gunpowder and cannon in 1344, that we have +authentic information of guns in France in 1338 and in Florence in 1326, +and that the Oxford MS. _De officiis regum_ of 1325 gives an +illustration of a gun, Berthold Schwartz must have lived long before +1354 to have been the inventor of gunpowder or guns." In Germany also +there were powder-works at Augsburg in 1340, in Spandau in 1344, and +Liegnitz in 1348. + +Roger Bacon, in his _De mirabili potestate artis et naturae_ (1242), +makes the most important communication on the history of gunpowder. +Reference is made to an explosive mixture as known before his time and +employed for "diversion, producing a noise like thunder and flashes like +lightning." In one passage Bacon speaks of saltpetre as a violent +explosive, but there is no doubt that he knew it was not a +self-explosive substance, but only so when mixed with other substances, +as appears from the statement in _De secretis operibus artis et +naturae_, printed at Hamburg in 1618, that "from saltpetre and other +ingredients we are able to make a fire that shall burn at any distance +we please." A great part of his three chapters, 9, 10, 11, long appeared +without meaning until the anagrammatic nature of the sentences was +realized. The words of this anagram are (chap. 11): "Item ponderis totum +30 sed tamen salis petrae _luru vopo vir can utri_[1] et sulphuris; et +sic facies tonitruum et coruscationem, si scias artificium. Videas tamen +utrum loquar aenigmate aut secundum veritatem." Hime, in his chapter on +the origin of gunpowder, discusses these chapters at length, and gives, +omitting the anagram, the translation: "Let the total weight of the +ingredients be 30, however, of saltpetre ... of sulphur; and with such a +mixture you will produce a bright flash and a thundering noise, if you +know the trick. You may find (by actual experiment) whether I am writing +riddles to you or the plain truth." The anagram reads, according to +Hime, "salis petrae r(ecipe) vii part(es), v nov(ellae) corul(i), v et +sulphuris" (take seven parts of saltpetre, five of young hazel-wood, and +five of sulphur). Hime then goes on to show that Bacon was in possession +of an explosive which was a considerable advance on mere incendiary +compositions. Bacon does not appear to have been aware of the projecting +power of gunpowder. He knew that it exploded and that perhaps people +might be blown up or frightened by it; more cannot be said. The +behaviour of small quantities of any explosive is hardly ever indicative +of its behaviour in large quantities and especially when under +confinement. Hime is of opinion that Bacon blundered upon gunpowder +whilst playing with some incendiary composition, such as those mentioned +by Marcus Graecus and others, in which he employed his comparatively +pure saltpetre instead of crude nitrum. It has been suggested that Bacon +derived his knowledge of these fiery mixtures from the MS. _Liber +ignium_, ascribed to Marcus Graecus, in the National Library in Paris +(Dutens, _Enquiry into Origin of Discoveries attributed to Moderns_). +Certainly this Marcus Graecus appears to have known of some incendiary +composition containing the gunpowder ingredients, but it was not +gunpowder. Hime seems to doubt the existence of any such person as +Marcus Graecus, as he says: "The _Liber ignium_ was written from first +to last in the period of literary forgeries and pseudographs ... and we +may reasonably conclude that Marcus Graecus is as unreal as the +imaginary Greek original of the tract which bears his name." Albertus +Magnus in the _De mirabilibus mundi_ repeats some of the receipts given +in Marcus Graecus, and several other writers give receipts for Greek +fire, rockets, &c. Dutens gives many passages in his work, above-named, +from old authors in support of his view that a composition of the nature +of gunpowder was not unknown to the ancients. Hime's elaborate arguments +go to show that these compositions could only have been of the +incendiary type and not real explosives. His arguments seem to hold good +as regards not only the Greeks but also the Arabs, Hindus and Chinese +(see also FIREWORKS). + +There seems no doubt that incendiary compositions, some perhaps +containing nitre, mostly, however, simply combustible substances as +sulphur, naphtha, resins, &c., were employed and projected both for +defence and offence, but they were projected or blown by engines and not +by themselves. It is quite inconceivable that a real propelling +explosive should have been known in the time of Alexander or much later, +and not have immediately taken its proper place. In a chapter discussing +this question of explosives amongst the Hindus, Hime says: "It is +needless to enlarge the list of quotations: incendiaries pursued much +the same course in Upper India as in Greece and Arabia." No trustworthy +evidence of an explosive in India is to be found until the 21st of April +1526, the date of the decisive battle of Panipat, in which Ibrahim, +sultan of Delhi, was killed and his army routed by Baber the Mogul, who +possessed both great and small firearms. + +As regards also the crusader period (1097-1291), so strange and deadly +an agent of destruction as gunpowder could not possibly have been +employed in the field without the full knowledge of both parties, yet no +historian, Christian or Moslem, alludes to an explosive of any kind, +while all of them carefully record the use of incendiaries. The +employment of rockets and "wildfire" incendiary composition seems +undoubtedly of very old date in India, but the names given to pieces of +artillery under the Mogul conqueror of Hindustan point to a European, or +at least to a Turkish origin, and it is quite certain that Europeans +were retained in the service of Akbar and Aurangzeb. The composition of +present day Chinese gunpowder is almost identical with that employed in +Europe, so that in all probability the knowledge of it was obtained from +Western sources. + +In the writings of Bacon there is no mention of guns or the use of +powder as a propellant, but merely as an explosive and destructive +power. Owing perhaps to this obscurity hanging over the early history of +gunpowder, its employment as a propelling agent has been ascribed to the +Moors or Saracens. J. A. Conde (_Historia de la dominacion de los Arabes +en España_) states that Ismail Ben Firaz, king of Granada, who in 1325 +besieged Boza, had among his machines "some that cast globes of fire," +but there is not the least evidence that these were guns. The first +trustworthy document relative to the use of gunpowder in Europe, a +document still in existence, and bearing date February 11, 1326, gives +authority to the council of twelve of Florence and others to appoint +persons to superintend the manufacture of cannons of brass and iron +balls, for the defence of the territory, &c., of the republic. John +Barbour, archdeacon of Aberdeen, writing in 1375, states that cannons +(crakys of war) were employed in Edward III.'s invasion of Scotland in +1327. An indenture first published by Sir N. H. Nicolas in his _History +of the Royal Navy_ (London, 1846), and again by Lieutenant-Colonel H. +Brackenbury (_Proc. R.A. Inst._, 1865), stated to be 1338, contains +references to small cannon as among the stores of the Tower, and also +mentions "un petit barrell de gonpoudre le quart' plein." If authentic, +this is possibly the first mention of gunpowder as such in England, but +some doubts have been thrown upon the date of this MS. From a +contemporary document in the National Library in Paris it seems that in +the same year (1338) there existed in the marine arsenal at Rouen an +iron weapon called _pot de feu_, for propelling bolts, together with +some saltpetre and sulphur to make powder for the same. Preserved in the +Record Office in London are trustworthy accounts from the year 1345 of +the purchase of ingredients for making powder, and of the shipping of +cannon to France. In 1346 Edward III. appears to have ordered all +available saltpetre and sulphur to be bought up for him. In the first +year of Richard II. (1377) Thomas Norbury was ordered to buy, amongst +other munitions, sulphur, saltpetre and charcoal, to be sent to the +castle of Brest. In 1414 Henry V. ordered that no gunpowder should be +taken out of the kingdom without special licence, and in the same year +ordered twenty pipes of willow charcoal and other articles for the use +of the guns. + +The manufacture of gunpowder seems to have been carried on as a crown +monopoly about the time of Elizabeth, and regulations respecting +gunpowder and nitre were made about 1623 (James I.). Powder-mills were +probably in existence at Waltham Abbey about the middle or towards the +end of the 16th century. + + _Ingredients and their Action._--Roger Bacon in his anagram gives the + first real recipe for gunpowder, viz. (according to Hime, ch. xii.) + saltpetre 41.2, charcoal 29.4, sulphur 29.4. Dr John Arderne of + Newark, who began to practise about 1350 and was later surgeon to + Henry IV., gives a recipe (Sloane MSS. 335, 795), saltpetre 66.6, + charcoal 22.2, sulphur 11.1, "which are to be thoroughly mixed on a + marble and then sifted through a cloth." This powder is nominally of + the same composition as one given in a MS. of Marcus Graecus, but the + saltpetre of this formula by Marcus Graecus was undoubtedly answerable + for the difference in behaviour of the two compositions. Roger Bacon + had not only refined and obtained pure nitre, but had appreciated the + importance of thoroughly mixing the components of the powder. Most if + not all the early powder was a "loose" mixture of the three + ingredients, and the most important step in connexion with the + development of gunpowder was undoubtedly the introduction of wet + mixing or "incorporating." Whenever this was done, the improvement in + the product must have been immediately evident. In the damp or wetted + state pressure could be applied with comparative safety during the + mixing. The loose powder mixture came to be called "serpentine"; after + wet mixing it was more or less granulated or corned and was known as + "corned" powder. Corned powder seems to have been gradually + introduced. It is mentioned in the _Fire Book_ of Conrad von Schöngau + (in 1429), and was used for hand-guns in England long before 1560. It + would seem that corned powder was used for hand-guns or small arms in + the 15th century, but cannon were not made strong enough to withstand + its explosion for quite another century (Hime). According to the same + writer, in the period 1250-1450, when serpentine only was used, one + powder could differ from another in the proportions of the + ingredients; in the modern period--say 1700-1886--the powders in use + (in each state) differed only as a general rule in the size of the + grain, whilst during the transition period--1450-1700--they generally + differed both in composition and size of grain. + + Corned or grained powder was adopted in France in 1525, and in 1540 + the French utilized an observation that large-grained powder was the + best for cannon, and restricted the manufacture to three sizes of + grain or corn, possibly of the same composition. Early in the 18th + century two or three sizes of grain and powder of one composition + appear to have become common. The composition of English powder seems + to have settled down to 75 nitre, 15 charcoal, and 10 sulphur, + somewhere about the middle of the 18th century. + + The composition of gunpowders used in different countries at different + times is illustrated in the following tables:-- + + _English Powders (Hime)._ + + +-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+--------+ + | | 1250.| 1350.| 1560.| 1647.| 1670.| 1742.| 1781. | + +-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+--------+ + | Saltpetre | 41.2 | 66.6 | 50.0 | 66.6 | 71.4 | 75.0 | 75.0 | + | Charcoal | 29.4 | 22.2 | 33.3 | 16.6 | 14.3 | 12.5 | 15.0 | + | Sulphur | 29.4 | 11.1 | 16.6 | 16.6 | 14.3 | 12.5 | 10.0[2]| + +-----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+--------+ + + _Foreign Powders (Hime)._ + + +-----------+-------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+ + | |France.|Sweden.|Germany.|Denmark.|France.|Sweden.|Germany.| + +-----------+-------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+ + | | 1338. | 1560. | 1595. | 1608. | 1650. | 1697. | 1882. | + +-----------+-------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+ + | Saltpetre | 50 | 66.6 | 52.2 | 68.3 | 75.6 | 73 | 78 | + | Charcoal | ? | 16.6 | 26.1 | 23.2 | 13.6 | 17 | 19 | + | Sulphur | 25 | 16.6 | 21.7 | 8.5 | 10.8 | 10 | 3[3] | + +-----------+-------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+ + + When reasonably pure, none of the ingredients of gunpowder absorbs any + material quantity of moisture from the atmosphere, and the nitre only + is a soluble substance. It seems extremely probable that for a long + period the three substances were simply mixed dry, indeed sometimes + kept separate and mixed just before being required; the consequence + must have been that, with every care as to weighing out, the + proportions of any given quantity would alter on carriage. Saltpetre + is considerably heavier than sulphur or charcoal, and would tend to + separate out towards the bottom of the containing vessel if subjected + to jolting or vibration. When pure there can only be one kind of + saltpetre or sulphur, because they are chemical individuals, but + charcoal is not. Its composition, rate of burning, &c., depend not + only on the nature of the woody material from which it is made, but + quite as much on the temperature and time of heating employed in the + making. The woods from which it is made contain carbon, hydrogen and + oxygen, and the two latter are never thoroughly expelled in + charcoal-making. If they were, the resulting substance would be of no + use for gunpowder. 1-3% of hydrogen and 8-15% of oxygen generally + remain in charcoals suitable for gunpowder. A good deal of the + fieriness and violence of explosion of a gunpowder depends on the mode + of burning of the charcoal as well as on the wood from which it is + made. + + _Properties of Ingredients._--Charcoal is the chief combustible in + powder. It must burn freely, leaving as little ash or residue as + possible; it must be friable, and grind into a non-gritty powder. The + sources from which powder charcoal is made are dogwood (_Rhamnus + frangula_), willow (_Salix alba_), and alder (_Betula alnus_). Dogwood + is mainly used for small-arm powders. Powders made from dogwood + charcoal burn more rapidly than those from willow, &c. The wood after + cutting is stripped of bark and allowed to season for two or three + years. It is then picked to uniform size and charred in cylindrical + iron cases or slips, which can be introduced into slightly larger + cylinders set in a furnace. The slips are provided with openings for + the escape of gases. The rate of heating as well as the absolute + temperature attained have an effect on the product, a slow rate of + heating yielding more charcoal, and a high temperature reducing the + hydrogen and oxygen in the final product. When heated for seven hours + to about 800° C. to 900° C. the remaining hydrogen and oxygen amount + to about 2% and 12% respectively. The time of charring is as a rule + from 5 to 7 hours. The slips are then removed from the furnace and + placed in a larger iron vessel, where they are kept comparatively + air-tight until quite cold. The charcoal is then sorted, and stored + for some time before grinding. The charcoal is ground, and the powder + sifted on a rotating reel or cylinder of fine mesh copper-wire gauze. + The sifted powder is again stored for some time before use in closed + iron vessels. + + Sicilian sulphur is most generally employed for gunpowder, and for + complete purification is first distilled and then melted and cast into + moulds. It is afterwards ground into a fine powder and sifted as in + the case of the charcoal. + + Potassium nitrate is eminently suitable as an oxygen-provider, not + being deliquescent. Nitrates are continually being produced in surface + soils, &c., by the oxidation of nitrogenous substances. Nitric and + nitrous acids are also produced by electric discharges through the + atmosphere, and these are found eventually as nitrates in soils, &c. + Nitre is soluble in water, and much more so in hot than in cold. Crude + nitre, obtained from soils or other sources, is purified by + recrystallization. The crude material is dissolved almost to + saturation in boiling water: on filtering and then cooling this liquor + to about 30° C. almost pure nitre crystallizes out, most of the usual + impurities still remaining in solution. By rapidly cooling and + agitating the nitre solution crystals are obtained of sufficient + fineness for the manufacture of powder without special grinding. Nitre + contains nearly 48% of oxygen by weight, five-sixths of which is + available for combustion purposes. Nearly all the gases of the powder + explosion are derived from the nitre. The specific gravity of nitre is + 2.2 : 200 grams will therefore occupy about 100 cubic centimetres + volume. This quantity on its decomposition by heat alone yields 28 + grams or 22,400 c.c. of nitrogen, and 80 grams or 56,000 c.c. of + oxygen as gases, and 94 grams of potassium oxide, a fusible solid + which vaporizes at a very high temperature. + + _Incorporation._--The materials are weighed out separately, mixed by + passing through a sieve, and then uniformly moistened with a certain + quantity of water, whilst on the bed of the incorporating mill. This + consists of two heavy iron wheels mounted so as to run in a circular + bed. The incorporation requires about four hours. The mechanical + action of rollers on the powder paste is a double one: not only + crushing but mixing by pushing forwards and twisting sideways. The + pasty mass is deflected so that it repeatedly comes under first one + roller and then the next by scrapers, set at an angle to the bed, + which follow each wheel. + + Although the charge is wet it is possible for it to be fired either by + the heat developed by the roller friction, by sparks from foreign + matters, as bits of stone, &c., or possibly by heat generated by + oxidation of the materials. The mills are provided with a drenching + apparatus so arranged that in case of one mill firing it and its + neighbours will be drowned by water from a cistern or tank immediately + above the mill. The product from the incorporation is termed + "mill-cake." + + After this incorporation in the damp state the ingredients never + completely separate on drying, however much shaken, because each + particle of nitre is surrounded by a thin layer of water containing + nitre in solution in which the particles of charcoal and sulphur are + entangled and retained. After due incorporation, powders are pressed + to a certain extent whilst still moist. The density to which a powder + is pressed is an important matter in regard to the rate of burning. + The effect of high density is to slow down the initial rate of + burning. Less dense powders burn more rapidly from the first and tend + to put a great strain on the gun. Fouling is usually less with denser + powders; and, as would be expected, such powders bear transport better + and give less dust than light powders. Up to a certain pressure, + hardness, density, and size of grain of a powder have an effect on the + rate of burning and therefore on pressure. Glazing or polishing powder + grains, also exerts a slight retarding action on burning and enables + the powders to resist atmospheric moisture better. Excess of moisture + in gunpowder has a marked effect in reducing the explosiveness. All + powders are liable to absorb moisture, the quality and kind of + charcoal being the main determinant in this respect; hard burnt black + charcoal is least absorbent. The material employed in brown powders + absorbs moisture somewhat readily. Powder kept in a very damp + atmosphere, and especially in a changeable one, spoils rapidly, the + saltpetre coming to the surface in solution and then crystallizing + out. The pieces also break up owing to the formation of large crystals + of nitre in the mass. After the pressing of the incorporated powder + into a "press-cake," it is broken up or granulated by suitable + machines, and the resulting grains separated and sorted by sifting + through sieves of determined sizes of mesh. Some dust is formed in + this operation, which is sifted away and again worked up under the + rollers (for sizes of grains see fig. 1). These grains, cubes, &c., + are then either polished by rotating in drums alone or with graphite, + which adheres to and coats the surfaces of the grains. This process is + generally followed with powders intended for small-arms or moderately + small ordnance. + + _Shaped Powders._--Prisms or prismatic powder are made by breaking up + the press-cake into a moderately fine state, whilst still moist, and + pressing a certain quantity in a mould. The moulds generally employed + consist of a thick plate of bronze in which are a number of hexagonal + perforations. Accurately fitting plungers are so applied to these that + one can enter at the top and the other at the bottom. The lower + plunger being withdrawn to the bottom of the plate the hexagonal hole + is charged with the powder and the two plungers set in motion, thus + compressing the powder between them. After the desired pressure has + been applied the top plunger is withdrawn, and the lower one pushed + upward to eject the prism of powder. The axial perforations in prism + powders are made by small bronze rods which pass through the lower + plunger and fit into corresponding holes in the upper one. If these + prisms are made by a steadily applied pressure a density throughout of + about 1.78 may be obtained. Further to regulate the rate of burning so + that it shall be slow at first and more rapid as the powder is + consumed, another form of machine was devised, the cam press, in which + the pressure is applied very rapidly to the powder. It receives in + fact one blow, which compresses the powder to the same dimensions, but + the density of the outer layers of substance of the prism is much + greater than in the interior. + + The leading idea in connexion with all shaped powder grains, and with + the very large sizes, was to regulate the rate of burning so as to + avoid extreme pressure when first ignited and to keep up the pressure + in the gun as more space was provided in the chamber or tube by the + movement of the shot towards the muzzle. In the perforated prismatic + powder the ignition is intended to proceed through the perforations; + since in a charge the faces of the prisms fit pretty closely together, + it was thought that this arrangement would prevent unburnt cores or + pieces of powder from being blown out. These larger grain powders + necessitated a lengthened bore to take advantage of the slower + production of gases and complete combustion of the powder. General T. + J. Rodman first suggested and employed the perforated cake cartridge + in 1860, the cake having nearly the diameter of the bore and a + thickness of 1 to 2 in. with perforations running parallel with the + gun axis. The burning would then start from the comparatively small + surfaces of the perforations, which would become larger as the powder + burnt away. Experiments bore out this theory perfectly. It was found + that small prisms were more convenient to make than large disks, and + as the prisms practically fit together into a disk the same result was + obtained. This effect of mechanical density on rate of burning is good + only up to a certain pressure, above which the gases are driven + through the densest form of granular material. After granulating or + pressing into shapes, all powders must be dried. This is done by + heating in specially ventilated rooms heated by steam pipes. As a rule + this drying is followed by the finishing or polishing process. Powders + are finally blended, i.e. products from different batches or "makes" + are mixed so that identical proof results are obtained. + + _Sizes and Shapes of Powders._--In fig. 1, _a_ to _k_ show the + relative sizes and shapes of grain as formerly employed for military + purposes, except that the three largest powders, _e-f-g_ and _h_ are + figured half-size to save space, whereas the remainder indicate the + actual dimensions of the grains. _a_ is for small-arms, all the others + are for cannon of various sizes. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + _Proof of Powder._--In addition to chemical examination powder is + passed through certain mechanical tests:-- + + 1. _For colour, glaze, texture and freedom from dust._ + + 2. _For proper incorporation._ + + 3. _For shape, size and proportion of the grains._--The first is + judged by eye, and grains of the size required are obtained by the use + of sieves of different sizes. + + 4. _Density._--The density is generally obtained in some form of + mercury densimeter, the powder being weighed in air and then under + mercury. In some forms of the instrument the air can be pumped out so + that the weighing takes place _in vacuo_. + + 5. _Moisture and absorption of moisture._--The moisture and + hygroscopic test consists in weighing a sample, drying at 100° C. for + a certain time, weighing again, &c., until constant. The dried weighed + sample can then be exposed to an artificial atmosphere of known + moisture and temperature, and the gain in weight per hour similarly + ascertained by periodic weighings. + + 6. _Firing proof._--The nature of this depends upon the purpose for + which the powder is intended. For sporting powders it consists in the + "pattern" given by the shot upon a target at a given distance, or, if + fired with a bullet, upon the "figure of merit," or mean radial + deviation of a certain number of rounds; also upon the penetrative + power. For military purposes the "muzzle" velocity produced by a + powder is ascertained by a chronograph which measures the exact time + the bullet or other projectile takes to traverse a known distance + between two wire screens. By means of "crusher gauges" the exact + pressure per square inch upon certain points in the interior of the + bore can be found. + + In the chemical examination of gunpowder the points to be ascertained + are, in addition to moisture, freedom from chlorides or sulphates, and + correct proportion of nitre and sulphur to charcoal. + + _Products of Fired Powder and Changes taking place on + Explosion._--With a mixture of the complexity of gunpowder it is quite + impossible to say beforehand what will be the relative amounts of + products. The desired products are nitrogen and carbon dioxide as + gases, and potassium sulphate and carbonate as solids. But the + ingredients of the mixture are not in any simple chemical proportion. + Burning in contact with air under one atmosphere pressure, and burning + in a closed or partially closed vessel under a considerable number of + atmospheres pressure, may produce quite different results. The + temperature of a reaction always rises with increased pressure. + Although the main function of the nitre is to give up oxygen and + nitrogen, of the charcoal to produce carbon dioxide and most of the + heat, and of the sulphur by vaporizing to accelerate the rate of + burning, it is quite impossible to represent the actions taking place + on explosion by any simple or single chemical equation. Roughly + speaking, the gases from black powder burnt in a closed vessel have a + volume at 0° C. and 760 mm. pressure of about 280 times that of the + original powder. The temperature produced under one atmosphere is + above 2000° C., and under greater pressures considerably higher. + + Experiments have been made by Benjamin Robins (1743), Charles Hutton + (1778), Count Rumford (1797), Gay-Lussac (1823), R. Bunsen and L. + Schiskoff (1857), T. J. Rodman (1861), C. Karolyi (1863), and later + many researches by Sir Andrew Noble and Sir F. A. Abel, and by H. + Debus and others, all with the idea of getting at the precise + mechanism of the explosion. Debus (_Ann._, 1882, vols. 212, 213; 1891, + vol. 265) discussed at great length the results of researches by + Bunsen, Karolyi, Noble and Abel, and others on the combustion of + powder in closed vessels in such manner that all the products could be + collected and examined and the pressures registered. A Waltham Abbey + powder, according to an experiment by Noble and Abel, gave when fired + in a closed vessel the following quantities of products calculated + from one gram of powder:-- + + Fractions of Fractions of a + a gram. molecule or atom. + + Potassium carbonate .2615 .00189 molecule + Potassium sulphate .1268 .00072 " + " thiosulphate .1666 .00087 " + " sulphide .0252 .00017 " + Sulphur .0012 .00004 atom + Carbon dioxide .2678 .00608 molecule + Carbon monoxide .0339 .00121 " + Nitrogen .1071 .00765 atom + Hydrogen .0008 .0008 " + Hydrogen sulphide .0080 .00023 molecule + Potassium thiocyanate .0004 + Nitre .0005 + Ammonium carbonate .0002 + + From this, and other results, Debus concluded that Waltham Abbey + powder could be represented by the formula 16KNO3+21·18C+6·63S and + that on combustion in a closed vessel the end results could be fairly + expressed (rounding off fractions) by 16KNO3+21C+5S = 5K2CO3 + + K2SO4+2K2S2+13CO2+3CO+8N2. Some of the sulphur is lost, part combining + with the metal of the apparatus and part with hydrogen in the + charcoal. The military powders of most nations can be represented by + the formula 16KNO3+21·2C+6·6S, proportions which are reasonably near + to a theoretical mixture, that is one giving most complete combustion, + greatest gas volume and temperature. The combustion of powder consists + of two processes: (i.) oxidation, during which potassium carbonate and + sulphate, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are mainly formed, and (ii.) a + reduction process in which free carbon acts on the potassium sulphate + and free sulphur on the potassium carbonate, producing potassium + sulphide and carbon monoxide respectively. Most powders contain more + carbon and sulphur than necessary, hence the second stage. In this + second stage heat is lost. The potassium sulphide is also the most + objectionable constituent as regards fouling. + + The energy of a powder is given, according to Berthelot, by + multiplying the gas volume by the heat (in calories) produced during + burning; Debus shows that a powder composed of 16KNO3 to 8C and 8S + would have the least, and one of composition 16KNO3+24C+16S the + greatest, when completely burnt. The greatest capability with the + lowest proportion of carbon and sulphur to nitre would be obtained + from the mixture ÷ 16KNO3+22C+8S. + + Smokeless and even noiseless powders seem to have been sought for + during the whole gunpowder period. In 1756 one was experimented with + in France, but was abandoned owing to difficulties in manufacture. + Modern smokeless powders are certainly less noisy than the black + powders, mainly because of the absence of metallic salts which + although they may be gaseous whilst in the gun are certainly ejected + as solids or become solids at the moment of contact with air. + + _Brown Powders._--About the middle of the 19th century guns and + projectiles were made much larger and heavier than previously, and it + was soon found that the ordinary black powders of the most dense form + burnt much too rapidly, straining or bursting the pieces. Powders were + introduced containing about 3% sulphur and 17-19% of a special form of + charcoal made from slightly charred straw, or similar material. This + "brown charcoal" contains a considerable amount of the hydrogen and + oxygen of the original plant substance. The mechanical processes of + manufacture of these brown powders is the same as for black. They, + however, differ from black by burning very slowly, even under + considerable pressure. This comparative slowness is caused by (1) the + presence of a small amount of water even when air-dry; (2) the fact + that the brown charcoal is practically very slightly altered + cellulosic material, which before it can burn completely must undergo + a little further resolution or charring at the expense of some heat + from the portion of charge first ignited; and (3) the lower content of + sulphur. An increase of a few per cent in the sulphur of black powder + accelerates its rate of burning, and it may become almost a blasting + powder. A decrease in sulphur has the reverse effect. It is really the + sulphur vapour that in the early period of combustion spreads the + flame through the charge. + + Many other powders have been made or proposed in which nitrates or + chlorates of the alkalis or of barium, &c., are the oxygen providers + and substances as sugar, starch, and many other organic compounds as + the combustible elements. Some of these compositions have found + employment for blasting or even as sporting powders, but in most cases + their objectionable properties of fouling, smoke and mode of exploding + have prevented their use for military purposes. The adoption by the + French government of the comparatively smokeless nitrocellulose + explosive of Paul Vieille in 1887 practically put an end to the old + forms of gunpowders. The first smokeless powder was made in 1865 by + Colonel E. Schultze (_Ding. Pol. Jour._ 174, p. 323; 175, p. 453) by + nitrating wood meal and adding potassium and barium nitrates. It is + somewhat similar in composition to the E. C. sporting powder. F. + Uchatius, in Austria, proposed a smokeless powder made from nitrated + starch, but it was not adopted owing to its hygroscopic nature and + also its tendency to detonate. