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diff --git a/38202.txt b/38202.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..529f476 --- /dev/null +++ b/38202.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18975 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 12, Slice 5, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 5 + "Greek Law" to "Ground-Squirrel" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: December 3, 2011 [EBook #38202] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE GREEK LAW: "In all else Diodorus represents the new age in + which the Greek historian had no longer the practical knowledge and + insight of a traveller, a soldier or a statesman, but only the + diligence, and usually the dullness, of a laborious compiler." + 'dullness' amended from 'dulness'. + + ARTICLE GREEN, THOMAS HILL: "... find this perfection attainable + only when the separate individualities are integrated as part of a + social whole." 'perfection' amended from 'prefection'. + + ARTICLE GREENLAND: "Climate.--The climate is very uncertain, the + weather changing suddenly from bright sunshine (when mosquitoes + often swarm) to dense fog or heavy falls of snow and icy winds." + 'mosquitoes' amended from 'mosquitos'. + + ARTICLE GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA: "The exact date of his death is + unknown; some authorities refer it to 396, others to 400." '396' + amended from '376'. + + ARTICLE GREGORY: "Most important was the two-fold mission to + Britain--of St Augustine in 596, of Mellitus, Paulinus and others + in 601 ..." 'Most' amended from 'Mose'. + + ARTICLE GREGORY: "J. P. Kirsch, Die Ruckkehr der Papste Urban V. u. + Gregor XI. von Avignon nach Rom (Paderborn, 1898) ..." 'von' + amended from 'con'. + + ARTICLE GRIBOYEDOV, ALEXANDER SERGUEEVICH: "There a monument was + erected to his memory by his widow, to whom he had been but a few + months married." 'monument' amended from 'momument'. + + ARTICLE GRINDAL, EDMUND: "... which was always a difficult see, + involved Bishop Sandys in similar troubles when Grindal had gone to + York." 'troubles' amended from 'tronbles'. + + ARTICLE GRISONS: "The population of the canton in 1900 was 104,520. + Of this number 55,155 (mainly near Coire and Davos, in the + Prattigau and in the Schanfigg valley) were Protestants, while + 49,142 (mainly in the Bundner Oberland, the Val Mesocco and the + Oberhalbstein) were Romanists, while there were also 114 Jews (81 + of whom lived in Davos)." 'Val' amended from 'Vall'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XII, SLICE V + + Greek Law to Ground-Squirrel + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + GREEK LAW GREY, SIR GEORGE + GREEK LITERATURE GREY, HENRY GREY + GREEK RELIGION GREY, LADY JANE + GREELEY, HORACE GREY DE WILTON + GREELEY GREYMOUTH + GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY GREYTOWN + GREEN, DUFF GREYWACKE + GREEN, JOHN RICHARD GRIBEAUVAL, JEAN BAPTISTE DE + GREEN, MATTHEW GRIBOYEDOV, ALEXANDER SERGUEEVICH + GREEN, THOMAS HILL GRIEG, EDVARD HAGERUP + GREEN, VALENTINE GRIESBACH, JOHANN JAKOB + GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY GRIESBACH + GREENAWAY, KATE GRIFFE + GREENBACKS GRIFFENFELDT, PEDER + GREEN BAY GRIFFIN, GERALD + GREENCASTLE GRIFFIN (Georgia, U.S.A.) + GREENE, GEORGE WASHINGTON GRIFFIN (creature) + GREENE, MAURICE GRIFFITH, SIR RICHARD JOHN + GREENE, NATHANAEL GRILLE + GREENE, ROBERT GRILLPARZER, FRANZ + GREENFIELD GRIMALD, NICHOLAS + GREENFINCH GRIMALDI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO + GREENHEART GRIMALDI, JOSEPH + GREENLAND GRIMKE, SARAH MOORE & ANGELINA EMILY + GREENLAW GRIMM, FRIEDRICH MELCHIOR + GREENLEAF, SIMON GRIMM, JACOB LUDWIG CARL + GREEN MONKEY GRIMM, WILHELM CARL + GREENOCK GRIMMA + GREENOCKITE GRIMMELSHAUSEN, HANS CHRISTOFFEL VON + GREENORE GRIMOARD, PHILIPPE HENRI + GREENOUGH, GEORGE BELLAS GRIMSBY + GREENOUGH, HORATIO GRIMSTON, SIR HARBOTTLE + GREENOUGH, JAMES BRADSTREET GRIMTHORPE, EDMUND BECKETT + GREEN RIBBON CLUB GRINDAL, EDMUND + GREENSAND GRINDELWALD + GREENSBORO GRINGOIRE, PIERRE + GREENSBURG GRINNELL + GREENSHANK GRIQUALAND EAST and GRIQUALAND WEST + GREENVILLE (Mississippi, U.S.A.) GRISAILLE + GREENVILLE (Ohio, U.S.A.) GRISELDA + GREENVILLE (S. Carolina, U.S.A.) GRISI, GIULIA + GREENVILLE (Texas, U.S.A.) GRISON + GREENWICH (Connecticut, U.S.A.) GRISONS + GREENWICH (England) GRISWOLD, RUFUS WILMOT + GREENWOOD, FREDERICK GRIVET + GREENWOOD, JOHN GROAT + GREG, WILLIAM RATHBONE GROCER + GREGARINES GROCYN, WILLIAM + GREGOIRE, HENRI GRODNO (government of Russia) + GREGORAS, NICEPHORUS GRODNO (town of Russia) + GREGOROVIUS, FERDINAND GROEN VAN PRINSTERER, GUILLAUME + GREGORY, ST GROIN + GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS GROLMANN, KARL WILHELM GEORG VON + GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA GROMATICI + GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS GRONINGEN + GREGORY THE ILLUMINATOR GRONINGEN + GREGORY (popes) GRONLUND, LAURENCE + GREGORY (Scottish family) GRONOVIUS, JOHANN FRIEDRICH + GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN GROOM + GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT GROOT, GERHARD + GREIFENBERG GROOVE-TOOTHED SQUIRREL + GREIFENHAGEN GROS, ANTOINE JEAN + GREIFSWALD GROSART, ALEXANDER BALLOCH + GREISEN GROSBEAK + GREIZ GROSE, FRANCIS + GRENADA GROSS + GRENADE GROSSE, JULIUS WALDEMAR + GRENADIER GROSSENHAIN + GRENADINES GROSSETESTE, ROBERT + GRENOBLE GROSSETO + GRENVILLE, SIR BEVIL GROSSI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO + GRENVILLE, GEORGE GROSSI, TOMMASO + GRENVILLE, SIR RICHARD (naval c.) GROSSMITH, GEORGE + GRENVILLE, SIR RICHARD (royalist) GROS VENTRES + GRENVILLE, WILLIAM GRENVILLE GROTE, GEORGE + GRESHAM, SIR THOMAS GROTEFEND, GEORG FRIEDRICH + GRESHAM, WALTER QUINTON GROTESQUE + GRESHAM'S LAW GROTH, KLAUS + GRESSET, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS GROTH, PAUL HEINRICH VON + GRETNA GREEN GROTIUS, HUGO + GRETRY, ANDRE ERNEST MODESTE GROTTAFERRATA + GREUZE, JEAN BAPTISTE GROUCHY, EMMANUEL + GREVILLE, CHARLES FULKE GROUND-ICE + GREVIN, JACQUES GROUND NUT + GREVY, FRANCOIS PAUL JULES GROUND-PEARL + GREW, NEHEMIAH GROUND RENT + GREY, CHARLES GREY GROUNDSEL + GREY, SIR EDWARD GROUND-SQUIRREL + + + + +GREEK LAW. + + Greek law and comparative jurisprudence. + +Ancient Greek law is a branch of comparative jurisprudence +the importance of which has been long ignored. Jurists have commonly +left its study to scholars, who have generally refrained from comparing +the institutions of the Greeks with those of other nations. Greek law +has, however, been partially compared with Roman law, and has been +incidentally illustrated with the aid of the primitive institutions of +the Germanic nations. It may now be studied in its earlier stages in the +laws of Gortyn; its influence may be traced in legal documents preserved +in Egyptian papyri; and it may be recognized as a consistent whole in +its ultimate relations to Roman law in the eastern provinces of the +Roman empire. + +The existence of certain panhellenic principles of law is implied by the +custom of settling a difference between two Greek states, or between +members of a single state, by resorting to external arbitration. The +general unity of Greek law is mainly to be seen in the laws of +inheritance and adoption, in laws of commerce and contract, and in the +publicity uniformly given to legal agreements. + + + Original authorities. + +No systematic collection of Greek laws has come down to us. Our +knowledge of some of the earliest notions of the subject is derived from +the Homeric poems. For the details of Attic law we have to depend on _ex +parte_ statements in the speeches of the Attic orators, and we are +sometimes enabled to check those statements by the trustworthy, but +often imperfect, aid of inscriptions. Incidental illustrations of the +laws of Athens may be found in the Laws of Plato, who deals with the +theory of the subject without exercising any influence on actual +practice. The Laws of Plato are criticized in the _Politics_ of +Aristotle, who, besides discussing laws in their relation to +constitutions, reviews the work of certain early Greek lawgivers. The +treatise on the _Constitution of Athens_ includes an account of the +jurisdiction of the various public officials and of the machinery of the +law courts, and thus enables us to dispense with the second-hand +testimony of grammarians and scholiasts who derived their information +from that treatise (see CONSTITUTION OF ATHENS). The works of +Theophrastus _On the Laws_, which included a recapitulation of the laws +of various barbaric as well as Grecian states, are now represented by +only a few fragments (Nos. 97-106, ed. Wimmer). + + + Law in Homer. + +Our earliest evidence is to be sought in the Homeric poems. In the +primitive society of the heroic age (as noticed by Plato) written laws +were necessarily unknown; for, "in that early period, they had no +letters; they lived by habit and by the customs of their ancestors" +(_Laws_, 680 A). We find a survival from a still more primitive time in +the savage Cyclops, who is "unfamiliar with dooms of law, or rules of +right" ([Greek: oute dikas eu eidota oute themistas], _Od._ ix. 215 and +112 f.). + + + Dike. + + _Dike_ ([Greek: dike]), assigned by Curtius (_Etym._ 134) to the same + root as [Greek: deiknymi], primarily means a "way pointed out," a + "course prescribed by usage," hence "way" or "fashion," "manner" or + "precedent." In the Homeric poems it sometimes signifies a "doom" of + law, a legal "right," a "lawsuit"; while it is rarely synonymous with + "justice," as in _Od._ xiv. 84, where "the gods honour justice," + [Greek: tiousi diken]. + + + Themis. + + Various senses of "right" are expressed in the same poems by _themis_ + ([Greek: themis]), a term assigned (_ib._ 254) to the same root as + [Greek: tithemi]. In its primary sense _themis_ is that which "has + been laid down"; hence a particular decision or "doom." The plural + _themistes_ implies a body of such precedents, "rules of right," which + the king receives from Zeus with his sceptre (_Il._ ix. 99). _Themis_ + and _dike_ have sometimes been compared with the Roman _fas_ and _jus_ + respectively, the former being regarded as of divine, the latter of + human origin; and this is more satisfactory than the latest view (that + of Hirzel), which makes "counsel" the primary meaning of _themis_. + + + Thesmos. Nomos. + + _Thesmos_ ([Greek: thesmos]), an ordinance (from the same root as + themis), is not found in "Homer," except in the last line of the + original form of the _Odyssey_ (xxiii. 296), where it probably refers + to the "ordinance" of wedlock. The common term for law, [Greek: + nomos], is first found in Hesiod, but not in a specially legal sense + (e.g. _Op._ 276). + + + The trial scene. + +A trial for homicide is one of the scenes represented on the shield of +Achilles (_Il._ xviii. 497-508). The folk are here to be seen thronging +the market-place, where a strife has arisen between two men as to the +price of a man that has been slain. The slayer vows that he has paid all +([Greek: eucheto pant' apodounai]), the kinsman of the slain protests +that he has received nothing ([Greek: anaineto meden helesthai]); both +are eager to join issue before an umpire, and both are favoured by their +friends among the folk, who are kept back by the heralds. The cause is +tried by the elders, who are seated on polished stones in a sacred +circle, and in the midst there lie two talents of gold, "to give to him +who, among them all, sets forth the cause most rightly" ([Greek: to +domen hos meta toisi diken ithyntata eipoi]). + + The discussions of the above passage have chiefly turned on two + points: (1) the legal questions at issue; and (2) the destination of + the "two talents." (1) In the ordinary view (a), it is solely a + question whether the fine or blood-money, corresponding to the + _Wergeld_ (see WERGELD, TEUTONIC PEOPLES, BRITAIN: _Anglo-Saxon_) of + the old Germanic law (Grimm, _Rechtsalterthumer_, 661 f.), has been + paid or not. (This is accepted by Thonissen, Lipsius, Sidgwick and + Ridgeway.) In the other view (b), it is held that the slayer "claimed + to pay" the fine, and the kinsman of the slain "refused to accept any + compensation" (so Passow and Leaf, approved by Pollock). (2) The "two + talents" (shown by Ridgeway to be a small sum, equal in value to two + oxen) are awarded either (a) to the litigant who "pleads his cause + most justly before them" (so Thonissen, Shilleto and Lipsius, in + accordance with the Attic use of phrases like [Greek: diken eipein]), + or (b) to the judge "who, among all the elders, gives the most + righteous judgment" (so Maine, approved by Sidgwick, Pollock, Leaf and + Ridgeway). + + On this controversy, cf. Maine's _Ancient Law_, chap. x. pp. 385 f., + 405 f., ed. Pollock; Thonissen, _Droit penal_ (1875), 27; P. M. + Laurence (on Shilleto's view) in _Journal of Philology_, viii. (1879), + 125 f.; Ridgeway, _ib._ x. (1882), 30 f., and _Journal of Hellenic + Studies_, viii. (1887), 133 f.; and Leaf, _ib._ viii. 122 f., and in + his Commentary on _Iliad_, ii. (1902), 610-614; also J. H. Lipsius in + _Leipziger Studien_, xii. (1890), 225-231, criticized by H. Sidgwick + in _Classical Review_, viii. (1894), 1-4. + +We are told elsewhere in Homer that sometimes a man accepted blood-money +from the slayer of his brother or his son, and that the slayer remained +in the land after paying this penalty (_Il._ ix. 633). As a rule the +slayer found it safest to flee (_Od._ xxiii. 118 f.), but even so, he +might be pursued by the friends of the slain (_Od._ xv. 272-278). If he +remained, the land was not (as in later ages) deemed to be polluted by +his presence. In Homer, Orestes does not slay Clytaemestra, and he needs +no "purification" for slaying Aegisthus. + + + Greek lawgivers: Lycurgus at Sparta. + +The laws of Sparta are ascribed to the legislation of Lycurgus, whose +traditional date is 884 B.C. Written laws are said to have been +expressly forbidden by Lycurgus (Plutarch, _Lycurgus_, 13); hence the +"laws of Sparta" are simply a body of traditional observances. We learn +that all trials for homicide came before the Council of Elders and +lasted for several days, and that all civil causes were tried by the +ephors (q.v.). We are also told that originally the land was equally +divided among the citizens of Sparta, and that this equality was +enforced by law (Polybius vi. 45-46). Early in the 4th century the ephor +Epitadeus, owing to a disagreement with his son, enacted that every +Spartan should be allowed to transfer his estate and his allotment to +any other person (Plutarch, _Agis_, 5), while Aristotle, in a +much-debated passage of the _Politics_ (ii. 9. 14-15), criticizes the +Spartan constitution for allowing the accumulation of property in a few +hands, an evil aggravated by the large number of "heiresses"; "a man (he +adds) may bestow his heiress on any one he pleases; and, if he dies +intestate, this privilege descends to his heir." + + + Era of written laws. + +Law was first reduced to writing in the 7th century B.C. A written code +is a necessary condition of just judgment, and such a code was the first +concession which the people in the Greek cities extorted from the ruling +aristocracies. The change was generally effected with the aid of a +single legislator entrusted with complete authority to draw up a code. + + + Zaleucus at Locri Epizephyrii. + + Charondas at Catana, etc. + + Androdamas of Rhegium. + + Philolaus of Corinth. + +The first communities to reach this stage of progress were the Greek +colonies in the West. The Epizephyrian Locrians, near the extreme south +of Italy, received the earliest written code from Zaleucus (663 B.C.), +whose strict and severe legislation put an end to a period of strife and +confusion, though we know little of his laws, except that they attached +definite penalties to each offence, and that they strictly protected the +rights of property. Two centuries later, his code was adopted even by +the Athenian colony of Thurii in south Italy (443 B.C.). Charondas, the +"disciple" of Zaleucus, became the lawgiver, not only of his native town +of Catana on the east coast of Sicily, but also of other Chalcidian +colonies in Sicily and Italy. The laws of Charondas were marked by a +singular precision, but there was nothing (says Aristotle) that he could +claim as his own except the special procedure against false witnesses +(_Politics_, ii. 12. 11). In the case of judges who neglected to serve +in the law courts, he inflicted a large fine on the rich and a small +fine on the poor (_ib._ vi. (iv.) 13. 2). Androdamas of Rhegium gave +laws on homicide and on heiresses to the Chalcidians of Thrace, while +Philolaus of Corinth provided the Thebans with "laws of adoption" with a +view to preventing any change in the number of the allotments of land +(_ib._ ii. 12. 8-14). + + + The laws of Gortyn. + +Local legislation in Crete is represented by the laws of the important +city of Gortyn, which lies to the south of Ida in a plain watered by the +Lethaeus. Part of that stream forms a sluice for a water-mill, and at or +near this mill some fragmentary inscriptions were found by French +archaeologists in 1857 and 1879. The great inscription, to which most of +our knowledge of the laws is due, was not discovered until 1884. It had +been preserved on a wall 27 ft. long and 5 ft. high, the larger part of +which was buried in the ground, while its farthest extremity passed +obliquely athwart the bed of the mill-stream. It was necessary to divert +the water before the last four columns could be transcribed by the +Italian scholar, Federico Halbherr, whose work was completed in the same +year by the excavation and transcription of the first eight columns by +the German scholar, E. Fabricius. In the following year Halbherr +discovered more than eighty small fragments on the neighbouring site of +a former temple of the Pythian Apollo. + + These fragments, which are far earlier than the great inscription + above-mentioned, have been assigned to about 650 B.C. They precede the + introduction of coined money into Crete, the penalties being reckoned, + not in coins, but in caldrons. They deal with the powers of the + magistrates and the observances of religion, but are mainly concerned + with private matters of barter and sale, dowry and adoption, + inheritance and succession, fines for trespass and questions of + blood-money. As in the code of Zaleucus, we have a fixed scale of + penalties, including the fine of a single tripod, and ranging from one + to a hundred caldrons. + + The great inscription is perhaps two centuries later (c. 450 B.C.). It + consists of a number of amendments or additions to an earlier code, + and it deals exclusively with private law, in which the family and + family property occupy the largest part. The procedure is entirely + oral; oaths and other oral testimony are alone admitted; there are no + documentary proofs, and no record of the verdict except in the memory + of the judge or of his "remembrancer." All the causes are tried before + a single judge, who varies according to the nature of the suit. Where + the law specially enjoins it, he is bound to give judgment ([Greek: + dikadden]) in accordance with the law and the "witnesses or oaths," + but, in other cases, he is permitted to take oath and decide ([Greek: + krinein]) in view of "the contentions of the parties," as + distinguished from "the declarations of the witnesses." Offences + against the person are treated as matters of private compensation + according to a carefully graduated tariff. In certain cases the + defendant may clear himself by an "oath of purgation" with the support + of "cojurors" ([Greek: homomotai]), the _Eideshelfer_ of old Germanic + law (Grimm 859 f.), who have no necessary knowledge of the facts. + There is no interference with the exposure of infants, except in the + interest of the father (if the child is free-born) or of the lord (in + the case of serfs). The law of debt is primitive, though less severe + than that of the early Romans. In contrast with these primitive + elements we have others which are distinctly progressive. The estates + of husband, wife and sons are regarded as absolutely distinct. Wills + are unknown, even in their most restricted form. Elaborate provisions + are made to secure with all speed the marriage of an "heiress"; she is + bound to marry the eldest of her paternal uncles or to surrender part + of her estate, and it is only if there are no paternal uncles that she + is permitted to marry one (and that the eldest) of their sons. + Adoption is made by the simple procedure of mounting a block of stone + in the market-place and making a public announcement at a time when + the citizens are assembled. The adopted son does not inherit any + larger share than that of a daughter. Any one who desires to repudiate + his adopted son makes a public announcement as before, and the person + repudiated receives, by way of nominal compensation, the gift of a + small number of staters. In these later "laws of Gortyn" we have + reached the time when payments are made, not in "caldrons," but in + coins. In the inscription itself the laws are simply described as + "these writings." + + The text of the great inscription was first published by E. Fabricius + in _Ath. Mitth._ ix. (1885), 362-384; there is a cast of the whole in + the Cambridge Museum of Classical Archaeology. Cf. Comparetti's _Leggi + di Gortyna_ (1893); Bucheler and Zittelmann in _Rhein. Mus._ xl. + (1885); Dareste, Haussoullier and Th. Reinach, _Inscr. juridiques + grecques_, iii. (1894), 352-493 (with the literature there quoted). + Eng. trans. by Roby in _Law Quarterly Review_ (1886), 135-152; see + also E. S. Roberts, _Gk. Epigraphy_, i. 39 f., 52 f., 325-332; J. W. + Headlam in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xiii. (1892-1893), 48-69; P. + Gardner and F. B. Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_ (1895), 560-574; W. Wyse + in Whibley's _Companion to Greek Studies_ (1905), 378-383; and Hermann + Lipsius, _Zum Recht von Gortyns_ (Leipzig, 1909). + + + Athens. + + The three senior archons. + + The thesmothetae. + +A Roman writer ascribes to the Athenians the very invention of lawsuits +(Aelian, _Var. Hist._ iii. 38), and the Athenians themselves regarded +their tribunals of homicide as institutions of immemorial antiquity +(Isocr. _Paneg._ 40). On the abolition of the single decennial +archon[1] in 683 B.C., his duties were distributed over several +officials holding office for one year only. The judicial duties +thenceforth discharged by the chief archon (_the_ archon), in the case +of citizens, were discharged by the polemarch in the case of foreign +settlers or metics ([Greek: metoikoi]); while the king-archon, who +succeeded to the religious functions of the ancient kings, decided cases +connected with religious observances (see ARCHON). He also presided over +the primitive council of the state, which was identical with the council +of the Areopagus. It was possibly with a view to the recognition of the +rights of the lower classes that, about the middle of the 7th century +B.C., the three archons were raised to the number of nine by the +institution of the joint board of the six _thesmothetae_, who +superintended the judicial system in general, kept a record of all legal +decisions, and drew attention to any defects in the laws. It is probable +that in their title we have the earliest example in Attic Greek of the +use of _thesmos_ in the sense of "law." + + + Draco. + +The constitution was at this time thoroughly oligarchical. With a view, +however, to providing a remedy for the conflict between the several +orders of the state, the first code of Athenian law was drawn up and +published by Draco (strictly Dracon), who is definitely described as a +_thesmothetes_ (621). His laws were known as _thesmoi_. The distinctive +part of his legislation was the law of homicide, which was held in such +high esteem that it was left unaltered in the legislation of Solon and +in the democratic restoration of 411 B.C. It is partly preserved in an +inscription of 409, which has been restored with the aid of quotations +from the orators (_C.I.A._ i. 61; _Inscr. jurid. grecques_, ii. 1. 1-24; +and Hicks, _Gk. Hist. Inscr._ No. 59). It drew a careful distinction +between different kinds of homicide. Of the rest of Draco's legislation +we only know that Aristotle (_Politics_, ii. 12, 13) was struck by the +severity of the penalties, and that the creditor was permitted to seize +the person of the debtor as security for his debt. + + + Solon. + +The conflict of the orders was not allayed until both parties agreed in +choosing Solon as mediator and as archon (594 B.C.). Solon cancelled all +mortgages and debts secured on the person of the debtor, set free all +who had become slaves for debt, and forbade such slavery for the future +(see SOLON). Thenceforth every citizen had also "the right of appeal to +the law-courts," and the privilege of claiming legal satisfaction on +behalf of any one who was wronged. Cases of constitutional law (_inter +alia_) came before large law-courts numbering hundreds of jurors, and +the power of voting in these law-courts made the people masters of the +constitution (Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_, c. 9). Solon's +legislation also had an important effect on the law of property. In +primitive times, on a man's death, his money or lands remained in the +family, and, even in the absence of direct descendants, the owner could +not dispose of his property by will. Permission to execute a will was +first given to Athenian citizens by the laws of Solon. But "the Athenian +Will was only an inchoate Testament" (Maine's _Ancient Law_, c. vi.); +for this permission was expressly limited to those citizens who had no +direct male descendants (Dem. _Lept._ 102; Plutarch, _Solon_, 21; cf. +Wyse on Isaeus, p. 325). + +The law of intestate succession is imperfectly preserved in [Dem.] 43, S +51 (cf. Wyse, _ib._ p. 562 f.). In the absence of direct male +descendants, a daughter who survived her father was known as an [Greek: +epikleros], not an "heiress," but a "person who went with the estate"; +and, in the absence of a will, the right or duty of marrying the +daughter followed (with certain obvious exceptions) the same rules as +the right of succession to the estate (cf. Wyse, _ib._ p. 348 f.). + + + Cleisthenes, Ephialtes. + + Pericles, Cleon. + +Among the reforms of Cleisthenes (508) was the law of ostracism (q.v.). +The privileges of the Areopagus were curtailed (while its right to try +certain cases of homicide was left untouched) by the reforms of +Ephialtes (462), and of Pericles, who also restored the thirty "local +justices" (453), limited the franchise to those of citizen-blood by both +parents (451), and was the first to assign to jurors a fee for their +services in the law-courts, which was raised to three obols by Cleon +(425). + + + Ordinary course of legislation. + +In contrast to legislative reforms brought about by lawgivers entrusted +with special authority, such as Draco, Solon and Cleisthenes, there was +the regular and normal course of public legislation. The legislative +power was not exercised directly by the popular assembly (see ECCLESIA), +but the preliminary consent of that body was necessary for the +appointment of a legislative commission. + + + Syngrapheis. Nomothetae. + +In the 5th century (e.g. in 450 and 446 B.C.) certain commissioners +called [Greek: syngrapheis] were appointed to draw up laws which, after +approval by the council, were submitted to the assembly. The same term +was still in use in March 411 (Thuc. viii. 61). But in October, on the +overthrow of the Four Hundred, the commissioners are for the first time +called _nomothetae_ (_ib._ 97). + + The procedure in ordinary legislation was as follows. At the first + meeting of the assembly in the year, the people was asked whether it + would permit motions to be made for altering or supplementing the + existing laws. A debate ensued, and, if such permission were granted, + any citizen who wished to make a motion to the above effect was + required to publish his proposals in the market-place, and to hand + them to the secretary of the council (Boule) to be read aloud at more + than one meeting of the assembly. At the third regular meeting the + people appointed the legislative commissioners, who were drawn by lot + from the whole number of those then qualified to act as jurors. The + number, and the duration of the commission, were determined in each + case by the people. The proceedings before the commission were + conducted exactly in the manner of a lawsuit. Those who desired to see + old laws repealed, altered or replaced by new laws came forward as + _accusers_ of those laws; those of the contrary opinion, as + _defenders_; and the defence was formally entrusted to public + advocates specially appointed for the purpose ([Greek: sunegoroi]). + The number of the commissioners varied with the number or importance + of the laws in question; there is evidence for the number 1001 (Dem. + xxiv. 27). If a law approved by the commission was deemed to be + unconstitutional, the proposer was liable to be prosecuted (by a + [Greek: graphe paranomon]), just as in the case of the proposer of an + unconstitutional decree in the public assembly. Formal proceedings + might also be instituted against laws on the sole ground of their + inexpediency (see note on Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_, p. + 219, ed. Sandys). A prosecutor who (like Aeschines in his indictment + of Ctesiphon) failed to obtain one-fifth of the votes was fined 1000 + _drachmae_ (L40), and lost the right to adopt this procedure in + future. When a year had elapsed, the proposer of a law or a decree was + free from personal responsibility. This was the case with Leptines, + but the law itself could still be attacked, and, in this event, five + advocates were appointed to defend it ([Greek: sundikoi]), cf. Dem. + _Lept._ 144, 146. + + + The laws of Athens. + +Limits of space make it impossible to include in the present article any +survey of the purport of the extant remains of the laws of Athens. Such +a survey would begin with the laws of the family, including laws of +marriage, adoption and inheritance, followed by the law of property and +contracts, and the laws for the protection of life, the protection of +the person, and the protection of the constitution. The texts have been +collected and classified in Telfy's _Corpus juris Attici_ (1867), a work +which can be supplemented or corrected with the aid of Aristotle's +_Constitution of Athens_; while some of the recent expositions of the +subject are mentioned in the bibliography at the end of this article. We +now proceed to notice the law of homicide, but solely in connexion with +jurisdiction. + + + Jurisdiction; the five primitive tribunals for the trial of homicide. + +The general term for a tribunal is [Greek: dikasterion] (from [Greek: +dikazo]), Anglicized "dicastery." Of all the tribunals of Athens those +for the trial of homicide were at once the most primitive and the least +liable to suffer change through lapse of time. In the old Germanic law +all trials whatsoever were held in the open air (Grimm 793 f.). At +Athens this custom was characteristic of all the five primitive courts +of homicide, the object being to prevent the prosecutor and the judges +from coming under the same roof as one who was charged with the shedding +of blood (Antiphon, _De caede Herodis_, 11). The place where the trial +was held depended on the nature of the charge. + + + On the Areopagus. + + 1. The rock of the Acropolis, outside the earliest of the city-walls, + was the proper place for the trial of persons charged with + premeditated homicide, or with wounding with intent to kill. The + penalty for the former crime was death; for the latter exile; and, in + either case, the property was confiscated. If the votes were equal, + the person accused was acquitted. The proceedings lasted for three + days, and each side might make two speeches. After the first speech + the person accused of premeditated homicide was mercifully permitted + to go into exile, in which case his property was confiscated, and in + the ordinary course he remained in exile for the rest of his life. + + + At the Palladion. + + 2. Charges of unpremeditated homicide, or of instigating another to + inflict bodily harm on a third person, or of killing a slave or a + resident alien or a foreigner, were tried at the Palladion, the + ancient shrine of Pallas, east of the city-walls. The punishment for + unpremeditated homicide was exile (without confiscation) until such + time as the criminal had propitiated the relatives of the person + slain, or (failing that) for some definite time. The punishment for + instigating a crime was the same as for actually committing it. + + + At the Delphinion. + + 3. Trials at the Delphinion, the shrine of Apollo Delphinios, in the + same quarter, were reserved for special cases of either accidental or + justifiable homicide. + + + At Phreatto. + + 4. If a man already in exile for unpremeditated homicide were accused + of premeditated homicide, or of wounding with intent to kill, + provision was made for this rare contingency by permitting him to + approach the shore of Attica and conduct his defence on board a boat, + while his judges heard the cause on shore, at a "place of pits" called + Phreatto, near the harbour of Zea. If the accused were found guilty, + he incurred the proper penalty; if acquitted, he remained in exile. + + + At the Prytaneum. + + 5. The court in the precincts of the Prytaneum, to the north of the + Acropolis, was only of ceremonial importance. It "solemnly heard and + condemned undiscovered murderers, and animals or inanimate objects + that had caused the loss of life."[2] The writ ran "against the doer + of the deed," and any instrument of death that was found guilty was + thrown across the frontier. The trial was held by the four + "tribe-kings" ([Greek: phylobasileis]), an archaic survival from + before the time of Cleisthenes. (On these five courts see Aristotle's + _Constitution of Athens_, c. 57, and Dem. _Aristocr._ 65-79.) + + + Ephetae. + + In all the courts of homicide the president was the archon-basileus, + or king-archon, who on these occasions laid aside his crown. + Originally all these courts were under the jurisdiction of an ancient + body of judges called the ephetae ([Greek: ephetai]), whose + institution was ascribed to Draco. The transfer of the first of the + above courts to the council of the Areopagus is attributed to Solon. + In practice the jurisdiction of the ephetae (see also AREOPAGUS) was + probably confined to the courts at the Palladion and Delphinion; but + even there the rights of this primitive body became obsolete, for + trials "at the Palladion" sometimes came before an ordinary tribunal + of 500 or 700 jurors (Isocr. _c. Callim._ 52, 54; [Dem.] _c. Neaeram_, + 10). + + + The presidents of the tribunals. + + The chief archon. + + The king-archon. + + The polemarch. + + The strategi. + + The thesmothetae. + +Except in the case of the primitive courts of homicide, the right of +jurisdiction was entrusted to the several archons until the date of +Solon (594). When the direct jurisdiction of the archons was impaired by +Solon's institution of the "right of appeal to the law-courts," the +dignity of those officials was recognized by their having the privilege +of presiding over the new tribunals ([Greek: hegemonia dikasteriou]). A +similar position was assigned to the other executive officers, such as +the strategi (generals), the board of police called the "Eleven," and +the financial officers, all of whom presided over cases connected with +their respective departments. In their new position as presidents of the +several courts, the archons received plaints, obtained from both parties +the evidence which they proposed to present, formally presided at the +trial, and gave instructions for the execution of the sentence. The +choice of the presiding magistrate in each case was determined by the +normal duties of his office. Thus the chief archon, the official +guardian of orphans and widows, presided in all cases, public or +private, connected with the family property of citizens (Aristotle, +_u.s._ c. 56). The king-archon had charge of all offences against +religion, e.g. indictments for impiety, disputes within the family as to +the right to hold a particular priesthood, and all actions for homicide +(c. 57). The third archon, the polemarch, discharged in relation to +resident aliens all such legal duties as were discharged by the chief +archon in relation to citizens (c. 58). The trial of military offences +was under the presidency of the strategi, who were assisted by the other +military officers in preparing the case for the court. The six junior +archons, the _thesmothetae_, acted as a board which was responsible for +all cases not specially assigned to any other officials (details in c. +59). + + + The Forty. + +The Forty, who were appointed by lot, four for each of the ten tribes, +acted as sole judges in petty cases where the damages claimed did not +exceed ten _drachmae_. Claims beyond that amount they handed over to the +arbitrators. The four representatives of any given tribe received notice +of such claims brought against members of that tribe. It seems probable +that they dealt with all private suits not otherwise assigned, but, +unlike the archons, they did not prepare any case for the court but +referred it, in the first instance, to a public arbitrator appointed by +lot (c. 53).[3] + + + The public arbitrators. + +The public arbitrators ([Greek: diaitetai]) were a body including all +Athenian citizens in the sixtieth year of their age. The arbitrator, on +receiving the case from the four representatives of the Forty, first +endeavoured to bring the parties to an agreement. If this failed, he +heard the evidence and gave a decision. If the decision were accepted, +the case was at an end, but, if either of the two parties insisted on +appealing to a law-court, the arbitrator placed in two caskets (one for +each party) copies of all the depositions, oaths and challenges, and of +all the laws quoted in the case, sealed them up, and, after attaching a +copy of his own decision, handed them over to the four representatives +of the Forty, who brought the case into court and presided over the +trial. Documents which had not been brought before the arbitrator could +not be produced in court. The court consisted of 201 jurors where the +sum in question was not more than 1000 _drachmae_ (L40); in other cases +the number of jurors was 401 (c. 53). + + + Eisagogeis. + +A small board of five appointed by lot, one for each pair of tribes, and +known as the "introducers" ([Greek: eisagogeis]), brought up certain of +the cases that had to be decided within a month ([Greek: emmenoi +dikai]), such as actions for restitution of dowry, repayment of capital +for setting up a business, and cases connected with banking. + + + Heliaea. + +The largest and most important of the legal tribunals, the "dicastery" +(_par excellence_), was known as the _heliaea_. The name, which is of +uncertain origin,[4] denotes not only the place where the court was held +but also the members of the court,--the _heliastae_ of Aristophanes, the +_dicastae_, or [Greek: andres dikastai], of the Attic orators. During +the palmy days of the Athenian democracy, in the interval between the +Persian and the Peloponnesian wars, the total number liable to serve as +jurors is said to have been 6000 (Aristotle, _u.s._ c. 24. 3), and this +number was never exceeded (Aristoph. _Vesp._ 661 f.). Any Athenian +citizen in full possession of his rights, and over thirty years of age, +was entitled to be placed on the list (Aristotle, _u.s._ c. 63. 3). At +the beginning of the year the whole body of jurors assembled on the hill +of Ardettos looking down on the Panathenaic Stadium, and there took a +solemn oath to the effect that they would judge according to the laws +and decrees of the Athenian people and of the council of the Five +Hundred (Boule), and that, in cases where there were no laws, they would +decide to the best of their judgment; that they would hear both sides +impartially, and vote on the case actually before the court. + +It has been suggested that, as the normal number of a court was 500, the +maximum number of 6000 jurors was probably divided into ten sections of +500 each, with 1000 reserves. There is evidence in the 4th century for +courts of 200, 400, 500, 700 and (in important political trials) +various multiples of 500, namely, 1000, 1500, 2000 or 2500. To some of +these numbers one juror is added; it was probably added to all, to +obviate the risk of the votes being exactly equal. + +The evidence as to the organization of the jurors in the early part of +the 4th century is imperfect. Passages in Aristophanes (_Ecclesiazusae_, +682-688; _Plutus_, 1166 f.) imply that in 392-388 B.C. the total number +was divided into ten sections distinguished by the first ten letters of +the Greek alphabet, A to K. Every juror, on his first appointment, +received a ticket of boxwood (or of bronze) bearing his name with that +of his father and his deme, and with one of the above letters in the +upper left-hand corner. Of the bronze tickets many have been found (see +notes on Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_, c. 63, and fig. 1 in +frontispiece, ed. Sandys). These tickets formed part of the machinery +for allotting the jurors to the several courts. To guard against the +possibility of bribery or other undue influence, the allotment did not +take place until immediately before the hearing of the case. Each court +contained an equal number of jurors from each of the ten tribes, and +thus represented the whole body of the state. The juror, on entering the +court assigned him, received a counter (see fig. 3 in frontispiece, +_u.s._), on presenting which at the end of the day he received his fee. +The machinery for carrying out the above arrangements is minutely +described at the end of Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_ (for +details, cf. Gilbert, 397-399, Eng. trans., or Wyse in Whibley's +_Companion to Greek Studies_, 387 f.). + + + Jurisdiction of the council and assembly. + + Eisangelia. + +The law-courts gradually superseded most of the ancient judicial +functions of the council and the assembly, but the council continued to +hold a strict scrutiny ([Greek: dokimasia]) of candidates for office or +for other privileges, while the council itself, as well as all other +officials, had to give account ([Greek: euthyna]) on ceasing to hold +office. The council also retained the right to deal with extraordinary +crimes against the state. It was open to any citizen to bring such +crimes to the knowledge of the council in writing. The technical term +for this information, denunciation or impeachment was _eisangelia_ +([Greek: eisangelia]). The council could inflict a fine of 500 +_drachmae_ (L20), or, in important cases, refer the matter either to a +law-court, as in the trial of Antiphon (Thuc. viii. 68), or to the +ecclesia, as in that of Alcibiades (415 B.C.), and the strategi in +command at Arginusae (406; Xen. _Hell._ i. 7. 19). The term [Greek: +eisangelia] was also applied to denunciations brought against persons +who wronged the orphan or the widow, or against a public arbitrator who +had neglected his duty (Dem. _Meidias_, 86 f.). + + + Probole. + +A "presentation" of criminal information ([Greek: probole]) might be +laid before the assembly with a view to obtaining its preliminary +sanction for bringing the case before a judicial tribunal. Such was the +mode of procedure adopted against persons who had brought malicious, +groundless or vexatious accusations, or who had violated the sanctity of +certain public festivals. The leading example of the former is the trial +of the accusers who prompted the people to put to death the generals who +had won the Battle of Arginusae (Xen. _Hell._ i. 7. 34); and, of the +latter, the proceedings of Demosthenes against Meidias. + + + Classes of legal actions. + +Legal actions ([Greek: dikai]) were classified as private ([Greek: +idiai]) or public ([Greek: demosiai]). The latter were also described as +[Greek: graphai] or "prosecutions," but some [Greek: graphai] were +called "private," when the state was regarded as only indirectly injured +by a wrong done to an individual citizen (Dem. xxi. 47). A private suit +could only be brought by the man directly interested, or, in the case of +a slave, a ward or an alien, by the master, guardian or patron +respectively; and, if the suit were successful, the sum claimed +generally went to the plaintiff. Public actions may be divided into +ordinary criminal cases, and offences against the state. As a rule they +could be instituted by any person who possessed the franchise, and the +penalty was paid to the state. If the prosecutor failed to obtain +one-fifth of the votes, he had to pay a fine of 1000 _drachmae_ (L40), +and lost the right of ever bringing a similar action. + +Lawsuits, whether public or private, were also distinguished as [Greek: +dikai kata tinos] or [Greek: pros tina], according as the defeated party +could or could not be personally punished. Actions ([Greek: agones]) +were also distinguished as [Greek: agones timetoi] ("to be assessed"), +in which the amount of damages had to be determined by the court, +because it had not been fixed by law, and [Greek: atimetoi] ("not to be +assessed"), in which the damages had _not_ to be determined by the +court, because they had already been fixed by law or by special +agreement. + +Among special kinds of action were [Greek: apagoge], [Greek: ephegesis] +and [Greek: endeixis]. These could only be employed when the offence was +patent and could not be denied. In the first, the person accused was +summarily arrested by the prosecutor and haled into the presence of the +proper official. In the second, the accuser took the officer with him to +arrest the culprit (Dem. xxii. 26). In the third, he lodged an +information with the official, and left the latter to effect the +capture. [Greek: Phasis], a general term for many kinds of legal +"information," was a form of procedure specially directed against those +who injured the fiscal interests of the state, and against guardians who +neglected the pecuniary interests of their wards. [Greek: Apographe] was +an action for confiscating property in private hands, which was claimed +as belonging to the state, the term being derived from the claimants' +written inventory of the property in question. + + + Ordinary legal procedure. + +The ordinary procedure in all lawsuits, public or private, began with a +personal summons ([Greek: prosklesis]) of the defendant by the plaintiff +accompanied by two witnesses ([Greek: kleteres]). If the defendant +failed to appear in court, these witnesses gave proof of the summons, +and judgment went by default. + +The action was begun by presenting a written statement of the case to +the magistrate who presided over trials of the class in question. If the +statement were accepted, court-fees were paid by both parties in a +private action, and by the prosecutor alone in a public action. The +magistrate fixed a day for the preliminary investigation ([Greek: +anakrisis]), and, whenever several causes were instituted at the same +time, he drew lots to determine the order in which they should be taken. +Hence the plaintiff was said "to have a suit assigned him by lot" +([Greek: lanchanein diken]), a phrase practically equivalent to +"obtaining leave to bring an action." At the [Greek: anakrisis] the +plaintiff and defendant both swore to the truth of their statements. If +the defendant raised no formal protest, the trial proceeded in regular +course ([Greek: euthydikia]), but he might contend that the suit was +inadmissible, and, to prove his point, might bring witnesses to confront +those on the side of the plaintiff ([Greek: diamartyria]), or he might +rely on argument without witnesses by means of a written statement +traversing that of the plaintiff ([Greek: paragraphe]). The person who +submitted the special plea in bar of action naturally spoke first, and, +if he gained the verdict, the main suit could not come on, or, at any +rate, not in the way proposed or before the same court. A cross-action +([Greek: antigraphe]) might be brought by the defendant, but the verdict +did not necessarily affect that of the original suit. + + + Documents. + + Challenges. + +In the preliminary examination copies of the laws or other documents +bearing on the case were produced. If any such document were in the +hands of a third person, he could be compelled to produce it by an +action for that purpose ([Greek: eis emphanon katastasin]). The +depositions were ordinarily made before the presiding officer and were +taken down in his presence. If a witness were compelled to be absent, a +certified copy of his deposition might be sent ([Greek: ekmartyria]). +The depositions of slaves were not accepted, unless made under torture, +and for receiving such evidence the consent of both parties was +required. Either party could challenge the other to submit his slaves to +the test ([Greek: proklesis eis basanon]), and, in the event of the +challenge being refused, could comment on the fact when the case came +before the court. Either party could also challenge the other to take an +oath ([Greek: proklesis eis horkon]), and, if the oath were declined, +could similarly comment on the fact. + + + The trial. + +Mercantile cases had to be decided within the interval of a month; +others might be postponed for due cause. If, on the day of trial, one of +the parties was absent, his representative had to show cause under oath +([Greek: hupomosia]); if the other party objected, he did so under oath +([Greek: anthupomosia]). If the plea for delay were refused by the +court, and it were the defendant who failed to appear, judgment went by +default; in the absence of the plaintiff, the case was given in favour +of the defendant. + +The official who had conducted the preliminary inquiry also presided at +the trial. The proceedings began with a solemn sacrifice. The plea of +the plaintiff and the formal reply of the defendant were then read by +the clerk. The court was next addressed first by the plaintiff, next by +the defendant; in some cases there were two speeches on each side. Every +litigant was legally required to conduct his own case. The speeches were +often composed by professional experts for delivery by the parties to +the suit, who were required to speak in person, though one or more +unprofessional supporters ([Greek: synhegoroi]) might subsequently speak +in support of the case. The length of the speeches was in many cases +limited by law to a fixed time recorded by means of a water-clock +(clepsydra). Documents were not regarded as part of the speech, and, +while these were being read, the clock was stopped (Goethe found a +similar custom in force in Venice in October 1786). The witnesses were +never cross-examined, but one of the litigants might formally +interrogate the other. The case for the defence was sometimes finally +supported by pathetic appeals on the part of relatives and friends. + +When the speeches were over, the votes were taken. In the 5th century +mussel-shells ([Greek: choirinai]) were used for the purpose. Each of +the jurors received a shell, which he placed in one of the two urns, in +that to the front if he voted for acquittal; in that to the back if he +voted for condemnation. If a second vote had to be taken to determine +the amount of the penalty, wax tablets were used, on which the juror +drew a long line, if he gave the heavy penalty demanded by the +plaintiff; a short one, if he decided in favour of the lighter penalty +proposed by the defendant. + +In the 4th century the mussel-shells were replaced by disks of bronze. +Each disk (inscribed with the words [Greek: PSEPHOS DEMOSIA]) was about +1 in. in diameter, with a short tube running through the centre. This +tube was either perforated or closed (see figs. 6 and 7 in frontispiece +to Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_, ed. Sandys). One of each kind +was given to every juror, who was required to use the perforated or the +closed disk, according as he voted for the plaintiff or for the +defendant. On the platform there were two urns, one of bronze and one of +wood. The juror placed in the hollow of his hand the disk that he +proposed to use, and closed his fingers on the extremity of the tube, so +that no one could see whether it were a perforated disk or not, and then +deposited it in the bronze urn, and (with the same precaution to ensure +secrecy) dropped the unused disk into the wooden urn. The votes were +sorted by persons appointed by lot, and counted by the president of the +court, and the result announced by the herald. For any second vote the +same procedure was adopted (Aristotle, _u.s._, c. 68 of Kenyon's Berlin +text). + + + Penalties. + +Pecuniary penalties were inflicted both in public and in private suits; +personal penalties, in public suits only. Personal penalties included +sentences of death or exile, or different degrees of disfranchisement +([Greek: atimia]) with or without confiscation. Imprisonment _before_ +trial was common, and persons mulcted in penalties might be imprisoned +until the penalties were paid, but imprisonment was never inflicted as +the _sole_ penalty after conviction. Foreigners alone could be sold into +slavery. Sentences of death were carried out under the supervision of +the board of police called the "Eleven." In ancient times a person +condemned was hurled into a deep pit (the barathrum) in a north-western +suburb of Athens. In later times he was compelled to drink the fatal +draught of hemlock. Common malefactors were beaten to death with clubs. +Fines were collected and confiscated property sold by special +officials, called [Greek: praktores] and [Greek: poletai] respectively. +In private suits the sentence was executed by the state if the latter +had a share in any fine imposed, or if imprisonment were part of the +penalty. Otherwise, the execution of the sentence was left to the +plaintiff, who had the right of distraint, or, if this failed, could +bring an action of ejectment ([Greek: dike hexouges]). + +From the verdict of the heliaea there was no appeal. But, if judgment +had been given by default, the person condemned might bring an action to +prove that he was not responsible for such default, [Greek: ten eremon] +(_sc._ [Greek: diken]) [Greek: antilanchanein]. The corresponding term +for challenging the award of an arbitrator was [Greek: ten me ousan +antilanchanein]. He might also bring an action for false evidence +([Greek: dike pseudomartyrion]) against his opponent's witnesses, and, +on their conviction, have the sentence annulled. This "denunciation" of +false evidence was technically called [Greek: episkepsis] and [Greek: +episkeptesthai]. + + + Character of the Athenian tribunals. + +The large number of the jurors made bribery difficult, but, as was first +proved by Anytus (in 409), not impossible. It also diminished the +feeling of personal responsibility, while it increased the influence of +political motives. In addressing such a court, the litigants were not +above appealing to the personal interests of the general public. We have +a striking example of this in the terms in which Lysias makes one of his +clients close a speech in prosecution of certain retail corn-dealers who +have incurred the penalty of death by buying more than 75 bushels of +wheat at one time: "If you _condemn_ these persons, you will be doing +what is right, and will pay _less_ for the purchase of your corn; if you +_acquit_ them, you will pay _more_" (xxii. S 22). + +Speakers were also tempted to take advantage of the popular ignorance by +misinterpreting the enactments of the law, and the jurors could look for +no aid from the officials who formally presided over the courts. The +latter were not necessarily experts, for they owed their own original +appointment to the caprice of the lot. Almost the only officials +specially elected as experts were the strategi, and these presided only +in their own courts. Again, there was every temptation for the informer +to propose the confiscation of the property of a wealthy citizen, who +would naturally prefer paying blackmail to running the risk of having +his case tried before a large tribunal which was under every temptation +to decide in the interests of the treasury. In conclusion we may quote +the opinions on the judicial system of Athens which have been expressed +by two eminent classical scholars and English lawyers. + + A translator of Aristophanes, Mr B. B. Rogers, records his opinion + "that it would be difficult to devise a judicial system less adapted + for the due administration of justice" (Preface to _Wasps_, xxxv. f.), + while a translator of Demosthenes, Mr C. R. Kennedy, observes that the + Athenian jurors "were persons of no legal education or learning; taken + at haphazard from the whole body of citizens, and mostly belonging to + the lowest and poorest class. On the other hand, the Athenians were + naturally the quickest and cleverest people in the world. Their wits + were sharpened by the habit ... of taking an active part in important + debates, and hearing the most splendid orators. There was so much + litigation at Athens that they were constantly either engaged as + jurors, or present as spectators in courts of law" (_Private + Orations_, p. 361). + + AUTHORITIES.--1. Greek Law. B. W. Leist, _Graco-italische + Rechtsgeschichte_ (Jena, 1884); L. Mitteis, _Reichsrecht und + Volksrecht in den ostlichen Provinzen des romischen Kaiserreichs, mit + Beitragen zur Kenntnis des griechischen Rechts_ (Leipzig, 1891); J. H. + Lipsius, _Von der Bedeutung des griechischen Rechts_ (Leipzig, 1893); + G. Gilbert, "Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte des ... griechischen Rechtes" + in _Jahrb. fur kl. Philologie_ (Leipzig, 1896); H. J. Hitzig, _Die + Bedeutung des altgriechischen Rechtes fur die vergleichende + Rechtswissenschaft_ (Stuttgart, 1906); R. Hirzel, _Themis, Dike und + Verwandtes_ (Leipzig, 1907); J. J. Thonissen, _Le Droit criminel de la + Grece legendaire_, followed by _Le Droit penal de la republique + athenienne_ (Brussels, 1875). + + 2. Attic Law. (a) Editions of Greek texts: I. B. Telfy, _Corpus juris + Attici_ (Pest and Leipzig, 1868); Aristotle's _Constitution of + Athens_, ed. Kenyon (London, 1891, &c., and esp. ed. 4, Berlin, 1903); + ed. 4, Blass (Leipzig, 1903); text with critical and explanatory + notes, ed. Sandys (London, 1893); Lysias, ed. Frohberger (Leipzig, + 1866-1871); Isaeus, ed. Wyse (Cambridge, 1904); Demosthenes, _Private + Orations_, ed. Paley and Sandys, ed. 3 (Cambridge, 1896-1898); + _Against Midias_, ed. Goodwin (Cambridge, 1906); Dareste, + Haussoullier, Th. Reinach, _Inscr. juridiques grecques_ (Paris, + 1891-1904). (b) Modern treatises: K. F. Hermann, _De vestigiis + institutorum ... Atticorum per Platonis de legibus libros indagandis_ + (Marburg, 1836); _Staatsaltertumer_, ed. 6, Thumser (Freiburg, 1892); + _Rechtsaltertumer_, ed. 3, Thalheim (Freiburg, 1884); G. Busolt, + _Staatsund Rechtsaltertumer_, ed. 2 (Munich, 1892); U. von + Wilamowitz-Mollendorff, _Aristoteles und Athen_ (Berlin, 1893); G. + Gilbert, _Gk. Constitutional Antiquities_ (vol. i., Eng. trans., pp. + 376-416, London, 1895); J. H. Lipsius, (1) new ed. of Meier and + Schomann, _Der attische Process_ (Berlin, 1883-1887); (2) ed. 4 of + Schomann, _Gr. Altertumer_ (Berlin, 1897-1902); (3) _Das attische + Recht und Rechtsverfahren_ (Leipzig, 1905); Daremberg and Saglio, + _Dictionnaire des antiquites_ (Paris, 1877); G. Glotz, _La Solidarite + de la famille dans le droit criminel en Grece_ (Paris, 1904); L. + Beauchet, _Droit prive de la rep. athen._ (4 vols., Paris, 1897); C. + R. Kennedy, _Appendices to transl. of Dem._ vols. iii. and iv. + (1856-1861); Smith's _Dictionary of ... Antiquities_, ed. 3 (1891); F. + B. Jevons, in Gardner and Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_ (1895, pp. + 526-597); W. Wyse, in Whibley's _Companion to Greek Studies_ + (Cambridge, 1905), pp. 377-402. (J. E. S.*) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] For further information as to the evolution of the Athenian + constitution see ARCHON, AREOPAGUS, BOULE, ECCLESIA, STRATEGUS, and + articles on all the chief legislators. + + [2] In the case of "animals," we may compare the Mosaic law of Exod. + xxxi. 28 and the old Germanic law (Grimm 664); and in that of + "inanimate objects," the English law of deodands (Blackstone i. 300), + repealed in 1846. See also Frazer on Pausanias, i. 28. 10. + + [3] Cf. R. J. Bonner, in _Classical Philology_ (Chicago, 1907), + 407-418, who urges that only cases belonging to the Forty were + subject to public arbitration. + + [4] Connected either with [Greek: halizesthai], "to assemble," or + [Greek: helios], or [Greek: Helis] (cf. Curt Wachsmuth, _Stadt + Athen_, ii. (1) 359-364). The first is possibly right (cf. Rogers on + Aristoph. _Wasps_, xvii. f.); the second implies that this large + court was held in the open air (Lipsius, _Att. Recht_, 172). + + + + +GREEK LITERATURE.--The literature of the Greek language is broadly +divisible into three main sections: (1) Ancient, (2) Byzantine, (3) +Modern. These are dealt with below in that order. + + +1. THE ANCIENT GREEK LITERATURE + +The ancient literature falls into three periods: (A) _The Early +Literature_, to about 475 B.C.; epic, elegiac, iambic and lyric poetry; +the beginnings of literary prose. (B) _The Attic Literature_ 475-300 +B.C.; tragic and comic drama; historical, oratorical and philosophical +prose. (C) _The Literature of the Decadence_, 300 B.C. to A.D. 529; +which may again be divided into the Alexandrian period, 300-146 B.C., +and the Graeco-Roman period, 146 B.C. to A.D. 529. + +For details regarding particular works or the lives of their authors +reference should be made to the separate articles devoted to the +principal Greek writers. The object of the following pages is to sketch +the literary development as a whole, to show how its successive periods +were related to each other, and to mark the dominant characteristics of +each. + +(A) _The Early Literature._--A process of natural growth may be traced +through all the best work of the Greek genius. The Greeks were not +literary imitators of foreign models; the forms of poetry and prose in +which they attained to such unequalled excellence were first developed +by themselves. Their literature had its roots in their political and +social life; it is the spontaneous expression of that life in youth, +maturity and decay; and the order in which its several fruits are +produced is not the result of accident or caprice. Further, the old +Greek literature has a striking completeness, due to the fact that each +great branch of the Hellenic race bore a characteristic part in its +development. Ionians, Aeolians, Dorians, in turn contributed their +share. Each dialect corresponded to a certain aspect of Hellenic life +and character. Each found its appropriate work. + + + The dialects. + +The Ionians on the coast of Asia Minor--a lively and genial people, +delighting in adventure, and keenly sensitive to everything bright and +joyous--created artistic epic poetry out of the lays in which Aeolic +minstrels sang of the old Achaean wars. And among the Ionians arose +elegiac poetry, the first variation on the epic type. These found a +fitting instrument in the harmonious Ionic dialect, the flexible +utterance of a quick and versatile intelligence. The Aeolians of Lesbos +next created the lyric of personal passion, in which the traits of their +race--its chivalrous pride, its bold but sensuous fancy--found a fitting +voice in the fiery strength and tenderness of Aeolic speech. The Dorians +of the Peloponnesus, Sicily and Magna Graecia then perfected the choral +lyric for festivals and religious worship; and here again an earnest +faith, a strong pride in Dorian usage and renown had an apt interpreter +in the massive and sonorous Doric. Finally, the Attic branch of the +Ionian stock produced the drama, blending elements of all the other +kinds, and developed an artistic literary prose in history, oratory and +philosophy. It is in the Attic literature that the Greek mind receives +its most complete interpretation. + +A natural affinity was felt to exist between each dialect and that +species of composition for which it had been specially used. Hence the +dialect of the Ionian epic poets would be adopted with more or less +thoroughness even by epic or elegiac poets who were not Ionians. Thus +the Aeolian Hesiod uses it in epos, the Dorian Theognis in elegy, though +not without alloy. Similarly, the Dorian Theocritus wrote love-songs in +Aeolic. All the faculties and tones of the language were thus gradually +brought out by the co-operation of the dialects. Old Greek literature +has an essential unity--the unity of a living organism; and this unity +comprehends a number of distinct types, each of which is complete in its +own kind. + + + Pre-Homeric poetry. + + Songs of the seasons. + + Hymns. + +Extant Greek literature begins with the Homeric poems. These are works +of art which imply a long period of antecedent poetical cultivation. Of +the pre-Homeric poetry we have no remains, and very little knowledge. +Such glimpses as we get of it connect it with two different stages in +the religion of the prehistoric Hellenes. The first of these stages is +that in which the agencies or forms of external nature were personified +indeed, yet with the consciousness that the personal names were only +symbols. Some very ancient Greek songs of which mention is made may have +belonged to this stage--as the songs of Linus, Ialemus and Hylas. Linus, +the fair youth killed by dogs, seems to be the spring passing away +before Sirius. Such songs have been aptly called "songs of the seasons." +The second stage is that in which the Hellenes have now definitively +personified the powers which they worship. Apollo, Demeter, Dionysus, +Cybele, have now become to them beings with clearly conceived +attributes. To this second stage belong the hymns connected with the +names of the legendary bards, such as Orpheus, Musaeus, Eumolpus, who +are themselves associated with the worship of the Pierian Muses and the +Attic ritual of Demeter. The seats of this early sacred poetry are not +only "Thracian"--i.e. on the borders of northern Greece--but also +"Phrygian" and "Cretan." It belongs, that is, presumably to an age when +the ancestors of the Hellenes had left the Indo-European home in central +Asia, but had not yet taken full possession of the lands which were +afterwards Hellenic. Some of their tribes were still in Asia; others +were settling in the islands of the Aegean; others were passing through +the lands on its northern seaboard. If there was a period when the +Greeks possessed no poetry but hymns forming part of a religious ritual, +it may be conjectured that it was not of long duration. Already in the +_Iliad_ a secular character belongs to the marriage hymn and to the +dirge for the dead, which in ancient India were chanted by the priest. +The bent of the Greeks was to claim poetry and music as public joys; +they would not long have suffered them to remain sacerdotal mysteries. +And among the earliest themes on which the lay artist in poetry was +employed were probably war-ballads, sung by minstrels in the houses of +the chiefs whose ancestors they celebrated. + + + Epos. + +Such war-ballads were the materials from which the earliest epic poetry +of Greece was constructed. By an "epic" poem the Greeks meant a +narrative of heroic action in hexameter verse. The term [Greek: epe] +meant at first simply "verses"; it acquired its special meaning only +when [Greek: mele], lyric songs set to music, came to be distinguished +from [Greek: epe] verses not set to music, but merely recited. Epic +poetry is the only kind of extant Greek poetry which is older than about +700 B.C. The early epos of Greece is represented by the _Iliad_ and the +_Odyssey_, Hesiod and the Homeric hymns; also by some fragments of the +"Cyclic" poets. + + + The "Iliad" and the "Odyssey." + +After the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus, the Aeolian emigrants who +settled in the north-west of Asia Minor brought with them the warlike +legends of their chiefs, the Achaean princes of old. These legends lived +in the ballads of the Aeolic minstrels, and from them passed southward +into Ionia, where the Ionian poets gradually shaped them into higher +artistic forms. Among the seven places which claimed to be the +birthplace of Homer, that which has the best title is Smyrna. Homer +himself is called "son of Meles"--the stream which flowed through old +Smyrna, on the border between Aeolia and Ionia. The tradition is +significant in regard to the origin and character of the _Iliad_, for in +the _Iliad_ we have Achaean ballads worked up by Ionian art. A +preponderance of evidence is in favour of the view that the _Odyssey_ +also, at least in its earliest form, was composed on the Ionian coast of +Asia Minor. According to the Spartan account, Lycurgus was the first to +bring to Greece a complete copy of the Homeric poems, which he had +obtained from the Creophylidae, a clan or gild of poets in Samos. A +better authenticated tradition connects Athens with early attempts to +preserve the chief poetical treasure of the nation. Peisistratus is said +to have charged some learned men with the task of collecting all "the +poems of Homer"; but it is difficult to decide how much was comprehended +under this last phrase, or whether the province of the commission went +beyond the mere task of collecting. Nor can it be determined what +exactly it was that Solon and Hipparchus respectively did for the +Homeric poems. Solon, it has been thought, enacted that the poems should +be recited from an authorized text ([Greek: ex hypoboles]); Hipparchus, +that they should be recited in a regular order ([Greek: ex +hypolepseos]). At any rate, we know that in the 6th century B.C. a +recitation of the poems of Homer was one of the established competitions +at the Panathenaea, held once in four years. The reciter was called a +_rhapsodist_--properly one who weaves a long, smoothly-flowing chant, +then an epic poet who chants his own or another's poem. The rhapsodist +did not, like the early minstrel, use the accompaniment of the harp; he +gave the verses in a flowing recitative, bearing in his hand a branch of +laurel, the symbol of Apollo's inspiration. In the 5th century B.C. we +find that various Greek cities had their own editions ([Greek: hai +politikai, kata poleis] or [Greek: ek poleon ekdoseis]) of the poems, +for recitation at their festivals. Among these were the editions of +Massilia, of Chios and of Argolis. There were also editions bearing the +name of the individual editor ([Greek: hai kat' andra])--the best known +being that which Aristotle prepared for Alexander. The recension of the +poems by Aristarchus (156 B.C.) became the standard one, and is probably +that on which the existing text is based. The oldest Homeric MS. extant, +Venetus A of the _Iliad_, is of the 10th century; the first printed +edition of Homer was that edited by the Byzantine Demetrius Chalcondyles +(Florence, 1488). + + + The Homeric question. + +The ancient Greeks were almost unanimous in believing the _Iliad_ and +the _Odyssey_ to be the work of one man, Homer, to whom they also +ascribed some extant hymns, and probably much more besides. Aristotle +and Aristarchus seem to have put Homer's date about 1044 B.C., Herodotus +about 850 B.C. It is not till about 170 B.C. that the grammarians +Hellanicus and Xenon put forward the view that Homer was the author of +the _Iliad_, but not of the _Odyssey_. Those who followed them in +assigning different authors to the two poems were called the Separators +(_Chorizontes_). Aristarchus combated "the paradox of Xenon," and it +does not seem to have had much acceptance in antiquity. Giovanni +Battista Vico, a Neapolitan (1668-1744), seems to have been the first +modern to suggest the composite authorship and oral tradition of the +Homeric poems; but this was a pure conjecture in support of his theory +that the names of ancient lawgivers and poets are often mere symbols. F. +A. Wolf, in the _Prolegomena_ to his edition (1795), was the founder of +a scientific scepticism. The _Iliad_, he said (for he recognized the +comparative unity and consistency of the _Odyssey_), was pieced together +from many small unwritten poems by various hands, and was first +committed to writing in the time of Peisistratus. This view was in +harmony with the tone of German criticism at the time; it was welcomed +as a new testimony to the superiority of popular poetry, springing from +fresh natural sources, to elaborate works of art; and it at once found +enthusiastic adherents. For the course of Homeric controversy since Wolf +the reader is referred to the article HOMER. + + + Cyclic poems. + +The Ionian school of epos produced a number of poems founded on the +legends of the Trojan war, and intended as introductions or +continuations to the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_. The grammarian Proclus +(A.D. 140) has preserved the names and subjects of some of these; but +the fragments are very scanty. The _Nostoi_ or _Homeward Voyages_, by +Agias (or Hagias) of Troezen, filled up the gap of ten years between +the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_; the _Lay of Telegonus_, by Eugammon of +Cyrene, continued the story of the Odyssey to the death of Odysseus by +the hand of Telegonus, the son whom Circe bore to him. Similarly the +_Cyprian Lays_ by Stasinus of Cyprus, ascribed by others to Hegesias (or +Hegesinus) of Salamis or Halicarnassus, was introductory to the _Iliad_; +the _Aethiopis_ and the _Sack of Troy_, by Arctinus of Miletus, and the +_Little Iliad_, by Lesches of Mytilene, were supplementary to it. These +and many other names of lost epics--some taken also from the Theban +myths (_Thebais_, _Epigoni_, _Oedipodea_)--serve to show how prolific +was that epic school of which only two great examples remain. The name +of _epic cycle_ was properly applied to a prose compilation of abstracts +from these epics, pieced together in the order of the events. The +compilers were called "cyclic" writers; and the term has now been +transferred to the epic poets whom they used.[1] + + + Hesiodic epos. + +The epic poetry of Ionia celebrated the great deeds of heroes in the old +wars. But in Greece proper there arose another school of epos, which +busied itself with religious lore and ethical precepts, especially in +relation to the rural life of Boeotia. This school is represented by the +name of Hesiod. The legend spoke of him as vanquishing Homer in a +poetical contest of Chalcis in Euboea; and it expresses the fact that, +to the old Greek mind, these two names stood for two contrasted epic +types. Nothing is certainly known of his date, except that it must have +been subsequent to the maturity of Ionian epos. He is conjecturally +placed about 850-800 B.C.; but some would refer him to the early part of +the 7th century B.C. His home was at Ascra, a village in a valley under +Helicon, whither his father had migrated from Cyme in Aeolis on the +coast of Asia Minor. In Hesiod's _Works and Days_ we have the earliest +example of a didactic poem. The seasons and the labours of the Boeotian +farmer's year are followed by a list of the days which are lucky or +unlucky for work. The _Theogony_, or "Origin of the Gods," describes +first how the visible order of nature arose out of chaos; next, how the +gods were born. Though it never possessed the character of a sacred +book, it remained a standard authority on the genealogies of the gods. +So far as a corrupt and confused text warrants a judgment, the poet was +piecing together--not always intelligently--the fragments of a very old +cosmogonic system, using for this purpose both the hymns preserved in +the temples and the myths which lived in folklore. The epic lay in 480 +lines called the _Shield of Heracles_--partly imitated from the 18th +book of the _Iliad_--is the work of an author or authors later than +Hesiod. In the Hesiodic poetry, as represented by the _Works and Days_ +and the _Theogony_, we see the influence of the temple at Delphi. Hesiod +recognizes the existence of [Greek: daimones]--spirits of the departed +who haunt the earth as the invisible guardians of justice; and he +connects the office of the poet with that of the prophet. The poet is +one whom the gods have authorized to impress doctrine and practical +duties on men. A religious purpose was essentially characteristic of the +Hesiodic school. Its poets treated the old legends as relics of a sacred +history, and not merely, in the Ionian manner, as subjects of idealizing +art. Such titles as the _Maxims of Cheiron_ and the _Lay of Melampus_, +the seer--lost poems of the Hesiodic school--illustrate its ethical and +its mystic tendencies. + + + The Homeric hymns. + +The _Homeric Hymns_ are a collection of pieces, some of them very short, +in hexameter verse. Their traditional title is--_Hymns_ or _Preludes of +Homer and the Homeridae_. The second of the alternative designations is +the true one. The pieces are not "hymns" used in formal worship, but +"preludes" or prefatory addresses ([Greek: prooimia]) with which the +rhapsodists ushered in their recitations of epic poetry. The "prelude" +might be addressed to the presiding god of the festival, or to any local +deity whom the reciter wished to honour. The pieces (of which there are +33) range in date perhaps from 750 to 500 B.C. (though some authorities +assign dates as late as the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D.; see ed. by Sikes +and Allen, e.g. p. 228), and it is probable that the collection was +formed in Attica, for the use of rhapsodists. The style is that of the +Ionian or Homeric epos; but there are also several traces of the +Hesiodic or Boeotian school. The principal "hymns" are (1) to Apollo +(generally treated as two or more hymns combined in one); (2) to Hermes; +(3) to Aphrodite; and (4) to Demeter. The hymn to Apollo, quoted by +Thucydides (iii. 104) as Homer's, is of peculiar interest on account of +the lines describing the Ionian festival at Delos. Two celebrated pieces +of a sportive kind passed under Homer's name. The _Margites_--a comic +poem on one "who knew many things but knew them all badly"--is regarded +by Aristotle as the earliest germ of comedy, and was possibly as old as +700 B.C. Only a few lines remain. The _Batracho(myo)machia_, or _Battle +of the Frogs and Mice_ probably belongs to the decline of Greek +literature, perhaps to the 2nd century B.C.[2] About 300 verses of it +are extant. + + + Transition from epos to elegy. + +In the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ the personal opinions or sympathies of +the poet may sometimes be conjectured, but they are not declared or even +hinted. Hesiod, indeed, sometimes gives us a glimpse of his own troubles +or views. Yet Hesiod is, on the whole, essentially a prophet. The +message which he delivers is not from himself; the truths which he +imparts have not been discovered by his own search. He is the mouthpiece +of the Delphian Apollo. Personal opinion and feeling may tinge his +utterance, but they do not determine its general complexion. The egotism +is a single thread; it is not the basis of the texture. Epic poetry was +in Greece the foundation of all other poetry; for many centuries no +other kind was generally cultivated, no other could speak to the whole +people. Politically, the age was monarchical or aristocratic; +intellectually, it was too simple for the analysis of thought or +emotion. Kings and princes loved to hear of the great deeds of their +ancestors; common men loved to hear of them too, for they had no other +interest. The mind of Greece found no subject of contemplation so +attractive as the warlike past of the race, or so useful as that lore +which experience and tradition had bequeathed. But in the course of the +8th century B.C. the rule of hereditary princes began to disappear. +Monarchy gave place to oligarchy, and this--often after the intermediate +phase of a tyrannis--to democracy. Such a change was necessarily +favourable to the growth of reflection. The private citizen is no longer +a mere cipher, the Homeric [Greek: tis], a unit in the dim multitude of +the king-ruled folk; he gains more power of independent action, his +mental horizon is widened, his life becomes fuller and more interesting. +He begins to feel the need of expressing the thoughts and feelings that +are stirred in him. But as yet a prose literature does not exist; the +new thoughts, like the old heroic stories, must still be told in verse. +The forms of verse created by this need were the Elegiac and the Iambic. + + + Elegy. + +The elegiac metre is, in form, a simple variation on the epic metre, +obtained by docking the second of two hexameters so as to make it a +verse of five feet or measures. But the poetical capabilities of the +elegiac couplet are of a wholly different kind from those of heroic +verse. [Greek: elegos] seems to be the Greek form of a name given by the +Carians and Lydians to a lament for the dead. This was accompanied by +the soft music of the Lydian flute, which continued to be associated +with Greek elegy. The non-Hellenic origin of elegy is indicated by this +very fact. The flute was to the Greeks an Asiatic instrument--string +instruments were those which they made their own--and it would hardly +have been wedded by them to a species of poetry which had arisen among +themselves. The early elegiac poetry of Greece was by no means confined +to mourning for the dead. War, love, politics, proverbial philosophy, +were in turn its themes; it dealt, in fact, with the chief interest of +the poet and his friends, whatever that might be at the time. It is the +direct expression of the poet's own thoughts, addressed to a +sympathizing society. This is its first characteristic. The second is +that, even when most pathetic or most spirited, it still preserves, on +the whole, the tone of conversation or of narrative. Greek elegy stops +short of lyric passion. English elegy, whether funereal as in Dryden and +Pope, or reflective as in Gray, is usually true to the same normal type. +Roman elegy is not equally true to it, but sometimes tends to trench on +the lyric province. For Roman elegy is mainly amatory or sentimental; +and its masters imitated, as a rule, not the early Greek elegists, not +Tyrtaeus or Theognis, but the later Alexandrian elegists, such as +Callimachus or Philetas. Catullus introduced the metre to Latin +literature, and used it with more fidelity than his followers to its +genuine Greek inspiration. + + + Iambic verse. + +Elegy, as we have seen, was the first slight deviation from epos. But +almost at the same time another species arose which had nothing in +common with epos, either in form or in spirit. This was the iambic. The +word [Greek: iambos], _iambus_ ([Greek: iaptein], to dart or shoot) was +used in reference to the licensed raillery at the festivals of Demeter; +it was the maiden Iambe, the myth said, who drew the first smile from +the mourning goddess. The iambic metre was at first used for satire; and +it was in this strain that it was chiefly employed by its earliest +master of note, Archilochus of Paros (670 B.C.). But it was adapted to +the expression generally of any pointed thought. Thus it was suitable to +fables. Elegiac and iambic poetry both belong to the borderland between +epic and lyric. While, however, elegy stands nearer to epos, iambic +stands nearer to the lyric. Iambic poetry can express the personal +feeling of the poet with greater intensity than elegy does; on the other +hand, it has not the lyric flexibility, self-abandonment or glow. As we +see in the case of Solon, iambic verse could serve for the expression of +that deeper thought, that more inward self-communing, for which the +elegiac form would have been inappropriate. + +But these two forms of poetry, both Ionian, the elegiac and the iambic, +belong essentially to the same stage of the literature. They stand +between the Ionian epos and the lyric poetry of the Aeolians and +Dorians. The earliest of the Greek elegists, Callinus and Tyrtaeus, use +elegy to rouse a warlike spirit in sinking hearts. Archilochus too wrote +warlike elegy, but used it also in other strains, as in lament for the +dead. The elegy of Mimnermus of Smyrna or Colophon is the plaintive +farewell of an ease-loving Ionian to the days of Ionian freedom. In +Solon elegy takes a higher range; it becomes political and ethical.[3] +Theognis represents the maturer union of politics with a proverbial +philosophy. Another gnomic poet was Phocylides of Miletus; an admonitory +poem extant under his name is probably the work of an Alexandrine Jewish +Christian. Xenophanes gives a philosophic strain to elegy. With +Simonides of Ceos it reverts, in an exquisite form, to its earliest +destination, and becomes the vehicle of epitaph on those who fell in the +Persian Wars. Iambic verse was used by Simonides (or Semonides) of +Amorgus, as by Archilochus, for satire--but satire directed against +classes rather than persons. Solon's iambics so far preserve the old +associations of the metre that they represent the polemical or +controversial side of his political poetry. Hipponax of Ephesus was +another iambic satirist--using the [Greek: skazon] ("limping") or +choliambic verse, produced by substituting a spondee for an iambus in +the last place. But it was not until the rise of the Attic drama that +the full capabilities of iambic verse were seen. + + + Lyric poetry. + +The lyric poetry of early Greece may be regarded as the final form of +that effort at self-expression which in the elegiac and iambic is still +incomplete. The lyric expression is deeper and more impassioned. Its +intimate union with music and with the rhythmical movement of the dance +gives to it more of an ideal character. At the same time the continuity +of the music permits pauses to the voice--pauses necessary as reliefs +after a climax. Before lyric poetry could be effective, it was necessary +that some progress should have been made in the art of music. The +instrument used by the Greeks to accompany the voice was the +four-stringed lyre, and the first great epoch in Greek music was when +Terpander of Lesbos (660 B.C.), by adding three strings, gave the lyre +the compass of the octave. Further improvements are ascribed to Olympus +and Thaletas. By 500 B.C. Greek music had probably acquired all the +powers of expression which the lyric poet could demand. The period of +Greek lyric poetry may be roughly defined as from 670 to 440 B.C. Two +different parts in its development were taken by the Aeolians and the +Dorians. + + + Aeolian school. + +The lyric poetry of the Aeolians--especially of Lesbos--was essentially +the utterance of personal feeling, and was usually intended for a single +voice, not for a chorus. Lesbos, in the 7th century B.C., had attained +some naval and commercial importance. But the strife of oligarchy and +democracy was active; the Lesbian nobles were often driven by revolution +to exchange their luxurious home-life for the hardships of exile. It is +such a life of contrasts and excitements, working on a sensuous and +fiery temperament, that is reflected in the fragments of Alcaeus. In +these glimpses of war and love, of anxiety for the storm-tossed state +and of careless festivity, there is much of the cavalier spirit; if +Archilochus is in certain aspects a Greek Byron, Alcaeus might be +compared to Lovelace. The other great representative of the Aeolian +lyric is Sappho, the only woman of Greek race who is known to have +possessed poetical genius of the first order. Intensity and melody are +the characteristics of the fragments that remain to us.