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Vanucchio Biringuccio, _De la pirotechnia_ (Venice, + 1540); Tartaglia, _Quesiti e invenzioni diversi_ (lib. iii.) (Venice, + 1546); Peter Whitehorne, _How to make Saltpetre, Gunpowder, &c._ + (London, 1573); Nic. Macchiavelli, _The Arte of Warre_, trans. by + Whitehorne (London, 1588); Hanzelet, _Recueil de plusiers machines + militaires_ (Paris, 1620); Boillet Langrois, _Modelles artifices de + feu_ (1620); Kruger, _Chemical Meditations on the Explosion of + Gunpowder_ (in Latin) (1636); Collado, _On the Invention of Gunpowder_ + (Spanish) (1641); _The True Way to make all Sorts of Gunpowder and + Matches_ (1647); Hawksbee, _On Gunpowder_ (1686); Winter, _On + Gunpowder_ (in Latin); Robins, _New Principles of Gunnery_ (London, + 1742) (new ed. by Hutton, 1805); D'Antoni, _Essame della polvere_ + (Turin, 1765) (trans. by Captain Thomson, R. A., London, 1787); Count + Rumford, "Experiments on Fired Gunpowder," _Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc._ + (1797); Charles Hutton, _Mathematical Tracts_, vol. iii. (1812); Sir + W. Congreve, _A Short Account of Improvements in Gunpowder made by_ + (London, 1818); Bunsen and Schiskoff, "On the Chemical Theory of + Gunpowder," _Pogg. Ann._, 1857, vol. cii.; General Rodman, + _Experiments on Metal for Cannon, and Qualities of Cannon Powder_ + (Boston, 1861); Napoleon III., _Études sur le passé et l'avenir de + l'artillerie_, vol. iii. (Paris, 1862); Von Karolyi, "On the Products + of the Combustion of Gun Cotton and Gunpowder," _Phil. Mag._ (October + 1863); Captain F. M. Smith, _Handbook of the Manufacture and Proof of + Gunpowder at Waltham Abbey_ (London, 1870); Noble and Abel, _Fired + Gunpowder_ (London, 1875, 1880); Noble, _Artillery and Explosives_ + (1906); H. W. L. Hime, _Gunpowder and Ammunition, their Origin and + Progress_ (1904); O. Guttmann, _The Manufacture of Explosives_ (1895), + _Monumenta pulveris pyrii_ (1906); _Notes on Gunpowder and Gun + Cotton_, published by order of the secretary of state for war (London, + 1907). (See also EXPLOSIVES.) (W. R. E. H.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] These words were emended by some authors to read _luru mope can + ubre_, the letters of which can be arranged to give _pulvere + carbonum_. + + [2] This represents the composition of English powder at present, and + no doubt it has remained the same for a longer time than the above + date indicates. + + [3] Brown or coco-powder for large charges in guns. The charcoal is + not burnt black but roasted until brown, and is made from some + variety of straw, not wood. + + + + +GUNPOWDER PLOT, the name given to a conspiracy for blowing up King James +I. and the parliament on the 5th of November 1605. + +To understand clearly the nature and origin of the famous conspiracy, it +is necessary to recall the political situation and the attitude of the +Roman Catholics towards the government at the accession of James I. The +Elizabethan administration had successfully defended its own existence +and the Protestant faith against able and powerful antagonists, but this +had not been accomplished without enforcing severe measures of +repression and punishment upon those of the opposite faith. The +beginning of a happier era, however, was expected with the opening of +the new reign. The right of James to the crown could be more readily +acknowledged by the Romanists than that of Elizabeth: Pope Clement VIII. +appeared willing to meet the king half-way. James himself was by nature +favourable to the Roman Catholics and had treated the Roman Catholic +lords in Scotland with great leniency, in spite of their constant plots +and rebellions. Writing to Cecil before his accession he maintained, "I +am so far from any intention of persecution as I protest to God I +reverence their church as our mother church, although clogged with many +infirmities and corruptions, besides that I did ever hold persecution as +one of the infallible notes of a false church." He declared to +Northumberland, the kinsman and master of Thomas Percy, the conspirator, +"as for the Catholics, I will neither persecute any that will be quiet +and give but an outward obedience to the law, neither will I spare to +advance any of them that will be of good service and worthily deserved." +It is probable that these small but practical concessions would have +satisfied the lay Roman Catholics and the secular priests, but they were +very far from contenting the Jesuits, by whom the results of such +leniency were especially feared: "What rigour of laws would not compass +in so many years," wrote Henry Tichborne, the Jesuit, in 1598, "this +liberty and lenity will effectuate in 20 days, to wit the disfurnishing +of the seminaries, the disanimating of men to come and others to return, +the expulsion of the society and confusion as in Germany, extinction of +zeal and favour, disanimation of princes from the hot pursuit of the +enterprise.... We shall be left as a prey to the wolves that will +besides drive our greatest patron [the king of Spain] to stoop to a +peace which will be the utter ruin of our edifice, this many years in +building." Unfortunately, about this time the Jesuits, who thus thrived +on political intrigue, and who were deeply implicated in treasonable +correspondence with Spain, had obtained a complete ascendancy over the +secular priests, who were for obeying the civil government as far as +possible and keeping free from politics. The time, therefore, as far as +the Roman Catholics themselves were concerned, was not a propitious one +for introducing the moderate concessions which alone James had promised: +James, too, on his side, found that religious toleration, though clearly +sound in principle, was difficult in practice. During the first few +months of the reign all went well. In July 1603 the fines for recusancy +were remitted. In January 1604 peaceable Roman Catholics could live +unmolested and "serve God according to their consciences without any +danger." But James's expectations that the pope would prevent dangerous +and seditious persons from entering the country were unfulfilled and the +numbers of the Jesuits and the Roman Catholics greatly increased. +Rumours of plots came to hand. Cecil, though like his master naturally +in favour of toleration, with his experience gained in the reign of +Elizabeth, was alarmed at the policy pursued and its results, and great +anxiety was aroused in the government and nation, which was in the end +shared by the king. It was determined finally to return to the earlier +policy of repression. On the 22nd of February 1604 a proclamation was +issued banishing priests; on the 28th of November 1604, recusancy fines +were demanded from 13 wealthy persons, and on the 10th of February 1605 +the penal laws were ordered to be executed. The plot, however, could not +have been occasioned by these measures, for it had been already +conceived in the mind of Robert Catesby. It was aimed at the repeal of +the whole Elizabethan legislation against the Roman Catholics and +perhaps derived some impulse at first from the leniency lately shown by +the administration, afterwards gaining support from the opposite cause, +the return of the government to the policy of repression. + +It was in May 1603 that Catesby told Percy, in reply to the latter's +declaration of his intention to kill the king, that he was "thinking of +a most sure way." Subsequently, about the 1st of November 1603, Catesby +sent a message to his cousin Robert Winter at Huddington, near +Worcester, to come to London, which the latter refused. On the arrival +of a second urgent summons shortly afterwards he obeyed, and was then at +a house at Lambeth, probably in January 1604, initiated by Catesby +together with John Wright into the plot to blow up the parliament house. +Before putting this plan into execution, however, it was decided to try +a "quiet way"; and Winter was sent over to Flanders to obtain the good +offices of Juan de Velasco, duke of Frias and constable of Castile, who +had arrived there to conduct the negotiations for a peace between +England and Spain, in order to obtain the repeal of the penal laws. +Winter, having secured nothing but vain promises from the constable, +returned to England about the end of April, bringing with him Guy +Fawkes, a man devoted to the Roman Catholic cause and recommended for +undertaking perilous adventures. Subsequently the three and Thomas +Percy, who joined the conspiracy in May, met in a house behind St +Clement's and, having taken an oath of secrecy together, heard Mass and +received the Sacrament in an adjoining apartment from a priest stated by +Fawkes to have been Father Gerard. Later several other persons were +included in the plot, viz. Winter's brother Thomas, John Grant, Ambrose +Rokewood, Robert Keyes, Sir Everard Digby, Francis Tresham, a cousin of +Catesby and Thomas Bates Catesby's servant, all, with the exception of +the last, being men of good family and all Roman Catholics. Father +Greenway and Father Garnet, the Jesuits, were both cognisant of the plot +(see GARNET, HENRY). On the 24th of May 1604 a house was hired in +Percy's name adjoining the House of Lords, from the cellar of which they +proposed to work a mine. They began on the 11th of December 1604, and by +about March had got half-way through the wall. They then discovered that +a vault immediately under the House of Lords was available. This was at +once hired by Percy, and 36 barrels of gunpowder, amounting to about 1 +ton and 12 cwt., were brought in and concealed under coal and faggots. +The preparations being completed in May the conspirators separated. +Fawkes was despatched to Flanders, where he imparted the plot to Hugh +Owen, a zealous Romanist intriguer. Sir Edmund Baynham was sent on a +mission to Rome to be at hand when the news came to gain over the pope +to the cause of the successful conspirators. An understanding was +arrived at with several officers levied for the service of the archduke, +that they should return at once to England when occasion arose of +defending the Roman Catholic cause. A great hunting match was organized +at Danchurch in Warwickshire by Digby, to which large numbers of the +Roman Catholic gentry were invited, who were to join the plot after the +successful accomplishment of the explosion of the 5th of November, the +day fixed for the opening of parliament, and get possession of the +princess Elizabeth, then residing in the neighbourhood; while Percy was +to seize the infant prince Charles and bring him on horseback to their +meeting-place. Guy Fawkes himself was to take ship immediately for +Flanders, spread the news on the continent and get supporters. The +conspirators imagined that a terrorized and helpless government would +readily agree to all their demands. Hitherto the secret had been well +kept and the preparations had been completed with extraordinary success +and without a single drawback; but a very serious difficulty now +confronted the conspirators as the time for action arrived, and +disturbed their consciences. The feelings of ordinary humanity shrunk +from the destruction of so many persons guiltless of any offence. But in +addition, among the peers to be assassinated were included many Roman +Catholics and some lords nearly connected in kinship or friendship with +the plotters themselves. Several appeals, however, made to Catesby to +allow warning to be given to certain individuals were firmly rejected. + +On the 26th of October Lord Monteagle, a brother-in-law of Francis +Tresham, who had formerly been closely connected with some of the other +conspirators and had engaged in Romanist plots against the government, +but who had given his support to the new king, unexpectedly ordered +supper to be prepared at his house at Haxton, from which he had been +absent for more than a year. While at supper about 6 o'clock an +anonymous letter was brought by an unknown messenger which, having +glanced at, he handed to Ward, a gentleman of his service and an +intimate friend of Winter, the conspirator, to be read aloud. The +celebrated letter ran as follows:-- + + "My lord, out of the love I bear to some of your friends, I have a + care for your preservation. Therefore I would advise you, as you + tender your life, to devise some excuse to shift of your attendance + of this Parliament, for God and man hath concurred to punish the + wickedness of this time. And think not slightly of this advertisement, + but retire yourself into your country, where you may expect the event + in safety, for though there be no appearance of any stir, yet I say + they shall receive a terrible blow the Parliament, and yet they shall + not see who hurts them. This counsel is not to be contemned, because + it may do you good and can do you no harm, for the danger is past as + soon as you have burnt the letter: and I hope God will give you the + grace to make good use of it, to whose holy protection I commend you." + +The authorship of the letter has never been disclosed or proved, but all +evidence seems to point to Tresham, and to the probability that he had +some days before warned Monteagle and agreed with him as to the best +means of making known the plot and preventing its execution, and at the +same time of giving the conspirators time to escape (see TRESHAM, +FRANCIS). + +Monteagle at once started for Whitehall, found Salisbury and other +ministers about to sit down to supper, and showed the letter, whereupon +it was decided to search the cellar under the House of Lords before the +meeting of parliament, but not too soon, so that the plot might be ripe +and be fully disclosed. Meanwhile Ward, on the 27th of October, as had +evidently been intended, informed Winter that the plot was known, and on +the 28th Winter informed Catesby and begged him to give up the whole +project. Catesby, however, after some hesitation, finding from Fawkes +that nothing had been touched in the cellar, and prevailed upon by +Percy, determined to stand firm, hoping that the government had put no +credence in Monteagle's letter, and Fawkes returned to the cellar to +keep guard as before. On the 4th the king, having been shown the letter, +ordered the earl of Suffolk, as lord chamberlain, to examine the +buildings. He was accompanied by Monteagle. On arriving at the cellar, +the door was opened to him by Fawkes. Seeing the enormous piles of +faggots he asked the name of their owner, to which Fawkes replied that +they belonged to Percy. His name immediately aroused suspicions, and +accordingly it was ordered that a further search should be made by +Thomas Knyvett, a Westminster magistrate who, coming with his men at +night, discovered the gunpowder and arrested Fawkes on the threshold. + +The opinion that the whole plot was the work of Salisbury, that he acted +as an _agent provocateur_ and lured on his victims to destruction, +repeated by some contemporary and later writers and recently formulated +and urged with great ability, has no solid foundation. Nor is it even +probable that he was aware of its existence till he received Monteagle's +letter. Even after its reception complete belief was not placed in the +warning. A search was made only to make sure that nothing was wrong and +guided only by Monteagle's letter, while no attempt was made to seize +the conspirators. The steps taken by Salisbury after the discovery of +the gunpowder do not show the possession of any information of the plot +or of the persons who were its chief agents outside Fawkes's first +statement, and his knowledge is seen to develop according to the +successive disclosures and confessions of the latter. Thus on the 7th of +November he had no knowledge of the _mine_, and it is only after +Fawkes's examination by torture on the 9th, when the names of the +conspirators were drawn from him, that the government was able to +classify them according to their guilt and extent of their +participation. The inquiry was not conducted by Salisbury alone, but by +several commissioners, some of whom were Roman Catholics, and many +rivals and secret enemies. To conceal his intrigue from all these would +have been impossible, and that he should have put himself in their power +to such an extent is highly improbable. Again, the plan agreed upon for +disclosing the plot was especially designed to allow the conspirators to +escape, and therefore scarcely a method which would have been arranged +with Salisbury. Not one of the conspirators, even when all hope of +saving life was gone, made any accusation against Salisbury or the +government and all died expressing contrition for their crime. Lastly +Salisbury had no conceivable motive in concocting a plot of this +description. His political power and position in the new reign had been +already secured and by very different methods. He was now at the height +of his influence, having been created Viscount Cranborne in August 1604 +and earl of Salisbury in May 1605; and James had already, more than 16 +months before the discovery of the plot, consented to return to the +repressive measures against the Romanists. The success with which the +conspirators concealed their plot from Salisbury's spies is indeed +astonishing, but is probably explained by its very audacity and by the +absence of incriminating correspondence, the medium through which the +minister chiefly obtained his knowledge of the plans of his enemies. + +On the arrest of Fawkes the other conspirators, except Tresham, fled in +parties by different ways, rejoining each other in Warwickshire, as had +been agreed in case the plot had been successful. Catesby, who with some +others had covered the distance of 80 m. between London and his mother's +house at Ashby St Legers in eight hours, informed his friends in +Warwickshire, who had been awaiting the issue of the plot, of its +failure, but succeeded in persuading Sir Everard Digby, by an +unscrupulous falsehood, to further implicate himself in his hopeless +cause by assuring him that both James and Salisbury were dead; and, +according to Father Garnet, this was not the first time that Catesby had +been guilty of lies in order to draw men into the plot. He pushed on the +same day with his companions in the direction of Wales, where, it was +hoped, they would be joined by bands of insurgents. They arrived at +Huddington at 2 in the afternoon. On the morning of the 7th the band, +numbering about 36 persons, confessed and heard Mass, and then rode away +to Holbeche, 2 m. from Stourbridge, in Staffordshire, the house of +Stephen Littleton, who had been present at the hunting at Danchurch (see +DIGBY, EVERARD), where they arrived at 10 o'clock at night, having on +their way broken into Lord Windsor's house at Hewell Grange and taken +all the armour they found there. Their case was now desperate. None had +joined them: "Not one came to take our part," said Sir Everard Digby, +"though we had expected so many." They were being followed by the +sheriff and all the forces of the county. All spurned them from their +doors when they applied for succour. One by one their followers fled +from the house in which the last scene was to be played out. They now +began to feel themselves abandoned not only by man but by God; for an +explosion of some of their gunpowder, on the morning of the 8th, by +which Catesby and some others were scorched, struck terror into their +hearts as a judgment from heaven. The assurance of innocence and of a +just cause which till now had alone supported them was taken away. The +greatness of their crime, its true nature, now struck home to them, and +the few moments which remained to them of life were spent in prayer and +in repentance. The supreme hour had now arrived. About 11 o'clock the +sheriff and his men came up and immediately began firing into the house. +Catesby, Percy and the two Wrights were killed, Winter and Rokewood +wounded and taken prisoners with the men who still adhered to them. In +all eight of the conspirators, including the two Winters, Digby, Fawkes, +Rokewood, Keyes and Bates, were executed, while Tresham died in the +Tower. Of the priests involved, Garnet was tried and executed, while +Greenway and Gerard succeeded in escaping. + +So ended the strange and famous Gunpowder Plot. However atrocious its +conception and its aims, it is impossible not to feel, together with +horror for the deed, some pity and admiration for the guilty persons who +took part in it. "Theirs was a crime which it would never have entered +into the heart of any man to commit who was not raised above the lowness +of the ordinary criminal." They sinned not against the light but in the +dark. They erred from ignorance, from a perverted moral sense rather +than from any mean or selfish motive, and exhibited extraordinary +courage and self-sacrifice in the pursuit of what seemed to them the +cause of God and of their country. Their punishment was terrible. Not +only had they risked and lost all in the attempt and drawn upon +themselves the frightful vengeance of the state, but they saw themselves +the means of injuring irretrievably the cause for which they felt such +devotion. Nothing could have been more disastrous to the cause of the +Roman Catholics than their crime. The laws against them were immediately +increased in severity, and the gradual advance towards religious +toleration was put back for centuries. In addition a new, increased and +long-enduring hostility was aroused in the country against the adherents +of the old faith, not unnatural in the circumstances, but unjust and +undiscriminating, because while some of the Jesuits were no doubt +implicated, the secular priests and Roman Catholic laity as a whole had +taken no part in the conspiracy. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The recent controversy concerning the nature and origin + of the plot can be followed in _What was the Gunpowder Plot?_ by John + Gerard, S.J. (1897); _What Gunpowder Plot was_, by S. R. Gardiner (a + rejoinder) (1897); _The Gunpowder Plot ... in reply to Professor + Gardiner_, by John Gerard, S.J. (1897); _Thomas Winter's Confession + and the Gunpowder Plot_, by John Gerard, S.J. (with facsimiles of his + writing) (1898); _Eng. Hist. Rev._ iii. 510 and xii. 791; _Edinburgh + Review_, clxxxv. 183; _Athenaeum_ 1897, ii. 149, 785, 855; 1898, i. + 23, ii. 352, 420; _Academy_, vol. 52 p. 84; _The Nation_, vol. 65 p. + 400. A considerable portion of the controversy centres round the + question of the authenticity of Thomas Winter's confession, the MS. of + which is at Hatfield, supported by Professor Gardiner, but denied by + Father Gerard principally on account of the document having been + signed "Winter" instead of "Wintour," the latter apparently being the + conspirator's usual style of signature. The document was deposited by + the 3rd Marquess of Salisbury for inspection at the Record Office, and + was pronounced by two experts, one from the British Museum and another + from the Record Office, to be undoubtedly genuine. The cause of the + variation in the signature still remains unexplained, but ceases to + have therefore any great historical importance. The bibliography of + the contemporary controversy is given in the article on Henry Garnet + in the _Dictionary of National Biography_ and in _The Gunpowder Plot_ + by David Jardine (1857), the latter work still remaining the principal + authority on the subject; add to these Gardiner's _Hist. of England_, + i., where an excellent account is given; _History of the Jesuits in + England_, by Father Ethelred Taunton (1901); Father Gerard's + _Narrative in Condition of the Catholics under James I._ (1872), and + Father Greenway's Narrative in _Troubles of our Catholic Forefathers_, + 1st series (1872), interesting as contemporary accounts, but not to be + taken as complete or infallible authorities, of the same nature being + _Historia Provinciae Anglicanae Societatis Jesu_, by Henry More, S.J. + (1660), pp. 309 et seq.; also History of Great Britain, by John Speed + (1611), pp. 839 et seq.; _Archaeologia_, xii. 200, xxviii. 422, xxix. + 80; _Harleian Miscellany_ (1809), iii. 119-135, or _Somers Tracts_ + (1809), ii. 97-117; M. A. Tierney's ed. of _Dodd's Church History_, + vol. iv. (1841); _Treason and Plot_, by Martin Hume (1901); _Notes and + Queries_, 7 ser. vi., 8 ser. iv. 408, 497, v. 55, xii. 505, 9 ser. xi. + 115; _Add. MSS. Brit. Mus._ 6178; _State Trials_, ii.; _Calendar of + State Pap. Dom._ (1603-1610), and the official account, _A True and + Perfect Relation of the Whole Proceedings against the late most + Barbarous Traitors_ (1606), a neither true nor complete narrative + however, now superseded as an authority, reprinted as _The Gunpowder + Treason ..._ with additions in 1679 by Thomas Barlow, bishop of + Lincoln. A large number of letters and papers in the State Paper + Office relating to the plot were collected in one volume in 1819, + called the _Gunpowder Plot Book_; these are noted in their proper + place in the printed calendars of State Papers, Domestic Series; see + also articles on FAWKES, GUY; TRESHAM, FRANCIS; MONTEAGLE, WILLIAM + PARKER, 4TH BARON; PERCY, THOMAS; CATESBY, ROBERT; GARNET, HENRY; + DIGBY, SIR EVERARD. (P. C. Y.) + + + + +GUN-ROOM, a ship cabin occupied by the officers below the rank of +lieutenant, but who are not warrant officers of the class of the +boatswain, gunner or carpenter. In the wooden sailing ships it was on +the lower deck, and was originally the quarters of the gunner. + + + + +GUNTER, EDMUND (1581-1626), English mathematician, of Welsh extraction, +was born in Hertfordshire in 1581. He was educated at Westminster +school, and in 1599 was elected a student of Christ Church, Oxford. He +took orders, became a preacher in 1614, and in 1615 proceeded to the +degree of bachelor in divinity. Mathematics, however, which had been his +favourite study in youth, continued to engross his attention, and on the +6th of March 1619 he was appointed professor of astronomy in Gresham +College, London. This post he held till his death on the 10th of +December 1626. With Gunter's name are associated several useful +inventions, descriptions of which are given in his treatises on the +_Sector, Cross-staff, Bow, Quadrant and other Instruments_. He contrived +his sector about the year 1606, and wrote a description of it in Latin, +but it was more than sixteen years afterwards before he allowed the book +to appear in English. In 1620 he published his _Canon triangulorum_ (see +LOGARITHMS). There is reason to believe that Gunter was the first to +discover (in 1622 or 1625) that the magnetic needle does not retain the +same declination in the same place at all times. By desire of James I. +he published in 1624 _The Description and Use of His Majestie's Dials in +Whitehall Garden_, the only one of his works which has not been +reprinted. He introduced the words cosine and cotangent, and he +suggested to Henry Briggs, his friend and colleague, the use of the +arithmetical complement (see Brigg's _Arithmetica Logarithmica_, cap. +xv.). His practical inventions are briefly noticed below: + + _Gunter's Chain_, the chain in common use for surveying, is 22 yds. + long and is divided into 100 links. Its usefulness arises from its + decimal or centesimal division, and the fact that 10 square chains + make an acre. + + _Gunter's Line_, a logarithmic line, usually laid down upon scales, + sectors, &c. It is also called _the line of lines_ and _the line of + numbers_, being only the logarithms graduated upon a ruler, which + therefore serves to solve problems instrumentally in the same manner + as logarithms do arithmetically. + + _Gunter's Quadrant_, an instrument made of wood, brass or other + substance, containing a kind of stereographic projection of the sphere + on the plane of the equinoctial, the eye being supposed to be placed + in one of the poles, so that the tropic, ecliptic, and horizon form + the arcs of circles, but the hour circles are other curves, drawn by + means of several altitudes of the sun for some particular latitude + every year. This instrument is used to find the hour of the day, the + sun's azimuth, &c., and other common problems of the sphere or globe, + and also to take the altitude of an object in degrees. + + _Gunter's Scale_ (generally called by seamen the _Gunter_) is a large + plane scale, usually 2 ft. long by about 1½ in. broad, and engraved + with various lines of numbers. On one side are placed the natural + lines (as the line of chords, the line of sines, tangents, rhumbs, + &c.), and on the other side the corresponding artificial or + logarithmic ones. By means of this instrument questions in navigation, + trigonometry, &c., are solved with the aid of a pair of compasses. + + + + +GÜNTHER, JOHANN CHRISTIAN (1695-1723), German poet, was born at Striegau +in Lower Silesia on the 8th of April 1695. After attending the gymnasium +at Schweidnitz, he was sent in 1715 by his father, a country doctor, to +study medicine at Wittenberg; but he was idle and dissipated, had no +taste for the profession chosen for him, and came to a complete rupture +with his family. In 1717 he went to Leipzig, where he was befriended by +J. B. Mencke (1674-1732), who recognized his genius; and there he +published a poem on the peace of Passarowitz (concluded between the +German emperor and the Porte in 1718) which acquired him reputation. A +recommendation from Mencke to Frederick Augustus II. of Saxony, king of +Poland, proved worse than useless, as Günther appeared at the audience +drunk. From that time he led an unsettled and dissipated life, sinking +ever deeper into the slough of misery, until he died at Jena on the 15th +of March 1723, when only in his 28th year. Goethe pronounces Günther to +have been a poet in the fullest sense of the term. His lyric poems as a +whole give evidence of deep and lively sensibility, fine imagination, +clever wit, and a true ear for melody and rhythm; but an air of cynicism +is more or less present in most of them, and dull or vulgar witticisms +are not infrequently found side by side with the purest inspirations of +his genius. + + Günther's collected poems were published in four volumes (Breslau, + 1723-1735). They are also included in vol. vi. of Tittmann's _Deutsche + Dichter des 17ten Jahrh._ (Leipzig, 1874), and vol. xxxviii. of + Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_ (1883). A pretended + autobiography of Günther appeared at Schweidnitz in 1732, and a life + of him by Siebrand at Leipzig in 1738. See Hoffmann von Fallersleben, + _J. Ch. Günther_ (Breslau, 1833); O. Roquette, _Leben und Dichten J. + Ch. Günthers_ (Stuttgart, 1860); M. Kalbeck, _Neue Beiträge zur + Biographie des Dichters C. Günther_ (Breslau, 1879). + + + + +GÜNTHER OF SCHWARZBURG (1304-1349), German king, was a descendant of the +counts of Schwarzburg and the younger son of Henry VII., count of +Blankenburg. He distinguished himself as a soldier, and rendered good +service to the emperor Louis IV., on whose death in 1347 he was offered +the German throne, after it had been refused by Edward III., king of +England. He was elected German king at Frankfort on the 30th of January +1349 by four of the electors, who were partisans of the house of +Wittelsbach and opponents of Charles of Luxemburg, afterwards the +emperor Charles IV. Charles, however, won over many of Günther's +adherents, defeated him at Eltville, and Günther, who was now seriously +ill, renounced his claims for the sum of 20,000 marks of silver. He died +three weeks afterwards at Frankfort, and was buried in the cathedral of +that city, where a statue was erected to his memory in 1352. + + See Graf L. Ütterodt zu Scharffenberg, _Günther, Graf von Schwarzburg, + erwählter deutscher König_ (Leipzig, 1862); and K. Janson, _Das + Königtum Günthers von Schwarzburg_ (Leipzig, 1880). + + + + +GUNTRAM, or GONTRAN (561-592), king of Burgundy, was one of the sons of +Clotaire I. On the death of his father (561) he and his three brothers +divided the Frankish realm between them, Guntram receiving as his share +the valleys of the Saône and Rhone, together with Berry and the town of +Orleans, which he made his capital. On the death of Charibert (567), he +further obtained the _civitates_ of Saintes, Angoulême and Périgueux. +During the civil war which broke out between the kings of Neustria and +Austrasia, his policy was to try to maintain a state of equilibrium. +After the assassination of Sigebert (575), he took the youthful +Childebert II. under his protection, and, thanks to his assistance +against the intrigues of the great lords, the latter was able to +maintain his position in Austrasia. After the death of Chilperic (584) +he protected the young Clotaire II. in the same way, and prevented +Childebert from seizing his dominions. His course was rendered easier by +the fact that his own sons had died; consequently, having an inheritance +at his disposal, he was able to offer it to whichever of his nephews he +wished. The danger to the Frankish realm caused by the expedition of +Gundobald (585), and the anxiety which was caused him by the revolts of +the great lords in Austrasia finally decided him in favour of +Childebert. He adopted him as his son, and recognized him as his heir at +the treaty of Andelot (587); he also helped him to crush the great +lords, especially Ursion and Berthefried, who were conquered in la +Woëvre. From this time on he ceased to play a prominent part in the +affairs of Austrasia. He died in 592, and Childebert received his +inheritance without opposition. Gregory of Tours is very indulgent to +Guntram, who showed himself on occasions generous towards the church; he +almost always calls him "good king Guntram," and in his writings are to +be found such phrases as "good king Guntram took as his servant a +concubine Veneranda" (iv. 25); but Guntram was really no better than the +other kings of his age; he was cruel and licentious, putting his +_cubicularius_ Condo to death, for instance, because he was suspected of +having killed a buffalo in the Vosges. He was moreover a coward, and +went in such constant terror of assassination that he always surrounded +himself with a regular bodyguard. + + See Krusch, "Zur Chronologie der merowingischen Könige," in the + _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, xxii. 451-490; Ulysse + Chevalier, _Bio-bibliographie_ (2nd ed.), s.v. "Guntram." (C. Pf.) + + + + +GUNTUR, a town and district of British India, in the Madras presidency. +The town (pop. in 1901, 30,833) has a station on the Bellary-Bezwada +branch of the Southern Mahratta railway. It is situated east of the +Kondavid hills, and is very healthy. It appears to have been founded in +the 18th century by the French. At the time of the cession of the +Circars to the English in 1765, Guntur was specially exempted during the +life of Basalat Jang, whose personal _jagir_ it was. In 1788 it came +into British possession, the cession being finally confirmed in 1823. It +has an important trade in cotton, with presses and ginning factories. +There is a second-grade college supported by the American Lutheran +Mission. Until 1859, Guntur was the headquarters of a district of the +same name, and in 1904 a new DISTRICT OF GUNTUR was constituted, +covering territory which till then had been divided between Kistna and +Nellore. Area, 5733 sq. m. The population on this area in 1901 was +1,490,635. The district is bounded on the E. and N. by the river Kistna; +in the W. a considerable part of the boundary is formed by the +Gundlakamma river. The greater part consists of a fertile plain +irrigated by canals from the Kistna, and producing cotton, rice and +other crops. + + + + +GUPTA, an empire and dynasty of northern India, which lasted from about +A.D. 320 to 480. The dynasty was founded by Chandragupta I., who must +not be confounded with his famous predecessor Chandragupta Maurya. He +gave his name to the Gupta era, which continued in use for several +centuries, dating from the 26th of February, A.D. 320. Chandragupta was +succeeded by Samudragupta (c. A.D. 326-375), one of the greatest of +Indian kings, who conquered nearly the whole of India, and whose +alliances extended from the Oxus to Ceylon; but his name was at one time +entirely lost to history, and has only been recovered of recent years +from coins and inscriptions. His empire rivalled that of Asoka, +extending from the Hugli on the east to the Jumna and Chambal on the +west, and from the foot of the Himalayas on the north to the Nerbudda on +the south. His son Chandragupta II. (c. A.D. 375-413) was also known as +Vikra-Maditya (q.v.), and seems to have been the original of the +mythical Hindu king of that name. About 388 he conquered the Saka satrap +of Surashtra (Kathiawar) and penetrated to the Arabian Sea. His +administration is described in the work of Fa-hien, the earliest Chinese +pilgrim, who visited India in A.D. 405-411. Pataliputra was the capital +of the dynasty, but Ajodhya seems to have been sometimes used by both +Samudragupta and Chandragupta II. as the headquarters of government. The +Gupta dynasty appears to have fostered a revival of Brahmanism at the +expense of Buddhism, and to have given an impulse to art and literature. +The golden age of the empire lasted from A.D. 330 to 455, beginning to +decline after the latter date. When Skandagupta came to the throne in +455, India was threatened with an irruption of the White Huns, on whom +he inflicted a severe defeat, thus saving his kingdom for a time; but +about 470 the White Huns (see EPHTHALITES) returned to the attack, and +the empire was gradually destroyed by their repeated inroads. When +Skandagupta died about 480, the Gupta empire came to an end, but the +dynasty continued to rule in the eastern provinces for several +generations. The last known prince of the imperial line of Guptas was +Kamaragupta II. (c. 535), after whom it passed "by an obscure +transition" into a dynasty of eleven Gupta princes, known as "the later +Guptas of Magadha," who seem for the most part to have been merely local +rulers of Magadha. One of them, however, Adityasena, after the death of +the paramount sovereign in 648, asserted his independence. The last +known Gupta king was Jivitagupta II., who reigned early in the 8th +century. About the middle of the century Magadha passed under the sway +of the Pal kings of Bengal. + + See J. F. Fleet, _Gupta Inscriptions_ (1888); and Vincent A. Smith, + _The Early History of India_ (2nd ed., Oxford, 1908), pp. 264-295. + + + + +GURA, EUGEN (1842-1906), German singer, was born near Saatz in Bohemia, +and educated at first for the career of a painter at Vienna and Munich; +but later, developing a fine baritone voice, he took up singing and +studied it at the Munich Conservatorium. In 1865 he made his début at +the Munich opera, and in the following years he gained the highest +reputation in Germany, being engaged principally at Leipzig till 1876 +and then at Hamburg till 1883. He sang in 1876 in the _Ring_ at +Bayreuth, and was famous for his Wagnerian rôles; and his Hans Sachs in +_Meistersinger_, as performed in London in 1882, was magnificent. In +later years he showed the perfection of art in his singing of German +_Lieder_. He died in Bavaria on the 26th of August 1906. + + + + +GURDASPUR, a town and district of British India, in the Lahore division +of the Punjab. The town had a population in 1901 of 5764. It has a fort +(now containing a Brahman monastery) which was famous for the siege it +sustained in 1712 from the Moguls. The Sikh leader, Banda, was only +reduced by starvation, when he and his men were tortured to death after +capitulating. + +The DISTRICT comprises an area of 1889 sq. m. It is bounded on the N. by +the native states of Kashmir and Chamba, on the E. by Kangra district +and the river Beas, on the S.W. by Amritsar district, and on the W. by +Sialkot, and occupies the submontane portion of the Bari Doab, or tract +between the Beas and the Ravi. An intrusive spur of the British +dominions runs northward into the lower Himalayan ranges, to include the +mountain sanatorium of Dalhousie, 7687 ft. above sea-level. This +station, which has a large fluctuating population during the warmer +months, crowns the most westerly shoulder of a magnificent snowy range, +the Dhaoladhar, between which and the plain two minor ranges intervene. +Below the hills stretches a picturesque and undulating plateau covered +with abundant timber, made green by a copious rainfall, and watered by +the streams of the Bari Doab, which, diverted by dams and embankments, +now empty their waters into the Beas directly, in order that their +channels may not interfere with the Bari Doab canal. The district +contains several large _jhils_ or swampy lakes, and is famous for its +snipe-shooting. It is historically important in connexion with the rise +of the Sikh confederacy. The whole of the Punjab was then distributed +among the Sikh chiefs who triumphed over the imperial governors. In the +course of a few years, however, the maharaja Ranjit Singh acquired all +the territory which those chiefs had held. Pathankot and the +neighbouring villages in the plain, together with the whole hill portion +of the district, formed part of the area ceded by the Sikhs to the +British after the first Sikh war in 1846. In 1862, after receiving one +or two additions, the district was brought into its present shape. In +1901 the population was 940,334, showing a slight decrease, compared +with an increase of 15% in the previous decade. A branch of the +North-Western railway runs through the district. The largest town and +chief commercial centre is Batala. There are important woollen mills at +Dhariwal, and besides their products the district exports cotton, sugar, +grain and oil-seeds. + + + + +GURGAON, a town and district of British India, in the Delhi division of +the Punjab. The town (pop. in 1901, 4765) is the headquarters of the +district, but is otherwise unimportant. The district has an area of 1984 +sq. m. It is bounded on the N. by Rohtak, on the W. and S.W. by portions +of the Alwar, Nabha and Jind native states, on the S. by the Muttra +district of the United Provinces, on the E. by the river Jumna and on +the N.E. by Delhi. It comprises the southernmost corner of the Punjab +province, stretching away from the level plain towards the hills of +Rajputana. Two low rocky ranges enter its borders from the south and run +northward in a bare and unshaded mass toward the plain country. East of +the western ridge the valley is wide and open, extending to the banks of +the Jumna. To the west lies the subdivision of Rewari, consisting of a +sandy plain dotted with isolated hills. Numerous torrents carry off the +drainage from the upland ranges, and the most important among them empty +themselves at last into the Najafgarh _jhil_. This swampy lake lies to +the east of the civil station of Gurgaon, and stretches long arms into +the neighbouring districts of Delhi and Rohtak. Salt is manufactured in +wells at several villages. The mineral products are iron ore, copper +ore, plumbago and ochre. + +In 1803 Gurgaon district passed into the hands of the British after Lord +Lake's conquests. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in May 1857, the nawab +of Farukhnagar, the principal feudatory of the district, rose in +rebellion. The Meos and many Rajput families followed his example. A +faithful native officer preserved the public buildings and records at +Rewari from destruction; but with this exception, British authority +became extinguished for a time throughout Gurgaon. After the fall of the +rebel capital, a force marched into the district and either captured or +dispersed the leaders of rebellion. The territory of the nawab was +confiscated on account of his participation in the Mutiny. Civil +administration was resumed under orders from the Punjab government, to +which province the district was formally annexed on the final +pacification of the country. The population in 1901 was 746,208, showing +an increase of 11% in the decade. The largest town and chief trade +centre is Rewari. The district is now traversed by several lines of +railway, and irrigation is provided by the Agra canal. The chief trade +is in cereals, but hardware is also exported. + + + + +GURKHA (pronounced _góorka_; from Sans. _gau_, a cow, and _raks_, to +protect), the ruling Hindu race in Nepal (q.v.). The Gurkhas, or +Gurkhalis, claim descent from the rajas of Chitor in Rajputana. When +driven out of their own country by the Mahommedan invasion, they took +refuge in the hilly districts about Kumaon, whence they gradually +invaded the country to the eastward as far as Gurkha, Noakote and +ultimately to the valley of Nepal and even Sikkim. They were stopped by +the English in an attempt to push south, and the treaty of Segauli, +which ended the Gurkha War of 1814, definitely limited their +territorial growth. The Gurkhas of the present day remain Hindus by +religion, but show in their appearance a strong admixture of Mongolian +blood. They make splendid infantry soldiers, and by agreement with their +government about 20,000 have been recruited for the Gurkha regiments of +the Indian army. As a rule they are bold, enduring, faithful, frank, +independent and self-reliant. They despise other Orientals, but admire +and fraternize with Europeans, whose tastes in sport and war they share. +They strongly resemble the Japanese, but are of a sturdier build. Their +national weapon is the _kukri_, a heavy curved knife, which they use for +every possible purpose. + + See Capt. Eden Vansittart, _Notes on the Gurkhas_ (1898); and P. D. + Bonarjee, _The Fighting Races of India_ (1899). + + + + +GURNALL, WILLIAM (1617-1679), English author, was born in 1617 at King's +Lynn, Norfolk. He was educated at the free grammar school of his native +town, and in 1631 was nominated to the Lynn scholarship in Emmanuel +College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1635 and M.A. in 1639. He +was made rector of Lavenham in Suffolk in 1644; and before he received +that appointment he seems to have officiated, perhaps as curate, at +Sudbury. At the Restoration he signed the declaration required by the +Act of Uniformity, and on this account he was the subject of a libellous +attack, published in 1665, entitled _Covenant-Renouncers Desperate +Apostates_. He died on the 12th of October 1679. Gurnall is known by his +_Christian in Complete Armour_, published in three volumes, dated 1655, +1658 and 1662. It consists of a series of sermons on the latter portion +of the 6th chapter of Ephesians, and is described as a "magazine from +whence the Christian is furnished with spiritual arms for the battle, +helped on with his armour, and taught the use of his weapon; together +with the happy issue of the whole war." The work is more practical than +theological; and its quaint fancy, graphic and pointed style, and its +fervent religious tone render it still popular with some readers. + + See also _An Inquiry into the Life of the Rev. W. Gurnall_, by H. + M'Keon (1830), and a biographical introduction by Bishop Ryle to the + _Christian in Complete Armour_ (1865). + + + + +GURNARD (_Trigla_), a genus of fishes forming a group of the family of +"mailed cheeks" (_Triglidae_), and easily recognized by three detached +finger-like appendages in front of the pectoral fins, and by their +large, angular, bony head, the sides of which are protected by strong, +hard and rough bones. The pectoral appendages are provided with strong +nerves, and serve not only as organs of locomotion when the fish moves +on the bottom, but also as organs of touch, by which it detects small +animals on which it feeds. Gurnards are coast-fishes, generally +distributed over the tropical and temperate areas; of the forty species +known six occur on the coast of Great Britain, viz. the red gurnard (_T. +pini_), the streaked gurnard (_T. lineata_), the sapphirine gurnard (_T. +hirundo_), the grey gurnard (_T. gurnardus_), the piper (_T. lyra_) and +the long-finned gurnard (_T. obscura_ or _T. lucerna_). Although never +found very far from the coast, gurnards descend to depths of several +hundred fathoms; and as they are bottom-fish they are caught chiefly by +means of the trawl. Not rarely, however, they may be seen floating on +the surface of the water, with their broad, finely coloured pectoral +fins spread out like fans. In very young fishes, which abound in certain +localities on the coast in the months of August and September, the +pectorals are comparatively much longer than in the adult, extending to +the end of the body; they are beautifully coloured and kept expanded, +the little fishes looking like butterflies. When caught and taken out of +the water, gurnards emit a grunting noise, which is produced by the +vibrations of a diaphragm situated transversely across the cavity of the +bladder and perforated in the centre. This grunting noise gave rise to +the name "gurnard," which is probably an adaptation or variation of the +Fr. _grognard_, grumbler, cf. the Fr. _grondin_, gurnard, from +_gronder_, and Ger. _Knurrfisch_. Their flesh is very white, firm and +wholesome. + +[Illustration: _Trigla pleuracanthica_.] + + + + +GURNEY, the name of a philanthropic English family of bankers and +merchants, direct descendants of Hugh de Gournay, lord of Gournay, one +of the Norman noblemen who accompanied William the Conqueror to England. +Large grants of land were made to Hugh de Gournay in Norfolk and +Suffolk, and Norwich has since that time been the headquarters of the +family, the majority of whom were Quakers. Here in 1770 the brothers +John and Henry Gurney founded a banking-house, the business passing in +1779 to Henry's son, Bartlett Gurney. On the death of Bartlett Gurney in +1802 the bank became the property of his three cousins, of whom JOHN +GURNEY (1750-1809) was the most remarkable. One of his daughters was +Elizabeth Fry; another married Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton. Of his sons one +was Joseph JOHN GURNEY (1788-1847), a well-known philanthropist of the +day; another, SAMUEL GURNEY (1786-1856) assumed on his father's death +the control of the Norwich bank. Samuel Gurney also took over about the +same time the control of the London bill-broking business of Richardson, +Overend & Company, in which he was already a partner. This business had +been founded in 1800 by Thomas Richardson, clerk to a London +bill-discounter, and John Overend, chief clerk in the bank of Smith, +Payne & Company at Nottingham, the Gurneys supplying the capital. At +that time bill-discounting was carried on in a spasmodic fashion by the +ordinary merchant in addition to his regular business, but Richardson +considered that there was room for a London house which should devote +itself entirely to the trade in bills. This, at that time, novel idea +proved an instant success. The title of the firm was subsequently +changed to Overend, Gurney & Company, and for forty years it was the +greatest discounting-house in the world. During the financial crisis of +1825 Overend, Gurney & Company were able to make short loans to many +other bankers. The house indeed became known as "the bankers' banker," +and secured many of the previous clients of the Bank of England. Samuel +Gurney died in 1856. He was a man of very charitable disposition, and +during the latter years of his life charitable and philanthropic +undertakings almost monopolized his attention. In 1865 the business of +Overend, Gurney & Company, which had come under less competent control, +was converted into a joint stock company, but in 1866 the firm suspended +payment with liabilities amounting to eleven millions sterling. + + + + +GURNEY, EDMUND (1847-1888), English psychologist, was born at Hersham, +near Walton-on-Thames, on the 23rd of March 1847. He was educated at +Blackheath and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took a high place +in the classical tripos and obtained a fellowship. His work for the +schools was done, says his friend F. W. H. Myers, "in the intervals of +his practice on the piano." Dissatisfied with his own executive skill as +a musician, he wrote _The Power of Sound_ (1880), an essay on the +philosophy of music. He then studied medicine with no intention of +practising, devoting himself to physics, chemistry and physiology. In +1880 he passed the second M.B. Cambridge examination in the science of +the healing profession. These studies, and his great logical powers and +patience in the investigation of evidence, he devoted to that outlying +field of psychology which is called "Psychical Research." He asked +whether, as universal tradition declares, there is an unexplored region +of human faculty transcending the normal limitations of sensible +knowledge. That there is such a region it was part of the system of +Hegel to declare, and the subject had been metaphysically treated by +Hartmann, Schopenhauer, Du Prel, Hamilton and others, as the philosophy +of the Unconscious or Subconscious. But Gurney's purpose was to +approach the subject by observation and experiment, especially in the +hypnotic field, whereas vague and ill-attested anecdotes had hitherto +been the staple of the evidence of metaphysicians. The tendency of his +mind was to investigate whatever facts may give a colour of truth to the +ancient belief in the persistence of the conscious human personality +after the death of the body. Like Joseph Glanvill's, the natural bent of +Gurney's mind was sceptical. Both thought the current and traditional +reports of supernormal occurrences suggestive and worth investigating by +the ordinary methods of scientific observation, and inquisition into +evidence at first hand. But the method of Gurney was, of course, much +more strict than that of the author of _Sadducismus Triumphatus_, and it +included hypnotic and other experiments unknown to Glanvill. Gurney +began at what he later saw was the wrong end by studying, with Myers, +the "séances" of professed spiritualistic "mediums" (1874-1878). Little +but detection of imposture came of this, but an impression was left that +the subject ought not to be abandoned. In 1882 the Society for Psychical +Research was founded. (See PSYCHICAL RESEARCH.) Paid mediums were +discarded, at least for the time, and experiments were made in +"thought-transference" and hypnotism. Personal evidence as to uninduced +hallucinations was also collected. The first results are embodied in the +volumes of _Phantasms of the Living_, a vast collection (Podmore, Myers +and Gurney), and in Gurney's remarkable essay, _Hallucinations_. The +chief consequence was to furnish evidence for the process called +"telepathy," involving the provisional hypothesis that one human mind +can affect another through no recognized channel of sense. The fact was +supposed to be established by the experiments chronicled in the +_Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research_, and it was argued +that similar experiences occurred spontaneously, as, for example, in the +many recorded instances of "deathbed wraiths" among civilized and savage +races. (Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, i. chapter xi., especially pp. +449-450, 1873. Lang, _Making of Religion_, pp. 120-124, 1898.) The dying +man is supposed to convey the hallucination of his presence as one +living person experimentally conveys his thought to another, by +"thought-transference." Gurney's hypnotic experiments, marked by great +exactness, patience and ingenuity, were undertaken in 1885-1888. Their +tendency was, in Myers's words, "to prove--so far as any one operator's +experience in this protean subject can be held to prove anything--that +there is sometimes, in the induction of hypnotic phenomena, some agency +at work which is neither ordinary nervous stimulation (monotonous or +sudden) nor suggestion conveyed by any ordinary channel to the subject's +mind." These results, if accepted, of course corroborate the idea of +telepathy. (See Gurney, "Hypnotism and Telepathy," _Proceedings S. P. +R._ vol. iv.) Experiments by MM. Gibert, Janet, Richet, Héricourt and +others are cited as tending in the same direction. Other experiments +dealt with "the relation of the memory in the hypnotic state to the +memory in another hypnotic state, and of both to the normal or waking +memory." The result of Gurney's labours, cut short by his early death, +was to raise and strengthen the presumption that there exists an +unexplored region of human faculty which ought not to be neglected by +science as if the belief in it were a mere survival of savage +superstition. Rather, it appears to have furnished the experiences +which, misinterpreted, are expressed in traditional beliefs. That Gurney +was credulous and easily imposed upon those who knew him, and knew his +penetrating humour, cannot admit; nor is the theory likely to be +maintained by those whom bias does not prevent from studying with care +his writings. In controversy "he delighted in replying with easy +courtesy to attacks envenomed with that _odium plus quam theologicum_ +which the very allusion to a ghost or the human soul seems in some +philosophers to inspire." In discussion of themes unpopular and obscure +Gurney displayed the highest tact, patience, good temper, humour and +acuteness. There never was a more disinterested student. In addition to +his work on music and his psychological writings, he was the author of +_Tertium Quid_ (1887), a collection of essays, on the whole a protest +against one-sided ideas and methods of discussion. He died at Brighton +on 23rd June 1888, from the effects of an overdose of narcotic medicine. + (A. L.) + + + + +GURWOOD, JOHN (1790-1845), British soldier, began his career in a +merchant's office, but soon obtained an ensigncy in the 52nd (1808). +With his regiment he served in the "Light Division" of Wellington's army +throughout the earlier Peninsular campaigns, and at Ciudad Rodrigo (19th +Jan. 1812) he led one of the forlorn hopes and was severely wounded. For +his gallant conduct on this occasion Wellington presented Gurwood with +the sword of the French governor of Ciudad Rodrigo. A little later, +transferring to the 9th Light Dragoons, he was made brigade-major to the +Guards' cavalry which had just arrived in the Peninsula. In the latter +part of the war he served as brigade-major to Lambert's brigade of the +sixth infantry division, and was present at the various actions in which +that division played a conspicuous part--the Nivelle, the Nive, Orthes +and Toulouse. At Waterloo Captain Gurwood was for the third time +severely wounded. In the first twelve years of the peace he was promoted +up to the grade of lieut.-colonel, and in 1841 became brevet-colonel. He +was for many years the duke of Wellington's private secretary, and was +entrusted by him with the collection and editing of the _Wellington +Despatches_, which occupied Gurwood from 1837 to the end of his life. +This work is a monument of industrious skill, and earned its author a +Civil List Pension of £200. But overwork and the effects of his wounds +had broken his health, and he committed suicide on Christmas day 1845. +He was a C.B. and deputy-lieutenant of the Tower. + + + + +GUSLA, or GUSLI, an ancient stringed instrument still in use among the +Slavonic races. The modern Servian gusla is a kind of tanbur (see +Pandura), consisting of a round, concave body covered with a parchment +soundboard; there is but one horse-hair string, and the peg for tuning +it is inserted in oriental fashion in the back of the head. The gusla is +played with a primitive bow called _goudalo_. The _gouslars_ or blind +bards of Servia and Croatia use it to accompany their chants. C. G. +Anton[1] mentions an instrument of that name in the shape of a half-moon +strung with eighteen strings in use among the Tatars. Prosper Merimée[2] +has taken the _gusla_ as the title for a book of Servian poems, which +are supposed to have been collected by him among the peasants, but which +are thought to have been inspired by the _Viaggio in Dalmazia_ of +Albarto Fortis. + +Among the Russians, the gusli is an instrument of a different type, a +kind of psaltery having five or more strings stretched across a flat, +shallow sound-chest in the shape of a wing. In the gusli the strings, of +graduated length, are attached to little nails or pins at one end, and +at the other they are wound over a rod having screw attachments for +increasing and slackening the tension. There is no bridge to determine +the vibrating length of the strings. The body of the instrument is +shaped roughly like the tail of the grand piano, following the line of +the strings; the longest being at the left of the instrument. Matthew +Guthrie gives an illustration of the gusli.