[4] Probably no +poet ever surpassed Sappho as an interpreter of passion in exquisitely +subtle harmonies of form and sound. Anacreon of Teos, in Ionia, may be +classed with the Aeolian lyrists in so far as the matter and form of his +work resembled theirs, though the dialect in which he wrote was mainly +the Ionian. A few fragments remain from his hymns to the gods, from +love-poems and festive songs. The collection of sixty short pieces which +passes current under his name date only from the 10th century. The short +poems which it comprises are of various age and authorship, probably +ranging in date from c. 200 B.C. to A.D. 400 or 500. They have not the +pure style, the flexible grace, or the sweetness of the classical +fragments; but the verses, though somewhat mechanical, are often pretty. + + + Dorian school. + +The Dorian lyric poetry, in contrast with the Aeolian, had more of a +public than of a personal character, and was for the most part choral. +Hymns or choruses for the public worship of the gods, and odes to be +sung at festivals on occasions of public interest, were its +characteristic forms. Its central inspiration was the pride of the +Dorians in the Dorian past, in their traditions of worship, government +and social usage. The history of the Dorian lyric poetry does not +present us with vivid expressions of personal character, like those of +Alcaeus and Sappho, but rather with a series of artists whose names are +associated with improvements of form. Thus Alcman (the Doric form of +Alcmaeon; 660 B.C.) is said to have introduced the balanced movement of +strophe and antistrophe. Stesichorus, of Himera in Sicily, added the +epode, sung by the chorus while stationary after these movements; Arion +of Methymna in Lesbos gave a finished form to the choral hymn +("dithyramb") in honour of Dionysus, and organized the "cyclic" or +circular chorus which sang it at the altar. Ibycus of Rhegium (c. 540) +wrote choral lyrics after Stesichorus and glowing love-songs in the +Aeolic style. + + + Simonides and Pindar. + +The culmination of the lyric poetry is marked by two great names, +Simonides and Pindar. Simonides (556-468) was an Ionian of the island of +Ceos, but his lyrics belonged by form to the choral Dorian school. Many +of his subjects were taken from the events of the Persian wars: his +epitaphs on those who fell at Thermopylae and Salamis were celebrated. +In him the lyric art of the Dorians is interpreted by Ionian genius, and +Athens--where part of his life was passed--is the point at which they +meet. Simonides is the first Greek lyrist whose significance is not +merely Aeolian or Dorian but Panhellenic. The same character belongs +even more completely to his younger contemporary. Pindar (518-c. 443) +was born in Boeotia of a Dorian stock; thus, as Ionian and Dorian +elements meet in Simonides, so Dorian and Aeolian elements meet in +Pindar. Simonides was perhaps the most tender and most exquisite of the +lyric poets. Pindar was the boldest, the most fervid and the most +sublime. His extant fragments[5] represent almost every branch of the +lyric art. But he is known to us mainly by forty-four _Epinicia_, or +odes of victory, for the Olympian, Pythian, Nemean and Isthmian +festivals. The general characteristic of the treatment is that the +particular victory is made the occasion of introducing heroic legends +connected with the family or city of the victor, and of inculcating the +moral lessons which they teach. No Greek lyric poetry can be completely +appreciated apart from the music, now lost, to which it was set. +Pindar's odes were, further, essentially occasional poems; they abound +in allusions of which the effect is partly or wholly lost on us; and the +glories which they celebrate belong to a life which we can but +imperfectly realize. Of all the great Greek poets, Pindar is perhaps the +one to whom it is hardest for us to do justice; yet we can at least +recognize his splendour of imagination, his strong rapidity and his +soaring flight. + +Bacchylides of Ceos (c. 504-430), the youngest of the three great lyric +poets and nephew of Simonides, was known only by scanty fragments until +the discovery of nineteen poems on an Egyptian papyrus in 1896. They +consist of thirteen (or fourteen) epinicia, two of which celebrate the +same victories as two odes of Pindar. The papyrus also contains six odes +for the festivals of gods or heroes. The poems contain valuable +information on the court life of the time and legendary history. +Bacchylides, the little "Cean nightingale," is inferior to his great +rival Pindar, "the Swan of Dirce," in originality and splendour of +language, but he writes simply and elegantly, while his excellent +[Greek: gnomai] attracted readers of a philosophical turn of mind, +amongst them the emperor Julian. + +Similarly, the scanty fragments of Timotheus of Miletus (d. 357), +musical composer and poet, and inventor of the eleven-stringed lyre, +were increased by the discovery in 1902 of some 250 lines of his "nome" +the _Persae_, written after the manner of Terpander. The beginning is +lost; the middle describes the battle of Salamis; the end is of a +personal nature. The papyrus is the oldest Greek MS. and belongs to the +age of Alexander the Great. The language is frequently very obscure, and +the whole is a specimen of lyric poetry in its decline. + +(B) _The Attic Literature._--The Ionians of Asia Minor, the Aeolians and +the Dorians had now performed their special parts in the development of +Greek literature. Epic poetry had interpreted the heroic legends of +warlike deeds done by Zeus-nourished kings and chiefs. Then, as the +individual life became more and more elegiac and iambic poetry had +become the social expression of that life in all its varied interests +and feelings. Lastly, lyric poetry had arisen to satisfy a twofold +need--to be the more intense utterance of personal emotion, or to give +choral voice, at stirring moments, to the faith or fame, the triumph or +the sorrow, of a city or a race. A new form of poetry was now to be +created, with elements borrowed from all the rest. And this was to be +achieved by the people of Attica, in whose character and language the +distinctive traits of an Ionian descent were tempered with some of the +best qualities of the Dorian stock. + + + Origin of drama. + + Tragedy. + +The drama (q.v.) arose from the festivals of Dionysus, the god of wine, +which were held at intervals from the beginning of winter to the +beginning of spring. A troop of rustic worshippers would gather around +the altar of the god, and sing a hymn in his honour, telling of his +victories or sufferings in his progress over the earth. "Tragedy" meant +"the goat-song," a goat ([Greek: tragos]) being sacrificed to Dionysus +before the hymn was sung. "Comedy," "the village-song," is the same hymn +regarded as an occasion for rustic jest. Then the leader of the chorus +would assume the part of a messenger from Dionysus, or even that of the +god himself, and recite an adventure to the worshippers, who made choral +response. The next step was to arrange a dialogue between the leader +([Greek: koryphaios], _coryphaeus_) and one chosen member of the chorus, +hence called "the answerer" ([Greek: hypokrites], _hypocrites_, +afterwards the ordinary word for "actor"). This last improvement is +ascribed to the Attic Thespis (about 536 B.C.). The elements of drama +were now ready. The choral hymn to Dionysus (the "dithyramb") had +received an artistic form from the Dorians; dialogue, though only +between the leader of the chorus and a single actor, had been introduced +in Attica. Phrynichus, an Athenian, celebrated in this manner some +events of the Persian Wars; but in his "drama" there was still only one +actor. Choerilus of Athens and Pratinas of Phlius, who belonged to the +same period, developed the satyric drama; Pratinas also wrote tragedies, +dithyrambs, and _hyporchemata_ (lively choral odes chiefly in honour of +Apollo). + + + Aeschylus. + + Sophocles. + + Euripides. + +Aeschylus (born 525 B.C.) became the real founder of tragedy by +introducing a second actor, and thus rendering the dialogue independent +of the chorus. At the same time the choral song--hitherto the principal +part of the performance--became subordinate to the dialogue; and drama +was mature. Aeschylus is also said to have made various improvements of +detail in costume and the like; and it was early in his career that the +theatre of Dionysus under the acropolis was commenced--the first +permanent home of Greek drama, in place of the temporary wooden +platforms which had hitherto been used. The system of the "trilogy" and +the "tetralogy" is further ascribed to Aeschylus,--the "trilogy" being +properly a series of three tragedies connected in subject, such as the +_Agamemnon_, _Choephori_, _Eumenides_, which together form the +_Oresteia_, or Story of Orestes. The "tetralogy" is such a triad with a +"satyric drama" added--that is, a drama in which "satyrs," the grotesque +woodland beings who attended on Dionysus, formed the chorus, as in the +earlier dithyramb from which drama sprang. The _Cyclops_ of Euripides is +the only extant specimen of a satyric drama. In the seven tragedies +which alone remain of the seventy which Aeschylus is said to have +composed, the forms of kings and heroes have a grandeur which is truly +Homeric; there is a spirit of Panhellenic patriotism such as the Persian +Wars in which he fought might well quicken in a soldier-poet; and, +pervading all, there is a strain of speculative thought which seeks to +reconcile the apparent conflicts between the gods of heaven and of the +underworld by the doctrine that both alike, constrained by necessity, +are working out the law of righteousness. Sophocles, who was born thirty +years after Aeschylus (495 B.C.), is the most perfect artist of the +ancient drama. No one before or after him gave to Greek tragedy so high +a degree of ideal beauty, or appreciated so finely the possibilities and +the limitations of its sphere. He excels especially in drawing +character; his _Antigone_, his _Ajax_, his _Oedipus_--indeed, all the +chief persons of his dramas--are typical studies in the great primary +emotions of human nature. He gave a freer scope to tragic dialogue by +adding a third actor; and in one of his later plays, the _Oedipus at +Colonus_, a fourth actor is required. From the time when he won the +tragic prize against Aeschylus in 468 to his death in 405 B.C. he was +the favourite dramatist of Athens; and for us he is not only a great +dramatist, but also the most spiritual representative of the age of +Pericles. The distinctive interest of Euripides is of another kind. He +was only fifteen years younger than Sophocles; but when he entered on +his poetical career, the old inspirations of tragedy were already +failing. Euripides marks a period of transition in the tragic art, and +is, in fact, the mediator between the classical and the romantic drama. +The myths and traditions with which the elder dramatists had dealt no +longer commanded an unquestioning faith. Euripides himself was imbued +with the new intellectual scepticism of the day; and the speculative +views which were conflicting in his own mind are reflected in his plays. +He had much picturesque and pathetic power; he was a master of +expression; and he shows ingenuity in devising fresh resources for +tragedy--especially in his management of the choral songs. Aeschylus is +Panhellenic, Sophocles is Athenian, Euripides is cosmopolitan. He stands +nearer to the modern world than either of his predecessors; and though +with him Attic tragedy loses its highest beauty, it acquires new +elements of familiar human interest. + +In Attica, as in England, a period of rather less than fifty years +sufficed for the complete development of the tragic art. The two +distinctive characteristics of Athenian drama are its originality and +its abundance. The Greeks of Attica were not the only inventors of +drama, but they were the first people who made drama a complete work of +art. And the great tragic poets of Attica were remarkably prolific. +Aeschylus was the reputed author of 70 tragedies, Sophocles of 113, +Euripides of 92; and there were others whose productiveness was equally +great. + + + Comedy. + + Aristophanes. + +Comedy represented the lighter side, as tragedy the graver side, of the +Dionysiac worship; it was the joy of spring following the gloom of +winter. The process of growth was nearly the same as in tragedy; but the +Dorians, not the Ionians of Attica, were the first who added dialogue to +the comic chorus. Susarion, a Dorian of Megara, exhibited, about 580 +B.C., pieces of the kind known as "Megarian farces." Epicharmus of Cos +(who settled at Syracuse) gave literary form to the Doric farce, and +treated in burlesque style the stories of gods and heroes, and subjects +taken from everyday life. His Syracusan contemporary Sophron (c. 450) +was a famous writer of mimes, chiefly scenes from low-class life. The +most artistic form of comedy seems, however, to have been developed in +Attica. The greatest names before Aristophanes are those of Cratinus and +Eupolis; but from about 470 B.C. there seems to have been a continuous +succession of comic dramatists, amongst them Plato Comicus, the author +of 28 comedies, political satires and parodies after the style of the +Middle Comedy. Aristophanes came forward as a comic poet in 427 B.C., +and retained his popularity for about forty years. He presents a perhaps +unique union of bold fancy, exquisite humour, critical acumen and +lyrical power. His eleven extant comedies may be divided into three +groups, according as the licence of political satire becomes more and +more restricted. In the _Acharnians_, _Knights_, _Clouds_, _Wasps_ and +_Peace_ (425-421) the poet uses unrestrained freedom. In the _Birds_, +_Lysistrata_, _Thesmophoriazusae_ and _Frogs_ (414-405) a greater +reserve may be perceived. Lastly, in the _Ecclesiazusae_ and the +_Plutus_ (392-388) personal satire is almost wholly avoided. The same +general tendency continued. The so-called "Middle Comedy" (390-320) +represents the transition from the Old Comedy, or political satire, to +satire of a literary or social nature; its chief writers were Antiphanes +of Athens and Alexis of Thurii. The "New Comedy" (320-250) resembled the +modern "comedy of manners." + +Its chief representative was Menander (342-291), the author of 105 +comedies. Fragments have been discovered of seven of these, of +sufficient length to give an idea of their dramatic action. His plays +were produced on the stage as late as the time of Plutarch, and his +[Greek: gnomai], distinguished by worldly wisdom, were issued in the +form of anthologies, which enjoyed great popularity. Other prominent +writers of this class were Diphilus, Philemon, Posidippus and +Apollodorus of Carystus. About 330 B.C. Rhinthon of Tarentum revived the +old Doric farce in his _Hilarotragoediae_ or travesties of tragic +stories. These successive periods cannot be sharply or precisely marked +off. The change which gradually passed over the comic drama was simply +the reflection of the change which passed over the political and social +life of Athens. The Old Comedy, as we see it in the earlier plays of +Aristophanes, was probably the most powerful engine of public criticism +that has ever existed in any community. Unsparing personality was its +essence. The comic poet used this recognized right on an occasion at +once festive and sacred, in a society where every man of any note was +known by name and sight to the rest. The same thousands who heard a +policy or a character denounced or lauded in the theatre might be +required to pass sentence on it in the popular assembly or in the courts +of law. + + + Literary prose. + +The development of Greek poetry had been completed before a prose +literature had begun to exist. The earliest name in extant Greek prose +literature is that of Herodotus; and, when he wrote, the Attic drama had +already passed its prime. There had been, indeed, writers of prose +before Herodotus; but there had not been, in the proper sense of the +term, a prose literature. The causes of this comparatively late origin +of Greek literary prose are independent of the question as to the time +at which the art of writing began to be generally used for literary +purposes. Epic poetry exercised for a very long period a sovereign spell +over the Greek mind. In it was deposited all that the race possessed of +history, theology, philosophy, oratory. Even after an age of reflection +had begun, elegiac poetry, the first offshoot of epic, was, with iambic +verse, the vehicle of much which among other races would have been +committed to prose. The basis of Greek culture was essentially poetical. +A political cause worked in the same direction. In the Eastern +monarchies the king was the centre of all, and the royal records +afforded the elements of history from a remote date. The Greek nation +was broken up into small states, each busied with its own affairs and +its own men. It was the collision between the Greek and the barbarian +world which first provided a national subject for a Greek historian. The +work of Herodotus, in its relation to Greek prose, is so far analogous +to the _Iliad_ in its relation to Greek poetry, that it is the earliest +work of art, and that it bears a Panhellenic stamp. + + + Early prose writers. + +The sense and the degree in which Herodotus was original may be inferred +from what is known of earlier prose-writers. For about a century before +Herodotus there had been a series of writers in philosophy, mythology, +geography and history. The earliest, or among the earliest, of the +philosophical writers were Pherecydes of Syros (550 B.C.) and the Ionian +Anaximenes and Anaximander. It is doubtful whether Cadmus of Miletus, +supposed to have been the first prose writer, was an historical +personage. The Ionian writers, especially called [Greek: logographoi], +"narrators in prose" (as distinguished from [Greek: epopoioi], makers of +verse), were those who compiled the myths, especially in genealogies, or +who described foreign countries, their physical features, usages and +traditions. Hecataeus of Miletus (500 B.C.) is the best-known +representative of the _logographi_ in both these branches. Hellanicus of +Mytilene (450 B.C.), among whose works was a history of Attica, appears +to have made a nearer approach to the character of a systematic +historian. Other logographi were Charon of Lampsacus; Pherecydes of +Leros, who wrote on the myths of early Attica; Hippys of Rhegium, the +oldest writer on Italy and Sicily; and Acusilaus of Argos in Boeotia, +author of genealogies (see LOGOGRAPHI, and GREECE: _Ancient History_, +"Authorities"). + + + Herodotus. + +Herodotus was born in 484 B.C.; and his history was probably not +completed before the beginning of the Peloponnesian War (431 B.C.). His +subject is the struggle between Greece and Asia, which he deduces from +the legendary rape of the Argive Io by Phoenicians, and traces down to +the final victory of the Greeks over the invading host of Xerxes. His +literary kinship with the historical or geographical writers who had +preceded him is seen mainly in two things. First, though he draws a line +between the mythological and the historical age, he still holds that +myths, as such, are worthy to be reported, and that in certain cases it +is part of his duty to report them. Secondly, he follows the example of +such writers as Hecataeus in describing the natural and social features +of countries. He seeks to combine the part of the geographer or +intelligent traveller with his proper part as historian. But when we +turn from these minor traits to the larger aspects of his work, +Herodotus stands forth as an artist whose conception and whose method +were his own. His history has an epic unity. Various as are the +subordinate parts, the action narrated is one, great and complete; and +the unity is due to this, that Herodotus refers all events of human +history to the principle of divine Nemesis. If Sophocles had told the +story of Oedipus in the _Oedipus Tyrannus_ alone, and had not added to +it the _Oedipus at Colonus_, it would have been comparable to the story +of Xerxes as told by Herodotus. Great as an artist, great too in the +largeness of his historical conception, Herodotus fails chiefly by lack +of insight into political cause and effect, and by a general silence in +regard to the history of political institutions. Both his strength and +his weakness are seen most clearly when he is contrasted with that other +historian who was strictly his contemporary and who yet seems divided +from him by centuries. + + + Thucydides. + +Thucydides was only thirteen years younger than Herodotus; but the +intellectual space between the men is so great that they seem to belong +to different ages. Herodotus is the first artist in historical writing; +Thucydides is the first thinker. Herodotus interweaves two threads of +causation--human agency, represented by the good or bad qualities of +men, and divine agency, represented by the vigilance of the gods on +behalf of justice. Thucydides concentrates his attention on the human +agency (without, however, denying the other), and strives to trace its +exact course. The subject of Thucydides is the Peloponnesian War. In +resolving to write its history, he was moved, he says, by these +considerations. It was probably the greatest movement which had ever +affected Hellas collectively. It was possible for him as a contemporary +to record it with approximate accuracy. And this record was likely to +have a general value, over and above its particular interest as a +record, seeing that the political future was likely to resemble the +political past. This is what Thucydides means when he calls his work "a +possession for ever." The speeches which he ascribes to the persons of +the history are, as regards form, his own essays in rhetoric of the +school to which Antiphon belongs. As regards matter, they are always so +far dramatic that the thoughts and sentiments are such as he conceived +possible for the supposed speaker. Thucydides abstains, as a rule, from +moral comment; but he tells his story as no one could have told it who +did not profoundly feel its tragic force; and his general claim to the +merit of impartiality is not invalidated by the possible +exceptions--difficult to estimate--in the cases of Cleon and Hyperbolus. + + + Xenophon. + +Strong as is the contrast between Herodotus and Thucydides, their works +have yet a character which distinguish both alike from the historical +work of Xenophon in the _Anabasis_ and the _Hellenica_. Herodotus gives +us a vivid drama with the unity of an epic. Thucydides takes a great +chapter of contemporary history and traces the causes which are at work +throughout it, so as to give the whole a scientific unity. Xenophon has +not the grasp either of the dramatist or of the philosopher. His work +does not possess the higher unity either of art or of science. The true +distinction of Xenophon consists in his thorough combination of the +practical with the literary character. He was an accomplished soldier, +who had done and seen much. He was also a good writer, who could make a +story both clear and lively. But the several parts of the story are not +grouped around any central idea, such as a divine Nemesis is for +Herodotus, or such as Thucydides finds in the nature of political man. +The seven books of the _Hellenica_ form a supplement to the history of +Thucydides, beginning in 411 and going down to 362 B.C. The chief blot +on the _Hellenica_ is the author's partiality to Sparta, and in +particular to Agesilaus. Some of the greatest achievements of +Epaminondas and Pelopidas are passed over in silence. On the whole, +Xenophon is perhaps seen at his best in his narrative of the _Retreat of +the Ten Thousand_--a subject which exactly suits him. The _Cyropaedeia_ +is a romance of little historical worth, but with many good passages. +_The Recollections of Socrates_, on the other hand, derive their +principal value from being uniformly matter-of-fact. In his minor pieces +on various subjects Xenophon appears as the earliest essayist. It may be +noted that one of the essays erroneously ascribed to him--that _On the +Athenian Polity_--is probably the oldest specimen in existence of +literary Attic prose. + +His contemporaries Ctesias of Cnidus and Philistus of Syracuse wrote +histories of Persia and Sicily. In the second half of the 4th century a +number of histories were compiled by literary men of little practical +knowledge, who had been trained in the rhetorical schools. Such were +Ephorus of Cyme and Theopompus of Chios, both pupils of Isocrates; and +the writers of _Atthides_ (chronicles of Attic history), the chief of +whom were Androtion and Philochorus. Timaeus of Tauromenium was the +author of a great work on Sicily, and introduced the system of reckoning +by Olympiads. + + + Oratory. + +The steps by which an Attic prose style was developed, and the principal +forms which it assumed, can be traced most clearly in the Attic orators. +Every Athenian citizen who aspired to take part in the affairs of the +city, or even to be qualified for self-defence before a law-court, +required to have some degree of skill in public speaking; and an +Athenian audience looked upon public debate, whether political or +forensic, as a competitive trial of proficiency in a fine art. Hence the +speaker, no less than the writer, was necessarily a student of finished +expression; and oratory had a more direct influence on the general +structure of literary prose than has ever perhaps been the case +elsewhere. A systematic rhetoric took its rise in Sicily, where Corax of +Syracuse (466 B.C.) devised his _Art of Words_ to assist those who were +pleading before the law-courts; and it was brought to Athens by his +disciple Tisias. The teaching of the Sophists, again, directed +attention, though in a superficial and imperfect way, to the elements of +grammar and logic; and Gorgias of Leontini--whose declamation, however +turgid, must have been striking--gave an impulse at Athens to the taste +for elaborate rhetorical brilliancy. + + + The Attic orators. + + Demosthenes. + +Antiphon represents the earliest, and what has been called the grand, +style of Attic prose; its chief characteristics are a grave, dignified +movement, a frequent emphasis on verbal contrasts, and a certain austere +elevation. The interest of Andocides is mainly historical; but he has +graphic power. Lysias, the representative of the "plain style," breaks +through the rigid mannerism of the elder school, and uses the language +of daily life with an ease and grace which, though the result of study, +do not betray their art. He is, in his own way, the canon of an Attic +style; and his speeches, written for others, exhibit also a high degree +of dramatic skill. Isocrates, whose manner may be regarded as +intermediate between that of Antiphon and that of Lysias, wrote for +readers rather than for hearers. The type of literary prose which he +founded is distinguished by ample periods, by studied smoothness and by +the temperate use of rhetorical ornament. From the middle of the 4th +century B.C. the Isocratic style of prose became general in Greek +literature. From the school of Rhodes, in which it became more florid, +it passed to Cicero, and through him it has helped to shape the literary +prose of the modern world. The speeches of Isaeus in will-cases are +interesting,--apart from their bearing on Attic life,--because in them +we see, as Dionysius says, "the seeds and the beginnings" of that +technical mastery in rhetorical argument which Demosthenes carries to +perfection. Isaeus has also, in a degree, some of the qualities of +Lysias. Demosthenes excels all other masters of Greek prose not only in +power but in variety; his political speeches, his orations in public or +private causes, show his consummate and versatile command over all the +resources of the language. In him the development of Attic prose is +completed, and the best elements in each of its earlier phases are +united. The modern world can more easily appreciate Demosthenes as a +great natural orator than as an elaborate artist. But, in order to +apprehend his place in the history of Attic prose, we must remember that +the ancients felt him to be both; and that he was even reproached by +detractors with excessive study of effect. Aeschines is the most +theatrical of the Greek orators; he is vehement, and often brilliant, +but seldom persuasive. Hypereides was, after Demosthenes, probably the +most effective; he had much of the grace of Lysias, but also a wit, a +fire and a pathos which were his own. Portions of six of his speeches, +found in Egypt between 1847 and 1890, are extant. The one oration of +Lycurgus which remains to us is earnest and stately, reminding us both +of Antiphon and of Isocrates. Dinarchus was merely a bad imitator of +Demosthenes. There seems more reason to regret that Demades is not +represented by larger fragments. The decline of Attic oratory may be +dated from Demetrius of Phalerum (318 B.C.), the pupil of Aristotle, and +the first to introduce the custom of making speeches on imaginary +subjects as practised in the rhetorical schools. Cicero names him as the +first who impaired the vigour of the earlier eloquence, "preferring his +own sweetness to the weight and dignity of his predecessors." He forms a +connecting link between Athens and Alexandria, where he found refuge +after his downfall and promoted the foundation of the famous library. + +In later times oratory chiefly flourished in the coast and island +settlements of Asia Minor, especially Rhodes. Here a new, florid style +of oration arose, called the "Asiatic," which owed its origin to +Hegesias of Magnesia (c. 250 B.C.). + + + Philosophical prose--Plato and Aristotle. + +The place of Plato in the history of Greek literature is as unique as +his place in the history of Greek thought. The literary genius shown in +the dialogues is many-sided: it includes dramatic power, remarkable +skill in parody, a subtle faculty of satire, and, generally, a command +over the finer tones of language. In passages of continuous exposition, +where the argument rises into the higher regions of discussion, Plato's +prose takes a more decidedly poetical colouring--never florid or +sentimental, however, but lofty and austere. In Plato's later +works--such, for instance, as the _Laws_, _Timaeus_, _Critias_--we can +perceive that his style did not remain unaffected by the smooth literary +prose which contemporary writers had developed. Aristotle's influence on +the form of Attic prose literature would probably have been considerable +if his _Rhetoric_ had been published while Attic oratory had still a +vigorous life before it. But in this, as in other departments of mental +effort, it was Aristotle's lot to set in order what the Greek intellect +had done in that creative period which had now come to an end. His own +chief contribution to the original achievements of the race was the most +fitting one that could have been made by him in whose lifetime they were +closed. He bequeathed an instrument by which analysis could be carried +further, he founded a science of reasoning, and left those who followed +him to apply it in all those provinces of knowledge which he had mapped +out.