[3] (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Erste Linien eines Versuchs über den Ursprung der alten Slaven_ + (Leipzig, 1783-1789), p. 145. + + [2] _La Guzla, ou choix de poésies lyriques recueillies dans la + Dalmatie, la Bosnie, la Croatie, &c._ (Paris, 1827). + + [3] _Dissertations sur les antiquités de Russie_ (St Petersburg, + 1795), pl. ii. No. 9, p. 31. + + + + +GUSTAVUS I. ERIKSSON (1496-1560), king of Sweden, was born at his +mother's estate at Lindholm on Ascension Day 1496. He came of a family +which had shone conspicuously in 15th-century politics, though it +generally took the anti-national side. His father, Erik Johansson of +Rydboholm, "a merry and jocose gentleman," but, like all the Swedish +Vasas, liable to sudden fierce gusts of temper, was one of the senators +who voted for the deposition of Archbishop Trolle, at the _riksdag_ of +1517 (see SWEDEN, _History_), for which act of patriotism he lost his +head. Gustavus's mother, Cecilia Månsdåtter, was closely connected by +marriage with the great Sture family. Gustavus's youthful experiences +impressed him with a life-long distrust of everything Danish. In his +eighteenth year he was sent to the court of his cousin Sten Sture. At +the battle of Brännkyrka, when Sture defeated Christian II. of Denmark, +the young Gustavus bore the governor's standard, and in the same year +(1518) he was delivered with five other noble youths as a hostage to +King Christian, who treacherously carried him prisoner to Denmark. He +was detained for twelve months in the island fortress of Kalö, on the +east coast of Jutland, but contrived to escape to Lübeck in September +1519. There he found an asylum till the 20th of May 1520, when he +chartered a ship to Kalmar, one of the few Swedish fortresses which held +out against Christian II. + +It was while hunting near Lake Mälar that the news of the Stockholm +massacre was brought to him by a peasant fresh from the capital, who +told him, at the same time, that a price had been set upon his head. In +his extremity, Gustavus saw only one way of deliverance, an appeal for +help to the sturdy yeomen of the dales. How the dalesmen set Gustavus on +the throne and how he and they finally drove the Danes out of Sweden +(1521-1523) is elsewhere recorded (see SWEDEN: _History_). But his worst +troubles only began after his coronation on the 6th of June 1523. The +financial position of the crown was the most important of all the +problems demanding solution, for upon that everything else depended. By +releasing his country from the tyranny of Denmark, Gustavus had made the +free independent development of Sweden a possibility. It was for him to +realize that possibility. First of all, order had to be evolved from the +chaos in which Sweden had been plunged by the disruption of the Union; +and the shortest, perhaps the only, way thereto was to restore the royal +authority, which had been in abeyance during ninety years. But an +effective reforming monarchy must stand upon a sound financial basis; +and the usual revenues of the crown, always inadequate, were so +diminished that they did not cover half the daily expenses of +government. New taxes could only be imposed with extreme caution, while +the country was still bleeding from the wounds of a long war. And men +were wanted even more than money. The lack of capable, trustworthy +administrators in Sweden was grievous. The whole burden of government +weighed exclusively on the shoulders of the new king, a young man of +seven and twenty. Half his time was taken up in travelling from one end +of the kingdom to the other, and doing purely clerical work for want of +competent assistance. We can form some idea of his difficulties when we +learn that, in 1533, he could not send an ambassador to Lübeck because +not a single man in his council, except himself, knew German. It was +this lack of native talent which compelled Gustavus frequently to employ +the services of foreign adventurers like Berent von Mehlen, John von +Hoja, Konrad von Pyhy and others. + +It was not the least of Gustavus's many anxieties that he had constantly +to be on the watch lest a formidable democratic rival should encroach on +his prerogative. That rival was the Swedish peasantry. He succeeded +indeed in putting down the four formidable rebellions which convulsed +the realm from 1525 to 1542, but the consequent strain upon his +resources was very damaging, and more than once he was on the point of +abdicating and emigrating, out of sheer weariness. Moreover he was in +constant fear of the Danes. Necessity compelled him indeed (1534-1536) +to take part in _Grevens fejde_ (Counts' War) (see DENMARK, _History_), +as the ally of Christian III., but his exaggerated distrust of the Danes +was invincible. "We advise and exhort you," he wrote to the governor of +Kalmar, "to put no hope or trust in the Danes, or in their sweet +scribbling, inasmuch as they mean nothing at all by it except how best +they may deceive and betray us Swedes." Such instructions were not +calculated to promote confidence between Swedish and Danish negotiators. +A fresh cause of dispute was generated in 1548, when Christian III.'s +daughter was wedded to Duke Augustus of Saxony. On that occasion, +apparently by way of protest against the decree of the diet of Vesterås +(15th of January 1544), declaring the Swedish crown hereditary in +Gustavus's family, the Danish king caused to be quartered on his +daughter's shield not only the three Danish lions and the Norwegian lion +with the axe of St Olaf, but also "the three crowns" of Sweden. +Gustavus, naturally suspicious, was much perturbed by the innovation, +and warned all his border officials to be watchful and prepare for the +worst. In 1557 he even wrote to the Danish king protesting against the +placing of "the three crowns" in the royal Danish seal beneath the arms +of Denmark. Christian III. replied that "the three crowns" signified not +Sweden in especial, but the three Scandinavian kingdoms, and that their +insertion in the Danish shield was only a reminiscence of the union of +Kalmar. But Gustavus was not satisfied, and this was the beginning of +"the three crowns" dispute which did so much damage to both kingdoms. + +The events which led to the rupture of Gustavus with the Holy See are +set forth in the proper place (see SWEDEN: _History_). Here it need only +be added that it was a purely political act, as Gustavus, personally, +had no strong dogmatic leanings either way. He not unnaturally expressed +his amazement when that very juvenile reformer Olavus Petri confidently +informed him that the pope was antichrist. He consulted the older and +graver Laurentius Andreae, who told him how "Doctor Martinus had clipped +the wings of the pope, the cardinals and the big bishops," which could +not fail to be pleasing intelligence to a monarch who was never an +admirer of episcopacy, while the rich revenues of the church, +accumulated in the course of centuries, were a tempting object to the +impecunious ruler of an impoverished people. Subsequently, when the +Protestant hierarchy was forcibly established in Sweden, matters were +much complicated by the absolutist tendencies of Gustavus. The incessant +labour, the constant anxiety, which were the daily portion of Gustavus +Vasa during the seven and thirty years of his reign, told at last even +upon his magnificent constitution. In the spring of 1560, conscious of +an ominous decline of his powers, Gustavus summoned his last diet, to +give an account of his stewardship. On the 16th of June 1560 the +assembly met at Stockholm. Ten days later, supported by his sons, +Gustavus greeted the estates in the great hall of the palace, when he +took a retrospect of his reign, reminding them of the misery of the +kingdom during the union and its deliverance from "that unkind tyrant, +King Christian." Four days later the diet passed a resolution confirming +the hereditary right of Gustavus's son, Prince Eric, to the throne. The +old king's last anxieties were now over and he could die in peace. He +expired on the 29th of September 1560. + +Gustavus was thrice married. His first wife, Catherine, daughter of +Magnus I., duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, bore him in 1533 his eldest son Eric. +This union was neither long nor happy, but the blame for its infelicity +is generally attributed to the lady, whose abnormal character was +reflected and accentuated in her unhappy son. Much more fortunate was +Gustavus's second marriage, a year after the death of his first consort, +with his own countrywoman, Margaret Lejonhufvud, who bore him five sons +and five daughters, of whom three sons, John, Magnus and Charles, and +one daughter, Cecilia, survived their childhood. Queen Margaret died in +1551; and a twelvemonth later Gustavus wedded her niece, Catharine +Stenbock, a handsome girl of sixteen, who survived him more than sixty +years. + +Gustavus's outward appearance in the prime of life is thus described by +a contemporary: "He was of the middle height, with a round head, light +yellow hair, a fine long beard, sharp eyes, a ruddy countenance ... and +a body as fitly and well proportioned as any painter could have painted +it. He was of a sanguine-choleric temperament, and when untroubled and +unvexed, a bright and cheerful gentleman, easy to get on with, and +however many people happened to be in the same room with him, he was +never at a loss for an answer to every one of them." Learned he was not, +but he had naturally bright and clear understanding, an unusually good +memory, and a marvellous capacity for taking pains. He was also very +devout, and his morals were irreproachable. On the other hand, Gustavus +had his full share of the family failings of irritability and +suspiciousness, the latter quality becoming almost morbid under the +pressure of adverse circumstances. His energy too not infrequently +degenerated into violence, and when crossed he was apt to be tyrannical. + + See A. Alberg, _Gustavus Vasa and his Times_ (London, 1882); R. N. + Bain, _Scandinavia_, chaps. iii. and v. (Cambridge, 1905); P. B. + Watson, _The Swedish Revolution under Gustavus Vasa_ (London, 1889); + O. Sjögren, _Gustaf Vasa_ (Stockholm, 1896); C. M. Butler, _The + Reformation in Sweden_ (New York, 1883); _Sveriges Historia_ + (Stockholm, 1877-1881); J. Weidling, _Schwedische Geschichte im + Zeitalter der Reformation_ (Gotha, 1882). (R. N. B.) + + + + +GUSTAVUS II. ADOLPHUS (1594-1632), king of Sweden, the eldest son of +Charles IX. and of Christina, daughter of Adolphus, duke of +Holstein-Gottorp, was born at Stockholm castle on the 9th of December +1594. From the first he was carefully nurtured to be the future prop of +Protestantism by his austere parents. Gustavus was well grounded in the +classics, and his linguistic accomplishments were extraordinary. He may +be said to have grown up with two mother-tongues, Swedish and German; at +twelve he had mastered Latin, Italian and Dutch; and he learnt +subsequently to express himself in Spanish, Russian and Polish. But his +practical father took care that he should grow up a prince, not a +pedant. So early as his ninth year he was introduced to public life; at +thirteen he received petitions and conversed officially with the foreign +ministers; at fifteen he administered his duchy of Vestmanland and +opened the Örebro diet with a speech from the throne; indeed from 1610 +he may be regarded as his father's co-regent. In all martial and +chivalrous accomplishments he was already an adept; and when, a year +later, he succeeded to supreme power, his superior ability was as +uncontested as it was incontestable. + +The first act of the young king was to terminate the fratricidal +struggle with Denmark by the peace of Knäred (28th of January 1613). +Simultaneously, another war, also an heritage from Charles IX., had been +proceeding in the far distant regions round lakes Ilmen, Peipus and +Ladoga, with Great Novgorod as its centre. It was not, however, like the +Danish War, a national danger, but a political speculation meant to be +remunerative and compensatory, and was concluded very advantageously for +Sweden by the peace of Stolbova on the 27th of February 1617 (see +SWEDEN: _History_). By this peace Gustavus succeeded in excluding +Muscovy from the Baltic. "I hope to God," he declared to the Stockholm +diet in 1617, when he announced the conclusion of peace, "that the +Russians will feel it a bit difficult to skip over _that_ little brook." +The war with Poland which Gustavus resumed in 1621 was a much more +difficult affair. It began with an attack upon Riga as the first step +towards conquering Livonia. Riga was invested on the 13th of August and +surrendered on the 15th of September; on the 3rd of October Mitau was +occupied; but so great were the ravages of sickness during the campaign +that the Swedish army had to be reinforced by no fewer than 10,000 men. +A truce was thereupon concluded and hostilities were suspended till the +summer of 1625, in the course of which Gustavus took Kokenhusen and +invaded Lithuania. In January 1626 he attacked the Poles at Walhof and +scattered the whole of their army after slaying a fifth part of it. This +victory, remarkable besides as Gustavus's first pitched battle, +completed the conquest of Livonia. As, however, it became every year +more difficult to support an army in the Dvina district, Gustavus now +resolved to transfer the war to the Prussian provinces of Poland with a +view to securing the control of the Vistula, as he had already secured +the control of the Dvina. At the end of 1626, the Swedish fleet, with +14,000 men on board, anchored in front of the chain of sand-dunes which +separates the Frische-Haff from the Baltic. Pillau, the only Baltic port +then accessible to ships of war, was at once occupied, and Königsberg +shortly afterwards was scared into an unconditional neutrality. July was +passed in conquering the bishopric of Ermeland. The surrender of Elbing +and Marienburg placed Gustavus in possession of the fertile and easily +defensible delta of the Vistula, which he treated as a permanent +conquest, making Axel Oxenstjerna its first governor-general. +Communications between Danzig and the sea were cut off by the erection +of the first of Gustavus's famous entrenched camps at Dirschau. From the +end of August 1626 the city was blockaded, and in the meantime Polish +irregulars, under the capable Stanislaus Koniecpolski, began to harass +the Swedes. But the object of the campaign, a convenient basis of +operations, was won; and in October the king departed to Sweden to get +reinforcements. He returned in May 1627 with 7000 men, which raised his +forces to 14,000, against which Koniecpolski could only oppose 9000. +But his superior strategy frustrated all the efforts of the Swedish +king, who in the course of the year was twice dangerously wounded and so +disabled that he could never wear armour again. Gustavus had made +extensive preparations for the ensuing campaign and took the field with +32,000 men. But once again, though far outnumbered, and unsupported by +his own government, the Polish grand-hetman proved more than a match for +Gustavus, who, on the 10th of September, broke up his camp and returned +to Prussia; the whole autumn campaign had proved a failure and cost him +5000 men. During the ensuing campaign of 1629 Gustavus had to contend +against the combined forces of Koniecpolski and 10,000 of Wallenstein's +mercenaries. The Polish commander now showed the Swedes what he could do +with adequate forces. At Stuhm, on the 29th of June, he defeated +Gustavus, who lost most of his artillery and narrowly escaped capture. +The result of the campaign was the conclusion of the six years' truce of +Altmark, which was very advantageous to Sweden. + +And now Gustavus turned his attention to Germany. The motives which +induced the Swedish king to intervene directly in the Thirty Years' War +are told us by himself in his correspondence with Oxenstjerna. Here he +says plainly that it was the fear lest the emperor should acquire the +Baltic ports and proceed to build up a sea-power dangerous to +Scandinavia. For the same reason, the king rejected the chancellor's +alternative of waging a simply defensive war against the emperor by +means of the fleet, with Stralsund as his base. He was convinced by the +experience of Christian IV. of Denmark that the enemies' harbours could +be wrested from them only by a successful offensive war on land; and, +while quite alive to the risks of such an enterprise in the face of two +large armies, Tilly's and Wallenstein's, each of them larger than his +own, he argued that the vast extent of territory and the numerous +garrisons which the enemy was obliged to maintain, more than neutralized +his numerical superiority. Merely to blockade all the German ports with +the Swedish fleet was equally impossible. The Swedish fleet was too weak +for that; it would be safer to take and fortify the pick of them. In +Germany itself, if he once got the upper hand, he would not find himself +without resources. It is no enthusiastic crusader, but an anxious and +farseeing if somewhat speculative statesman who thus opens his mind to +us. No doubt religious considerations largely influenced Gustavus. He +had the deepest sympathy for his fellow-Protestants in Germany; he +regarded them as God's peculiar people, himself as their divinely +appointed deliverer. But his first duty was to Sweden; and, naturally +and rightly, he viewed the whole business from a predominantly Swedish +point of view. Lutherans and Calvinists were to be delivered from a +"soul-crushing tyranny"; but they were to be delivered by a foreign if +friendly power; and that power claimed as her reward the hegemony of +Protestant Europe and all the political privileges belonging to that +exalted position. + +On the 19th of May 1630 Gustavus solemnly took leave of the estates of +the realm assembled at Stockholm. He appeared before them holding in his +arms his only child and heiress, the little princess Christina, then in +her fourth year, and tenderly committed her to the care of his loyal and +devoted people. Then he solemnly took the estates to witness, as he +stood there "in the sight of the Almighty," that he had begun +hostilities "out of no lust for war, as many will certainly devise and +imagine," but in self-defence and to deliver his fellow-Christians from +oppression. On the 7th of June 1630 the Swedish fleet set sail, and two +days after midsummer day, the whole army, 16,000 strong, was disembarked +at Peenemünde. Gustavus's plan was to take possession of the mouths of +the Oder Haff, and, resting upon Stralsund in the west and Prussia in +the east, penetrate into Germany. In those days rivers were what +railways now are, the great military routes; and Gustavus's German war +was a war waged along river lines. The opening campaign was to be fought +along the line of the Oder. Stettin, the capital of Pomerania, and the +key of the Oder line, was occupied and converted into a first-class +fortress. He then proceeded to clear Pomerania of the piebald imperial +host composed of every nationality under heaven, and officered by +Italians, Irishmen, Czechs, Croats, Danes, Spaniards and Walloons. +Gustavus's army has often been described by German historians as an army +of foreign invaders; in reality it was far more truly Teutonic than the +official defenders of Germany at that period. Gustavus's political +difficulties (see SWEDEN: _History_) chained him to his camp for the +remainder of the year. But the dismissal of Wallenstein and the +declaration in Gustavus's favour of Magdeburg, the greatest city in the +Lower Saxon Circle, and strategically the strongest fortress of North +Germany, encouraged him to advance boldly. But first, honour as well as +expediency moved him to attempt to relieve Magdeburg, now closely +invested by the imperialists, especially as his hands had now been +considerably strengthened by a definite alliance with France (treaty of +Bärwalde, 13th of January 1631). Magdeburg, therefore, became the focus +of the whole campaign of 1631; but the obstructive timidity of the +electors of Brandenburg and Saxony threw insuperable obstacles in his +way, and, on the very day when John George I. of Saxony closed his gates +against Gustavus the most populous and prosperous city in North Germany +became a heap of smoking ruins (20th of May). Gustavus, still too weak +to meet the foe, entrenched himself at Werben, at the confluence of the +Havel and Elbe. Only on the 12th of September did the elector of Saxony, +alarmed for the safety of his own states, now invaded by the emperor, +place himself absolutely at the disposal of Gustavus; and, five days +later, at the head of the combined Swedish-Saxon army, though the Swedes +did all the fighting, Gustavus routed Tilly at the famous battle of +Breitenfeld, north of Leipzig. + +The question now was: In what way should Gustavus utilize his advantage? +Should he invade the Austrian crown lands, and dictate peace to +Ferdinand II. at the gates of Vienna? Or should he pursue Tilly +westwards and crush the league at its own hearth and home? Oxenstjerna +was the first alternative, but Gustavus decided in favour of the second. +His decision has been greatly blamed. More than one modern historian has +argued that if Gustavus had done in 1631 what Napoleon did in 1805 and +1809, there would have been a fifteen instead of a thirty years' war. +But it should be borne in mind that, in the days of Gustavus, Vienna was +by no means so essential to the existence of the Habsburg monarchy as it +was in the days of Napoleon; and even Gustavus could not allow so +dangerous an opponent as Tilly time to recover himself. Accordingly, he +set out for the Rhine, taking Marienberg and Frankfort on his way, and +on the 20th of December entered Mainz, where he remained throughout the +winter of 1631-1632. At the beginning of 1632, in order to bring about +the general peace he so earnestly desired, he proposed to take the field +with an overwhelming numerical majority. The signal for Gustavus to +break up from the Rhine was the sudden advance of Tilly from behind the +Danube. Gustavus pursued Tilly into Bavaria, forced the passage of the +Danube at Donauwörth and the passage of the Lech, in the face of Tilly's +strongly entrenched camp at Rain, and pursued the flying foe to the +fortress of Ingolstadt where Tilly died of his wounds a fortnight later. +Gustavus then liberated and garrisoned the long-oppressed Protestant +cities of Augsburg and Ulm, and in May occupied Munich. The same week +Wallenstein chased John George from Prague and manoeuvred the Saxons +out of Bohemia. Then, armed as he was with plenipotentiary power, he +offered the elector of Saxony peace on his own terms. Gustavus suddenly +saw himself exposed to extreme peril. If Tilly had made John George such +an offer as Wallenstein was now empowered to make, the elector would +never have become Gustavus's ally; would he remain Gustavus's ally now? +Hastily quitting his quarters in Upper Swabia, Gustavus hastened towards +Nuremberg on his way to Saxony, but finding that Wallenstein and +Maximilian of Bavaria had united their forces, he abandoned the attempt +to reach Saxony, and both armies confronted each other at Nuremberg +which furnished Gustavus with a point of support of the first order. He +quickly converted the town into an entrenched and fortified camp. +Wallenstein followed the king's example, and entrenched himself on the +western bank of the Regnitz in a camp twelve English miles in +circumference. His object was to pin Gustavus fast to Nuremberg and cut +off his retreat northwards. Throughout July and August the two armies +faced each other immovably. On the 24th of August, after an unsuccessful +attempt to storm Alte Veste, the key of Wallenstein's position, the +Swedish host retired southwards. + +Towards the end of October, Wallenstein, after devastating Saxony, was +preparing to go into winter quarters at Lützen, when the king surprised +him as he was crossing the Rippach (1st of November) and a rearguard +action favourable to the Swedes ensued. Indeed, but for nightfall, +Wallenstein's scattered forces might have been routed. During the night, +however, Wallenstein re-collected his host for a decisive action, and at +daybreak on the 6th of November, while an autumn mist still lay over the +field, the battle began. It was obviously Gustavus's plan to drive +Wallenstein away from the Leipzig road, north of which he had posted +himself, and thus, in case of success, to isolate, and subsequently, +with the aid of the Saxons in the Elbe fortresses, annihilate him. The +king, on the Swedish right wing, succeeded in driving the enemy from the +trenches and capturing his cannon. What happened after that is mere +conjecture, for a thick mist now obscured the autumn sun, and the battle +became a colossal mêlée the details of which are indistinguishable. It +was in the midst of that awful obscurity that Gustavus met his +death--how or where is not absolutely certain; but it would seem that he +lost his way in the darkness while leading the Småland horse to the +assistance of his infantry, and was despatched as he lay severely +wounded on the ground by a hostile horseman. + +By his wife, Marie Eleonora, a sister of the elector of Brandenburg, +whom he married in 1620, Gustavus Adolphus had one daughter, Christina, +who succeeded him on the throne of Sweden. + + See _Sveriges Historia_ (Stockholm, 1877, 81), vol. iv.; A. + Oxenstjerna, _Skrifter och Brefvexling_ (Stockholm, 1900, &c.); G. + Björlen, _Gustaf Adolf_ (Stockholm, 1890); R. N. Bain, _Scandinavia_ + (Cambridge, 1905); C. R. L. Fletcher, _Gustavus Adolphus_ (London, + 1892); J. L. Stevens, _History of Gustavus Adolphus_ (London, 1885); + J. Mankell, _Om Gustaf II. Adolfs politik_ (Stockholm, 1881); E. + Bluemel, _Gustav Adolf, König von Schweden_ (Eisleben, 1894); A. + Rydfors, _De diplomatiska förbindelserna mellan Sverige och England + 1624-1630_ (Upsala, 1890). (R. N. B.) + + + + +GUSTAVUS III. (1746-1792), king of Sweden, was the eldest son of +Adolphus Frederick, king of Sweden, and Louisa Ulrica of Prussia, sister +of Frederick the Great, and was born on the 24th of January 1746. +Gustavus was educated under the care of two governors who were amongst +the most eminent Swedish statesmen of the day, Carl Gustaf Tessin and +Carl Scheffer; but he owed most perhaps to the poet and historian Olof +von Dalin. The interference of the state with his education, when he was +quite a child, was, however, doubly harmful, as his parents taught him +to despise the preceptors imposed upon him by the diet, and the +atmosphere of intrigue and duplicity in which he grew up made him +precociously experienced in the art of dissimulation. But even his most +hostile teachers were amazed by the brilliance of his natural gifts, +and, while still a boy, he possessed that charm of manner which was to +make him so fascinating and so dangerous in later life, coupled with the +strong dramatic instinct which won for him his honourable place in +Swedish literature. On the whole, Gustavus cannot be said to have been +well educated, but he read very widely; there was scarce a French author +of his day with whose works he was not intimately acquainted; while his +enthusiasm for the new French ideas of enlightenment was as sincere as, +if more critical than, his mother's. On the 4th of November 1766, +Gustavus married Sophia Magdalena, daughter of Frederick V. of Denmark. +The match was an unhappy one, owing partly to incompatibility of temper, +but still more to the mischievous interference of the jealous +queen-mother. + +Gustavus first intervened actively in politics in 1768, at the time of +his father's interregnum, when he compelled the dominant Cap faction to +summon an extraordinary diet from which he hoped for the reform of the +constitution in a monarchical direction. But the victorious Hats refused +to redeem the pledges which they had given before the elections. "That +we should have lost the constitutional battle does not distress us so +much," wrote Gustavus, in the bitterness of his heart; "but what does +dismay me is to see my poor nation so sunk in corruption as to place its +own felicity in absolute anarchy." From the 4th of February to the 25th +of March 1771, Gustavus was at Paris, where he carried both the court +and the city by storm. The poets and the philosophers paid him +enthusiastic homage, and all the distinguished women of the day +testified to his superlative merits. With many of them he maintained a +lifelong correspondence. But his visit to the French capital was no mere +pleasure trip; it was also a political mission. Confidential agents from +the Swedish court had already prepared the way for him, and the duc de +Choiseul, weary of Swedish anarchy, had resolved to discuss with him the +best method of bringing about a revolution in Sweden. Before he +departed, the French government undertook to pay the outstanding +subsidies to Sweden unconditionally, at the rate of one and a half +million livres annually; and the comte de Vergennes, one of the great +names of French diplomacy, was transferred from Constantinople to +Stockholm. On his way home Gustavus paid a short visit to his uncle, +Frederick the Great, at Potsdam. Frederick bluntly informed his nephew +that, in concert with Russia and Denmark, he had guaranteed the +integrity of the existing Swedish constitution, and significantly +advised the young monarch to play the part of mediator and abstain from +violence. + +On his return to Sweden Gustavus made a sincere and earnest attempt to +mediate between the Hats and Caps who were ruining the country between +them (see SWEDEN: _History_). On the 21st of June 1771 he opened his +first parliament in a speech which awakened strange and deep emotions in +all who heard it. It was the first time for more than a century that a +Swedish king had addressed a Swedish diet from the throne in its native +tongue. The orator laid especial stress on the necessity of the +sacrifice of all party animosities to the common weal, and volunteered, +as "the first citizen of a free people," to be the mediator between the +contending factions. A composition committee was actually formed, but it +proved illusory from the first, the patriotism of neither of the +factions being equal to the puniest act of self-denial. The subsequent +attempts of the dominant Caps still further to limit the prerogative, +and reduce Gustavus to the condition of a _roi fainéant_, induced him at +last to consider the possibility of a revolution. Of its necessity there +could be no doubt. Under the sway of the Cap faction, Sweden, already +the vassal, could not fail to become the prey of Russia. She was on the +point of being absorbed in that northern system, the invention of the +Russian vice-chancellor, Count Nikita Panin, which