[6] Theophrastus, his pupil and his successor in the Lyceum, opens +the new age of research and scientific classification with his extant +works on botany, but is better known to modern readers by his lively +_Characters_, the prototypes of such sketches in English literature as +those of Hall, Overbury and Earle. + + + Character of the creative age. + +(C) _The Literature of the Decadence._--The period of decadence in Greek +literature begins with the extinction of free political life in the +Greek cities. So long as the Greek commonwealths were independent and +vigorous, Greek life rested on the identity of the man with the citizen. +The city state was the highest unit of social organization; the whole +training and character of the man were viewed relatively to his +membership of the city. The market-place, the assembly, the theatre were +places of frequent meeting, where the sense of citizenship was +quickened, where common standards of opinion or feeling were formed. +Poetry, music, sculpture, literature, art, in all their forms, were +matters of public interest. Every citizen had some degree of +acquaintance with them, and was in some measure capable of judging them. +The poet and the musician, the historian and the sculptor, did not live +a life of studious seclusion or engrossing professional work. They were, +as a rule, in full sympathy with the practical interests of their time. +Their art, whatever its form might be, was the concentrated and ennobled +expression of their political existence. Aeschylus breathed into tragedy +the inspiration of one who had himself fought the great fight of +national liberation. Sophocles was the colleague of Pericles in a high +military command. Thucydides describes the operations of the +Peloponnesian War with the practical knowledge of one who had been in +charge of a fleet. Ictinus and Pheidias gave shape in stone, not to mere +visions of the studio, but to the more glorious, because more real and +vivid, perceptions which had been quickened in them by a living +communion with the Athenian spirit, by a daily contemplation of Athenian +greatness, in the theatre where tragic poets idealized the legends of +the past, in the ecclesia where every citizen had his vote on the policy +of the state, or in that free and gracious society, full of beauty, yet +exempt from vexatious constraint, which belonged to the age of Pericles. +The tribunal which judged these works of literature or art was such as +was best fitted to preserve the favourable conditions under which they +arose. Criticism was not in the hands of a literary clique or of a +social caste. The influence of jealousy or malevolence, and the more +fatal influence of affectation, had little power to affect the verdict. +The verdict was pronounced by the whole body of the citizens. The +success or failure of a tragedy was decided, not by the minor +circumstance that it gained the first or second prize, but by the +collective opinion of the citizens assembled in the theatre of Dionysus. +A work of architecture or sculpture was approved or condemned, not by +the sentence of a few whom the multitude blindly followed, but by the +general judgment of some twenty thousand persons, each of whom was in +some degree qualified by education and by habit to form an independent +estimate. The artist worked for all his fellow-citizens, and knew that +he would be judged by all. The soul of his work was the fresh and living +inspiration of nature; it was the ennobled expression of his own life; +and the public opinion before which it came was free, intelligent and +sincere. + + + The transition to Hellenism. + +Philip of Macedon did not take away the municipal independence of the +Greek cities, but he dealt a death-blow to the old political life. The +Athenian poet, historian, artist might still do good work, but he could +never again have that which used to be the very mainspring of all such +activity--the daily experience and consciousness of participation in the +affairs of an independent state. He could no longer breathe the +invigorating air of constitutional freedom, or of the social intercourse +to which that freedom lent dignity as well as grace. Then came +Alexander's conquests; Greek civilization was diffused over Asia and the +East by means of Greek colonies in which Asiatic and Greek elements were +mingled. The life of such settlements, under the monarchies into which +Alexander's empire broke up, could not be animated by the spirit of the +Greek commonwealths in the old days of political freedom. But the +externals of Greek life were there--the temples, the statues, the +theatres, the porticos. Ceremonies and festivals were conducted in the +Greek manner. In private life Greek usages prevailed. Greek was the +language most used; Greek books were in demand. The mixture of races +would always in some measure distinguish even the outward life of such a +community from that of a pure Greek state; and the facility with which +Greek civilization was adopted would vary in different places. Syria, +for example, was rapidly and completely Hellenized. Judaea resisted the +process to the last. In Egypt a Greek aristocracy of office, birth and +intellect existed side by side with a distinct native life. But, viewed +in its broadest aspect, this new civilization may be called Hellenism. +Hellenism (q.v.) means the adoption of Hellenic ways; and it is properly +applied to a civilization, generally Hellenic in external things, +pervading people not necessarily or exclusively Hellenic by race. What +the Hellenic literature was to Hellas, that the Hellenistic literature +was to Hellenism. The literature of Hellenism has the Hellenic form +without the Hellenic soul. The literature of Hellas was creative; the +literature of Hellenism is derivative. + + + The Alexandrian period. + + Poetry. + + Erudition and science. + + Summary. + +Alexandria was the centre of Greek intellectual activity from Alexander +to Augustus. Its "Museum," or college, and its library, both founded by +the first Ptolemy (Soter), gave it such attractions for learned men as +no other city could rival. The labours of research or arrangement are +those which characterize the Alexandrian period. Even in its poetry +spontaneous motive was replaced by erudite skill, as in the hymns, +epigrams and elegies of Callimachus, in the enigmatic verses of +Lycophron, in the highly finished epic of Apollonius Rhodius, and in the +versified lore, astronomical or medical, of Aratus and Nicander. The +mimes of Herodas (or Herondas) of Cos (c. 200 B.C.), written in the +Ionic dialect and choliambic verse, represent scenes from everyday life. +The papyrus (published in 1891) contains seven complete poems and +fragments of an eighth. They are remarkably witty and full of shrewd +observations, but at times coarse. The pastoral poetry of the +age--Dorian by origin--was the most pleasing; for this, if it is to +please at all, must have its spring in the contemplation of nature. +Theocritus is not exempt from the artificialism of the Hellenizing +literature; but his true sense of natural beauty entitles him to a place +in the first rank of pastoral poets. Bion of Ionia and Moschus of +Syracuse also charm by the music and often by the pathos of their +bucolic verse. Excavations on the site of the temple of Asclepius at +Epidaurus have brought to light two hexameter poems and a paean (in +Ionic metre) on Apollo and Asclepius by a local poet named Isyllus, who +flourished about 280. Tragedy was represented by the poets known as the +Alexandrian _Pleiad_. But it is not for its poetry of any kind that this +period of Greek literature is memorable. Its true work was in erudition +and science. Aristarchus (156 B.C.), the greatest in a long line of +Alexandrian critics, set the example of a more thorough method in +revising and interpreting the ancient texts, and may in this sense be +said to have become the founder of scientific scholarship. The critical +studies of Alexandria, carried on by the followers of Aristarchus, +gradually formed the basis for a science of grammar. The earliest Greek +grammar is that of Dionysius Thrax (born c. 166), a pupil of +Aristarchus. Translation was another province of work which employed the +learned of Alexandria--where the Septuagint version of the Old Testament +was begun, probably about 300-250 B.C. Chronology was treated +scientifically by Eratosthenes, and was combined with history by Manetho +in his chronicles of Egypt, and by Berossus in his chronicles of +Chaldaea. Euclid was at Alexandria in the reign of Ptolemy Soter. +Herophilus and Erasistratus were distinguished physicians and +anatomists, and the authors of several medical works. The general +results of the Alexandrian period might perhaps be stated thus. +Alexandria produced a few eminent men of science, some learned poets (in +a few cases, of great literary merit) and many able scholars. The +preservation of the best Greek literature was due chiefly to the +unremitting care of the Alexandrian critics, whose appreciation of it +partly compensated for the decay of the old Greek perceptions in +literature and art, and who did their utmost to hand it down in a form +as free as possible from the errors of copyists. On the whole, the +patronage of letters by the Ptolemies had probably as large a measure of +success as was possible under the existing conditions; and it was +afforded at a time when there was special danger that a true literary +tradition might die out of the world. + + + The Graeco-Roman period. + +The Graeco-Roman period in the literature of Hellenism may be dated from +the Roman subjugation of Greece. "Greece made a captive of the rough +conqueror," but it did not follow from this intellectual conquest that +Athens became once more the intellectual centre of the world. Under the +empire, indeed, the university of Athens long enjoyed a pre-eminent +reputation. But Rome gradually became the point to which the greatest +workers in every kind were drawn. Greek literature had already made a +home there before the close of the 2nd century B.C. Sulla brought a +Greek library from Athens to Rome. Such men as Cicero and Atticus were +indefatigable collectors and readers of Greek books. The power of +speaking and writing the Greek language became an indispensable +accomplishment for highly educated Romans. The library planned by Julius +Caesar and founded by Augustus had two principal departments, one for +Latin, the other for Greek works. Tiberius, Vespasian, Domitian and +Trajan contributed to enlarge the collection. Rome became more and more +the rival of Alexandria, not only as possessing great libraries, but +also as a seat of learning at which Greek men of letters found +appreciation and encouragement. Greek poetry, especially in its higher +forms, rhetoric and literary criticism, history and philosophy, were all +cultivated by Greek writers at Rome. + + + First part: 146-30 B.C. + +The first part of the Graeco-Roman period may be defined as extending +from 146 B.C. to the close of the Roman republic. At its commencement +stands the name of one who had more real affinity than any of his +contemporaries with the great writers of old Athens, and who, at the +same time, saw most clearly how the empire of the world was passing to +Rome. The subject of Polybius (c. 205-120) was the history of Roman +conquest from 264 to 146 B.C. His style, plain and straightforward, is +free from the florid rhetoric of the time. But the distinction of +Polybius is that he is the last Greek writer who in some measure retains +the spirit of the old citizen-life. He chose his subject, not because it +gave scope to learning or literary skill, but with a motive akin to that +which prompted the history of Thucydides--namely, because, as a Greek +citizen, he felt intensely the political importance of those wars which +had given Rome the mastery of the world. The chief historical work which +the following century produced--the _Universal History_ of Diodorus +Siculus (fl. c. 50 B.C.)--resembled that of Polybius in recognizing Rome +as the political centre of the earth, as the point on which all earlier +series of events converged. In all else Diodorus represents the new age +in which the Greek historian had no longer the practical knowledge and +insight of a traveller, a soldier or a statesman, but only the +diligence, and usually the dullness, of a laborious compiler. + + + Second part: 30 B.C.-A.D. 529. + +The Greek literature of the Roman empire, from Augustus to Justinian, +was enormously prolific. The area over which the Greek language was +diffused--either as a medium of intercourse or as an established branch +of the higher education--was co-extensive with the empire itself. An +immense store of materials had now been accumulated, on which critics, +commentators, compilers, imitators, were employed with incessant +industry. In very many of its forms, the work of composition or +adaptation had been reduced to a mechanical knack. If there is any one +characteristic which broadly distinguishes the Greek literature of these +five centuries, it is the absence of originality either in form or in +matter. Lucian is, in his way, a rare exception; and his great +popularity--he is the only Greek writer of this period, except Plutarch, +who has been widely popular--illustrates the flatness of the arid level +above which he stands out. The sustained abundance of literary +production under the empire was partly due to the fact that there was no +open political career. Never, probably, was literature so important as a +resource for educated men; and the habit of reciting before friendly or +obsequious audiences swelled the number of writers whose taste had been +cultivated to a point just short of perceiving that they ought not to +write. + + + Departments of prose literature. + +In the manifold prose work of this period, four principal departments +may be distinguished. (1) _History_, with _Biography_, and _Geography_. +History is represented by Dionysius of Halicarnassus--also memorable for +his criticisms on the orators and his effort to revive a true standard +of Attic prose--by Cassius Dio, Josephus, Arrian, Appian, Herodian, +Eusebius and Zosimus. In biography, the foremost names are Plutarch, +Diogenes Laertius and Philostratus; in geography, Hipparchus of Nicaea, +Strabo, Ptolemy and Pausanias. (2) _Erudition_ and _Science_. The +learned labours of the Alexandrian schools were continued in all their +various fields. Under this head may be mentioned such works as the +lexicons of Julius Pollux, Harpocration and Hesychius, Hephaestion's +treatise on metre, and Herodian's system of accentuation; the +commentaries of Galen on Plato and on Hippocrates; the learned +miscellanies of Athenaeus, Aelian and Stobaeus; and the _Stratagems_ of +Polyaenus. (3) _Rhetoric_ and _Belles-Lettres_. The most popular writers +on the theory of rhetoric were Hermagoras, Hermogenes, Aphthonius and +Cassius Longinus--the last the reputed author of the essay _On +Sublimity_. Among the most renowned teachers of rhetoric--now +distinctively called "Sophists," or rhetoricians--were Dio Chrysostom, +Aelius Aristides, Themistius, Himerius, Libanius and Herodes Atticus. +Akin to the rhetorical exercises were various forms of ornamental or +imaginative prose--dialogues, letters, essays or novels. Lucian, in his +dialogues, exhibits more of the classical style and of the classical +spirit than any writer of the later age; he has also a remarkable +affinity with the tone of modern satire, as in Swift or Voltaire. His +Attic prose, though necessarily artificial, was at least the best that +had been written for four centuries. The emperor Julian was the author +both of orations and of satirical pieces. The chief of the Greek +novelists (the forerunner of whom was Aristides of Miletus, c. 100 B.C., +in his _Milesian Tales_) are Xenophon of Ephesus and Longus, +representing a purely Greek type of romance, and Heliodorus--with his +imitators Achilles Tatius and Chariton--representing a school influenced +by Oriental fiction. There were also many Christian romances in Greek, +usually of a religious tendency. Alciphron's fictitious +_Letters_--founded largely on the New Comedy of Athens--represent the +same kind of industry which produced the letters of Phalaris, +Aristaenetus and similar collections. (4) _Philosophy_ is represented +chiefly by Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius, in both of whom the Stoic +element is the prevailing one; by the Neoplatonists, such as Plotinus, +Porphyry, Iamblichus; and by Proclus, of that eclectic school which +arose at Athens in the 5th century A.D. + + + Verse. + + The Anthology. + +The Greek poetry of this period presents no work of high merit. Babrius +versified the Aesopic _Fables_; Oppian (or two poets of this name) wrote +didactic poems on fishing and hunting; Nonnus and Quintus Smyrnaeus made +elaborate essays in epic verse; and the Orphic lore inspired some poems +and hymns of a mystic character. The so-called _Sibylline Oracles_, in +hexameter verse, range in date from about 170 B.C. to A.D. 700, and are +partly the expression of the Jewish longings for the restoration of +Israel, partly predictions of the triumph of Christianity. By far the +most pleasing compositions in verse which have come to us from this age +are some of the short poems in the Greek Anthology, which includes some +pieces as early as the beginning of the 5th century B.C. and some as +late as the 6th century of the Christian era. + +The 4th century may be said to mark the beginning of the last stage in +the decay of literary Hellenism. From that point the decline was rapid +and nearly continuous. The attitude of the church towards it was no +longer that which had been held by Clement of Alexandria, by Justin +Martyr or by Origen. There was now a Christian Greek literature, and a +Christian Greek eloquence of extraordinary power. The laity became more +and more estranged from the Greek literature--however intrinsically pure +and noble--of the pagan past. At the same time the Greek language--which +had maintained its purity in Italian seats--was becoming corrupted in +the new Greek Rome of the East. In A.D. 529 Justinian put forth an edict +by which the schools of heathen philosophy were formally closed. The act +had at least a symbolical meaning. It is necessary to guard against the +supposition that such assumed landmarks in political or literary history +always mark a definite transition from one order of things to another. +But it is practically convenient, or necessary, to use such landmarks. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The first attempt at a connected history of Greek + literature was the monumental and still indispensable work of J. A. + Fabricius (14 vols., 1705-1728; new ed. in 12 vols. by G. C. Harless, + 1790-1809); this was followed by F. Scholl's _Hist. de la litterature + grecque_ (1813). Both these works begin with the earliest times and go + down to the latest period of the Byzantine empire. Of more modern and + recent works the following may be mentioned: G. Bernhardy, _Grundriss + der griechischen Literatur_ (1836-1845; 4th ed., 1876-1880; 5th ed. of + vol. i., by R. Volkmann, 1892), chiefly confined to the poets; C. O. + Muller, _History of Greek Literature_ (unfinished), written for the + London Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, and published in + English in 1840, the translation being by G. Cornewall Lewis and J. W. + Donaldson (the latter completed the work to the end of the Byzantine + period for the edition of 1858; the German text was published by E. + Muller in 1841; 4th ed. by E. Heitz, 1882-1884); W. Mure, _Critical + History of the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece_ (1850-1857); + T. Bergk, _Griechische Literaturgeschichte_ (1872-1894, vols. 2, 3, + ed. G. Hinrichs, vol. 4 by R. Peppmuller) containing epos, lyric, + drama down to Euripides, and the beginnings of prose; R. Nicolai, + _Griechische Literaturgeschichte_ (2nd ed., 1873-1878), useful for + bibliography, but in other respects unsatisfactory; J. P. Mahaffy, + _Hist. of Classical Greek Literature_ (4th ed., 1903); A. and M. + Croiset, _Hist. de la litterature grecque_ (1887-1899, 2nd ed. 1896); + W. Christ, _Geschichte der griechischen Literatur bis auf die Zeit + Justinians_ (4th ed., 1905; 5th ed., pt. i., by O. Stahlin and W. + Schmid, 1908), by far the most serviceable handbook for the student. + F. Susemihl's _Geschichte der griechischen Literatur in der + Alexandrinerzeit_ (1891-1892) is especially valuable for its notes. Of + smaller manuals the following will be found most useful: G. G. Murray, + _History of Ancient Greek Literature_ (1897); F. B. Jevons, _History + of Greek Literature_ (3rd ed., 1900) down to the time of Demosthenes; + A. and M. Croiset, _Manuel d'hist. de la litterature grecque_ (1900; + Eng. trans., by G. F. Heffelbower, N.Y., 1904); also the general + sketches by U. von Wilamowitz-Mollendorff in _Die Kultur der + Gegenwart_, i. 8 (1905), by A. Gercke in the _Sammlung Goschen_ + (Leipzig, 2nd ed., 1905), and by R. C. Jebb in _Companion to Greek + Studies_ (Cambridge, 1905). Other works generally connected with the + subject are: E. Hubner, _Bibliographie der klassischen + Altertumswissenschaft_ (2nd ed., 1889), pp. 161-17l; W. Engelmann, + _Bibliotheca scriptorum classicorum_ (8th ed., by E. Preuss, 1880); J. + B. Mayor, _Guide to the Choice of Classical Books_ (1896), p. 86; W. + Kroll, _Die Altertumswissenschaft im letzten Vierteljahrhundert_ + 1875-1900 (1905), p. 465 foll.; J. E. Sandys, _History of Classical + Scholarship_ (1906-1908); "Bibliotheca philologica classica," in C. + Bursian's _Jahresbericht uber die Fortschritte der klassischen + Altertumswissenschaft_; articles in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie + der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_ (1894--). (R. C. J.; X.) + + +II. BYZANTINE LITERATURE + + Definition. + +By "Byzantine literature" is generally meant the literature, written in +Greek, of the so-called Byzantine period. There is no justification +whatever for the inclusion of Latin works of the time of the East Roman +empire. The close of the Byzantine period is clearly marked by the year +1453, at which date, with the fall of the Eastern empire, the peculiar +culture and literary life of the Byzantines came to an end. It is only +as regards the beginning of the Byzantine period that any doubts exist. +There are no sufficient grounds for dating it from Justinian, as was +formerly often done. In surveying the whole development of the +political, ecclesiastical and literary life and of the general culture +of the Roman empire, and particularly of its eastern portion, we arrive, +on the contrary, at the conclusion that the actual date of the beginning +of this new era--i.e. the Christian-Byzantine, in contradistinction to +the Pagan-Greek and Pagan-Roman--falls within the reign of Constantine +the Great. By the foundation of the new capital city of Constantinople +(which lay amid Greek surroundings) and by the establishment of the +Christian faith as the state religion, Constantine finally broke with +the Roman-Pagan tradition, and laid the foundation of the +Christian-Byzantine period of development. Moreover, in the department +of language, so closely allied with that of literature, the 4th century +marks a new epoch. About this time occurred the final disappearance of a +characteristic of the ancient Greek language, important alike in poetry +and in rhythmic prose, the difference of "quantity." Its place was +henceforth taken by the accent, which became a determining principle in +poetry, as well as for the rhythmic conclusion of the prose sentence. +Thus the transition from the old musical language to a modern +conversational idiom was complete. + + + Transitional period. + +The reign of Constantine the Great undoubtedly marks the beginning of a +new period in the most important spheres of national life, but it is +equally certain that in most of them ancient tradition long continued to +exercise an influence. Sudden breaches of continuity are less common in +the general culture and literary life of the world than in its political +or ecclesiastical development. This is true of the transition from pagan +antiquity to the Christian middle ages. Many centuries passed before the +final victory of the new religious ideas and the new spirit in public +and private intellectual and moral life. The last noteworthy remnants of +paganism disappeared as late as the 6th and 7th centuries. The last +great educational establishment which rested upon pagan foundations--the +university of Athens--was not abolished till A.D. 529. The Hellenizing +of the seat of empire and of the state, which was essential to the +independent development of Byzantine literature, proceeds yet more +slowly. The first purely _Greek_ emperor was Tiberius II. (578-582); but +the complete Hellenizing of the character of the state had not been +accomplished until the 7th century. We shall, therefore, regard the +period from the 4th to the 7th century as that of the transition between +ancient times and the middle ages. This period coincides with the rise +of a new power in the world's history--Islam. But though, in this +transitional period, the old and the new elements are both to a large +extent present and are often inextricably interwoven, yet it is certain +that the new elements are, both as regards their essential force and +their influence upon the succeeding period, of infinitely greater moment +than the decrepit and mostly artificial survivals of the antique. + + + Mixed character of Byzantine culture. + +In order to estimate rightly the character of Byzantine literature and +its distinctive peculiarities, in contradistinction to ancient Greek, it +is imperative to examine the great difference between the civilizations +that produced them. The Byzantine did not possess the homogeneous, +organically constructed system of the ancient civilization, but was the +outcome of an amalgamation of which Hellenism formed the basis. For, +although the Latin character of the empire was at first completely +retained, even after its final division in 395, yet the dominant +position of Greek in the Eastern empire gradually led to the Hellenizing +of the state. The last great act of the Latin tradition was the +codification, in the Latin language, of the law by Justinian (527-565). +But it is significant that the _Novels_ of Justinian were composed +partly in Greek, as were all the laws of the succeeding period. Of the +emperors in the centuries following Justinian, many of course were +foreigners, Isaurians, Armenians and others; but in language and +education they were all Greeks. In the last five centuries of the +empire, under the Comneni and the Palaeologi, court and state are purely +Greek. + +In spite of the dominant position of Greek in the Eastern empire, a +linguistic and national uniformity such as formed the foundation of the +old Latin _Imperium Romanum_ never existed there. In the West, with the +expansion of Rome's political supremacy, the Latin language and Latin +culture were everywhere introduced--first into the non-Latin provinces +of Italy, later into Spain, Gaul and North Africa, and at last even into +certain parts of the Eastern empire. This Latinizing was so thorough +that it weathered all storms, and, in the countries affected by it, was +the parent of new and vigorous nationalities, the French, the Spaniards, +the Portuguese and the Rumanians. Only in Africa did "Latinism" fail to +take root permanently. From the 6th century that province relapsed into +the hands of the native barbarians and of the immigrant Arabs, and both +the Latin and the Greek influences (which had grown in strength during +the period of the Eastern empire) were, together with Christianity, +swept away without leaving a trace behind. It might have been expected +that the Hellenizing of the political system of the Eastern empire would +have likewise entailed the Hellenizing of the non-Greek portions of the +empire. Such, however, was not the case; for all the conditions +precedent to such a development were wanting. The non-Greek portions of +the Eastern empire were not, from the outset, gradually incorporated +into the state from a Greek centre, as were the provinces in the West +from a Latin centre. They had been acquired in the old period of the +homogeneous Latin _Imperium_. In the centuries immediately following the +division of the empire, the idea of Hellenizing the Eastern provinces +could not take root, owing to the fact that Latin was retained, at least +in principle, as the state language. During the later centuries, in the +non-Greek parts, centrifugal tendencies and the destructive inroads of +barbarians began on all sides; and the government was too much occupied +with the all but impossible task of preserving the political unity of +the empire to entertain seriously the wider aim of an assimilation of +language and culture. Moreover, the Greeks did not possess that enormous +political energy and force which enabled the Romans to assimilate +foreign races; and, finally, they were confronted by sturdy Oriental, +mostly Semitic, peoples, who were by no means so easy to subjugate as +were the racially related inhabitants of Gaul and Spain. Their +impotence against the peoples of the East will be still less hardly +judged if we remember the fact already mentioned, that even the Romans +were within a short period driven back and overwhelmed by the North +African Semites who for centuries had been subjected to an apparently +thorough process of Latinization. + +The influence of Greek culture then, was very slight; how little indeed +it penetrated into the oriental mind is shown by the fact that, after +the violent Arab invasion in the south-east corner of the Mediterranean, +the Copts and Syrians were able to retain their language and their +national characteristics, while Greek culture almost completely +disappeared. The one great instance of assimilation of foreign +nationalities by the Greeks is the Hellenizing of the Slavs, who from +the 6th century had migrated into central Greece and the Peloponnese. +All other non-Greek tribes of any importance which came, whether for +longer or for shorter periods, within the sphere of the Eastern empire +and its civilization--such as the Copts, Syrians, Armenians, Georgians, +Rumanians, Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians--one and all retained their +nationality and language. The complete Latinizing of the West has, +accordingly, no counterpart in a similar Hellenizing of the East. This +is clearly shown during the Byzantine period in the progress of +Christianity. Everywhere in the West, even among the non-Romanized +Anglo-Saxons, Irish and Germans, Latin maintained its position in the +church services and in the other branches of the ecclesiastical system; +down to the Reformation the church remained a complete organic unity. In +the East, at the earliest period of its conversion to Christianity, +several foreign tongues competed with Greek, i.e. Syrian, Coptic, +Armenian, Georgian, Gothic, Old-Bulgarian and others. The sacred books +were translated into these languages and the church services were held +in them and not in Greek. One noticeable effect of this linguistic +division in the church was the formation of various sects and national +churches (cf. the Coptic Nestorians, the Syrian Monophysites, the +Armenian and, in more recent times, the Slavonic national churches). The +Church of the West was characterized by uniformity in language and in +constitution. In the Eastern Church parallel to the multiplicity of +languages developed also a corresponding variety of doctrine and +constitution. + + + Roman influence. + +Though the character of Byzantine culture is mainly Greek, and Byzantine +literature is attached by countless threads to ancient Greek literature, +yet the Roman element forms a very essential part of it. The whole +political character of the Byzantine empire is, despite its Greek form +and colouring, genuinely Roman. Legislation and administration, the +military and naval traditions, are old Roman work, and as such, apart +from immaterial alterations, they continued to exist and operate, even +when the state in head and limbs had become Greek. It is strange, +indeed, how strong was the political conception of the Roman state +(_Staatsgedanke_), and with what tenacity it held its own, even under +the most adverse conditions, down to the latter days of the empire. The +Greeks even adopted the name "Romans," which gradually became so closely +identified with them as to supersede the name "Hellenes"; and thus a +political was gradually converted into an ethnographical and linguistic +designation. _Rhomaioi_ was the most common popular term for Greeks +during the Turkish period, and remains so still. The old glorious name +"Hellene" was used under the empire and even during the middle ages in a +contemptuous sense--"Heathen"--and has only in quite modern times, on +the formation of the kingdom of "Hellas," been artificially revived. The +vast organization of the Roman political system could not but exercise +in various ways a profound influence upon Byzantine civilization; and it +often seemed as if Roman political principles had educated and nerved +the unpolitical Greek people to great political enterprise. The Roman +influence has left distinct traces in the Greek language, Greek of the +Byzantine and modern period is rich in Latin terms for conceptions +connected with the departments of justice, administration and the +imperial court. In literature such "barbarisms" were avoided as far as +possible, and were replaced by Greek periphrases. + + + Christianity. + + The Orient. + +But by far the most momentous and radical change wrought on the old +Hellenism was effected by Christianity; and yet the transition was, in +fact, by no means so abrupt as one might be led to believe by comparing +the Pagan-Hellenic culture of Plato's day with the Christian-Byzantine +of the time of Justinian. For the path had been most effectually +prepared for the new religion by the crumbling away of the ancient +belief in the gods, by the humane doctrine of the Stoics, and, finally, +by the mystic intellectual tendencies of Neoplatonism. Moreover, in many +respects Christianity met paganism halfway by adapting itself to popular +usages and ideas and by adopting important parts of the pagan +literature. The whole educational system especially, even in Christian +times, was in a very remarkable manner based almost entirely on the +methods and material inherited from paganism. Next to the influences of +Rome and of Christianity, that of the East was of importance in +developing the Byzantine civilization, and in lending Byzantine +literature its distinctive character. Much that was oriental in the +Eastern empire dates back to ancient times, notably to the period of +Alexander the Great and his successors. Since the Greeks had at that +period Hellenized the East to the widest extent, and had already founded +everywhere flourishing cities, they themselves fell under the manifold +influences of the soil they occupied. In Egypt, Palestine and Syria, in +Asia Minor as far inland as Mesopotamia, Greek and oriental +characteristics were often blended. In respect of the wealth and the +long duration of its Greek intellectual life, Egypt stands supreme. It +covers a period of nearly a thousand years from the foundation of +Alexandria down to the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs (A.D. 643). The +real significance of Egyptian Hellenism during this long period can be +properly estimated only if a practical attempt be made to eliminate from +the history of Greek literature and science in pagan and in Christian +times all that owed its origin to the land of the Nile. The soil of +Egypt proved itself especially productive of Greek literature under the +Cross (Origen, Athanasius, Arius, Synesius), in the same way as the soil +of North Africa was productive of Latin literature (Tertullian, Cyprian, +Lactantius, Augustine). Monastic life, which is one of the chief +characteristic elements of Christian-Byzantine civilization, had its +birth in Egypt. + +Syria and Palestine came under the influence of Greek civilization at a +later date than Egypt. In these, Greek literature and culture attained +their highest development between the 3rd and the 8th centuries of the +Christian era. Antioch rose to great influence, owing at first to its +pagan school of rhetoric and later to its Christian school of exegesis. +Gaza was renowned for its school of rhetoric; Berytus for its academy of +law. It is no mere accident that sacred poetry, aesthetically the most +valuable class of Byzantine literature, was born in Syria and Palestine. + +In Asia Minor, the cities of Tarsus, Caesarea, Nicaea, Smyrna, Ephesus, +Nicopolis, &c., were all influential centres of Greek culture and +literature. For instance, the three great fathers of Cappadocia, Basil, +Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus all belonged to Asia Minor. + +If all the greater Greek authors of the first eight centuries of the +Christian era, i.e. the period of the complete development of Byzantine +culture, be classified according to the countries of their birth, the +significant fact becomes evident that nine-tenths come from the African +and Asiatic districts, which were for the most part opened up only after +Alexander the Great, and only one-tenth from European Greece. In other +words, the old original European Greece was, under the emperors, +completely outstripped in intellectual productive force by the newly +founded African and Asiatic Greece. This huge tide of conquest which +surged from Greece over African and Syrian territories occupied largely +by foreign races and ancient civilizations, could not fail to be fraught +with serious consequences for the Greeks themselves. The experience of +the Romans in their conquest of Greece (_Graecia capta ferum victorem +cepit_) repeated itself in the conquest of the East by Greece, though to +a minor extent and in a different way. The whole literature of Egypt, +Syria and Asia Minor cannot, despite its international and cosmopolitan +character, disavow the influence of the Oriental soil on which it was +nourished. Yet the growth of too strong a local colouring in its +literature was repressed, partly by the checks imposed by ancient Greek +tradition, partly by the spirit of Christianity which reconciled all +national distinctions. Even more clearly and unmistakably is Oriental +influence shown in the province of Byzantine art, as Joseph Strzygowski +has conclusively proved. + + + Language. + +The greater portion of Greek literature from the close of ancient times +down to the threshold of modern history was written in a language +identical in its principal features with the common literary language, +the so-called Koine, which had its origin in the Alexandrian age. This +is the literary form of Greek as a universal language, though a form +that scintillates with many facets, from an almost Attic diction down to +one that approaches the language of everyday life such as we have, for +instance, in the New Testament. From what has been already said, it +follows that this stable literary language cannot always have remained a +language of ordinary life. For, like every living tongue, the vernacular +Greek continually changed in pronunciation and form, as well as in +vocabulary and grammar, and thus the living language surely and +gradually separated itself from the rigid written language. This gulf +was, moreover, considerably widened owing to the fact that there took +place in the written language a retrograde movement, the so-called +"Atticism." Introduced by Dionysius of Halicarnassus in the 1st century +before Christ, this linguistic-literary fashion attained its greatest +height in the 2nd century A.D., but still continued to flourish in +succeeding centuries, and, indirectly, throughout the whole Byzantine +period. It is true that it often seemed as though the living language +would be gradually introduced into literature; for several writers, such +as the chronicler Malalas in the 6th century, Leontius of Neapolis (the +author of _Lives of Saints_) in the 7th century, the chronicler +Theophanes at the beginning of the 9th century, and the emperor +Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the 10th century, made in their writings +numerous concessions to the living language. This progressive tendency +might well have led, in the 11th and 12th centuries, to the founding in +the Greek vernacular of a new literary language similar to the promising +national languages and literature which, at that period, in the Romance +countries, developed out of the despised popular idiom. In the case of +the Byzantines, unfortunately, such a radical change never took place. +All attempts in the direction of a popular reform of the literary +language, which were occasionally made in the period from the 6th to the +10th centuries, were in turn extinguished by the resuscitation of +classical studies, a movement which, begun in the 9th century by Photius +and continued in the 11th by Psellus, attained its full development +under the Comneni and the Palaeologi. This classical renaissance turned +back the literary language into the old ossified forms, as had +previously happened in the case of the Atticism of the early centuries +of the empire. In the West, humanism (so closely connected with the +Byzantine renaissance under the Comneni and the Palaeologi) also +artificially reintroduced the "Ciceronian" Latin, but was unable +seriously to endanger the development of the national languages, which +had already attained to full vitality. In Byzantium, the humanistic +movement came prematurely, and crushed the new language before it had +fairly established itself. Thus the language of the Byzantine writers of +the 11th-15th centuries is almost Old Greek in colour; artificially +learnt by grammar, lexicon and assiduous reading, it followed Attic +models more and more slavishly; to such an extent that, in determining +the date of works, the paradoxical principle holds good that the more +ancient the language, the more recent the author. + +Owing to this artificial return to ancient Greek, the contrast that had +long existed with the vernacular was now for the first time fully +revealed. The gulf between the two forms of language could no longer be +bridged; and this fact found its expression in literature also. While +the vulgarizing authors of the 6th-10th centuries, like the +Latin-writing Franks (such as Gregory of Tours), still attempted a +compromise between the language of the schools and that of conversation, +we meet after the 12th century with authors who freely and naturally +employed the vernacular in their literary works. They accordingly form +the Greek counterpart of the oldest writers in Italian, French and other +Romance languages. That they could not succeed like their Roman +colleagues, and always remained the pariahs of Greek literature, is due +to the all-powerful philological-antiquarian tendency which existed +under the Comneni and the Palaeologi. Yet once more did the vernacular +attempt to assert its literary rights, i.e. in Crete and some other +islands in the 16th and 17th centuries. But this attempt also was foiled +by the classical reaction of the 19th century. Hence it comes about that +Greek literature even in the 20th century employs grammatical forms +which were obsolete long before the 10th century. Thus the Greeks, as +regards their literary language, came into a _cul de sac_ similar to +that in which certain rigidly conservative Oriental nations find +themselves, e.g. the Arabs and Chinese, who, not possessing a literary +language suited to modern requirements, have to content themselves with +the dead Old-Arabic or the ossified Mandarin language. The divorce of +the written and spoken languages is the most prominent and also the most +fatal heritage that the modern Greeks have received from their Byzantine +forefathers. + + + General character of Byzantine literature. + +The whole Byzantine intellectual life, like that of the Western medieval +period, is dominated by theological interests. Theology accordingly, in +literature too, occupies the chief place, in regard to both quantity and +quality. Next to it comes the writing of history, which the Byzantines +cultivated with great conscientiousness until after the fall of the +empire. All other kinds of prose writing, e.g. in geography, philosophy, +rhetoric and the technical sciences, were comparatively neglected, and +such works are of value for the most part only in so far as they +preserve and interpret old material. In poetry, again, theology takes +the lead. The poetry of the Church produced works of high aesthetic +merit and enduring value. In secular poetry, the writing of epigrams +especially was cultivated with assiduity and often with ability. In +popular literature poetry predominates, and many productions worthy of +notice, new both in matter and in form, are here met with. + + + Theology. + +The great classical period of Greek theological literature is that of +the 4th century. Various factors contributed to this result--some of +them positive, particularly the establishment of Christianity as the +official religion and the protection accorded to it by the state, others +negative, i.e. the heretical movements, especially Arianism, which at +this period arose in the east of the empire and threatened the unity of +the doctrine and organization of the church. It was chiefly against +these that the subtle Athanasius of Alexandria directed his attacks. The +learned Eusebius founded a new department of literature, church history. +In Egypt, Antonius (St Anthony) founded the Greek monastic system; +Synesius of Cyrene, like his greater contemporary Augustine in the West, +represents both in his life and in his writings the difficult transition +from Plato to Christ. At the centre, in the forefront of the great +intellectual movement of this century, stand the three great +Cappadocians, Basil the Great, the subtle dogmatist, his brother Gregory +of Nyssa, the philosophically trained defender of the Christian faith, +and Gregory of Nazianzus, the distinguished orator and poet. Closely +allied to them was St Chrysostom, the courageous champion of +ecclesiastical liberty and of moral purity. To modern readers the +greater part of this literature appears strange and foreign; but, in +order to be appreciated rightly, it must be regarded as the outcome of +the period in which it was produced, a period stirred to its depths by +religious emotions. For the times in which they lived and for their +readers, the Greek fathers reached the highest attainable; though, of +course, they produced nothing of such general human interest, nothing +so deep and true, as the _Confessions_ of St Augustine, with which the +poetical autobiography of Gregory of Nazianzus cannot for a moment be +compared. + +The glorious bloom of the 4th century was followed by a perceptible +decay in theological intellectual activity. Independent production was +in succeeding centuries almost solely prompted by divergent dogmatical +views and heresies, for the refutation of which orthodox authors were +impelled to take up the pen. In the 5th and 6th centuries a more copious +literature was called into existence by the Monophysites, who maintained +that there was but _one_ nature in Christ; in the 7th century by the +Monothelites, who acknowledged but _one_ will in Christ; in the 8th +century by the Iconoclasts and by the new teaching of Mahomet. One very +eminent theologian, whose importance it has been reserved for modern +times to estimate aright--Leontius of Byzantium (6th century)--was the +first to introduce Aristotelian definitions into theology, and may thus +be called the first scholastic. In his works he attacked the heretics of +his age, particularly the Monophysites, who were also assailed by his +contemporary Anastasius of Antioch. The chief adversaries of the +Monothelites were Sophronius, patriarch of Jerusalem (whose main +importance, however, is due to his work in other fields, in hagiography +and homiletics), Maximus the Confessor, and Anastasius Sinaites, who +also composed an interpretation of the _Hexaemeron_ in twelve books. +Among writers in the departments of critical interpretation and +asceticism in this period must be enumerated Procopius of Gaza, who +devoted himself principally to the exegesis of the Old Testament; +Johannes Climax (6th century), named after his much-read ascetic work +_Klimax_ (Jacob's ladder); and Johannes Moschus (d. 619), whose chief +work _Leimon_ ("spiritual pasture") describes monastic life in the form +of statements and narratives of their experiences by monks themselves. +The last great heresy, which shook the Greek Church to its very +foundations, the Iconoclast movement, summoned to the fray the last +great Greek theologian, John of Damascus (Johannes Damascenus). Yet his +chief merit lies not so much in his polemical speeches against the +Iconoclasts, and in his much admired but over-refined poetry, as in his +great dogmatic work, _The Fountain of Knowledge_, which contains the +first comprehensive exposition of Christian dogma. It has remained the +standard work on Greek theology down to the present day. Just as the +internal development of the Greek Church in all essentials reached its +limit with the Iconoclasts, so also its productive intellectual activity +ceased with John of Damascus. Such theological works as were +subsequently produced, consisted mostly in the interpretation and +revision of old materials. An extremely copious, but unfruitful, +literature was produced by the disputes about the reunion of the Greek +and Roman Churches. Of a more independent character is the literature +which in the 14th century centred round the dissensions of the +Hesychasts. + +Among theologians after John of Damascus must be mentioned: the emperor +Leo VI., the Wise (886-911), who wrote numerous homilies and church +hymns, and Theodorus of Studium (759-826), who in his numerous writings +affords us instructive glimpses of monastic life. Pre-eminent stands the +figure of the patriarch Photius. Yet his importance consists less in his +writings, which often, to a remarkable extent, lack independence of +thought and judgment, than in his activity as a prince of the church. +For he it was who carried the differences which had already repeatedly +arisen between Rome and Constantinople to a point at which +reconciliation was impossible, and was mainly instrumental in preparing +the way for the separation of the Greek and Latin Churches accomplished +in 1054 under the patriarch Michael Cerularius. In the 11th century the +polyhistor Michael Psellus also wrote polemics against the Euchites, +among whom the Syrian Gnosis was reviving. All literature, including +theology, experienced a considerable revival under the Comneni. In the +reign of Alexius I. Comnenus (1081-1118), Euthymius Zigabenus wrote his +great dogmatic work, the _Dogmatic Panoply_, which, like _The Fountain +of Knowledge_ of John of Damascus in earlier times, was partly positive, +furnishing an armoury of theology, partly negative and directed against +the sects. In addition to attacking the dead and buried doctrines of the +Monothelites, Iconoclasts, &c., to fight which was at this time a mere +tilting at windmills, Zigabenus also carried on a polemic against the +heretics of his own day, the Armenians, Bogomils and Saracens. +Zigabenus's _Panoply_ was continued and enlarged a century later by the +historian Nicetas Acominatus, who published it under the title _Treasure +of Orthodoxy_. To the writings against ancient heresies were next added +a flood of tracts, of all shapes and sizes, "against the Latins," i.e. +against the Roman Church, and among their authors must also be +enumerated an emperor, the gifted Theodore II. Lascaris (1254-1258). The +chief champion of the union with the Roman Church was the learned +Johannes Beccus (patriarch of Constantinople 1275-1282). Of his +opponents by far the most eminent was Gregory of Cyprus, who succeeded +him on the patriarchal throne. The fluctuations in the fortunes of the +two ecclesiastical parties are reflected in the occupation of the +patriarchal throne. The battles round the question of the union, which +were waged with southern passion, were for a while checked by the +dissensions aroused by the mystic tendency of the Hesychasts. The +impetus to this great literary movement was given by the monk Barlaam, a +native of Calabria, who came forward in Constantinople as an opponent of +the Latins and was in 1339 entrusted by Andronicus III. with a mission +to Pope Benedict XII. at Avignon. He condemned the doctrine of the +Hesychasts, and attacked them both orally and in writing. Among those +who shared his views are conspicuous the historian Nicephorus Gregoras +and Gregorius Acindynus, the latter of whom closely followed Thomas +Aquinas in his writings. In fact the struggle against the Hesychasts was +essentially a struggle between sober western scholasticism and dreamy +Graeco-Oriental mysticism. On the side of the Hesychasts fought +Gregorius Palamas, who tried to give a dogmatic foundation to the +mysticism of the Hesychasts, Cabasilas, and the emperor John VI. +Cantacuzenus who, after his deposition, sought, in the peaceful retreat +of a monastery, consolation in theological studies, and in his literary +works refuted the Jews and the Mahommedans. For the greatest Byzantine +"apologia" against Islamism we are indebted to an emperor, Manuel II. +Palaeologus (1391-1425), who by learned discussions tried to make up for +the deficiency in martial prowess shown by the Byzantines in their +struggle with the Turks. On the whole, theological literature was in the +last century of the empire almost completely occupied with the struggles +for and against the union with Rome. The reason lay in the political +conditions. The emperors saw more and more clearly that without the aid +of the West they would no longer be able to stand their ground against +the Turks, the vanguard of the armies of the Crescent; while the +majority of Byzantine theologians feared that the assistance of the West +would force the Greeks to unite with Rome, and thereby to forfeit their +ecclesiastical independence. Considering the supremacy of the +theological party in Byzantium, it was but natural that religious +considerations should gain the day over political; and this was the view +almost universally held by the Byzantines in the later centuries of the +empire; in the words of the chronicler Ducas: "it is better to fall into +the hands of the Turks than into those of the Franks." The chief +opponent of the union was Marcus Eugenicus, metropolitan of Ephesus, +who, at the Council of Florence in 1439, denounced the union with Rome +accomplished by John VIII. Palaeologus. Conspicuous there among the +partisans of the union, by reason of his erudition and general literary +merit, was Bessarion, afterwards cardinal, whose chief activity already +falls under the head of Graeco-Italian humanism. + + + Hagiography. + +Hagiography, i.e. the literature of the acts of the martyrs and the +lives of the saints, forms an independent group and one comparatively +unaffected by dogmatic struggles. The main interest centres here round +the objects described, the personalities of the martyrs and saints +themselves. The authors, on the other hand--the _Acts of the Martyrs_ +are mostly anonymous--keep more in the background than in other branches +of literature. The man whose name is mainly identified with Greek +hagiography, Symeon Metaphrastes, is important not as an original +author, but only as an editor. Symeon revised in the 10th century, +according to the rhetorical and linguistic principles of his day, +numerous old _Acts of the Martyrs_, and incorporated them in a +collection consisting of several