that patient +statesman had made it the ambition of his life to realize. Only a swift +and sudden _coup d'état_ could save the independence of a country +isolated from the rest of Europe by a hostile league. At this juncture +Gustavus was approached by Jakob Magnus Sprengtporten, a Finnish +nobleman of determined character, who had incurred the enmity of the +Caps, with the project of a revolution. He undertook to seize the +fortress of Sveaborg by a _coup de main_, and, Finland once secured, +Sprengtporten proposed to embark for Sweden, meet the king and his +friends near Stockholm, and surprise the capital by a night attack, when +the estates were to be forced, at the point of the bayonet, to accept a +new constitution from the untrammelled king. The plotters were at this +juncture reinforced by an ex-ranger from Scania (Skåne), Johan +Kristoffer Toll, also a victim of Cap oppression. Toll proposed that a +second revolt should break out in the province of Scania, to confuse the +government still more, and undertook personally to secure the southern +fortress of Kristianstad. After some debate, it was finally arranged +that, a few days after the Finnish revolt had begun, Kristianstad should +openly declare against the government. Prince Charles, the eldest of the +king's brothers, was thereupon hastily to mobilize the garrisons of all +the southern fortresses, for the ostensible purpose of crushing the +revolt at Kristianstad; but on arriving before the fortress he was to +make common cause with the rebels, and march upon the capital from the +south, while Sprengtporten attacked it simultaneously from the east. On +the 6th of August 1772 Toll succeeded, by sheer bluff, in winning the +fortress of Kristianstad. On the 16th Sprengtporten succeeded in +surprising Sveaborg. But contrary winds prevented him from crossing to +Stockholm, and in the meanwhile events had occurred which made his +presence there unnecessary. + +On the 16th of August the Cap leader, Ture Rudbeck, arrived at Stockholm +with the news of the insurrection in the south, and Gustavus found +himself isolated in the midst of enemies. Sprengtporten lay +weather-bound in Finland, Toll was five hundred miles away, the Hat +leaders were in hiding. Gustavus thereupon resolved to strike the +decisive blow without waiting for the arrival of Sprengtporten. He acted +with military promptitude. On the evening of the 18th all the officers +whom he thought he could trust received secret instructions to assemble +in the great square facing the arsenal on the following morning. At ten +o'clock on the 19th Gustavus mounted his horse and rode straight to the +arsenal. On the way his adherents joined him in little groups, as if by +accident, so that by the time he reached his destination he had about +two hundred officers in his suite. After parade he reconducted them to +the guard-room of the palace and unfolded his plans to them. He then +dictated a new oath of allegiance, and every one signed it without +hesitation. It absolved them from their allegiance to the estates, and +bound them solely to obey their lawful king, Gustavus III. Meanwhile the +senate and the governor-general, Rudbeck, had been arrested and the +fleet secured. Then Gustavus made a tour of the city and was everywhere +received by enthusiastic crowds, who hailed him as a deliverer. On the +evening of the 20th heralds perambulated the streets proclaiming that +the estates were to meet in the Rikssaal on the following day; every +deputy absenting himself would be regarded as the enemy of his country +and his king. On the 21st, a few moments after the estates had +assembled, the king in full regalia appeared, and taking his seat on the +throne, delivered that famous philippic, one of the masterpieces of +Swedish oratory, in which he reproached the estates for their +unpatriotic venality and licence in the past. A new constitution was +recited by the estates and accepted by them unanimously. The diet was +then dissolved. + +Gustavus was inspired by a burning enthusiasm for the greatness and +welfare of Sweden, and worked in the same reformatory direction as the +other contemporary sovereigns of the "age of enlightenment." He took an +active part in every department of business, but relied far more on +extra-official counsellors of his own choosing than upon the senate. The +effort to remedy the frightful corruption which had been fostered by the +Hats and Caps engaged a considerable share of his time and he even found +it necessary to put the whole of a supreme court of justice (_Göta +Hofrätt_) on its trial. Measures were also taken to reform the +administration and the whole course of judicial procedure, and torture +as an instrument of legal investigation was abolished. In 1774 an +ordinance providing for the liberty of the press was even issued. The +national defences were at the same time developed on a "Great Power" +scale, and the navy was so enlarged as to become one of the most +formidable in Europe. The dilapidated finances were set in good order by +the "currency realization ordinance" of 1777. Gustavus also introduced +new national economic principles. In 1775 free trade in corn was +promoted and a number of oppressive export-tolls were abolished. The +poor law was also amended, absolute religious liberty was proclaimed, +and he even succeeded in inventing and popularizing a national costume +which was in general use from 1778 till his death. His one great +economic blunder was the attempt to make the sale of spirits a +government monopoly, which was an obvious infringement upon the +privileges of the estates. His foreign policy, on the other hand, was at +first both wise and wary. Thus, when the king summoned the estates to +assemble at Stockholm on the 3rd of September 1778, he could give a +brilliant account of his six years' stewardship. Never was a parliament +more obsequious or a king more gracious. "There was no room for a single +No during the whole session." Yet, short as the session was, it was +quite long enough to open the eyes of the deputies to the fact that +their political supremacy had departed. They had changed places with +the king. He was now indeed their sovereign lord; and, for all his +gentleness, the jealousy with which he guarded, the vigour with which he +enforced the prerogative, plainly showed that he meant to remain so. +Even the few who were patriotic enough to acquiesce in the change by no +means liked it. The diet of 1778 had been obsequious; the diet of 1786 +was mutinous. The consequence was that nearly all the royal propositions +were either rejected outright or so modified that Gustavus himself +withdrew them. + +The diet of 1786 marks a turning-point in Gustavus's history. Henceforth +we observe a determination on his part to rule without a parliament; a +passage, cautious and gradual, yet unflinching, from +semi-constitutionalism to semi-absolutism. His opportunity came in 1788, +when the political complications arising out of his war with Catherine +II. of Russia enabled him by the Act of Unity and Security (on the 17th +of February 1789) to override the opposition of the rebellious and +grossly unpatriotic gentry, and, with the approbation of the three lower +estates, establish a new and revolutionary constitution, in which, +though the estates still held the power of the purse, the royal +authority largely predominated. Throughout 1789 and 1790 Gustavus, in +the national interests, gallantly conducted the unequal struggle with +Russia, finally winning in the Svensksund (9th-10th July) the most +glorious naval victory ever gained by the Swedish arms, the Russians +losing one-third of their fleet and 7000 men. A month later, on the 14th +of August 1790, peace was signed between Russia and Sweden at Värälä. +Only eight months before, Catherine had haughtily declared that "the +odious and revolting aggression" of the king of Sweden would be +"forgiven" only if he "testified his repentance" by agreeing to a peace +granting a general and unlimited amnesty to all his rebels, and +consenting to a guarantee by the Swedish diet ("as it would be imprudent +to confide in his good faith alone") for the observance of peace in the +future. The peace of Värälä saved Sweden from any such humiliating +concession, and in October 1791 Gustavus took the bold but by no means +imprudent step of concluding an eight years' defensive alliance with the +empress, who thereby bound herself to pay her new ally annual subsidies +amounting to 300,000 roubles. + +Gustavus now aimed at forming a league of princes against the Jacobins, +and every other consideration was subordinated thereto. His profound +knowledge of popular assemblies enabled him, alone among contemporary +sovereigns, accurately to gauge from the first the scope and bearing of +the French Revolution. But he was hampered by poverty and the jealousy +of the other European Powers, and, after showing once more his +unrivalled mastery over masses of men at the brief Gefle diet (22nd of +January-24th of February 1792), he fell a victim to a widespread +aristocratic conspiracy. Shot in the back by Anckarström at a midnight +masquerade at the Stockholm opera-house, on the 16th of March 1792, he +expired on the 29th. + +Although he may be charged with many foibles and extravagances, Gustavus +III. was indisputably one of the greatest sovereigns of the 18th +century. Unfortunately his genius never had full scope, and his +opportunity came too late. Gustavus was, moreover, a most distinguished +author. He may be said to have created the Swedish theatre, and some of +the best acting dramas in the literature are by his hand. His historical +essays, notably the famous anonymous eulogy on Torstenson crowned by the +Academy, are full of feeling and exquisite in style,--his letters to his +friends are delightful. Every branch of literature and art interested +him, every poet and artist of his day found in him a most liberal and +sympathetic protector. + + See R. N. Bain, _Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries_ (London, 1904); + E. G. Geijer, _Konung Gustaf III.'s efterlemnade papper_ (Upsala, + 1843-1845); C. T. Odhner, _Sveriges politiska historia under Konung + Gustaf III.'s regering_ (Stockholm, 1885-1896); B. von Beskow, _Om + Gustaf III. såsom Konung och människa_ (Stockholm, 1860-1861); O. + Levertin, _Gustaf III. som dramatisk författare_ (Stockholm, 1894); + _Gustaf III.'s bref till G. M. Armfelt_ (Fr.) (Stockholm, 1883); Y. K. + Grot, _Catharine II. and Gustavus III._ (Russ.) (St Petersburg, 1884). + (R. N. B.) + + + + + +GUSTAVUS IV. (1778-1837), king of Sweden, the son of Gustavus III. and +Queen Sophia Magdalena, was born at Stockholm on the 1st of November +1778. Carefully educated under the direction of Nils von Rosenstein, he +grew up serious and conscientious. In August 1796 his uncle the regent +Charles, duke of Sudermania, visited St Petersburg for the purpose of +arranging a marriage between the young king and Catherine II.'s +granddaughter, the grand-duchess Alexandra. The betrothal was actually +fixed for the 22nd of September, when the whole arrangement foundered on +the obstinate refusal of Gustavus to allow his destined bride liberty of +worship according to the rites of the Greek Orthodox Church--a rebuff +which undoubtedly accelerated the death of the Russian empress. Nobody +seems to have even suspected at the time that serious mental derangement +lay at the root of Gustavus's abnormal piety. On the contrary, there +were many who prematurely congratulated themselves on the fact that +Sweden had now no disturbing genius, but an economical, God-fearing, +commonplace monarch to deal with. Gustavus's prompt dismissal of the +generally detested Gustaf Reuterholm added still further to his +popularity. On the 31st of October 1797 Gustavus married Frederica +Dorothea, daughter of Charles Frederick, grand-duke of Baden, a marriage +which might have led to a war with Russia but for the fanatical hatred +of the French republic shared by the emperor Paul and Gustavus IV., +which served as a bond of union between them. Indeed the king's horror +of Jacobinism was morbid in its intensity, and drove him to adopt all +sorts of reactionary measures and to postpone his coronation for some +years, so as to avoid calling together a diet; but the disorder of the +finances, caused partly by the continental war and partly by the almost +total failure of the crops in 1798 and 1799, compelled him to summon the +estates to Norrköping in March 1800, and on the 3rd of April Gustavus +was crowned. The notable change which now took place in Sweden's foreign +policy and its fatal consequences to the country are elsewhere set forth +(see SWEDEN, _History_). By the end of 1808 it was obvious to every +thinking Swede that the king was insane. His violence had alienated his +most faithful supporters, while his obstinate incompetence paralysed the +national efforts. To remove a madman by force was the one remaining +expedient; and this was successfully accomplished by a conspiracy of +officers of the western army, headed by Adlersparre, the Anckarsvärds, +and Adlercreutz, who marched rapidly from Skåne to Stockholm. On the +13th of March 1809 seven of the conspirators broke into the royal +apartments in the palace unannounced, seized the king, and conducted him +to the château of Gripsholm; Duke Charles was easily persuaded to accept +the leadership of a provisional government, which was proclaimed the +same day; and a diet, hastily summoned, solemnly approved of the +revolution. On the 29th of March Gustavus, in order to save the crown +for his son, voluntarily abdicated; but on the 10th of May the estates, +dominated by the army, declared that not merely Gustavus but his whole +family had forfeited the throne. On the 5th of June the duke regent was +proclaimed king under the title of Charles XIII., after accepting the +new liberal constitution, which was ratified by the diet the same day. +In December Gustavus and his family were transported to Germany. +Gustavus now assumed the title of count of Gottorp, but subsequently +called himself Colonel Gustafsson, under which pseudonym he wrote most +of his works. He led, separated from his family, an erratic life for +some years; was divorced from his consort in 1812; and finally settled +at St Gall in Switzerland in great loneliness and indigence. He died on +the 7th of February 1837, and, at the suggestion of King Oscar II. his +body was brought to Sweden and interred in the Riddarholmskyrka. From +him descend both the Baden and the Oldenburg princely houses on the +female side. + + See H. G. Trolle-Wachtmeister, _Anteckningar och minnen_ (Stockholm, + 1889); B. von Beskow, _Lefnadsminnen_ (Stockholm, 1870); K. V. + Key-Åberg, _De diplomatiska förbindelserna mellan Sverige och + Storbrittannien under Gustaf IV.'s Krig emot Napoléon_ (Upsala, 1890); + Colonel Gustafsson, _La Journée du treize mars_, &c. (St Gall, 1835); + _Memorial des Obersten Gustafsson_ (Leipzig, 1829). (R. N. B.) + + + + +GUSTAVUS V. (1858- ), king of Sweden, son of Oscar II., king of Sweden +and Norway, and Queen Sophia Wilhelmina, was born at Drottningholm on +the 16th of June 1858. He entered the army, and was, like his father, a +great traveller. As crown prince he held the title of duke of Wärmland. +He married in 1881 Victoria (b. 1862), daughter of Frederick William +Louis, grand duke of Baden, and of Louise, princess of Prussia. The +duchess of Baden was the granddaughter of Sophia, princess of Sweden, +and the marriage of the crown prince thus effected a union between the +Bernadotte dynasty and the ancient Swedish royal house of Vasa. During +the absence or illness of his father Gustavus repeatedly acted as +regent, and was therefore already thoroughly versed in public affairs +when he succeeded to the Swedish throne on the 8th of December 1907, the +crown of Norway having been separated from that of Sweden in 1905. He +took as his motto "With the people for the Fatherland." + +The crown prince, Oscar Frederick William Gustavus Adolphus, duke of +Scania (b. 1882), married in 1905 Princess Margaret of Connaught (b. +1882), niece of King Edward VII. A son was born to them at Stockholm on +the 22nd of April 1906, and another son in the following year. The +king's two younger sons were William, duke of Sudermania (b. 1884), and +Eric, duke of Westmanland (b. 1889). + + + + +GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS UNION (GUSTAV-ADOLF-STIFTUNG, GUSTAV-ADOLF-VEREIN, +EVANGELISCHER VEREIN DER GUSTAV-ADOLF-STIFTUNG), a society formed of +members of the Evangelical Protestant churches of Germany, which has for +its object the aid of feeble sister churches, especially in Roman Catholic +countries. The project of forming such a society was first broached in +connexion with the bicentennial celebration of the battle of Lützen on the +6th of November 1832; a proposal to collect funds for a monument to +Gustavus Adolphus having been agreed to, it was suggested by +Superintendent Grossmann that the best memorial to the great champion of +Protestantism would be the formation of a union for propagating his ideas. +For some years the society was limited in its area and its operations, +being practically confined to Leipzig and Dresden, but at the Reformation +festival in 1841 it received a new impulse through the energy and +eloquence of Karl Zimmermann (1803-1877), court preacher at Darmstadt, and +in 1843 a general meeting was held at Frankfort-on-the-Main, where no +fewer than twenty-nine branch associations belonging to all parts of +Germany except Bavaria and Austria were represented. The want of a +positive creed tended to make many of the stricter Protestant churchmen +doubtful of the usefulness of the union, and the stricter Lutherans have +always held aloof from it. On the other hand, its negative attitude in +relation to Roman Catholicism secured for it the sympathy of the masses. +At a general convention held in Berlin in September 1846 a keen dispute +arose about the admission of the Königsberg delegate, Julius Rupp +(1809-1884), who in 1845 had been deprived for publicly repudiating the +Athanasian Creed and became one of the founders of the "Free +Congregations"; and at one time it seemed likely that the society would be +completely broken up. Amid the political revolutions of the year 1848 the +whole movement fell into stagnation; but in 1849 another general +convention (the seventh), held at Breslau, showed that, although the +society had lost both in membership and income, it was still possessed of +considerable vitality. From that date the Gustav-Adolf-Verein has been +more definitely "evangelical" in its tone than formerly; and under the +direction of Karl Zimmermann it greatly increased both in numbers and in +wealth. It has built over 2000 churches and assisted with some two million +pounds over 5000 different communities. Apart from its influence in +maintaining Protestantism in hostile areas, there can be no doubt that the +union has had a great effect in helping the various Protestant churches of +Germany to realize the number and importance of their common interests. + + See K. Zimmermann, _Geschichte des Gustav-Adolf-Vereins_ (Darmstadt, + 1877). + + + + +GÜSTROW, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, +on the Nebel and the railway from Lübeck to Stettin, 20 m. S. of +Rostock. Pop. (1875), 10,923; (1905) 17,163. The principal buildings are +the castle, erected in the middle of the 16th century and now used as a +workhouse; the cathedral, dating from the 13th century and restored in +1868, containing many fine monuments and possessing a square tower 100 +ft. high; the Pfarrkirche, with fine altar-paintings; the town hall +(Rathaus), dating from the 16th century; the music hall, and the +theatre. Among the educational establishments are the ducal gymnasium, +which possesses a library of 15,000 volumes, a modern and a commercial +school. The town is one of the most prosperous in the duchy, and has +machine works, foundries, tanneries, sawmills, breweries, distilleries, +and manufactories of tobacco, glue, candles and soap. There is also a +considerable trade in wool, corn, wood, butter and cattle, and an annual +cattle show and horse races are held. + +Güstrow, capital of the Mecklenburg duchy of that name, or of the Wend +district, was a place of some importance as early as the 12th century, +and in 1219 it became the residence of Henry Borwin II., prince of +Mecklenburg, from whom it received Schwerin privileges. From 1316 to +1436 the town was the residence of the princes of the Wends, and from +1556 to 1695 of the dukes of Mecklenburg-Güstrow. In 1628 it was +occupied by the imperial troops, and Wallenstein resided in it during +part of the years 1628 and 1629. + + + + +GUTENBERG, JOHANN (c. 1398-1468), German printer, is supposed to have +been born c. 1398-1399 at Mainz of well-to-do parents, his father being +Friele zum Gensfleisch and his mother Elsgen Wyrich (or, from her +birthplace, zu Gutenberg, the name he adopted). He is assumed to be +mentioned under the name of "Henchen" in a copy of a document of 1420, +and again in a document of c. 1427-1428, but it is not stated where he +then resided. On January 16, 1430, his mother arranged with the city of +Mainz about an annuity belonging to him; but when, in the same year, +some families who had been expelled a few years before were permitted to +return to Mainz, Gutenberg appears not to have availed himself of the +privilege, as he is described in the act of reconciliation (dated March +28) as "not being in Mainz." It is therefore assumed that the family had +taken refuge in Strassburg, where Gutenberg was residing later. There he +is said to have been in 1434, and to have seized and imprisoned the town +clerk of Mainz for a debt due to him by the corporation of that city, +releasing him, however, at the representations of the mayor and +councillors of Strassburg, and relinquishing at the same time all claims +to the money (310 Rhenish guilders = about 2400 mark).[1] Between 1436 +and 1439 certain documents represent him as having been engaged there +in some experiments requiring money, with Andreas Dritzehn, a +fellow-citizen, who became not only security for him but his partner to +carry out Gutenberg's plan for polishing stones and the manufacture of +looking-glasses, for which a lucrative sale was expected at the +approaching pilgrimage of 1440 (subsequently postponed, according to the +documents, although there is no evidence for this postponement) to +Aix-la-Chapelle. Money was lent for this purpose by two other friends. +In 1438 another partnership was arranged between Gutenberg, Andreas +Dritzehn, and Andreas and Anton Heilmann, and that this had in view the +art of printing has been inferred from the word "drucken" used by one of +the witnesses in the law proceedings which soon after followed. An +action was brought, after the death of Dritzehn, by his two brothers to +force Gutenberg to accept them as partners in their brother's place, but +the decision was in favour of the latter. In 1441 Gutenberg became +surety to the St Thomas Chapter at Strassburg for Johann Karle, who +borrowed 100 guilders (about £16) from the chapter, and on November 17, +1442, he himself borrowed 80 livres through Martin Brechter (or Brehter) +from the same chapter. Of his whereabouts from the 12th of March 1444 +(when he paid a tax at Strassburg) to the 17th of October 1448 nothing +certain is known. But on the latter date we find him at Mainz, borrowing +150 gold guilders of his kinsman, Arnold Gelthus, against an annual +interest of 7½ gold guilders. We do not know whether the interest on +this debt has ever been paid, but the debt itself appears never to have +been paid off, as the contract of this loan was renewed (_vidimused_) on +August 23, 1503, for other parties. It is supposed that soon afterwards +Gutenberg must have been able to show some convincing results of his +work, for it appears that about 1450 Johann Fust (q.v.) advanced him 800 +guilders to promote it, on no security except that of "tools" still to +be made. Fust seems also to have undertaken to advance him 300 guilders +a year for expenses, wages, house-rent, parchment, paper, ink, &c., but +he does not appear to have ever done so. If at any time they disagreed, +Gutenberg was to return the 800 guilders, and the "tools" were to cease +to be security. It is not known to what purpose Gutenberg devoted the +money advanced to him. In the minutes of the law-suit of 1455 he himself +says that he had to make his "tools" with it. But he is presumed to have +begun a large folio Latin Bible, and to have printed during its progress +some smaller books[2] and likewise the Letter of Indulgence (granted on +the 12th of April 1451 by Pope Nicholas V. in aid of John II., king of +Cyprus, against the Turks), of 31 lines, having the earliest printed +date 1454, of which several copies are preserved in various European +libraries. A copy of the 1455 issue of the same Indulgence is in the +Rylands Library at Manchester (from the Althorp Library). + +It is not known whether any books were printed while this partnership +between Gutenberg and Fust lasted. Trithemius (_Ann. Hirsaug._ ii. 421) +says they first printed, from wooden blocks, a vocabulary called +_Catholicon_, which cannot have been the _Catholicon_ of Johannes de +Janua, a folio of 748 pages in two columns of 66 lines each, printed in +1460, but was perhaps a small glossary now lost.[3] The Latin _Bible of +42 lines_, a folio of 1282 printed pages, in two columns with spaces +left for illuminated initials (so called because each column contains 42 +lines, and also known as the _Mazarin Bible_, because the first copy +described was found in the library of Cardinal Mazarin), was finished +before the 15th of August 1456;[4] German bibliographers now claim this +Bible for Gutenberg, but, according to bibliographical rules, it must be +ascribed to Peter Schöffer, perhaps in partnership with Fust. It is in +smaller type than the _Bible of 36 lines_, which latter is called either +(a) the _Bamberg Bible_, because nearly all the known copies were found +in the neighbourhood of Bamberg, or (b) _Schelhorn's Bible_, because J. +G. Schelhorn was the first who described it in 1760, or (c) _Pfister's +Bible_, because its printing is ascribed to Albrecht Pfister of Bamberg, +who used the same type for several small German books, the chief of +which is Boner's _Edelstein_ (1461, 4to), 88 leaves, with 85 woodcuts, a +book of fables in German rhyme. Some bibliographers believe this 36-line +Bible to have been begun, if not entirely printed, by Gutenberg during +his partnership with Fust, as its type occurs in the 31-line Letters of +Indulgence of 1454, was used for the 27-line Donatus (of 1451?), and, +finally, when found in Pfister's possession in 1461, appears to be old +and worn, except the additional letters k, w, z required for German, +which are clear and sharp like the types used in the Bible. Again, +others profess to prove (Dziatzko, _Gutenberg's früheste Druckerpraxis_) +that B^36 was a reprint of B^42. + +Gutenberg's work, whatever it may have been, was not a commercial +success, and in 1452 Fust had to come forward with another 800 guilders +to prevent a collapse. But some time before November 1455 the latter +demanded repayment of his advances (see the Helmasperger Notarial +Document of November 6, 1455, in Dziatzko's _Beiträge zur +Gutenbergfrage_, Berlin, 1889), and took legal proceedings against +Gutenberg. We do not know the end of these proceedings, but if Gutenberg +had prepared any printing materials it would seem that he was compelled +to yield up the whole of them to Fust; that the latter removed them to +his own house at Mainz, and there, with the assistance of Peter +Schöffer, issued various books until the sack of the city in 1462 by +Adolphus II. caused a suspension of printing for three years, to be +resumed again in 1465. + +We have no Information as to Gutenberg's activity, and very little of +his whereabouts, after his separation from Fust. In a document dated +June 21, 1457, he appears as witness on behalf of one of his relatives, +which shows that he was then still at Mainz. Entries in the registers of +the St Thomas Church at Strassburg make it clear that the annual +interest on the money which Gutenberg on the 17th of November 1442 (see +above) had borrowed from the chapter of that church was regularly paid +till the 11th of November 1457, either by himself or by his surety, +Martin Brechter. But the payment due on the latter date appears to have +been delayed, as an entry in the register of that year shows that the +chapter had incurred expenses in taking steps to have both Gutenberg and +Brechter arrested. This time the difficulties seem to have been removed, +but on and after the 11th of November 1458 Gutenberg and Brechter +remained in default. The chapter made various efforts, all recorded in +their registers, to get their money, but in vain. Every year they +recorded the arrears with the expenses to which they were put in their +efforts to arrest the defaulters, till at last in 1474 (six years after +Gutenberg's death) their names are no longer mentioned. + +Meantime Gutenberg appears to have been _printing_, as we learn from a +document dated February 26, 1468, that a syndic of Mainz, Dr Conrad +Homery (who had formerly been in the service of the elector Count +Diether of Ysenburg), had at one time supplied him, not with money, but +with some formes, types, tools, implements and other things belonging to +printing, which Gutenberg had left after his death, and which had, and +still, belonged to him (Homery); this material had come into the hands +of Adolf, the archbishop of Mainz, who handed or sent it back to Homery, +the latter undertaking to use it in no other town but Mainz, nor to sell +it to any person except a citizen of Mainz, even if a stranger should +offer him a higher price for the things. This material has never yet +been identified, so that we do not know what types Gutenberg may have +had at his disposal; they could hardly have included the types of the +_Catholicon_ of 1460, as is suggested, this work being probably executed +by Heinrich Bechtermünze (d. 1467), who afterwards removed to Eltville, +or perhaps by Peter Schöffer, who, about 1470, advertises the book as +his property (see K. Burger, _Buchhändler-Anzeigen_). It is uncertain +whether Gutenberg remained in Mainz or removed to the neighbouring town +of Eltville, where he may have been engaged for a while with the +brothers Bechtermünze, who printed there for some time with the types of +the 1460 _Catholicon_. On the 17th of January 1465 he accepted the post +of salaried courtier from the archbishop Adolf, and in this capacity +received annually a suit of livery together with a fixed allowance of +corn and wine. Gutenberg seems to have died at Mainz at the beginning of +1468, and was, according to tradition, buried in the Franciscan church +in that city. His relative Arnold Gelthus erected a monument to his +memory near his supposed grave, and forty years afterwards Ivo Wittig +set up a memorial tablet at the legal college at Mainz. No books bearing +the name of Gutenberg as printer are known, nor is any genuine portrait +of him known, those appearing upon medals, statues or engraved plates +being all fictitious. + +In 1898 the firm of L. Rosenthal, at Munich, acquired a _Missale +speciale_ on paper, which Otto Hupp, in two treatises published in 1898 +and 1902, asserts to have been printed by Gutenberg about 1450, seven +years before the 1457 Psalter. Various German bibliographers, however, +think that it could not have been printed before 1480, and, judging from +the facsimiles published by Hupp, this date seems to be approximately +correct. + +On the 24th of June 1900 the five-hundredth anniversary of Gutenberg's +birth was celebrated in several German cities, notably in Mainz and +Leipzig, and most of the recent literature on the invention of printing +dates from that time. + +So we may note that in 1902 a vellum fragment of an Astronomical +Kalendar was discovered by the librarian of Wiesbaden, Dr G. Zedler +(_Die älteste Gutenbergtype_, Mainz, 1902), apparently printed in the +36-line Bible type, and as the position of the sun, moon and other +planets described in this document suits the years 1429, 1448 and 1467, +he ascribes the printing of this Kalendar to the year 1447. A paper +fragment of a poem in German, entitled _Weltgericht_, said to be printed +in the 36-line Bible type, appears to have come into the possession of +Herr Eduard Beck at Mainz in 1892, and was presented by him in 1903 to +the Gutenberg Museum in that city. Zedler published a facsimile of it in +1904 (for the _Gutenberg Gesellschaft_), with a description, in which he +places it before the 1447 _Kalendar_, c. 1444-1447. Moreover, fragments +of two editions of Donatus different from that of 1451 (?) have recently +been found; see Schwenke in _Centralbl. für Bibliothekwesen_ (1908). + + The recent literature upon Gutenberg's life and work and early + printing in general includes the following: A. von der Linde, + _Geschichte und Erdichtung_ (Stuttgart, 1878); _id. Geschichte der + Buchdruckerkunst_ (Berlin, 1886); J. H. Hessels, _Gutenberg, Was he + the Inventor of Printing?_ (London, 1882); _id. Haarlem, the + Birthplace of Printing, not Mentz_ (London, 1886); O. Hartwig, + _Festschrift zum fünfhundertjährigen Geburtstag von Johann Gutenberg_ + (Leipzig, 1900), which includes various treatises by Schenk zu + Schweinsberg, K. Schorbach, &c.; P. Schwenke, _Untersuchungen zur + Geschichte des ersten Buchdrucks_ (Berlin, 1900); A. Börckel, + _Gutenberg, sein Leben_, &c. (Giessen, 1897); _id. Gutenberg und seine + berühmten Nachfolger im ersten Jahrhundert der Typographie_ + (Frankfort, 1900); F. Schneider, _Mainz und seine Drucker_ (1900); G. + Zedler, _Gutenberg-Forschungen_ (Leipzig, 1901); J. H. Hessels, _The + so-called Gutenberg Documents_ (London, 1910). For other works on the + subject see TYPOGRAPHY. (J. H. H.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] It is difficult to know which of the Gutenberg documents can be + trusted and which not. Schorbach, in his recent biography of + Gutenberg, accepts and describes 27 of them (_Festschrift_, 1900, p. + 163 sqq.), 17 of which are known only from (not always accurate) + copies or transcripts. Under ordinary circumstances history might be + based on them. But it is certain that some so-called Gutenberg + documents, not included in the above 27, are forgeries. Fr. J. + Bodmann (1754-1820), for many years professor and librarian at Mainz, + forged at least two; one (dated July 20, 1459) he even provided with + four forged seals; the other (dated Strassburg, March 24, 1424) + purported to be an autograph letter of Gutenberg to a fictitious + sister of his named Bertha. Of these two documents French and German + texts were published about 1800-1802; the forger lived for twenty + years afterwards but never undeceived the public. He enriched the + Gutenberg literature with other fabrications. In fact Bodmann had + trained himself for counterfeiting MSS. and documents; he openly + boasted of his abilities in this respect, and used them, sometimes to + amuse his friends who were searching for Gutenberg documents, + sometimes for himself to fill up gaps in Gutenberg's life. (For two + or three more specimens of his capacities see A. Wyss in _Zeitschr. + für Altert. u. Gesch. Schlesiens_, xv. 9 sqq.) To one of his friends + (Professor Gotthelf Fischer, who preceded him as librarian of Mainz) + one or two other fabrications may be ascribed. There are, moreover, + serious misgivings as to documents said to have been _discovered_ + about 1740 (when the citizens of Strassburg claimed the honour of the + invention for their city) by Jacob Wencker (the then archivist of + Strassburg) and J. D. Schoepflin (professor and canon of St Thomas's + at Strassburg). For instance, of the above document of 1434 no + original has ever come to light; while the draft of the transaction, + alleged to have been written at the time in a register of contracts, + and to have been found about 1740 by Wencker, has also disappeared + with the register itself. The document (now only known from a copy + said to have been taken by Wencker from the draft) is upheld as + genuine by Schorbach, who favours an invention of printing at + Strassburg, but Bockenheimer, though supporting Gutenberg and Mainz, + declares it to be a fiction (_Gutenberg-Feier_, Mainz, 1900, pp. + 24-33). Again, suspicions are justified with respect to the documents + recording Gutenberg's lawsuit of 1439 at Strassburg. Bockenheimer + explains at great length (_l.c._ pp. 41-72) that they are forgeries. + He even explains (_ibid._ pp. 97-107) that the so-called Helmasperger + document of November 6, 1455, may be a fabrication of the Faust von + Aschaffenburg family, who endeavoured to claim Johann Fust as their + ancestor. There are also (1) a fragment of a fictitious "press," said + to have been constructed by Gutenberg in 1441, and to have been + discovered (!) at Mainz in 1856; (2) a forged imprint with the date + 1458 in a copy of Pope Gregory's _Dialogues_, really printed at + Strassburg about 1470; (3) a forged rubric in a copy of the + _Tractatus de celebratione missarum_, from which it would appear that + Johann Gutenberg and Johann Nummeister had presented it on June 19, + 1463, to the Carthusian monastery near Mainz: (4) four forged copies + of the Indulgence of 1455, in the Culemann Collection in the Kästner + Museum at Hanover, &c. (see further, Hessels, "The so-called + Gutenberg Documents," in _The Library_, 1909). + + [2] Among these were perhaps (1) one or two editions of the work of + Donatus, _De octo partibus orationis_, 27 lines to a page, of one of + which two leaves, now in the Paris National Library, were discovered + at Mainz in the original binding of an account book, one of them + having, but in a later hand, the year 1451 (?); (2) the + _Turk-Kalendar_ for 1455 (preserved in the Hof-Bibliothek at Munich); + (3) the _Cisianus_ (preserved in the Cambridge Univ. Libr.), and + perhaps others now lost. + + [3] Ulric Zell states, in the Cologne Chronicle of 1499, that + Gutenberg and Fust printed a Bible in large type like that used in + missals. It has been said that this description applies to the + 42-line Bible, as its type is as large as that of most missals + printed before 1500, and that the size now called missal type (double + pica) was not used in missals until late in the 16th century. This is + no doubt true of the smaller missals printed before 1500, some of + which are in even smaller type than the 42-line Bible. But many of + the large folio missals, as that printed at Mainz by Peter Schöffer + in 1483, the Carthusian missal printed at Spires by Peter Drach about + 1490, and the Dominican missal printed by Andrea de Torresanis at + Venice in 1496, are in as large type as the 36-line Bible. Peter + Schöffer (1425-1502) of Gernsheim, between Mainz and Mannheim, who + was a copyist in Paris in 1449, and whom Fust called his servant + (_famulus_), is said by Trithemius to have discovered an easier way + of founding characters, whence Lambinet and others concluded that + Schöffer invented the punch. Schöffer himself, in the colophon of the + Psalter of 1457, a work which some suppose to have been planned and + partly printed by Gutenberg, claims only the mode of printing rubrics + and coloured capitals. + + [4] The Leipzig copy of this Bible (which formerly belonged to Herr + Klemm of Dresden) has at the end the MS. year 1453 in old Arabic + numerals. But certain circumstances connected with this date make it + look very suspicious. + + + + +GÜTERSLOH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, 11 +m. S.W. from Bielefeld by the railway to Dortmund. Pop. (1905), 7375. It +is a seat of silk and cotton industries, and has a large trade in +Westphalian hams and sausages. Printing, brewing and distilling are also +carried on, and the town is famous for its rye-bread (_Pumpernickel_). +Gütersloh has two Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, a +synagogue, a school and other educational establishments. + + See Eickhoff, _Geschichte der Stadt und Gemeinde Gütersloh_ + (Gütersloh, 1904). + + + + +GUTHRIE, SIR JAMES (1859- ), Scottish painter, and one of the leaders +of the so-called Glasgow school of painters, was born at Greenock. Though +in his youth he was influenced by John Pettie in London, and +subsequently studied in Paris, his style, which is remarkable for grasp +of character, breadth and spontaneity, is due to the lessons taught him +by observation of nature, and to the example of Crawhall, by which he +benefited in Lincolnshire in the early 'eighties of the last century. In +his early works, such as "The Gipsy Fires are Burning, for Daylight is +Past and Gone" (1882), and the "Funeral Service in the Highlands," he +favoured a thick impasto, but with growing experience he used his colour +with greater economy and reticence. Subsequently he devoted himself +almost exclusively to portraiture. Sir James Guthrie, like so many of +the Glasgow artists, achieved his first successes on the Continent, but +soon found recognition in his native country. He was elected associate +of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1888, and full member in 1892, +succeeded Sir George Reid as president of the Royal Scottish Academy in +1902, and was knighted in 1903. His painting "Schoolmates" is at the +Ghent Gallery. Among his most successful portraits are those of his +mother, Mr R. Garroway, Major Hotchkiss, Mrs Fergus, Professor Jack, and +Mrs Watson. + + + + +GUTHRIE, THOMAS (1803-1873), Scottish divine, was born at Brechin, +Forfarshire, on the 12th of July 1803. He entered the university of +Edinburgh at the early age of twelve, and continued to attend classes +there for more than ten years. On the 2nd of February 1825 the +presbytery of Brechin licensed him as a preacher in connexion with the +Church of Scotland, and in 1826 he was in Paris studying natural +philosophy, chemistry, and comparative anatomy. For two years he acted +as manager of his father's bank, and in 1830 was inducted to his first +charge, Arbirlot, in Forfarshire, where he adopted a vivid dramatic +style of preaching adapted to his congregation of peasants, farmers and +weavers. In 1837 he became the colleague of John Sym in the pastorate of +Old Greyfriars, Edinburgh, and at once attracted notice as a great +pulpit orator. Towards the close of 1840 he became minister of St John's +church, Victoria Street, Edinburgh. He declined invitations both from +London and from India. He was an enthusiastic supporter of the movement +which led to the Disruption of 1843; and his name is thenceforth +associated with the Free Church, for which he collected £116,000 from +July 1845 to June 1846 to provide manses for the seceding ministers. In +1844 he became a teetotaller. In 1847 he began the greatest work of his +life by the publication of his first "Plea for Ragged Schools." This +pamphlet elicited a beautiful and sympathetic letter from Lord Jeffrey. +A Ragged School was opened on the Castle Hill, which has been the parent +of many similar institutions elsewhere, though Guthrie's relation to the +movement is best described as that of an apostle rather than a founder. +He insisted on bringing up all the children in his school as +Protestants; and he thus made his schools proselytizing as well as +educational institutions. This interference with religious liberty led +to some controversy; and ultimately those who differed from Guthrie +founded the United Industrial School, giving combined secular and +separate religious instruction. In April 1847 the degree of D.D. was +conferred on Guthrie by the university of Edinburgh; and in 1850 William +Hanna (1808-1882), the biographer and son-in-law of Thomas Chalmers, was +inducted as his colleague in Free St John's Church. + +In 1850 Guthrie published _A Plea on behalf of Drunkards and against +Drunkenness_, which was followed by _The Gospel in Ezekiel_ (1855); _The +City: its Sins and Sorrows_ (1857); _Christ and the Inheritance of the +Saints_ (1858); _Seedtime and Harvest of Ragged Schools_ (1860), +consisting of his three _Pleas for Ragged Schools_. These works had an +enormous sale, and portions of them were translated into French and +Dutch. His advocacy of temperance had much to do with securing the +passing of the Forbes Mackenzie Act, which secured Sunday closing and +shortened hours of sale for Scotland. Mr Gladstone specially quoted him +in support of the Light Wines Bill (1860). In 1862 he was moderator of +the Free Church General Assembly; but he seldom took a prominent part in +the business of the church courts. His remarkable oratorical talents, +rich humour, genuine pathos and inimitable power of story-telling, +enabled him to do good service to the total abstinence movement. He was +one of the vice-presidents of the Evangelical Alliance. In 1864, his +health being seriously impaired, he resigned public work as pastor of +Free St John's (May 17), although his nominal connexion with the +congregation ceased only with his death. Guthrie had occasionally +contributed papers to _Good Words_, and, about the time of his +retirement from the ministry, he became first editor of the _Sunday +Magazine_, himself contributing several series of papers which were +afterwards published separately. In 1865 he was presented with £5000 as +a mark of appreciation from the public. His closing years were spent +mostly in retirement; and after an illness of several months' duration +he died at St Leonards-on-Sea on the 24th of February 1873. + + In addition to the books mentioned above he published a number of + books which had a remarkable circulation in England and America, such + as _Speaking to the Heart_ (1862); _The Way to Life_ (1862); _Man and + the Gospel_ (1865); _The Angel's Song_ (1865); _The Parables_ (1866); + _Our Father's Business_ (1867); _Out of Harness_ (1867); _Early Piety_ + (1868); _Studies of Character from the Old Testament_ (1868-1870); + _Sundays Abroad_ (1871). + + See _Autobiography of Thomas Guthrie, D.D., and Memoir_, by his sons + (2 vols., London, 1874-1875). + + + + +GUTHRIE, THOMAS ANSTEY (1856- ), known by the pseudonym of F. Anstey, +English novelist, was born in Kensington, London, on the 8th of August +1856. He was educated at King's College, London, and at Trinity Hall, +Cambridge, and was called to the bar in 1880. But the popular success of +his story _Vice-Versa_ (1882) with its topsy-turvy substitution of a +father for his schoolboy son, at once made his reputation as a humorist +of an original type. He published in 1883 a serious novel, _The Giant's +Robe_; but, in spite of its excellence, he discovered (and again in 1889 +with _The Pariah_) that it was not as a serious novelist but as a +humorist that the public insisted on regarding him. As such his +reputation was further confirmed by _The Black Poodle_ (1884), _The +Tinted Venus_ (1885), _A Fallen Idol_ (1886), and other works. He became +an important member of the staff of _Punch_, in which his "Voces populi" +and his humorous parodies of a reciter's stock-piece ("Burglar Bill," +&c.) represent his best work. In 1901 his successful farce _The Man from +Blankley's_, based on a story which originally appeared in _Punch_, was +first produced at the Prince of Wales's Theatre, in London. + + + + +GUTHRIE, the capital of Oklahoma, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Logan +county, extending on both sides of Cottonwood creek, and lying one mile +south of the Cimarron river. Pop. (1890) 5333, (1900) 10,006, (1907) +11,652 (2871 negroes); (1910) 11,654. It is served by the Atchison, +Topeka & Santa Fé, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Missouri, +Kansas & Texas, the Fort Smith & Western, and the St Louis, El Reno & +Western railways. The city is situated about 940 ft. above the sea, in a +prairie region devoted largely to stock-raising and the cultivation of +Indian corn, wheat, cotton and various fruits, particularly peaches. +Guthrie is one of the headquarters of the Federal courts in the state, +the other being Muskogee. The principal public buildings at Guthrie are +the state Capitol, the Federal building, the City hall, the Carnegie +library, the Methodist hospital and a large Masonic temple. Among the +schools are St Joseph's Academy and a state school for the deaf and +dumb. Guthrie has a considerable trade with the surrounding country and +has cotton gins, a cotton compress, and foundries and machine shops; +among its manufactures are cotton-seed oil, cotton goods, flour, +cereals, lumber, cigars, brooms and furniture. The total value of the +factory product in 1905 was $1,200,662. The municipality owns and +operates the waterworks. The city was founded in 1889, when Oklahoma was +opened for settlement; in 1890 it was made the capital of the Territory, +and in 1907 when Oklahoma was made a state, it became the state capital. + + + + +GUTHRUM (GODRUM) (d. 890), king of East Anglia, first appears in the +_English Annals_ in the year 875, when he is mentioned as one of three +Danish kings who went with the host to Cambridge. He was probably +engaged in the campaigns of the next three years, and after Alfred's +victory at Edington in 878, Guthrum met the king at Aller in +Somersetshire and was baptized there under the name of Æthelstan. He +stayed there for twelve days and was greatly honoured by his godfather +Alfred. In 890 Guthrum-Æthelstan died: he is then spoken of as "se +nor[Pd]erna cyning" (probably) "the Norwegian king," referring to the +ultimate origin of his family, and we are told that he was the first +(Scandinavian) to settle East Anglia. Guthrum is perhaps to be +identified with Gormr (= Guthrum) hinn heimski or hinn riki of the +Scandinavian sagas, the foster-father of Hör[Pd]aknutr, the father of +Gorm the old. There is a treaty known as the peace of Alfred and +Guthrum. + + + + +GUTSCHMID, ALFRED, BARON VON (1835-1887), German historian and +Orientalist, was born on the 1st of July at Loschwitz (Dresden). After +holding chairs at Kiel (1866), Königsberg (1873), and Jena (1876), he +was finally appointed professor of history at Tübingen, where he died on +the 2nd of March 1887. He devoted himself to the study of Eastern +language and history in its pre-Greek and Hellenistic periods and +contributed largely to the literature of the subject. + + WORKS.--_Über die Fragmente des Pompeius Trogus_ (supplementary vol. + of _Jahrbücher für klass. Phil._, 1857); _Die makedonische Anagraphe_ + (1864); _Beiträge zur Gesch. des alten Orients_ (Leipzig, 1858); _Neue + Beiträge zur Gesch. des alt. Or._, vol. i., _Die Assyriologie in + Deutschland_ (Leipzig, 1876); _Die Glaubwürdigkeit der armenischen + Gesch. des Moses von Khoren_ (1877); _Untersuchungen über die syrische + Epitome des eusebischen Canones_ (1886); _Untersuch. über die Gesch. + des Königreichs Osraëne_ (1887); _Gesch. Irans_ (Alexander the Great + to the fall of the Arsacidae) (Tübingen, 1887). He wrote on Persia and + Phoenicia in the 9th edition of the Ency. Brit. A collection of minor + works entitled _Kleine Schriften_ was published by F. Rühl at Leipzig + (1889-1894, 5 vols.), with complete list of his writings. See article + by Rühl in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, xlix. (1904). + + + + +GUTS-MUTHS, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH (1759-1839), German teacher and +the principal founder of the German school system of gymnastics, was +born at Quedlinburg on the 9th of August 1759. He was educated at the +gymnasium of his native town and at Halle University; and in 1785 he +went to Schnepfenthal, where he taught geography and gymnastics. His +method of teaching gymnastics was expounded by him in various handbooks; +and it was chiefly through them that gymnastics very soon came to occupy +such an important position in the school system of Germany. He also did +much to introduce a better method of instruction in geography. He died +on the 21st of May 1839. + + His principal works are _Gymnastik für die Jugend_ (1793); _Spiele zur + Übung und Erholung des Körpers und Geistes für die Jugend_ (1796); + _Turnbuch_ (1817); _Handbuch der Geographie_ (1810); and a number of + books constituting a _Bibliothek für Pädagogik, Schulwesen, und die + gesammte pädagogische Literatur Deutschlands_. He also contributed to + the _Vollständiges Handbuch der neuesten Erdbeschreibung_, and along + with Jacobi published _Deutsches Land und deutsches Volk_, the first + part, _Deutsches Land_, being written by him. + + + + +GUTTA (Latin for "drop"), an architectural term given to the small +frusta of conical or cylindrical form carved below the triglyph and +under the regula of the entablature of the Doric Order. They are +sometimes known as "trunnels," a corruption of "tree-nail," and resemble +the wooden pins which in framed timber work or in joinery are employed +to fasten together the pieces of wood; these are supposed to be derived +from the original timber construction of the Doric temple, in which the +pins, driven through the regula, secured the latter to the taenia, and, +according to C. Chipiez and F. A. Choisy, passed through the taenia to +hold the triglyphs in place. In the earliest examples of the Doric Order +at Corinth and Selinus, the guttae are completely isolated from the +architrave, and in Temple C. at Selinus the guttae are 3 or 4 in. in +front of it, as if to enable the pin to be driven in more easily. In +later examples they are partly attached to the architrave. Similar +guttae are carved under the mutules of the Doric cornice, representing +the pins driven through the mutules to secure the rafters. In the +temples at Bassae, Paestum and Selinus, instances have been found where +the guttae had been carved separately and sunk into holes cut in the +soffit of the mutules and the regula. Their constant employment in the +Doric temples suggests that, although originally of constructive origin, +they were subsequently employed as decorative features. + + + + +GUTTA PERCHA, the name applied to the evaporated milky fluid or latex +furnished by several trees chiefly found in the islands of the Malay +Archipelago. The name is derived from two Malay words, _getah_ meaning +gum, and _pertja_ being the name of the tree--probably a Bassia--from +which the gum was (erroneously) supposed to be obtained. + +_Botanical Origin and Distribution._--The actual tree is known to the +Malays as taban, and the product as _getah taban_. The best gutta percha +of Malaya is chiefly derived from two trees, and is known as _getah +taban merah_ (red) or _getah taban sutra_ (silky). The trees in +question, which belong to the natural order Sapotaceae, have now been +definitely identified, the first as _Dichopsis gutta_ (Bentham and +Hooker), otherwise _Isonandra gutta_ (Hooker) or _Palaquium gutta_ +(Burck), and the second as _Dichopsis oblongifolia_ (Burck). Allied +trees of the same genus and of the same natural order yield similar but +usually inferior products. Among them may be mentioned species of +_Payena_ (_getah soondie_). + +Gutta percha trees often attain a height of 70 to 100 ft. and the trunk +has a diameter of from 2 to 3 ft. They are stated to be mature when +about thirty years old. The leaves of _Dichopsis_, which are +obovate-lanceolate, with a distinct pointed apex, occur in clusters at +the end of the branches, and are bright green and smooth on the upper +surface but on the lower surface are yellowish-brown and covered with +silky hairs. The leaves are usually about 6 in. long and about 2 in. +wide at the centre. The flowers are white, and the seeds are contained +in an ovoid berry about 1 in. long. + +The geographical distribution of the gutta percha tree is almost +entirely confined to the Malay Peninsula and its immediate +neighbourhood. It includes a region within 6 degrees north and south of +the equator and 93°-119° longitude, where the temperature ranges from +66° to 90° F. and the atmosphere is exceedingly moist. The trees may be +grown from seeds or from cuttings. Some planting has taken place in +Malaya, but little has so far been done to acclimatize the plant in +other regions. Recent information seems to point to the possibility of +growing the tree in Ceylon and on the west coast of Africa. + +_Preparation of Gutta Percha._--The gutta is furnished by the greyish +milky fluid known as the latex, which is chiefly secreted in cylindrical +vessels or cells situated in the cortex, that is, between the bark and +the wood (or cambium). Latex also occurs in the leaves of the tree to +the extent of about 9% of the dried leaves, and this may be removed from +the powdered leaves by the use of appropriate solvents, but the process +is not practicable commercially. The latex flows slowly where an +incision is made through the bark, but not nearly so freely, even in the +rainy season, as the india-rubber latex. On this account the Malays +usually fell the tree in order to collect the latex, which is done by +chopping off the branches and removing circles of the bark, forming +cylindrical channels about an inch wide at various points about a foot +apart down the trunk. The latex exudes and fills these channels, from +which it is removed and converted into gutta by boiling in open vessels +over wood fires. The work is usually carried on in the wet season when +the latex is more fluid and more abundant. Sometimes when the latex is +thick water is added to it before boiling. + +The best results are said to be obtained from mature trees about thirty +years old, which furnish about 2 to 3 lb. of gutta. Older trees do not +appear to yield larger amounts of gutta, whilst younger trees are said +to furnish less and of inferior quality. The trees have been so +extensively felled for the gutta that there has been a great diminution +in the total number during recent years, which has not been compensated +for by the new plantations which have been established. + +_Uses of Gutta Percha._--The Chinese and Malays appear to have been +acquainted with the characteristic property of gutta percha of softening +in warm water and of regaining its hardness when cold, but this plastic +property seems to have been only utilized for ornamental purposes, the +construction of walking-sticks and of knife handles and whips, &c. + +The brothers Tradescant brought samples of the curious material to +Europe about the middle of the 17th century. It was then regarded as a +form of wood, to which the name of "mazer" wood was given on account of +its employment in making mazers or goblets. A description of it is given +in a book published by John Tradescant in 1656 entitled _Musaeum +Tradescantianum or a Collection of Rarities preserved at South Lambeth +near London_. Many of the curiosities collected from all parts of the +world by the Tradescants subsequently formed the nucleus of the +Ashmolean Museum at Oxford which was opened in 1683, but the specimen of +"mazer wood" no longer exists. + +In 1843 samples of the material were sent to London by Dr William +Montgomerie of Singapore, and were exhibited at the Society of Arts, and +in the same year Dr José d'Almeida sent samples to the Royal Asiatic +Society. Gutta percha was also exhibited at the Great Exhibition of +1851. + +Dr Montgomerie's communication to the Society of Arts led to many +experiments being made with the material. Casts of medals were +successfully produced, and Sir William Siemens, in conjunction with +Werner von Siemens, then made the first experiments with the material as +an insulating covering for cable and telegraph wires, which led to the +discovery of its important applications in this connexion and to a +considerable commercial demand for the substance. + +The value of gutta percha depends chiefly on its quality, that is its +richness in true gutta and freedom from resin and other impurities which +interfere with its physical characters, and especially its insulating +power or inability to conduct electricity. + +The chief use of gutta percha is now for electrical purposes. Other +minor uses are in dentistry and as a means of taking impressions of +medals, &c. It has also found application in the preparation of belting +for machinery, as well as for the construction of the handles of knives +and surgical instruments, whilst the inferior qualities are used for +waterproofing. + +_Commercial Production._--The amount of gutta percha exported through +Singapore from British and Dutch possessions in the East is subject to +considerable fluctuation, depending chiefly on the demand for cable and +telegraph construction. In 1886 the total export from Singapore was +40,411 cwt., of which Great Britain took 31,666 cwt.; in 1896 the export +was 51,982 cwt. of which 29,722 cwt. came to Great Britain; while in +1905, 42,088 cwt. were exported (19,517 cwt. to Great Britain). It has +to be remembered that the official returns include not only gutta +percha of various grades of quality but also other inferior products +sold under the name of gutta percha, some of which are referred to below +under the head of substitutes. The value of gutta percha cannot +therefore be correctly gauged from the value of the imports. In the ten +years 1896-1906 the best qualities of gutta percha fetched from 4s. to +about 7s. per lb. Gutta percha, however, is used for few and special +purposes, and there is no free market, the price being chiefly a matter +of arrangement between the chief producers and consumers. + + _Characters and Properties._--Gutta percha appears in commerce in the + form of blocks or cakes of a dirty greyish appearance, often + exhibiting a reddish tinge, and just soft enough to be indented by the + nail. It is subject to considerable adulteration, various materials, + such as coco-nut oil, being added by the Malays to improve its + appearance. The solid, which is fibrous in texture, hard and inelastic + but not brittle at ordinary temperature, becomes plastic when immersed + in hot water or if otherwise raised to a temperature of about 65°-66° + C. in the case of gutta of the first quality, the temperature of + softening being dependent on the quality of the gutta employed. In + this condition it can be drawn out into threads, but is still + inelastic. On cooling again the gutta resumes its hardness without + becoming brittle. In this respect gutta percha differs from + india-rubber or caoutchouc, which does not become plastic and unlike + gutta percha is elastic. This property of softening on heating and + solidifying when cooled again, without change in its original + properties, enables gutta percha to be worked into various forms, + rolled into sheets or drawn into ropes. The specific gravity of the + best gutta percha lies between 0.96 and 1. Gutta percha is not + dissolved by most liquids, although some remove resinous constituents; + the best solvents are oil of turpentine, coal-tar oil, carbon + bisulphide and chloroform, and light petroleum when hot. Gutta percha + is not affected by alkaline solutions or by dilute acids. Strong + sulphuric acid chars it when warm, and nitric acid effects complete + oxidation. + + When exposed to air and light, gutta percha rapidly deteriorates, + oxygen being absorbed, producing a brittle resinous material. + + _Chemical Composition._--Chemically, gutta percha is not a single + substance but a mixture of several constituents. As the proportions of + these constituents in the crude material are not constant, the + properties of gutta percha are subject to variation. For electrical + purposes it should have a high insulating power and dielectric + strength and a low inductive capacity; the possession of these + properties is influenced by the resinous constituents present. + + The principal constituent of the crude material is the pure gutta, a + hydrocarbon of the empirical formula C10H16. It is therefore isomeric + with the hydrocarbon of caoutchouc and with that of oil of turpentine. + Accompanying this are at least two oxygenated resinous + constituents--albane C10H16O and fluavil C20H32O--which can be + separated from the pure gutta by the use of solvents. Pure gutta is + not dissolved by ether and light petroleum in the cold, whereas the + resinous constituents are removed by these liquids. The true gutta + exhibits in an enhanced degree the valuable properties of gutta + percha, and the commercial value of the raw material is frequently + determined by ascertaining the proportion of true gutta present, the + higher the proportion of this the more valuable is the gutta percha. + The following are the results of analyses of gutta percha from trees + of the genus _Dichopsis_ or _Palaquium_:-- + + +--------------------------------------+-----------+----------+ + | | Gutta | Resin | + | | per cent. | per cent.