volumes, which was circulated in +innumerable copies, and thus to a great extent superseded the older +original texts. These _Acts of the Martyrs_, in point of time, are +anterior to our period; but of the _Lives of Saints_ the greater portion +belong to Byzantine literature. They began with biographies of monks +distinguished for their saintly living, such as were used by Palladius +about 420 in his _Historia Lausiaca_. The most famous work of this +description is that by Athanasius of Alexandria, viz. the biography of +St Anthony, the founder of monachism. In the 6th century Cyril of +Scythopolis wrote several lives of saints, distinguished by a simple and +straightforward style. More expert than any one else in reproducing the +naive popular style was Leontius of Neapolis in Cyprus who, in the 7th +century, wrote, among other works, a life of St John the Merciful, +archbishop of Alexandria, which is very remarkable as illustrating the +social and intellectual conditions of the time. From the popular _Lives +of Saints_, which for the reading public of the middle ages formed the +chief substitute for modern "belles lettres," it is easy to trace the +transition to the religious novel. The most famous work of this class is +the history of BARLAAM AND JOSAPHAT (q.v.). + + + Religious poetry. + +The religious poetry of the Greeks primarily suffered from the influence +of the ancient Greek form, which was fatal to original development. The +oldest work of this class is the hymn, composed in anapaestic monometers +and dimeters, which was handed down in the manuscripts with the +_Paedagogus_ of Clement of Alexandria (d. about 215), but was probably +not his work. The next piece of this class is the famous "Maidens' Song" +in the _Banquet_ of St Methodius (d. about 311), in which many striking +violations of the old rules of quantity are already apparent. More +faithful to the tradition of the schools was Gregory of Nazianzus. But, +owing to the fact that he generally employed antiquated versification +and very erudite language, his poems failed to reach the people or to +find a place in the services of the church. Just as little could the +artificial paraphrase of the Psalms composed by the younger Apollinaris, +or the subtle poems of Synesius, become popular. It became more and more +patent that, with the archaic metre which was out of keeping with the +character of the living language, no genuine poetry suited to the age +could possibly be produced. Fortunately, an entirely new form of +poetical art was discovered, which conferred upon the Greek people the +blessings of an intelligible religious poetry--the rhythmic poem. This +no longer depended on difference of quantity in the syllables, which had +disappeared from the living language, but on the accent. Yet the +transition was not effected by the substitution of accent for the old +long syllables; the ancient verse form was entirely abandoned, and in +its stead new and variously constructed lines and strophes were formed. +In the history of the rhythmic sacred poetry three periods are clearly +marked--the preparatory period; that of the hymns; and that of the +_Canones_. About the first period we know, unfortunately, comparatively +little. It appears that in it church music was in the main confined to +the insertion of short songs between the Psalms or other portions of +Holy Writ and the acclamations of the congregation. The oldest rhythmic +songs date from Gregory of Nazianzus--his "Maidens' Song" and his +"Evening Hymn." Church poetry reached its highest expression in the +second period, in the grand development of the hymns, i.e. lengthy songs +comprising from twenty to thirty similarly constructed strophes, each +connected with the next in acrostic fashion. Hymnology, again, attained +its highest perfection in the first half of the 6th century with +Romanos, who in the great number and excellence of his hymns dominated +this species of poetry, as Homer did the Greek epic. From this period +dates, moreover, the most famous song of the Greek Church, the so-called +_Acathistus_, an anonymous hymn of praise to the Virgin Mary, which has +sometimes, but erroneously, been attributed to the patriarch Sergius. + + + Canones. + +Church poetry entered upon a new stage, characterized by an increase in +artistic finish and a falling off in poetical vigour, with the +composition of the _Canones_, songs artfully built up out of eight or +nine lyrics, all differently constructed. Andreas, archbishop of Crete +(c. 650-720), is regarded as the inventor of this new class of song. His +chief work, "the great Canon," comprises no less than 250 strophes. The +most celebrated writers of _Canones_ are John of Damascus and Cosmas of +Jerusalem, both of whom flourished in the first half of the 8th century. +The "vulgar" simplicity of Romanos was regarded by them as an obsolete +method; they again resorted to the classical style of Gregory of +Nazianzus, and John of Damascus even took a special delight in the most +elaborate tricks of expression. In spite of this, or perhaps on that +very account, both he and Cosmas were much admired in later times, were +much read, and--as was very necessary--much commentated. Later, sacred +poetry was more particularly cultivated in the monastery of the Studium +at Constantinople by the abbot Theodorus and others. Again, in the 9th +century, Joseph, "the hymn-writer," excelled as a writer of songs, and, +finally, John Mauropus (11th century), bishop of Euchaita, John Zonaras +(12th century), and Nicephorus Blemmydes (13th century), were also +distinguished as authors of sacred poems, i.e. _Canones_. The Basilian +Abbey of Grotta Ferrata near Rome, founded in 1004, and still existing, +was also a nursery of religious poetry. As regards the rhythmic church +poetry, it may now be regarded as certain that its origin was in the +East. Old Hebrew and Syrian models mainly stimulated it, and Romanos +(q.v.) was especially influenced by the metrical homilies of the great +Syrian father Ephraem (d. about 373). + + + Profane literature; historical accounts. + +In profane literature the writing of history takes the first place, as +regards both form and substance. The Greeks have always been deeply +interested in history, and they have never omitted, amid all the +vicissitudes of their existence, to hand down a record to posterity. +Thus, they have produced a literature extending from the Ionian +logographers and Herodotus down to the times of Sultan Mahommed II. In +the Byzantine period all historical accounts fall under one of two +groups, entirely different, both in form and in matter, (1) historical +works, the authors of which described, as did most historians of ancient +times, a period of history in which they themselves had lived and moved, +or one which only immediately preceded their own times; and (2) +chronicles, shortly recapitulating the history of the world. This latter +class has no exact counterpart in ancient literature. The most clearly +marked stage in the development of a Christian-Byzantine universal +history was the chronicle (unfortunately lost) written by the Hellenized +Jew, Justus of Tiberias, at the beginning of the 2nd century of the +Christian era; this work began with the story of Moses. + +Byzantine histories of contemporary events do not differ substantially +from ancient historical works, except in their Christian colouring. Yet +even this is often very faint and blurred owing to close adherence to +ancient methods. Apart from this, neither a new style nor a new critical +method nor any radically new views appreciably altered the main +character of Byzantine historiography. In their style most Byzantine +compilers of contemporary history followed the beaten track of older +historians, e.g. Herodotus, Thucydides, and, in some details, also +Polybius. But, in spite of their often excessive tendency to imitation, +they displayed considerable power in the delineation of character and +were not wanting in independent judgment. As regards the selection of +their matter, they adhered to the old custom of beginning their +narrative where their predecessors left off. + +The outstripping of the Latin West by the Greek East, which after the +close of the 4th century was a self-evident fact, is reflected in +historiography also. After Constantine the Great, the history of the +empire, although its Latin character was maintained until the 6th +century, was mostly written by Greeks; e.g. Eunapius (c. 400), +Olympiodorus (c. 450), Priscus (c. 450), Malchus (c. 490), and Zosimus, +the last pagan historian (c. 500), all of whom, with the exception of +Zosimus, are unfortunately preserved to us only in fragments. +Historiography received a great impulse in the 6th century. The powerful +Procopius and Agathias (q.v.), tinged with poetical rhetoric, described +the stirring and eventful times of Justinian, while Theophanes of +Byzantium, Menander Protector, Johannes of Epiphaneia and Theophylactus +of Simocatta described the second half of the 6th century. Towards the +close of the 6th century also flourished the last independent +ecclesiastical historian, Evagrius, who wrote the history of the church +from 431 to 593. There now followed, however, a lamentable falling off +in production. From the 7th to the 10th century the historical side is +represented by a few chronicles, and it was not until the 10th century +that, owing to the revival of ancient classical studies, the art of +writing history showed some signs of life. Several historical works are +associated with the name of the emperor Constantine VII. +Porphyrogenitus. To his learned circle belonged also Joseph Genesius, +who at the emperor's instance compiled the history of the period from +813 to 886. A little work, interesting from the point of view of +historical and ethnographical science, is the account of the taking of +Thessalonica by the Cretan Corsairs (A.D. 904), which a priest, Johannes +Cameniata, an eyewitness of the event, has bequeathed to posterity. +There is also contained in the excellent work of Leo Diaconus (on the +period from 959 to 975) a graphic account of the bloody wars of the +Byzantines with the Arabs in Crete and with the Bulgarians. A +continuation was undertaken by the philosopher Michael Psellus in a work +covering the period from 976 to 1077. A valuable supplement to the +latter (describing the period from 1034 to 1079) was supplied by the +jurist Michael Attaliata. The history of the Eastern empire during the +Crusades was written in four considerable works, by Nicephorus +Bryennius, his learned consort Anna Comnena, the "honest Aetolian," +Johannes Cinnamus, and finally by Nicetas Acominatus in an exhaustive +work which is authoritative for the history of the 4th Crusade. The +melancholy conditions and the ever increasing decay of the empire under +the Palaeologi (13th-15th centuries) are described in the same lofty +style, though with a still closer following of classical models. The +events which took place between the taking of Constantinople by the +Latins and the restoration of Byzantine rule (1203-1261) are recounted +by Georgius Acropolita, who emphasizes his own share in them. The +succeeding period was written by the versatile Georgius Pachymeres, the +erudite and high-principled Nicephorus Gregoras, and the emperor John +VI. Cantacuzenus. Lastly, the death-struggle between the East Roman +empire and the mighty rising power of the Ottomans was narrated by three +historians, all differing in culture and in style, Laonicus +Chalcocondyles, Ducas and Georgius Phrantzes. With them may be classed a +fourth (though he lived outside the Byzantine period), Critobulus, a +high-born Greek of Imbros, who wrote, in the style of the age of +Pericles, the history of the times of the sultan Mahommed II. (down to +1467). + + + Chronicles. + +The essential importance of the Byzantine chronicles (mostly chronicles +of the history of the world from the Creation) consists in the fact that +they in part replace older lost works, and thus fill up many gaps in our +historical survey (e.g. for the period from about 600 to 800 of which +very few records remain). They lay no claim to literary merit, but are +often serviceable for the history of language. Many such chronicles were +furnished with illustrations. The remains of one such illustrated +chronicle on papyrus, dating from the beginning of the 5th century, has +been preserved for us by the soil of Egypt.[7] The authors of the +chronicles were mostly monks, who wished to compile handbooks of +universal history for their brethren and for pious laymen; and this +explains the strong clerical and popular tendency of these works. And it +is due to these two qualities that the chronicles obtained a +circulation abroad, both in the West and also among the peoples +Christianized from Byzantium, e.g. the Slavs, and in all of them sowed +the seeds of an indigenous historical literature. Thus the chronicles, +despite the jejuneness of their style and their uncritical treatment of +material were for the general culture of the middle ages of far greater +importance than the erudite contemporary histories designed only for the +highly educated circles in Byzantium. The oldest Byzantine chronicle of +universal history preserved to us is that of Malalas (6th century), +which is also the purest type of this class of literature. In the 7th +century was completed the famous _Easter_ or _Paschal Chronicle_ +(_Chronicon Paschale_). About the end of the 8th or the beginning of the +9th century Georgius Syncellus compiled a concise chronicle, which began +with the Creation and was continued down to the year 284. At the request +of the author, when on his death-bed, the continuation of this work was +undertaken by Theophanes Confessor, who brought down the account from +A.D. 284 to his own times (A.D. 813). This exceedingly valuable work of +Theophanes was again continued (from 813-961) by several anonymous +chroniclers. A contemporary of Theophanes, the patriarch Nicephorus, +wrote, in addition to a _Short History_ of the period from 602 to 769, a +chronological sketch from Adam down to the year of his own death in 829. +Of great influence on the age that followed was Georgius Monachus, only +second in importance as chronicler of the early Byzantine period, who +compiled a chronicle of the world's history (from Adam until the year +843, the end of the Iconoclast movement), far more theological and +monkish in character than the work of Theophanes. Among later +chroniclers Johannes Scylitza stands out conspicuously. His work +(covering the period from 811 to 1057), as regards the range of its +subject-matter, is something between a universal and a contemporary +history. Georgius Cedrenus (c. 1100) embodied the whole of Scylitza's +work, almost unaltered, in his _Universal Chronicle_. In the 12th +century the general increase in literary production was evident also in +the department of chronicles of the world. From this period dates, for +instance, the most distinguished and learned work of this class, the +great universal chronicle of John Zonaras. In the same century Michael +Glycas compiled his chronicle of the world's history, a work written in +the old popular style and designed for the widest circles of readers. +Lastly, in the 12th century, Constantine Manasses wrote a universal +chronicle in the so-called "political" verse. With this verse-chronicle +must be classed the imperial chronicle of Ephraem, written in Byzantine +trimeters at the beginning of the 14th century. + + + Geography. + +Geography and topography, subjects so closely connected with history, +were as much neglected by the Byzantines as by their political +forerunners, the Romans. Of purely practical importance are a few +handbooks of navigation, itineraries, guides for pilgrims, and +catalogues of provinces and cities, metropolitan sees and bishoprics. +The geographical work of Stephanus of Byzantium, which dates from +Justinian's time, has been lost. To the same period belongs the only +large geographical work which has been preserved to us, the _Christian +Topography_ of Cosmas Indicopleustes. For the topography of +Constantinople a work entitled _Ancient History (Patria) of +Constantinople_, which may be compared to the medieval _Mirabilia urbis +Romae_, and in late manuscripts has been wrongly attributed to a certain +Codinus, is of great importance. + + + Philosophy. + +Ancient Greek philosophy under the empire sent forth two new +shoots--Neopythagoreanism and Neoplatonism. It was the latter with which +moribund paganism essayed to stem the advancing tide of Christianity. +The last great exponent of this philosophy was Proclus in Athens (d. +485). The dissolution, by order of Justinian, of the school of +philosophy at Athens in 529 was a fatal blow to this nebulous system, +which had long since outlived the conditions that made it a living +force. In the succeeding period philosophical activity was of two main +kinds; on the one hand, the old philosophy, e.g. that of Aristotle, was +employed to systematize Christian doctrine, while, on the other, the +old works were furnished with copious commentaries and paraphrases. +Leontius of Byzantium had already introduced Aristotelian definitions +into Christology; but the real founder of medieval ecclesiastical +philosophy was John of Damascus. Owing, however, to his having early +attained to canonical authority, the independent progress of +ecclesiastical philosophy was arrested; and to this it is due that in +this respect the later Byzantine period is far poorer than is the West. +Byzantium cannot boast a scholastic like Thomas Aquinas. In the 11th +century philosophical studies experienced a satisfactory revival, mainly +owing to Michael Psellus, who brought Plato as well as Aristotle again +into fashion. + + + Rhetoric. + +Ancient rhetoric was cultivated in the Byzantine period with greater +ardour than scientific philosophy, being regarded as an indispensable +aid to instruction. It would be difficult to imagine anything more +tedious than the numerous theoretical writings on the subject and the +examples of their practical application: mechanical school essays, which +here count as "literature," and innumerable letters, the contents of +which are wholly insignificant. The evil effects of this were felt +beyond the proper sphere of rhetoric. The anxious attention paid to the +laws of rhetoric and the unrestricted use of its withered flowers were +detrimental to a great part of the rest of Byzantine literature, and +greatly hampered the development of any individuality and simplicity of +style. None the less, among the rhetorical productions of the time are +to be found a few interesting pieces, such as the _Philopatris_, in the +style of Lucian, which gives us a remarkable picture of the times of +Nicephorus Phocas (10th century). In two other smaller works a journey +to the dwellings of the dead is described, after the pattern of Lucian's +_Nekyomanteia_, viz. in _Timarion_ (12th century) and in Mazaris' +_Journey to the Underworld_ (c. 1414). A very charming representative of +Byzantine rhetoric is Michael Acominatus, who, in addition to +theological works, wrote numerous occasional speeches, letters and +poems. + + + The sciences. + +In the field of scientific production, which can be accounted literature +in the modern acceptation of the term only in a limited sense, Byzantium +was dominated to an extravagant and even grotesque extent by the rules +of what in modern times is termed "classical scholarship." The numerous +works which belong to this category, such as grammars, dictionaries, +commentaries on ancient authors, extracts from ancient literature, and +metrical and musical treatises, are of little general interest, although +of great value for special branches of philological study, e.g. for +tracing the influences through which the ancient works handed down to us +have passed, as well as for their interpretation and emendation; for +information about ancient authors now lost; for the history of +education; and for the underlying principles of intellectual life in +Byzantium. The most important monument of Byzantine philology is, +perhaps, the _Library_ of the patriarch Photius. The period from about +650 to 850 is marked by a general decay of culture. Photius, who in the +year 850 was about thirty years of age, now set himself with admirable +energy to the task of making ancient literature, now for the most part +dead and forgotten, known once more to his contemporaries, thus +contributing to its preservation. He gave an account of all that he +read, and in this way composed 280 essays, which were collected in what +is commonly known as the _Library_ or _Myriobiblon_. The character of +the individual sketches is somewhat mechanical and formal; a more or +less complete account of the contents is followed by critical +discussion, which is nearly always confined to the linguistic form. With +this work may be compared in importance the great _Lexikon_ of Suidas, +which appeared about a century later, a sort of encyclopaedia, of which +the main feature was its articles on the history of literature. A truly +sympathetic figure is Eustathius, the famous archbishop of Thessalonica +(12th century). His voluminous commentaries on Homer, however, rivet the +attention less than his enthusiastic devotion to science, his energetic +action on behalf of the preservation of the literary works of antiquity, +and last, not least, his frank and heroic character, which had nothing +in it of the Byzantine. If, on the other hand, acquaintance with a +caricature of Byzantine philology be desired, it is afforded by Johannes +Tzetzes, a contemporary of Eustathius, a Greek in neither name nor +spirit, narrow-minded, angular, superficial, and withal immeasurably +conceited and ridiculously coarse in his polemics. The transition to +Western humanism was effected by the philologists of the period of the +Palaeologi, such as Maximus Planudes, whose translations of numerous +works renewed the long-broken ties between Byzantium and the West; +Manuel Moschopulus, whose grammatical works and commentaries were, down +to the 16th century, used as school text-books; Demetrius Triclinius, +distinguished as a textual critic; the versatile Theodorus Metochites, +and others. + + + Jurisprudence. + +Originally, as is well known, Latin was the exclusive language of Roman +law. But with Justinian, who codified the laws in his _Corpus juris_, +the Hellenizing of the legal language also began. The _Institutes_ and +the _Digest_ were translated into Greek, and the _Novels_ also were +issued in a Greek form. Under the Macedonian dynasty there began, after +a long stagnation, the resuscitation of the code of Justinian. The +emperor Basilius I. (867-886) had extracts made from the existing law, +and made preparations for the codifying of all laws. But the whole work +was not completed till the time of Leo VI. the Wise (886-912), and +Constantine VII. Porphyrogenitus (912-959), when it took the form of a +grand compilation from the _Digests_, the _Codex_, and the _Novels_, and +is commonly known as the _Basilica_ ([Greek: Ta basilika]). In the East +it completely superseded the old Latin _Corpus juris_ of Justinian. More +that was new was produced, during the Byzantine period, in canon law +than in secular legislation. The purely ecclesiastical rules of law, the +_Canones_, were blended with those of civil law, and thus arose the +so-called _Nomocanon_, the most important edition of which is that of +Theodorus Bestes in 1090. The alphabetical handbook of canon law written +by Matthaeus Blastares about the year 1335 also exercised a great +influence. + + + Mathematics and astronomy. + +In the province of mathematics and astronomy the remarkable fact must be +recorded that the revival among the Greeks of these long-forgotten +studies was primarily due to Perso-Arabian influence. The _Great +Syntaxis_ of Ptolemy operated in the oriental guise of the _Almagest_. +The most important direct source of this intellectual loan was not +Arabia, however, but Persia. Towards the close of the 13th century the +Greeks became acquainted with Persian astronomy. At the beginning of the +14th century Georgius Chrysococca and Isaac Argyrus wrote astronomical +treatises based on Persian works. Then the Byzantines themselves, +notably Theodorus Metochites and Nicephorus Gregoras, at last had +recourse to the original Greek sources. + + + Military science. + +The Byzantines did much independent work in the field of military +science. The most valuable work of the period on this subject is one on +tactics, which has come down to posterity associated with the name of +Leo VI., the Wise. + + + Profane poetry. + +Of profane poetry--in complete contrast to sacred poetry--the general +characteristic was its close imitation of the antique in point of form. +All works belonging to this category reproduce the ancient style and are +framed after ancient models. The metre is, for the most part, either the +Byzantine regular twelve-syllable trimeter, or the "political" verse; +more rarely the heroic and Anacreontic measures. + + + Epic. + +Epic popular poetry, in the ancient sense, begins only with the +vernacular Greek literature (see below); but among the literary works of +the period there are several which can be compared with the epics of the +Alexandrine age. Nonnus (c. 400) wrote, while yet a pagan, a fantastic +epic on the triumphal progress of the god Dionysus to India, and, as a +Christian, a voluminous commentary on the gospel of St John. In the 7th +century, Georgius Pisides sang in several lengthy iambic poems the +martial deeds of the emperor Heraclius, while the deacon Theodosius +(10th century) immortalized in extravagant language the victories of the +brave Nicephorus Phocas. + + + Didactic poems. + +From the 11th century onwards, religious, grammatical, astrological, +medical, historical and allegorical poems, framed partly in +duodecasyllables and partly in "political" verse, made their appearance +in large quantities. Didactic religious poems were composed, for +example, by Philippus ([Greek: ho Monotropos], Solitarius, c. 1100), +grammatico-philological poems by Johannes Tzetzes, astrological by +Johannes Camaterus (12th century), others on natural science by Manuel +Philes (14th century) and a great moral, allegorical, didactic epic by +Georgius Lapithes (14th century). + + + Romances. + +To these may be added some voluminous poems, which in style and matter +must be regarded as imitations of the ancient Greek romances. They all +date from the 12th century, a fact evidently connected with the general +revival of culture which characterizes the period of the Comneni. Two of +these romances are written in the duodecasyllable metre, viz. the story +of Rodanthe and Dosicles by Theodorus Prodromus, and an imitation of +this work, the story of Drusilla and Charicles by Nicetas Eugenianus; +one in "political" verse, the love story of Aristander and Callithea by +Constantine Manasses, which has only been preserved in fragments, and +lastly one in prose, the story of Hysmine and Hysminias, by Eustathius +(or Eumathius) Macrembolita, which is the most insipid of all. + + + Lyrics. + + The epigram. + +The objective point of view which dominated the whole Byzantine period +was fatal to the development of a profane lyrical poetry. At most a few +poems by Johannes Geometres and Christophorus of Mytilene and others, in +which personal experiences are recorded with some show of taste, may be +placed in this category. The dominant form for all subjective poetry was +the epigram, which was employed in all its variations from playful +trifles to long elegiac and narrative poems. Georgius Pisides (7th +century) treated the most diverse themes. In the 9th century Theodorus +of Studium had lighted upon the happy idea of immortalizing monastic +life in a series of epigrams. The same century produced the only poetess +of the Byzantine period, Casia, from whom we have several epigrammatic +productions and church hymns, all characterized by originality. +Epigrammatic poetry reached its highest development in the 10th and 11th +centuries, in the productions of Johannes Geometres, Christophorus of +Mytilene and John Mauropus. Less happy are Theodorus Prodromus (12th +century) and Manuel Philes (14th century). From the beginning of the +10th century also dates the most valuable collection of ancient and of +Byzantine epigrammatic poems, the _Anthologia Palatina_ (see ANTHOLOGY). + + + Drama. + +Dramatic poetry, in the strict sense of the term, was as completely +lacking among the Byzantine Greeks as was the condition precedent to its +existence, namely, public performance. Apart from some moralizing +allegorical dialogues (by Theodorus Prodromus, Manuel Philes and +others), we possess only a single work of the Byzantine period that, at +least in external form, resembles a drama: the _Sufferings of Christ_ +([Greek: Christos Paschon]). This work, written probably in the 12th +century, or at all events not earlier, is a cento, i.e. is in great +measure composed of verses culled from ancient writers, e.g. Aeschylus, +Euripides and Lycophron; but it was certainly not written with a view to +the dramatic production. + + + Vernacular Greek literature. + +The vernacular literature stands alone, both