| + +--------------------------------------+-----------+----------+ + |Dichopsis (or Palaquium) oblongifolia | 88.8 | 11.2 | + | " " " gutta | 82.0 | 18.0 | + | " " " polyantha | 49.3 | 50.7 | + | " " " pustulata | 47.8 | 52.2 | + | " " " Maingayi | 24.4 | 75.6 | + +--------------------------------------+-----------+----------+ + + The hydrocarbon of gutta percha, gutta, is closely related in chemical + constitution to caoutchouc. When distilled at a high temperature both + are resolved into a mixture of two simpler hydrocarbons, isoprene + (C5H8) and caoutchoucine or dipentene (C10H16), and the latter by + further heating can be resolved into isoprene, a hydrocarbon of known + constitution which has been produced synthetically and spontaneously + reverts to caoutchouc. The precise relationship of isoprene to gutta + has not been ascertained, but recently Harries has further elucidated + the connexion between gutta and caoutchouc by showing that under the + action of ozone both break up into laevulinic aldehyde and hydrogen + peroxide, but differ in the proportions of these products they + furnish. The two materials must therefore be regarded as very closely + related in chemical constitution. Like caoutchouc, gutta percha is + able to combine with sulphur, and this vulcanized product has found + some commercial applications. + + _Manufacture of Gutta Percha._--Among the earliest patents taken out + for the manufacture of gutta percha were those of Charles Hancock, the + first of which is dated 1843. + + Before being used for technical purposes the raw gutta percha is + cleaned by machinery whilst in the plastic state. The chopped or + sliced material is washed by mechanical means in hot water and forced + through a sieve or strainer of fine wire gauze to remove dirt. It is + then kneaded or "masticated" by machinery to remove the enclosed + water, and is finally transferred whilst still hot and plastic to the + rolling-machine, from which it emerges in sheets of different + thickness. Sometimes chemical treatment of the crude gutta percha is + resorted to for the purpose of removing the resinous constituents by + the action of alkaline solutions or of light petroleum. + + _Substitutes for Gutta Percha._--For some purposes natural and + artificial substitutes for gutta percha have been employed. The + similar products furnished by other plants than those which yield + gutta percha are among the more important of the natural substitutes, + of which the material known as "balata" or "Surinam gutta percha," is + the most valuable. This is derived from a tree, _Mimusops balata_ + (bullet tree), belonging to the same natural order as gutta percha + trees, viz. Sapotaceae. It is a large tree, growing to a height of 80 + to 100 ft. or more, which occurs in the West Indies, in South America, + and is especially abundant in Dutch and British Guiana. The latex + which furnishes balata is secreted in the cortex between the bark and + wood of the tree. As the latex flows freely the trees are tapped by + making incisions in the same fashion as in india-rubber trees, and the + balata is obtained by evaporating the milky fluid. Crude balata varies + in composition. It usually contains nearly equal proportions of resin + and true gutta. The latter appears to be identical with the chief + constituent of gutta percha. The properties of balata correspond with + its composition, and it may therefore be classed as an inferior gutta + percha. Balata fetches from 1s. 6d. to 2s. 8d. per lb. + + Among the inferior substitutes for gutta percha may be mentioned the + evaporated latices derived from _Butyrospermum Parkii_ (shea-butter + tree of West Africa or karite of the Sudan), _Calotropis gigantea_ + (Madar tree of India), and _Dyera costulata_ of Malaya and Borneo, + which furnishes the material known as "Pontianac." All these contain a + small amount of gutta-like material associated with large quantities + of resinous and other constituents. They fetch only a few pence per + lb., and are utilized for waterproofing purposes. + + Various artificial substitutes for gutta percha have been invented + chiefly for use as insulating materials. These often consist of + mixtures of bitumen with linseed and other oils, resins, &c., in some + cases incorporated with inferior grades of gutta percha. + + For further information respecting gutta percha, and for figures of + the trees, the following works may be consulted: Jumelle, _Les Plantes + à caoutchouc et à gutta_ (Paris, Challamel, 1903); Obach, "Cantor + Lectures on Gutta Percha," _Journal of the Society of Arts_, 1898. + (W. R. D.) + + + + +GUTTER (O. Fr. _goutiere_, mod. _gouttière_, from Lat. _gutta_, drop), +in architecture, a horizontal channel or trough contrived to carry away +the water from a flat or sloping roof to its discharge down a vertical +pipe or through a spout or gargoyle; more specifically, but loosely, the +similar channel at the side of a street, below the pavement. In Greek +and Roman temples the cymatium of the cornice was the gutter, and the +water was discharged through the mouths of lions, whose heads were +carved on the same. Sometimes the cymatium was not carried along the +flanks of a temple, in which case the rain fell off the lower edge of +the roof tiles. In medieval work the gutter rested partly on the top of +the wall and partly on corbel tables, and the water was discharged +through gargoyles. Sometimes, however, a parapet or pierced balustrade +was carried on the corbel table enclosing the gutter. In buildings of a +more ordinary class the parapet is only a continuation of the wall +below, and the gutter is set back and carried in a trough resting on the +lower end of the roof timbers. The safest course is to have an eaves +gutter which projects more or less in front of the wall and is secured +to and carried by the rafters of the roof. In Renaissance architecture +generally the pierced balustrade of the Gothic and transition work was +replaced by a balustrade with vertical balusters. In France a compromise +was effected, whereby instead of the horizontal coping of the ordinary +balustrade a richly carved cresting was employed, of which the earliest +example is in the first court of the Louvre by Pierre Lescot. This +exists throughout the French Renaissance, and it is one of its chief +characteristic features. + + + + +GUTZKOW, KARL FERDINAND (1811-1878), German novelist and dramatist, was +born on the 17th of March 1811 at Berlin, where his father held a +clerkship in the war office. After leaving school he studied theology +and philosophy at the university of his native town, and while still a +student, began his literary career by the publication in 1831 of a +periodical entitled _Forum der Journalliteratur_. This brought him to +the notice of Wolfgang Menzel, who invited him to Stuttgart to assist +in the editorship of the _Literaturblatt_. At the same time he continued +his university studies at Jena, Heidelberg and Munich. In 1832 he +published anonymously at Hamburg _Briefe eines Narren an eine Närrin_, +and in 1833 appeared at Stuttgart _Maha-Guru, Geschichte eines Gottes_, +a fantastic and satirical romance. In 1835 he went to Frankfort, where +he founded the _Deutsche Revue_. In the same year appeared _Wally, die +Zweiflerin_, from the publication of which may be said to date the +school of writers who, from their opposition to the literary, social and +religious traditions of romanticism, received the name of "Young +Germany." The work was directed specially against the institution of +marriage and the belief in revelation; and whatever interest it might +have attracted from its own merits was enhanced by the action of the +German federal diet, which condemned Gutzkow to three months' +imprisonment, decreed the suppression of all he had written or might yet +write, and prohibited him from exercising the functions of editor within +the German confederation. During his term of imprisonment at Mannheim, +Gutzkow employed himself in the composition of his treatise _Zur +Philosophie der Geschichte_ (1836). On obtaining his freedom he returned +to Frankfort, whence he went in 1837 to Hamburg. Here he inaugurated a +new epoch of his literary activity by bringing out his tragedy _Richard +Savage_ (1839), which immediately made the round of all the German +theatres. Of his numerous other plays the majority are now neglected; +but a few have obtained an established place in the repertory of the +German theatre--especially the comedies _Zopf und Schwert_ (1844), _Das +Urbild des Tartüffe_ (1847), _Der Königsleutnant_ (1849) and the blank +verse tragedy, _Uriel Acosta_ (1847). In 1847 Gutzkow went to Dresden, +where he succeeded Tieck as literary adviser to the court theatre. +Meanwhile he had not neglected the novel. _Seraphine_ (1838) was +followed by _Blasedow und seine Söhne_, a satire on the educational +theories of the time. Between 1850 and 1852 appeared _Die Ritter vom +Geiste_, which may be regarded as the starting-point for the modern +German social novel. _Der Zauberer von Rom_ is a powerful study of Roman +Catholic life in southern Germany. The success of _Die Ritter vom +Geiste_ suggested to Gutzkow the establishment of a journal on the model +of Dickens' _Household Words_, entitled _Unterhaltungen am häuslichen +Herd_, which first appeared in 1852 and was continued till 1862. In 1864 +he had an epileptic fit, and his productions show henceforth decided +traces of failing powers. To this period belong the historical novels +_Hohenschwangau_ (1868) and _Fritz Ellrodt_ (1872), _Lebensbilder_ +(1870-1872), consisting of autobiographic sketches, and _Die Söhne +Pestalozzis_ (1870), the plot of which is founded on the story of Kaspar +Hauser. On account of a return of his nervous malady, Gutzkow in 1873 +made a journey to Italy, and on his return took up his residence in the +country near Heidelberg, whence he removed to Frankfort-on-Main, dying +there on the 16th of December 1878. With the exception of one or two of +his comedies, Gutzkow's writings have fallen into neglect. But he +exerted a powerful influence on the opinions of modern Germany; and his +works will always be of interest as the mirror in which the intellectual +and social struggles of his time are best reflected. + + An edition of Gutzkow's collected works appeared at Jena (1873-1876, + new ed., 1879). E. Wolff has published critical editions of Gutzkow's + _Meisterdramen_ (1892) and _Wally die Zweiflerin_ (1905). His more + important novels have been frequently reprinted. For Gutzkow's life + see his various autobiographical writings such as _Aus der Knabenzeit_ + (1852), _Rückblicke auf mein Leben_ (1876), &c. For an estimate of his + life and work see J. Proelss, _Das junge Deutschland_ (1892); also H. + H. Houben, _Studien über die Dramen Gutzkows_ (1898) and + _Gutzkow-Funde_ (1901). + + + + +GÜTZLAFF, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1803-1851), German missionary to China, +was born at Pyritz in Pomerania on the 8th of July 1803. When still +apprenticed to a saddler in Stettin, he made known his missionary +inclinations to the king of Prussia, through whom he went to the +Pädagogium at Halle, and afterwards to the mission institute of Jänike +in Berlin. In 1826, under the auspices of the Netherlands Missionary +Society, he went to Java, where he was able to learn Chinese. Leaving +the society in 1828, he went to Singapore, and in August of the same +year removed to Bangkok, where he translated the Bible into Siamese. In +1829 he married an English lady, who aided him in the preparation of a +dictionary of Cochin Chinese, but she died in August 1831 before its +completion. Shortly after her death he sailed to Macao in China, where, +and subsequently at Hong Kong, he worked at a translation of the Bible +into Chinese, published a Chinese monthly magazine, and wrote in Chinese +various books on subjects of useful knowledge. In 1834 he published at +London a _Journal of Three Voyages along the Coast of China in 1831, +1832 and 1833_. He was appointed in 1835 joint Chinese secretary to the +English commission, and during the opium war of 1840-42 and the +negotiations connected with the peace that followed he rendered valuable +service by his knowledge of the country and people. The Chinese +authorities refusing to permit foreigners to penetrate into the +interior, Gützlaff in 1844 founded an institute for training native +missionaries, which was so successful that during the first four years +as many as forty-eight Chinese were sent out from it to work among their +fellow-countrymen. He died at Hong Kong on the 9th of August 1851. + + Gützlaff also wrote _A Sketch of Chinese History, Ancient and Modern_ + (London, 1834), and a similar work published in German at Stuttgart in + 1847; China Opened (1838); and the _Life of Taow-Kwang_ (1851; German + edition published at Leipzig in 1852). A complete collection of his + Chinese writings is contained in the library at Munich. + + + + +GUY OF WARWICK, English hero of romance. Guy, son of Siward or Seguard +of Wallingford, by his prowess in foreign wars wins in marriage Félice +(the Phyllis of the well-known ballad), daughter and heiress of Roalt, +earl of Warwick. Soon after his marriage he is seized with remorse for +the violence of his past life, and, by way of penance, leaves his wife +and fortune to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. After years of +absence he returns in time to deliver Winchester for King Æthelstan from +the invading northern kings, Anelaph (Anlaf or Olaf) and Gonelaph, by +slaying in single fight their champion the giant Colbrand. Local +tradition fixes the duel at Hyde Mead near Winchester. Making his way to +Warwick he becomes one of his wife's bedesmen, and presently retires to +a hermitage in Arden, only revealing his identity at the approach of +death. The versions of the Middle English romance of Guy which we +possess are adaptations from the French, and are cast in the form of a +_roman d'aventures_, opening with a long recital of Guy's wars in +Lombardy, Germany and Constantinople, and embellished with fights with +dragons and surprising feats of arms. The kernel of the tradition +evidently lies in the fight with Colbrand, which represents, or at least +is symbolic[1] of an historical fact. The religious side of the legend +finds parallels in the stories of St Eustachius and St Alexius,[2] and +makes it probable that the Guy-legend, as we have it, has passed through +monastic hands. Tradition seems to be at fault in putting Guy's +adventures under Æthelstan. The Anlaf of the story is probably Olaf +Tryggvason, who, with Sweyn of Denmark, harried the southern counties of +England in 993 and pitched his winter quarters in Southampton. +Winchester was saved, however, not by the valour of an English champion, +but by the payment of money. This Olaf was not unnaturally confused with +Anlaf Cuaran or Havelok (i.e.). + +The name Guy (perhaps a Norman form of A. S. _wig_ = war) may be fairly +connected with the family of Wigod, lord of Wallingford under Edward the +Confessor, and a Filicia, who belongs to the 12th century and was +perhaps the Norman poet's patroness, occurs in the pedigree of the +Ardens, descended from Thurkill of Warwick and his son Siward. Guy's +Cliffe, near Warwick, where in the 14th century Richard de Beauchamp, +earl of Warwick, erected a chantry, with a statue of the hero, does not +correspond with the site of the hermitage as described in the romance. +The bulk of the legend is obviously fiction, even though it may be +vaguely connected with the family history of the Ardens and the +Wallingford family, but it was accepted as authentic fact in the +chronicle of Pierre de Langtoft (Peter of Langtoft) written at the end +of the 13th century. The adventures of Reynbrun, son of Guy, and his +tutor Heraud of Arden, who had also educated Guy, have much in common +with his father's history, and form an interpolation sometimes treated +as a separate romance. There is a certain connexion between Guy and +Count Guido of Tours (fl. 800), and Alcuin's advice to the count is +transferred to the English hero in the _Speculum Gy of Warewyke_ (_c_. +1327), edited for the Early English Text Society by G. L. Morrill, 1898. + + The French romance (Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 3775) has not been printed, + but is described by Émile Littré in _Hist. litt. de la France_ (xxii., + 841-851, 1852). A French prose version was printed in Paris, 1525, and + subsequently (see G. Brunet, _Manuel du libraire_, _s.v._ "Guy de + Warvich"); the English metrical romance exists in four versions, + dating from the early 14th century; the text was edited by J. Zupitza + (1875-1876) for the E.E.T.S. from Cambridge University Lib. Paper MS. + Ff. 2, 38, and again (3 pts. 1883-1891, extra series, Nos. 42, 49, + 59), from the Auchinleck and Caius College MSS. The popularity of the + legend is shown by the numerous versions in English: _Guy of Warwick_, + translated from the Latin of Girardus Cornubiensis (fl. 1350) into + English verse by John Lydgate between 1442 and 1468; _Guy of Warwick_, + a poem (written in 1617 and licensed, but not printed) by John Lane, + the MS. of which (Brit. Mus.) contains a sonnet by John Milton, father + of the poet; _The Famous Historie of Guy, Earl of Warwick_ (c. 1607), + by Samuel Rowlands; _The Booke of the Moste Victoryous Prince Guy of + Warwicke_ (William Copland, no date); other editions by J. Cawood and + C. Bates; chapbooks and ballads of the 17th and 18th centuries: _The + Tragical History, Admirable Achievements and Curious Events of Guy, + Earl of Warwick_, a tragedy (1661) which may possibly be identical + with a play on the subject Written by John Day and Thomas Dekker, and + entered at Stationers' Hall on the 15th of January 1618/19; three + verse fragments are printed by Hales and Furnivall in their edition of + the Percy Folio MS. vol. ii.; an early French MS. is described by J. + A. Herbert (_An Early MS. of Gui de Warwick_, London, 1905). + + See also M. Weyrauch _Die mittelengl. Fassungen der Sage von Guy_ (2 + pts., Breslau, 1899 and 1901); J. Zupitza in _Silzungsber. d. + phil.-hist. Kl. d. kgl. Akad. d. Wiss._ (vol. lxxiv., Vienna, 1874), + and _Zur Literaturgeschichte des Guy von Warwick_ (Vienna, 1873); a + learned discussion of the whole subject by H. L. Ward, _Catalogue of + Romances_ (i. 471-501, 1883); and an article by S. L. Lee in the + _Dictionary of National Biography_. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Some writers have supposed that the fight with Colbrand + symbolizes the victory of Brunanburh. Anelaph and Gonelaph would then + represent the cousins Anlaf Sihtricson and Anlaf Godfreyson (see + HAVELOK). + + [2] See the English legends in C. Horstmann, _Altenglische Legenden_, + Neue Folge (Heilbronn, 1881). + + + + +GUY, THOMAS (1644-1724), founder of Guy's Hospital, London, was the son +of a lighterman and coal-dealer at Southwark. After serving an +apprenticeship of eight years with a bookseller, he in 1668 began +business on his own account. He dealt largely in Bibles, which had for +many years been poorly and incorrectly printed in England. These he at +first imported from Holland, but subsequently obtained from the +university of Oxford the privilege of printing. Thus, and by an +extremely thrifty mode of life, and more particularly by investment in +government securities, the subscription of these into the South Sea +Company, and the subsequent sale of his stock in 1720, he became master +of an immense fortune. He died unmarried on the 17th of December 1724. +In 1707 he built three wards of St Thomas's Hospital, which institution +he otherwise subsequently benefited; and at a cost of £18,793, 16s. he +erected Guy's Hospital, leaving for its endowment £219,499; he also +endowed Christ's Hospital with £400 a year, and in 1678 endowed +almshouses at Tamworth, his mother's birthplace, which was represented +by him in parliament from 1695 to 1707. The residue of his estate, which +went to distant relatives, amounted to about £80,000. + + See _A True Copy of the Last Will and Testament of Thomas Guy, Esq._ + (London, 1725); J. Noorthouck, _A New Hist. of London_, bk. iii. ch. + i. p. 684 (1773); Nichols, _Literary Anecdotes_, iii. 599 (1812); + Charles Knight, _Shadows of the Old Booksellers_, pp. 3-23 (1865); and + _A Biographical History of Guy's Hospital_, by S. Wilkes and G. T. + Bettany (1892). + + + + +GUYON, JEANNE MARIE BOUVIER DE LA MOTHE (1648-1717), French quietist +writer, was born at Montargis, where her family were persons of +consequence, on the 13th of April 1648. If her somewhat hysterical +autobiography may be trusted she was much neglected in her youth; most +of her time was spent as a boarder in various convent schools. Here she +went through all the religious experiences common to neurotic young +women; these were turned in a definitely mystical direction by the +duchesse de Béthune, daughter of the disgraced minister, Fouquet, who +spent some years at Montargis after her father's fall. In 1664 Jeanne +Marie was married to a rich invalid of the name of Guyon, many years her +senior. Twelve years later he died, leaving his widow with three small +children and a considerable fortune. All through her unhappy married +life the mystical attraction had grown steadily in violence; it now +attached itself to a certain Father Lacombe, a Barnabite monk of weak +character and unstable intellect. In 1681 she left her family and joined +him; for five years the two rambled about together in Savoy and the +south-east of France, spreading their mystical ideas. At last they +excited the suspicion of the authorities; in 1686 Lacombe was recalled +to Paris, put under surveillance, and finally sent to the Bastille in +the autumn of 1687. He was presently transferred to the castle of +Lourdes, where he developed softening of the brain and died in 1715. +Meanwhile Madame Guyon had been arrested in January 1688, and been shut +up in a convent as a suspected heretic. Thence she was delivered in the +following year by her old friend, the duchesse de Béthune, who had +returned from exile to become a power in the devout court-circle +presided over by Madame de Maintenon. Before long Madame Guyon herself +was introduced into this pious assemblage. Its members were far from +critical; they were intensely interested in religion; and even Madame +Guyon's bitterest critics bear witness to her charm of manner, her +imposing appearance, and the force and eloquence with which she +explained her mystical ideas. So much was Madame de Maintenon impressed, +that she often invited Madame Guyon to give lectures at her girls' +school of St Cyr. But by far the greatest of her conquests was Fénelon, +now a rising young director of consciences, much in favour with +aristocratic ladies. Dissatisfied with the formalism of average Catholic +piety, he was already thinking out a mystical theory of his own; and +between 1689 and 1693 they corresponded regularly. But as soon as ugly +reports about Lacombe began to spread, he broke off all connexion with +her. Meanwhile the reports had reached the prudent ears of Madame de +Maintenon. In May 1693 she asked Madame Guyon to go no more to St Cyr. +In the hope of clearing her orthodoxy, Madame Guyon appealed to Bossuet, +who decided that her books contained "much that was intolerable, alike +in form and matter." To this judgment Madame Guyon submitted, promised +to "dogmatize no more," and disappeared into the country (1693). In the +next year she again petitioned for an inquiry, and was eventually sent, +half as a prisoner, half as a penitent, to Bossuet's cathedral town of +Meaux. Here she spent the first half of 1695; but in the summer she +escaped without his leave, bearing with her a certificate of orthodoxy +signed by him. Bossuet regarded this flight as a gross act of +disobedience; in the winter Madame Guyon was arrested and shut up in the +Bastille. There she remained till 1703. In that year she was liberated, +on condition she went to live on her son's estate near Blois, under the +eye of a stern bishop. Here the rest of her life was spent in charitable +and pious exercises; she died on the 9th of June 1717. During these +latter years her retreat at Blois became a regular place of pilgrimage +for admirers, foreign quite as often as French. Indeed, she is one of +the many prophetesses whose fame has stood highest out of their own +country. French critics of all schools of thought have generally +reckoned her an hysterical degenerate; in England and Germany she has as +often roused enthusiastic admiration. + + AUTHORITIES.--_Vie de Madame Guyon, écrite par elle-même_ (really a + compilation made from various fragments) (3 vols., Paris, 1791). There + is a life in English by T. C. Upham (New York, 1854); and an elaborate + study by L. Guerrier (Paris, 1881). For a remarkable review of this + latter work see Brunetière, _Nouvelles Études critiques_, vol. ii. The + complete edition of Madame Guyon's works, including the autobiography + and five volumes of letters, runs to forty volumes (1767-1791); the + most important works are published separately, _Opuscules spirituels_ + (2 vols., Paris, 1790). They have been several times translated into + English. See also the literature of the article on QUIETISM; and H. + Delacroix, _Études sur le mysticisme_ (Paris, 1908). (St C.) + + + + +GUYON, RICHARD DEBAUFRE (1803-1856), British soldier, general in the +Hungarian revolutionary army and Turkish pasha, was born at Walcot, near +Bath, in 1803. After receiving a military education in England and in +Austria he entered the Hungarian hussars in 1823, in which he served +until after his marriage with a daughter of Baron Spleny, a general +officer in the imperial service. At the outbreak of the Hungarian War in +1848, he re-entered active service as an officer of the Hungarian +Honvéds, and he won great distinction in the action of Sukoro (September +29, 1848) and the battle of Schwechat (October 30). He added to his +reputation as a leader in various actions in the winter of 1848-1849, +and after the battle of Kapolna was made a general officer. He served in +important and sometimes independent commands to the end of the war, +after which he escaped to Turkey. In 1852 he entered the service of the +sultan. He was made a pasha and lieutenant-general without being +required to change his faith, and rendered distinguished service in the +campaign against the Russians in Asia Minor (1854-55). General Guyon +died of cholera at Scutari on the 12th of October 1856. + + See A. W. Kinglake, _The Patriot and the Hero General Guyon_ (1856). + + + + +GUYOT, ARNOLD HENRY (1807-1884), Swiss-American geologist and +geographer, was born at Boudevilliers, near Neuchâtel, Switzerland, on +the 28th of September 1807. He studied at the college of Neuchâtel and +in Germany, where he began a lifelong friendship with Louis Agassiz. He +was professor of history and physical geography at the short-lived +Neuchâtel "Academy" from 1839 to 1848, when he removed, at Agassiz's +instance, to the United States, settling in Cambridge, Massachusetts. +For several years he was a lecturer for the Massachusetts State Board of +Education, and he was professor of geology and physical geography at +Princeton from 1854 until his death there on the 8th of February 1884. +He ranked high as a geologist and meteorologist. As early as 1838, he +undertook, at Agassiz's suggestion, the study of glaciers, and was the +first to announce, in a paper submitted to the Geological Society of +France, certain important observations relating to glacial motion and +structure. Among other things he noted the more rapid flow of the centre +than of the sides, and the more rapid flow of the top than of the bottom +of glaciers; described the laminated or "ribboned" structure of the +glacial ice, and ascribed the movement of glaciers to a gradual +molecular displacement rather than to a sliding of the ice mass as held +by de Saussure. He subsequently collected important data concerning +erratic boulders. His extensive meteorological observations in America +led to the establishment of the United States Weather Bureau, and his +_Meteorological and Physical Tables_ (1852, revised ed. 1884) were long +standard. His graded series of text-books and wall-maps were important +aids in the extension and popularization of geological study in America. +In addition to text-books, his principal publications were: _Earth and +Man, Lectures on Comparative Physical Geography in its Relation to the +History of Mankind_ (translated by Professor C. C. Felton, 1849); _A +Memoir of Louis Agassiz_ (1883); and _Creation, or the Biblical +Cosmogony in the Light of Modern Science_ (1884). + + See James D. Dana's "Memoir" in the _Biographical Memoirs of the + National Academy of Science_, vol. ii. (Washington, 1886). + + + + +GUYOT, YVES (1843- ), French politician and economist, was born at +Dinan on the 6th of September 1843. Educated at Rennes, he took up the +profession of journalism, coming to Paris in 1867. He was for a short +period editor-in-chief of _L'Indépendant du midi_ of Nîmes, but joined +the staff of _La Rappel_ on its foundation, and worked subsequently on +other journals. He took an active part in municipal life, and waged a +keen campaign against the prefecture of police, for which he suffered +six months' imprisonment. He entered the chamber of deputies in 1885 as +representative of the first arrondissement of Paris and was _rapporteur +général_ of the budget of 1888. He became minister of public works under +the premiership of P. E. Tirard in 1889, retaining his portfolio in the +cabinet of C. L. de Freycinet until 1892. Although of strong liberal +views, he lost his seat in the election of 1893 owing to his militant +attitude against socialism. An uncompromising free-trader, he published +_La Comédie protectionniste_ (1905; Eng. trans. _The Comedy of +Protection_); _La Science économique_ (1st ed. 1881; 3rd ed. 1907); _La +Prostitution_ (1882); _La Tyrannie socialiste_ (1893), all three +translated into English; _Les Conflits du travail et leur solution_ +(1903); _La Démocratie individualiste_ (1907). + + + + +GUYTON DE MORVEAU, LOUIS BERNARD, BARON (1737-1816), French chemist, was +born on the 4th of January 1737, at Dijon, where his father was +professor of civil law at the university. As a boy he showed remarkable +aptitude for practical mechanics, but on leaving school he studied law +in the university of Dijon, and in his twenty-fourth year became +advocate-general in the parlement of Dijon. This office he held till +1782. Devoting his leisure to the study of chemistry, he published in +1772 his _Digressions académiques_, in which he set forth his views on +phlogiston, crystallization, &c., and two years later he established in +his native town courses of lectures on materia medica, mineralogy and +chemistry. An essay on chemical nomenclature, which he published in the +_Journal de physique_ for May 1782, was ultimately developed with the +aid of A. L. Lavoisier, C. L. Berthollet and A. F. Fourcroy, into the +_Méthode d'une nomenclature chimique_, published in 1787, the principles +of which were speedily adopted by chemists throughout Europe. Constantly +in communication with the leaders of the Lavoisierian school, he soon +became a convert to the anti-phlogistic doctrine; and he published his +reasons in the first volume of the section "Chymie, Pharmacie et +Metallurgie" of the _Encyclopédie méthodique_ (1786), the chemical +articles in which were written by him, as well as some of those in the +second volume (1792). In 1794 he was appointed to superintend the +construction of balloons for military purposes, being known as the +author of some aeronautical experiments carried out at Dijon some ten +years previously. In 1791 he became a member of the Legislative +Assembly, and in the following year of the National Convention, to which +he was re-elected in 1795, but he retired from political life in 1797. +In 1798 he acted as provisional director of the Polytechnic School, in +the foundation of which he took an active part, and from 1800 to 1814 he +held the appointment of master of the mint. In 1811 he was made a baron +of the French Empire. He died in Paris on the 2nd of January 1816. + + Besides being a diligent contributor to the scientific periodicals of + the day, Guyton wrote _Mémoire sur l'éducation publique_ (1762); a + satirical poem entitled _Le Rat iconoclaste, ou le Jésuite croqué_ + (1763); _Discours publics et éloges_ (1775-1782); _Plaidoyers sur + plusieurs questions de droit_ (1785); and _Traité des moyens de + désinfecter l'air_ (1801), describing the disinfecting powers of + chlorine, and of hydrochloric acid gas which he had successfully used + at Dijon in 1773. With Hugues Maret (1726-1785) and Jean François + Durande (d. 1794) he also published the _Élémens de chymie théorique + et pratique_ (1776-1777). + + + + +GUZMICS, IZIDÓR (1786-1839). Hungarian theologian, was born on the 7th +of April 1786 at Vámos-Család, in the county of Sopron. At Sopron +(Oedenburg) he was instructed in the art of poetry by Paul Horváth. In +October 1805 he entered the Benedictine order, but left it in August of +the following year, only again to assume the monastic garb on the 10th +of November 1806. At the monastery of Pannonhegy he applied himself to +the study of Greek under Farkas Tóth and in 1812 he was sent to Pesth to +study theology. Here he read the best German and Hungarian authors, and +took part in the editorship of the _Nemzeti_ (National) _Plutarkus_, and +in the translation of Johann Hübner's _Lexicon_. On obtaining the degree +of doctor of divinity in 1816, he returned to Pannonhegy, where he +devoted himself to dogmatic theology and literature, and contributed +largely to Hungarian periodicals. The most important of his theological +works are: _A kath. anyaszentegyháznak hitbeli tanitása_ (The Doctrinal +Teaching of the Holy Catholic Church), and _A keresztényeknek vallásbeli +egyesülésökröl_ (On Religious Unity among Christians), both published at +Pesth in 1822; also a Latin treatise entitled _Theologia Christiana +fundamentalis et theologia dogmatica_ (4 vols., Györ, 1828-1829). His +translation of Theocritus in hexameters was published in 1824. His +versions of the _Oedipus_ of Sophocles and of the _Iphigenia_ of +Euripides were rewarded by the Hungarian Academy, of which in 1838 he +was elected honorary member. In 1832 he was appointed abbot of the +wealthy Benedictine house at Bakonybél, a village in the county of +Veszprém. There he built an asylum for 150 children, and founded a +school of harmony and singing. He died on the 1st of September 1839. + + + + +GWADAR, a port on the Makran coast of Baluchistan, about 290 m. W. of +Karachi. Pop. (1903), 4350. In the last half of the 18th century it was +handed over by the khan of Kalat to the sultan of Muscat, who still +exercises sovereignty over the port, together with about 300 sq. m. of +the adjoining country. It is a place of call for the steamers of the +British India Navigation Company. + + + + +GWALIOR, a native state of India, in the Central India agency, by far +the largest of the numerous principalities comprised in that area. It is +the dominion of the Sindhia family. The state consists of two +well-defined parts which may roughly be called the northern and the +southern. The former is a compact mass of territory, bounded N. and N.W. +by the Chambal river, which separates it from the British districts of +Agra and Etawah, and the native states of Dholpur, Karauli and Jaipur of +Rajputana; E. by the British districts of Jalaun, Jhansi, Lalitpur and +Saugor; S. by the states of Bhopal, Tonk, Khilchipur and Rajgarh; and W. +by those of Jhalawar, Tonk and Kotah of Rajputana. The southern, or +Malwa, portion is made up of detached or semi-detached districts, +between which are interposed parts of other states, which again are +mixed up with each other in bewildering intricacy. The two portions +together have a total area of 25,041 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 2,933,001, +showing a decrease of 13% in the decade. + +The state may be naturally divided into plain, plateau and hilly +country. The plain country extends from the Chambal river in the extreme +southwards for about 80 m., with a maximum width from east to west of +about 120 m. This plain, though broken in its southern portion by low +hills, has generally an elevation of only a few hundred feet above +sea-level. In the summer season the climate is very hot, the shade +temperature rising frequently to 112° F., but in the winter months (from +November to February inclusive) it is usually temperate and for short +periods extremely cold. The average rainfall is 30 in., but the period +1891-1901 was a decade of low rainfall, and distress was caused by +famine. South of this tract there is a gradual ascent to the Central +India plateau, and at Sipri the general level is 1500 ft. above the sea. +On this plateau lies the remainder of the state, with the exception of +the small district of Amjhera in the extreme south. The elevation of +this region gives it a moderate climate during the summer as compared +with the plain country, while the winter is warmer and more equable. The +average rainfall is 28 in. The remaining portion of the state, classed +as hilly, comprises only the small district of Amjhera. This is known as +the Bhil country, and lies among the Vindhya mountains with a mean +elevation of about 1800 ft. The rainfall averages 23 in. In the two +years 1899 and 1900 the monsoon was very weak, the result being a severe +famine which caused great mortality among the Bhil population. Of these +three natural divisions the plateau possesses the most fertile soil, +generally of the kind known as "black cotton," but the low-lying plain +has the densest population. The state is watered by numerous rivers. The +Nerbudda, flowing west, forms the southern boundary. The greater part of +the drainage is discharged into the Chambal, which forms the +north-western and northern and eastern boundary. The Sind, with its +tributaries the Kuwari, Asar and Sankh, flows through the northern +division. The chief products are wheat, millets, pulses of various +kinds, maize, rice, linseed and other oil-seeds; poppy, yielding the +Malwa opium; sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, indigo, garlic, turmeric and +ginger. About 60% of the population are employed in agricultural and +only 15% in industrial occupations, the great majority of the latter +being home workers. There is a leather-factory at Morar; cotton-presses +at Morena, Baghana and Ujjain; ginning factories at Agar, Nalkhera, +Shajapur and Sonkach; and a cotton-mill at Ujjain. The cotton industry +alone shows possibilities of considerable development, there being +55,000 persons engaged in it at the time of the census of 1901. + +The population is composed of many elements, among which Brahmans and +Rajputs are specially numerous. The prevailing religion is Hinduism, 84% +of the people being Hindus and only 6% Mahommedans. The revenue of the +state is about one million sterling; and large reserves have been +accumulated, from which two millions were lent to the government of +India in 1887, and later on another million for the construction of the +Gwalior-Agra and Indore-Neemuch railways. The railways undertaken by the +state are: (1) from Bina on the Indian Midland to Goona; (2) an +extension of this line to Baran, opened in 1899; (3) from Bhopal to +Ujjain; (4) two light railways, from Gwalior to Sipri and Gwalior to +Bhind, which were opened by the viceroy in November 1899. On the same +occasion the viceroy opened the Victoria College, founded to commemorate +the Diamond Jubilee; and the Memorial Hospital, built in memory of the +maharaja's father. British currency has been introduced instead of +Chandori rupees, which were much depreciated. The state maintains three +regiments of Imperial Service cavalry, two battalions of infantry and a +transport corps. + +_History._--The Sindhia family, the rulers of the Gwalior state, belong +to the Mahratta nation and originally came from the neighbourhood of +Poona. Their first appearance in Central India was early in the 18th +century in the person of Ranoji (d. 1745), a scion of an impoverished +branch of the family, who began his career as the peshwa's +slipper-carrier and rose by his military abilities to be commander of +his bodyguard. In 1726, together with Malhar Rao Holkar, the founder of +the house of Indore, he was authorized by the peshwa to collect tribute +(_chauth_) in the Malwa districts. He established his headquarters at +Ujjain, which thus became the first capital of Sindhia's dominions. + +Ranoji's son and successor, Jayapa Sindhia, was killed at Nagaur in +1759, and was in his turn succeeded by his son Jankoji Sindhia. But the +real founder of the state of Gwalior was Mahadji Sindhia, a natural son +of Ranoji, who, after narrowly escaping with his life from the terrible +slaughter of Panipat in 1761 (when Jankoji was killed), obtained with +some difficulty from the peshwa a re-grant of his father's possessions +in Central India (1769). During the struggle which followed the death of +Madhu Rao Peshwa in 1772 Mahadji seized every occasion for extending his +power and possessions. In 1775, however, when Raghuba Peshwa threw +himself on the protection of the British, the reverses which Mahadji +encountered at their hands--Gwalior being taken by Major Popham in +1780--opened his eyes to their power. By the treaty of Salbai (1782) it +was agreed that Mahadji should withdraw to Ujjain, and the British +retire north of the Jumna. Mahadji, who undertook to open negotiations +with the other belligerents, was recognized as an independent ruler, and +a British resident was established at his court. Mahadji, aided by the +British policy of neutrality, now set to work to establish his supremacy +over Hindustan proper. Realizing the superiority of European methods of +warfare, he availed himself of the services of a Savoyard soldier of +fortune, Benoît de Boigne, whose genius for military organization and +command in the field was mainly instrumental in establishing the +Mahratta power. Mahadji's disciplined troops made him invincible. In +1785 he re-established Shah Alam on the imperial throne at Delhi, and as +his reward obtained for the peshwa the title of _vakil-ul-mutlak_ or +vicegerent of the empire, contenting himself with that of his deputy. In +1788 he took advantage of the cruelties practised by Ghulam Kadir on +Shah Alam, to occupy Delhi, where he established himself as the +protector of the aged emperor. Though nominally a deputy of the peshwa +he was now ruler of a vast territory, including the greater part of +Central India and Hindustan proper, while his lieutenants exacted +tribute from the chiefs of Rajputana. There can be no doubt that he +looked with apprehension on the growing power of the British; but he +wisely avoided any serious collision with them. + +Mahadji died in 1794, and was succeeded by his adopted son, Daulat Rao +Sindhia, a grandson of his brother Tukoji. When, during the period of +unrest that followed the deaths of the peshwa, Madhu Rao II., in 1795 +and of Tukoji Holkar in 1797, the Mahratta leaders fought over the +question of supremacy, the peshwa, Baji Rao II., the titular head of the +Mahratta confederation, fled from his capital and placed himself under +British protection by the treaty of Bassein (December 31, 1802). This +interposition of the British government was resented by the confederacy, +and it brought on the Mahratta War of 1803. In the campaign that +followed a combined Mahratta army, in which Daulat Rao's troops +furnished the largest contingent, was defeated by General Arthur +Wellesley at Assaye and Argaum in Central India; and Lord Lake routed +Daulat Rao's European-trained battalions in Northern India at Agra, +Aligarh and Laswari. Daulat Rao was then compelled to sign the treaty of +Sarji Anjangaon (December 30, 1803), which stripped him of his +territories between the Jumna and Ganges, the district of Broach in +Gujarat and other lands in the south. By the same treaty he was deprived +of the forts of Gwalior and Gohad; but these were restored by Lord +Cornwallis in 1805, when the Chambal river was made the northern +boundary of the state. By a treaty signed at Burhanpur in 1803 Daulat +Rao further agreed to maintain a subsidiary force, to be paid out of the +revenues of the territories ceded under the treaty of Sarji Anjangaon. +When, however, in 1816 he was called upon to assist in the suppression +of the Pindaris, though by the treaty of Gwalior (1817) he promised his +co-operation, his conduct was so equivocal that in 1818 he was forced to +sign a fresh treaty by which he ceded Ajmere and other lands. + +Daulat Rao died without issue in 1827, and his widow, Baiza Bai (d. +1862), adopted Mukut Rao, a boy of eleven belonging to a distant branch +of the family, who succeeded as Jankoji Rao Sindhia. His rule was weak; +the state was distracted by interminable palace intrigues and military +mutinies, and affairs went from bad to worse when, in 1843, Jankoji Rao, +who left no heir, was succeeded by another boy, adopted by his widow, +Tara Bai, under the name of Jayaji Rao Sindhia. The growth of turbulence +and misrule now induced Lord Ellenborough to interpose, and a British +force under Sir Hugh Gough advanced upon Gwalior (December 1843). The +Mahratta troops were defeated simultaneously at Maharajpur and Punniar +(December 29), with the result that the Gwalior government signed a +treaty ceding territory with revenue sufficient for the maintenance of a +contingent force to be stationed at the capital, and limiting the future +strength of the Gwalior army, while a council of regency was appointed +during the minority to act under the resident's advice. In 1857 the +Gwalior contingent joined the mutineers; but the maharaja himself +remained loyal to the British, and fled from his capital until the place +was retaken and his authority restored by Sir Hugh Rose (Lord +Strathnairn) on the 19th of June 1858. He was rewarded with the +districts of Neemuch and Amjhera, but Gwalior fort was occupied by +British troops and was only restored to his son in 1886 by Lord +Dufferin. Jayaji Rao, who died in 1886, did much for the development of +his state. He was created a G.C.S.I in 1861, and subsequently became a +counsellor of the empress, a G.C.B. and C.I.E. + +His son, the maharaja, Madhava Rao Sindhia, G.C.S.I., was born in 1877. +During his minority the state was administered for eight years by a +council of regency. He was entrusted with ruling powers in 1894, and in +all respects continued the reforming policy of the council, while paying +personal attention to every department, being a keen soldier, an +energetic administrator, and fully alive to the responsibilities +attaching to his position. He was created an honorary aide-de-camp to +the king-emperor and an honorary colonel in the British army. He went to +China as orderly officer to General Gaselee in 1901, and provided the +expedition with a hospital ship at his own expense, while his Imperial +Service Transport Corps proved a useful auxiliary to the British army in +the Chitral and Tirah expeditions. + +The CITY OF GWALIOR is 76 m. by rail S. of Agra, and had a population in +1901 of 119,433. This total includes the new town of Lashkar or "the +Camp" which is the modern capital of the state and old Gwalior. The old +town has a threefold interest: first as a very ancient seat of Jain +worship; secondly for its example of palace architecture of the best +Hindu period (1486-1516); and thirdly as an historic fortress. There are +several remarkable Hindu temples within the fort. One, known as the _Sas +Bahu_, is beautifully adorned with bas-reliefs. It was finished in A.D. +1093, and, though much dilapidated, still forms a most picturesque +fragment. An older Jain temple has been used as a mosque. Another temple +in the fortress of Gwalior is called the _Teli-Mandir_, or "Oilman's +Temple." This building was originally dedicated to Vishnu, but +afterwards converted to the worship of Siva. The most striking part of +the Jain remains at Gwalior is a series of caves or rock-cut sculptures, +excavated in the rock on all sides, and numbering nearly a hundred, +great and small. Most of them are mere niches to contain statues, though +some are cells that may have been originally intended for residences. +One curious fact regarding them is that, according to inscriptions, they +were all excavated within the short period of about thirty-three years, +between 1441 and 1474. Some of the figures are of colossal size; one, +for instance, is 57 ft. high, which is taller than any other in northern +India. + +The palace built by Man Singh (1486-1516) forms the most interesting +example of early Hindu work of its class in India. Another palace of +even greater extent was added to this in 1516; both Jehangír and Shah +Jahan added palaces to these two--the whole making a group of edifices +unequalled for picturesqueness and interest by anything of their class +in Central India. Among the apartments in the palace was the celebrated +chamber, named the _Baradari_, supported on 12 columns, and 45 ft. +square, with a stone roof, forming one of the most beautiful +palace-halls in the world. It was, besides, singularly interesting from +the expedients to which the Hindu architect was forced to resort to +imitate the vaults of the Moslems. Of the buildings, however, which so +excited the admiration of the emperor Baber, probably little now +remains. The fort of Gwalior, within which the above buildings are +situated, stands on an isolated rock. The face is perpendicular and +where the rock is naturally less precipitous it has been scarped. Its +greatest length from north-east to south-west is a mile and a half, and +the greatest breadth 900 yds. The rock attains its maximum height of 342 +ft. at the northern end. A rampart, accessible by a steep road, and +farther up by huge steps cut out of the rock, surrounds the fort. The +citadel stands at the north-eastern corner of the enclosure, and +presents a very picturesque appearance. The old town of Gwalior, which +is of considerable size, but irregularly built, and extremely dirty, +lies at the eastern base of the rock. It contains the tomb of Mahommed +Ghaus, erected during the early part of Akbar's reign. The fort of +Gwalior was traditionally built by one Surya Sen, the raja of the +neighbouring country. In 1196 Gwalior was captured by Mahommed Ghori; it +then passed into the hands of several chiefs until in 1559 Akbar gained +possession of it, and made it a state prison for captives of rank. On +the dismemberment of the Delhi empire, Gwalior was seized by the Jat +rana of Gohad. Subsequently it was garrisoned by Sindhia, from whom it +was wrested in 1780 by the forces of the East India Company, and to whom +it was finally restored by the British in 1886. The modern town contains +the palace of the chief, a college, a high school, a girls' school, a +service school to train officials, a law school, hospitals for men and +for women, a museum, paper-mills, and a printing-press issuing a state +gazette. + +GWALIOR RESIDENCY, an administrative unit in the Central India agency, +comprises Gwalior state and eleven smaller states and estates. Its total +area is 17,825 sq. m., and its population in 1901 was 2,187,612. Of the +area, 17,020 sq. m. belong to Gwalior State, and the agency also +includes the small states of Raghugarh, Khaniadhana, Paron, Garha, Umri +and Bhadaura, with the Chhabra _pargana_ of Tonk. + + + + +GWEEDORE, a hamlet and tourist resort of Co. Donegal, Ireland, on the +Londonderry & Lough Swilly & Letterkenny railway. The river Clady, +running past the village from the Nacung Loughs, affords salmon and +trout fishing. The fine surrounding scenery culminates to the east in +the wild mountain Errigal (2466 ft.) at the upper end of the loughs. The +place owes its popularity as a resort to Lord George Hill (d. 1879), who +also laboured for the amelioration of the conditions of the peasantry on +his estate, and combated the Rundale system of minute repartition of +property. In 1889, during the troubles which arose out of evictions, +Gweedore was the headquarters of the Irish constabulary, when District +Inspector Martin was openly murdered on attempting to arrest a priest on +his way to Mass. + + + + +GWILT, JOSEPH (1784-1863), English architect and writer, was the younger +son of George Gwilt, architect surveyor to the county of Surrey, and was +born at Southwark on the 11th of January 1784. He was educated at St +Paul's school, and after a short course of instruction in his father's +office was in 1801 admitted a student of the Royal Academy, where in the +same year he gained the silver medal for his drawing of the tower and +steeple of St Dunstan-in-the-East. In 1811 he published a _Treatise on +the Equilibrium of Arches_, and in 1815 he was elected F.S.A. After a +visit to Italy in 1816, he published in 1818 _Notitia architectonica +italiana, or Concise Notices of the Buildings and Architects of Italy_. +In 1825 he published an edition of Sir William Chambers's _Treatise on +Civil Architecture_; and among his other principal contributions to the +literature of his profession are a translation of the _Architecture of +Vitruvius_ (1826), a _Treatise on the Rudiments of Architecture, +Practical and Theoretical_ (1826), and his valuable _Encyclopaedia of +Architecture_ (1842), which was published with additions by Wyatt +Papworth in 1867. In recognition of Gwilt's advocacy of the importance +to architects of a knowledge of mathematics, he was in 1833 elected a +member of the Royal Astronomical Society. He took a special interest in +philology and music, and was the author of _Rudiments of the Anglo-Saxon +Tongue_ (1829), and of the article "Music" in the _Encyclopaedia +metropolitana_. His principal works as a practical architect were +Markree Castle near Sligo in Ireland, and St Thomas's church at Charlton +in Kent. He died on the 14th of September 1863. + + + + +GWYN, NELL [ELEANOR] (1650-1687), English actress, and mistress of +Charles II., was born on the 2nd of February 1650/1, probably in an +alley off Drury Lane, London, although Hereford also claims to have been +her birthplace. Her father, Thomas Gwyn, appears to have been a +broken-down soldier of a family of Welsh origin. Of her mother little is +known save that she lived for some time with her daughter, and that in +1679 she was drowned, apparently when intoxicated, in a pond at Chelsea. +Nell Gwyn, who sold oranges in the precincts of Drury Lane Theatre, +passed, at the age of fifteen, to the boards, through the influence of +the actor Charles Hart and of Robert Duncan or Dungan, an officer of the +guards who had interest with the management. Her first recorded +appearance on the stage was in 1665 as Cydaria, Montezuma's daughter, in +Dryden's _Indian Emperor_, a serious part ill-suited to her. In the +following year she was Lady Wealthy in the Hon. James Howard's comedy +_The English Monsieur_. Pepys was delighted with the playing of "pretty, +witty Nell," but when he saw her as Florimel in Dryden's _Secret Love, +or the Maiden Queen_, he wrote "so great a performance of a comical part +was never, I believe, in the world before" and, "so done by Nell her +merry part as cannot be better done in nature" (_Diary_, March 25, +1667). Her success brought her other leading rôles--Bellario, in +Beaumont and Fletcher's _Philaster_; Flora, in Rhodes's _Flora's +Vagaries_; Samira, in Sir Robert Howard's _Surprisal_; and she remained +a member of the Drury Lane company until 1669, playing continuously save +for a brief absence in the summer of 1667 when she lived at Epsom as the +mistress of Lord Buckhurst, afterwards 6th earl of Dorset (q.v.). Her +last appearance was as Almahide to the Almanzor of Hart, in Dryden's +_The Conquest of Granada_ (1670), the production of which had been +postponed some months for her return to the stage after the birth of her +first son by the king. + +As an actress Nell Gwyn was largely indebted to Dryden, who seems to +have made a special study of her airy, irresponsible personality, and +who kept her supplied with parts which suited her. She excelled in the +delivery of the risky prologues and epilogues which were the fashion, +and the poet wrote for her some specially daring examples. It was, +however, as the mistress of Charles II. that she endeared herself to the +public. Partly, no doubt, her popularity was due to the disgust inspired +by her rival, Louise de Kéroualle, duchess of Portsmouth, and to the +fact that, while the Frenchwoman was a Catholic, she was a Protestant. +But very largely it was the result of exactly those personal qualities +that appealed to the monarch himself. She was _piquante_ rather than +pretty, short of stature, and her chief beauty was her reddish-brown +hair. She was illiterate, and with difficulty scrawled an awkward E. G. +at the bottom of her letters, written for her by others. But her frank +recklessness, her generosity, her invariable good temper, her ready wit, +her infectious high spirits and amazing indiscretions appealed +irresistibly to a generation which welcomed in her the living antithesis +of Puritanism. "A true child of the London streets," she never pretended +to be superior to what she was, nor to interfere in matters outside the +special sphere assigned her; she made no ministers, she appointed to no +bishoprics, and for the high issues of international politics she had no +concern. She never forgot her old friends, and, as far as is known, +remained faithful to her royal lover from the beginning of their +intimacy to his death, and, after his death, to his memory. + +Of her two sons by the king, the elder was created Baron Hedington and +earl of Burford and subsequently duke of St Albans; the younger, James, +Lord Beauclerk, died in 1680, while still a boy. The king's death-bed +request to his brother, "Let not poor Nelly starve," was faithfully +carried out by James II., who paid her debts from the Secret Service +fund, provided her with other moneys, and settled on her an estate with +reversion to the duke of St Albans. But she did not long survive her +lover's death. She died in November 1687, and was buried on the 17th, +according to her own request, in the church of St Martin-in-the-Fields, +her funeral sermon being preached by the vicar, Thomas Tenison, +afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, who said "much to her praise." +Tradition credits the foundation of Chelsea Hospital to her influence +over the king. + + See Peter Cunningham, _The Story of Nell Gwyn_, edited by Gordon + Goodwin (1903); Waldron's edition of John Downes's _Roscius + Anglicanus_ (1789); Osmund Airy, _Charles II._ (1904); Pepys, _Diary_; + Evelyn, _Diary and Correspondence_; _Origin and Early History of the + Royal Hospital at Chelsea_, edited by Major-General G. Hutt (1872); + _Memoirs of the Life of Eleanor Gwinn_ (1752); Burnet, _History of My + Own Time_, part i., edited by Osmund Airy (Oxford, 1897); _Louise de + Kéroualle, Duchess of Portsmouth_, by H. Forneron, translated by Mrs + Crawford (1887). + + + + +GWYNIAD, the name given to a fish of the genus _Coregonus_ or White fish +(_C. clupeoides_), inhabiting the large lakes of North Wales and the +north of England. At Ullswater it is known by the name of "schelly," at +Loch Lomond by that of "powen." It is tolerably abundant in Lake Bala, +keeping to the deepest portion of the lake for the greater part of the +year, but appearing in shoals near the shores at certain seasons. It is +well flavoured, like all the species of _Coregonus_, but scarcely +attains to the weight of a pound. The name gwyniad is a Welsh word, and +signifies "shining"; and it is singular that a similar fish in British +Columbia, also belonging to the family of Salmonoids, is called by the +natives "quinnat," from the silvery lustre of its scales, the word +having in their language the same meaning as the Welsh "gwyniad." + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 12, Slice 6, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 38304-8.txt or 38304-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/3/0/38304/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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