in form and in contents. We +have here remarkable originality of conception and probably also +entirely new and genuinely medieval matter. While in the artificial +literature prose is pre-eminent, in the vernacular literature, poetry, +both in quantity and quality, takes the first place, as was also the +case among the Latin nations, where the vulgar tongue first invaded the +field of poetry and only later that of prose. Though a few preliminary +attempts were made (proverbs, acclamations addressed by the people to +the emperor, &c.), the Greek vernacular was employed for larger works +only from the 12th century onwards; at first in poems, of which the +major portion were cast in "political" verse, but some in the trochaic +eight-syllabled line. Towards the close of the 15th century rhyme came +into use. The subjects treated in this vernacular poetry are +exceedingly diverse. In the capital city a mixture of the learned and +the popular language was first used in poems of admonition, praise and +supplication. In this oldest class of "vulgar" works must be reckoned +the _Spaneas_, an admonitory poem in imitation of the letter of +Pseudo-Isocrates addressed to Demonicus; a supplicatory poem composed in +prison by the chronicler Michael Glycas, and several begging poems of +Theodorus Prodromus (Ptochoprodromos). In the succeeding period erotic +poems are met with, such as the Rhodian love songs preserved in a MS. in +the British Museum (ed. W. Wagner, Leipzig, 1879), fairy-tale like +romances such as the _Story of Ptocholeon_, oracles, prayers, extracts +from Holy Writ, lives of saints, &c. Great epic poems, in which antique +subjects are treated, such as the legends of Troy and of Alexander, form +a separate group. To these may be added romances in verse after the +manner of the works written in the artificial classical language, e.g. +_Callimachus and Chrysorrhoe_, _Belthandrus and Chrysantza_, _Lybistrus +and Rhodamne_, also romances in verse after the Western pattern, such as +_Phlorius_ and _Platziaphlora_ (the old French story of _Flore et +Blanchefleur_). Curious are also sundry legends connected with animals +and plants, such as an adaptation of the famous medieval animal fables +of the _Physiologus_, a history of quadrupeds, and a book of birds, both +written with a satirical intention, and, lastly, a rendering of the +story of Reynard the Fox. Of quite peculiar originality also are several +legendary and historical poems, in which famous heroes and historical +events are celebrated. There are, for instance, poems on the fall of +Constantinople, the taking of Athens and Trebizond, the devastating +campaign of Timur, the plague in Rhodes in 1498, &c. In respect of +importance and antiquity the great heroic epic of Digenis Akritas stands +pre-eminent. + + + "Vulgar" prose works. + +Among prose works written in the vulgar tongue, or at least in a +compromise with it, may be mentioned the Greek rendering of two works +from an Indian source, the _Book of the Seven Wise Masters_ (as +_Syntipas the Philosopher_ by Michael Andreopulus), and the _Hitopadera_ +or _Mirror of Princes_ (through the Arabic _Kalilah and Dimnah_ by +Simeon Sethus as [Greek: Stephanites kai Iknelates]), a fish book, a +fruit book (both skits on the Byzantine court and official circles). To +these must be added the Greek laws of Jerusalem and of Cyprus of the +12th and 13th centuries, chronicles, &c. In spite of many individual +successes, the literature written in the vulgar tongue succumbed, in the +race for existence, to its elder sister, the literature written in +classical and polished Greek. This was mainly due to the continuous +employment of the ancient language in the state, the schools and the +church. + + + General significance of Byzantine literature. + +The importance of Byzantine culture and literature in the history of the +world is beyond dispute. The Christians of the East Roman empire guarded +for more than a thousand years the intellectual heritage of antiquity +against the violent onslaught of the barbarians. They also called into +life a peculiar medieval culture and literature. They communicated the +treasures of the old pagan as well as of their own Christian literature +to neighbouring nations; first to the Syrians, then to the Copts, the +Armenians, the Georgians; later, to the Arabians, the Bulgarians, the +Serbs and the Russians. Through their teaching they created a new East +European culture, embodied above all in the Russian empire, which, on +its religious side, is included in the Orthodox Eastern Church, and from +the point of view of nationality touches the two extremes of Greek and +Slav. Finally the learned men of the dying Byzantine empire, fleeing +from the barbarism of the Turks, transplanted the treasures of old +Hellenic wisdom to the West, and thereby fertilized the Western peoples +with rich germs of culture. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--1. General sources: K. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der + byzantinischen Literatur_ (2nd ed., 1897), supplemented in _Die + byzantinische Zeitschrift_ (1892 seq.), and the _Byzantinisches + Archiv_ (1898 seq.), which is intended for the publication of more + exhaustive matter. The Russian works in this department are comprised + in the _Vizantiisky Vremennik_ (1894 seq.). + + 2. Language: Grammar: A. N. Jannaris (Giannaris), _An Historical + Greek Grammar_ (1897); A. Dieterich, "Untersuchungen zur Geschichte + der griechischen Sprache von der hellenistischen Zeit bis zum 10ten + Jahrhundert," in _Byzant. Archiv_, i. (1898). Glossary: Ducange, + _Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et infimae Graecitatis_ (1688), in + which particular attention is paid to the "vulgar" language; E. A. + Sophocles, _Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine Periods_ (3rd + ed., 1888). + + 3. Theology: Chief work, A. Ehrhard in Krumbacher's _Geschichte der + byz. Lit._ pp. 1-218. For the ancient period, cf. the works on Greek + patrology (under article FATHERS OF THE CHURCH). Collective edition of + the Fathers (down to the 15th century); _Patrologia, series Graeca_ + (ed. by Migne, 161 vols., 1857-1866). Church poetry: A collection of + Greek Church hymns was published by W. Christ and M. Paranikas, + entitled _Anthologia Graeca carminum Christianorum_ (1871). Many + unedited texts, particularly the songs of Romanos, were published by + Cardinal J. B. Pitra, under the title _Analecta sacra spicilegio + Solesmensi parata_ (1876). A complete edition of the hymns is edited + by K. Krumbacher. + + 4. Historical literature: A collective edition of the Byzantine + historians and chroniclers was begun under Louis XIV., and continued + later (1648-1819), called the _Paris Corpus_. This whole collection + was on B. G. Niebuhr's advice republished with some additions (Bonn, + 1828-1878), under the title _Corpus scriptorum historiae Byzantinae_. + The most important authors have also appeared in the _Bibliotheca + Teubneriana_. A few Byzantine and oriental historical works are also + contained in the collection edited by J. B. Bury (1898 seq.). + + 5. Vernacular Greek literature: The most important collective editions + are: W. Wagner, _Medieval Greek Texts_ (1870), _Carmina Graeca Medii + Aevi_ (1874), _Trois Poemes grecs du moyen age_ (1881); E. Legrand, + _Collection de monuments pour servir a l'etude de la langue + neo-hellenique_ (in 26 parts, 1869-1875), _Bibliotheque grecque + vulgaire_ (in 8 vols., 1880-1896). (K. Kr.) + + +III. MODERN GREEK LITERATURE (1453-1908) + +After the capture of Constantinople, the destruction of Greek national +life and the almost total effacement of Greek civilization naturally +involved a more or less complete cessation of Greek literary production +in the regions subjected to the rule of a barbarous conqueror. Learned +Greeks found a refuge away from their native land; they spoke the +languages of foreign people, and when they wrote books they often used +those languages, but in most cases they also wrote in Greek. The fall of +Constantinople must not therefore be taken as indicating a break in the +continuity of Greek literary history. Nor had that event so decisive an +influence as has been supposed on the revival of learning in western +Europe. The crusades had already brought the Greeks and Westerns +together, and the rule of the Franks at Constantinople and in the Levant +had rendered the contact closer. Greeks and Latins had keenly discussed +the dogmas which divided the Eastern and Western Churches; some Greeks +had adopted the Latin faith or had endeavoured to reconcile the two +communions, some had attained preferment in the Roman Church. Many had +become connected by marriage or other ties with the Italian nobles who +ruled in the Aegean or the Heptanesos, and circumstances led them to +settle in Italy. Of the writers who thus found their way to the West +before the taking of Constantinople the most prominent were Leon or +Leontios Pilatos, Georgius Gemistus, or Pletho, Manuel and John +Chrysoloras, Theodore Gazes, George of Trebizond and Cardinal Bessarion. + + + The Klephtic poetry. + +The Ottoman conquest had reduced the Christian races in the plains to a +condition of serfdom, but the spirit of liberty continued to breathe in +the mountains, where groups of desperate men, the Klephts and the +Haiduks, maintained the struggle against alien tyranny. The adventurous +and romantic life of these champions of freedom, spent amid the noblest +solitudes of nature and often tinged with the deepest tragedy, naturally +produced a poetry of its own, fresh, spontaneous and entirely +indigenous. The Klephtic ballads, all anonymous and composed in the +language of the people, are unquestionably the best and most genuine +Greek poetry of this epoch. They breathe the aroma of the forests and +mountains; like the early rhapsodies of antiquity, which peopled nature +with a thousand forms, they lend a voice to the trees, the rocks, the +rivers and to the mountains themselves, which sing the prowess of the +Klepht, bewail his death and comfort his disconsolate wife or mother. +Olympia boasts to Ossa that the footstep of the Turk has never +desecrated its valleys; the standard of freedom floats over its springs; +there is a Klepht beneath every tree of its forests; an eagle sits on +its summit with the head of a warrior in its talons. The dying Klepht +bids his companions make him a large and lofty tomb that he may stand +therein and load his musket: "Make a window in the side that the +swallows may tell me that spring has come, that the nightingales may +sing me the approach of flowery May." The wounded Vervos is addressed by +his horse: "Rise, my master, let us go and find our comrades." "My bay +horse, I cannot rise; I am dying: dig me a tomb with thy silver-shod +hoof; take me in thy teeth and lay me therein. Bear my arms to my +companions and this handkerchief to my beloved, that she may see it and +lament me." Another type of the popular poetry is presented by the +folk-songs of the Aegean islanders and the maritime population of the +Asiatic coast. In many of the former the influence of the Frankish +conquest is apparent. Traces of the ancient mythology are often to be +found in the popular songs. Death is commonly personified by Charon, who +struggles with his victim; Charon is sometimes worsted, but as a rule he +triumphs in the conflict. + + + Cretan poets. + +In Crete, which for nearly two centuries after the fall of +Constantinople remained under Venetian rule, a school of Greek poetry +arose strongly impressed with Italian influences. The language employed +is the dialect of the Candiotes, with its large admixture of Venetian +words. The first product of this somewhat hybrid literature was +_Erotocritos_, an epic poem in five cantos, which relates the love story +of Arete, daughter of Hercules, king of Athens, and Erotocritos, the son +of his minister. The poem presents an interesting picture of Greece +under the feudal Frankish princes, though professing to describe an +episode of the classical epoch; notwithstanding some tedious passages, +it possesses considerable merit and contains some charming scenes. The +metre is the rhymed alexandrine. Of the author, Vicence Cornaro, who +lived in the middle or end of the 16th century, little is known; he +probably belonged to the ducal family of that name, from which Tasso was +descended. The second poem is the _Erophile_ of George Chortakis, a +Cretan, also written in the Candiote dialect. It is a tragic drama, the +scene of which is laid in Egypt. The dialogue is poor, but there are +some fine choral interludes, which perhaps are by a different hand. +Chortakis, who was brought up at Retimo, lived at the end of the 16th +and beginning of the 17th centuries. The third Cretan poem worthy of +notice is the _Shepherdess_, a charming and graceful idyll written by +Nicolas Drimyticos, a native of Apokorona, early in the 17th century. +Other Cretan poets were J. Gregoropoulos and G. Melissinos (1500), who +wrote epigrams, and Maroulos (1493), who endeavoured to write Pindaric +odes. + + + Literary activity after the fall of Constantinople. + +Among the Greeks who were prominent in spreading a knowledge of Greek in +Europe after the fall of Constantinople were John Argyropulos, Demetrius +Chalcondyles, Constantine and John Lascaris and Marcus Musurus, a +Cretan. These men wrote in the accepted literary language; in general, +however, they were rather employed about literature than engaged in +producing it. They taught Greek; several of them wrote Greek grammars; +they transcribed and edited Greek classical writers, and they collected +manuscripts. Their stores enriched the newly founded libraries of St +Mark at Venice, of the Escorial, of the Vatican and of the National +Library in Paris. But none of them accomplished much in literature +strictly so called. The question which most deeply interested them was +that of the rival merits of the Platonic and Aristotelian philosophies, +over which a controversy of extraordinary bitterness broke out towards +the close of the 15th century. The dispute was in reality theological +rather than philosophical; the cause of Plato was championed by the +advocates of a union between the Eastern and Western Churches, that of +Aristotle was upheld by the opposing party, and all the fury of the old +Byzantine dogmatic controversies was revived. The patriarch, George +Kurtesios or Gennadius, whom Mahommed II. had appointed after the +capture of Constantinople, wrote a treatise in favour of Aristotle and +excommunicated Gemistus Pletho, the principal writer among the +Platonists. On the other hand, George of Trebizond, who attacked Pletho +with unmeasured virulence, was compelled to resign his post of secretary +to Pope Nicholas V. and was imprisoned by Pope Paul I. Scholarship was +not wholly extinct in Greece or among the Greeks for a considerable time +after the Turkish conquest. Arsenius, who succeeded Musurus as bishop of +Monemvasia (1510), wrote commentaries on Aristophanes and Euripides; his +father, Apostoles, made a collection of Greek proverbs. Aemilius Portos, +a Cretan, and Leo Allatios (1600-1650) of Chios edited a number of works +of the classical and later periods with commentaries and translations; +Allatios also wrote Greek verses showing skill and cleverness. +Constantine Rhodokanakes, physician to Charles II. of England, wrote +verses on the return of that monarch to England. About the time of the +fall of Constantinople we meet with some versifiers who wrote poems in +the spoken dialect on historical subjects; among these were +Papaspondylos Zotikos (1444), Georgilas Limenitis (1450-1500) and +Jacobos Trivoles (beginning of the 16th century); their poems have +little merit, but are interesting as specimens of the popular language +of the day and as illustrating the manners and ideas of contemporary +Greeks. + + + Historical works. + +Among the prose writers of the 16th century were a number of +chroniclers. At the end of the 15th, Kritobulos of Imbros, who had been +private secretary of Mahommed II., wrote the history of his master, +Emmanuel Melaxos a history of the patriarchate, and Phranzes a history +of the Palaeologi. Theodosius Zygomalas (1580) wrote a history of +Constantinople from 1391 to 1578. In the 17th century Demetrius +Cantemir, a Moldavian by birth, wrote a history of the Ottoman empire, +and G. Kontares tales of ancient Athens. Others composed chronicles of +Cyprus and Crete, narratives of travels and biographies of saints. Most +of these works are written in the literary language, the study of which +was kept alive by the patriarchate and the schools which it maintained +at Constantinople and elsewhere. Various theological and philosophical +works, grammars and dictionaries were written during this period, but +elegant literature practically disappears.[8] + + + The literary revival. + +A literary revival followed in the 18th century, the precursor of the +national uprising which resulted in the independence of Greece. The +efforts of the great Phanariote families at Constantinople, the +educational zeal of the higher Greek clergy and the munificence of +wealthy Greeks in the provinces, chiefly merchants who had acquired +fortunes by commerce, combined to promote the spread of education among +a people always eager for instruction. The Turks, indifferent to +educational matters, failed to discern the significance of the movement. +Schools were established in every important Greek town, and school-books +and translations from Western languages issued from the presses of +Venice, Triest, Vienna and other cities where the Greeks possessed +colonies. Young men completed their studies in the Western universities +and returned to the East as the missionaries of modern civilization. For +the greater part of the 18th century the literature was mainly +theological. Notable theological writers of this epoch were Elias +Miniates, an elegant preacher, whose sermons are written in the popular +language, and Meletios of Iannina, metropolitan of Athens, whose +principal works were an ecclesiastical history, written in ancient +Greek, and a descriptive geography of Greece in the modern language, +composed, like the work of Pausanias, after a series of tours. The works +of two distinguished prelates, both natives of Corfu and both ardent +partisans of Russia, Nikephoros Theotokes (1731?-1800) and Eugenios +Bulgares (1715-1806), mark the beginning of the national and literary +renaissance. They wrote much in defence of Greek orthodoxy against +Latin heresy. Theotokes, famous as a preacher, wrote, besides +theological and controversial works, treatises on mathematics, geography +and physics. Bulgares was a most prolific author; he wrote numerous +translations and works on theology, archaeology, philosophy, +mathematics, physics and astronomy; he translated the _Aeneid_ and +_Georgics_ of Virgil into Homeric verse at the request of Catherine II. +His writings exercised a considerable influence over his contemporaries. + + + Poets of the Greek revival. + +The poets of the earlier period of the Greek revival were Constantinos +Rhigas (q.v.), the Alcman of the revolutionary movement, whose songs +fired the spirit of his fellow-countrymen; Christopoulos (1772-1847), a +Phanariote, who wrote some charming Anacreontics, and Jacobos Rizos +Neroulos (1778-1850), also a Phanariote, author of tragedies, comedies +and lyrics, and of a work in French on modern Greek literature. They are +followed in the epoch of Greek independence by the brothers Panagiotes +and Alexander Soutzos (1800-1868 and 1803-1863) and Alexander Rhizos +Rhangabes (Rhankaves, 1810-1892), all three Phanariotes. Both Soutzos +had a rich command of musical language, were highly ideal in their +conceptions, strongly patriotic and possessed an ardent love of liberty. +Both imitated to some extent Byron, Lamartine and Beranger; they tried +various forms of poetry, but the genius of Panagiotes was essentially +lyrical, that of Alexander satirical. The other great poet of the Greek +revival, Alexander Rizos Rhangabe, was a writer with a fine poetic +feeling, exquisite diction and singular beauty and purity of thought and +sentiment. Besides numerous odes, hymns, ballads, narrative poems, +tragedies and comedies, he wrote several prose works, including a +history of ancient Greece, a history of modern Greek literature, several +novels and works on ancient art and archaeology. Among the numerous +dramatic works of this time may be mentioned the [Greek: Maria +Doxipatre] of Demetrios Bernardakes, a Cretan, the scene of which is +laid in the Morea at the time of the crusades. + + + Prose writers of the revival. + +In prose composition, as in poetry, the national revival was marked by +an abundant output. Among the historians the greatest is Spiridon +Trikoupis, whose _History of the Revolution_ is a monumental work. It is +distinguished by beauty of style, clearness of exposition and an +impartiality which is all the more remarkable as the author played a +leading part in the events which he narrates. Almost all the chiefs of +the revolutionary movement left their memoirs; even Kolokotrones, who +was illiterate, dictated his recollections. John Philemon, of +Constantinople, wrote a history of the revolution in six volumes. He was +an ardent partisan of Russia, and as such was opposed to Trikoupis, who +was attached to the English party. K. Paparrhegopoulos's _History of the +Greek Nation_ is especially valuable in regard to the later periods; in +regard to the earlier he largely follows Gibbon and Grote. With him may +be mentioned Moustoxides of Corfu, who wrote on Greek history and +literature; Sakellarios, who dealt with the topography and history of +Cyprus; N. Dragoumes, whose historical memoirs treat of the period which +followed the revolution; K. Assopios, who wrote on Greek literature and +history. In theology Oeconomos fills the place occupied by Miniates in +the 17th century as a great preacher. Kontogones is well known by his +_History of Patristic Literature of the First Three Centuries_ and his +_Ecclesiastical History_, and Philotheos Bryennios, bishop of Serres, by +his elaborate edition of _Clemens Romanus_. Kastorches wrote well on +Latin literature. Great literary activity in the domains of law, +political economy, mathematics, the physical sciences and archaeology +displayed itself in the generation after the establishment of the Greek +kingdom. + + + Coraes. + +But the writer who at the time of the national revival not only +exercised the greatest influence over his contemporaries but even to a +large extent shaped the future course of Greek literature was Adamantios +Coraes (Korais) of Chios. This remarkable man, who devoted his life to +philological studies, was at the same time an ardent patriot, and in the +prolegomena to his numerous editions of the classical writers, written +In Greek or French, he strove to awake the interest of his countrymen in +the past glories of their race or administered to them sage counsels, at +the same time addressing ardent appeals to civilized Europe on their +behalf. The great importance of Coraes, however, lies in the fact that +he was practically the founder of the modern literary language. + + + The modern literary language. + +In contemporary Greek literature two distinct forms of the modern +language present themselves--the vernacular ([Greek: he kathomiloumene]) +and the purified ([Greek: he kathareuousa]). The former is the oral +language, spoken by the whole Greek world, with local dialectic +variations; the latter is based on the Greek of the Hellenistic writers, +modified, but not essentially altered, in successive ages by the popular +speech. At the time of the War of Independence the enthusiasm of the +Greeks and the Philhellenes was fired by the memory of an illustrious +past, and at its close a classical reaction followed: the ancient +nomenclature was introduced in every department of the new state, towns +and districts received their former names, and children were christened +after Greek heroes and philosophers instead of the Christian saints. In +the literary revival which attended the national movement, two schools +of writers made their appearance--the purists, who, rejecting the spoken +idiom as degenerate and corrupt, aimed at the restoration of the +classical language, and the vulgarists, who regarded the vernacular or +"Romaic" as the genuine and legitimate representative of the ancient +tongue. A controversy which had existed in former times was thus +revived, with the result that a state of confusion still prevails in the +national literature. The classical scholar who is as yet unacquainted +with modern Greek will find, in the pages of an ordinary periodical or +newspaper, specimens of the conventional literary language, which he can +read with ease side by side with poems or even prose in the vernacular +which he will be altogether unable to interpret. + + + Reforms of Coraes. + +The vernacular or oral language is never taught, but is universally +spoken. It has been evolved from the ancient language by a natural and +regular process, similar to that which has produced the Romance +languages from the Latin, or the Russian, Bulgarian and Servian from the +old Slavonic. It has developed on parallel lines with the modern +European languages, and in obedience to the same laws; like them, it +might have grown into a literary language had any great writers arisen +in the middle ages to do for it what Dante and his successors of the +_trecento_ did for Italian. But the effort to adapt it to the +requirements of modern literature could hardly prove successful. In the +first place, the national sentiment of the Greeks prompts them to +imitate the classical writers, and so far as possible to appropriate +their diction. The beauty and dignity of the ancient tongue possesses +such an attraction for cultivated writers that they are led insensibly +to adopt its forms and borrow from its wealth of phrase and idiom. In +the next place, a certain literary tradition and usage has already been +formed which cannot easily be broken down. For more than half a century +the generally accepted written language, half modern half ancient, has +been in use in the schools, the university, the parliament, the state +departments and the pulpit, and its influence upon the speech of the +more educated classes is already noticeable. It largely owes its present +form--though a fixed standard is still lacking--to the influence and +teaching of Coraes. As in the time of the decadence a [Greek: koine +dialektos] stood midway between the classical language and the popular +speech, so at the beginning of the 19th century there existed a common +literary dialect, largely influenced by the vernacular, but retaining +the characteristics of the old Hellenistic, from which it was derived by +an unbroken literary tradition. This written language Coraes took as the +basis of his reforms, purging it of foreign elements, preserving its +classical remnants and enlarging its vocabulary with words borrowed from +the ancient lexicon or, in case of need, invented in accordance with a +fixed principle. He thus adopted a middle course, discountenancing alike +the pedantry of the purists and the over-confident optimism of the +vulgarists, who found in the uncouth popular speech all the material +for a _langue savante_. The language which he thus endeavoured to shape +and reconstruct is, of course, conventional and artificial. In course of +time it will probably tend to approach the vernacular, while the latter +will gradually be modified by the spread of education. The spoken and +written languages, however, will always be separated by a wide interval. + + + Poetical writers in the vernacular. + +Many of the best poets of modern Greece have written in the vernacular, +which is best adapted for the natural and spontaneous expression of the +feelings. Dionysios Solomos (1798-1857), the greatest of them all, +employed the dialect of the Ionian Islands. Of his lyrics, which are +full of poetic fire and inspiration, the most celebrated is his "Ode to +Liberty." Other poets, of what may be described as the Ionic school, +such as Andreas Kalvos (1796-1869), Julius Typaldos (1814-1883), John +Zampelios (1787-1856), and Gerasimos Markoras (b. 1826), followed his +example in using the Heptanesian dialect. On the other hand, Georgios +Terzetes (1806-1874), Aristotle Valaorites (1824-1879) and Gerasimos +Mavrogiannes, though natives of the Ionian Islands, adopted in their +lyrics the language of the Klephtic ballads--in other words, the +vernacular of the Pindus range and the mountainous district of Epirus. +This dialect had at least the advantage of being generally current +throughout the mainland, while it derived distinction from the heroic +exploits of the champions of Greek liberty. The poems of Valaorites, +which are characterized by vivid imagination and grace of style, have +made a deep impression on the nation. Other poets who largely employed +the Epirotic dialect and drew their inspiration from the Klephtic songs +were John Vilaras (1771-1823), George Zalokostas (1805-1857) in his +lyric pieces, and Theodore Aphentoules, a Cretan (d. 1893). With the +poems of this group may be classed those of Demetrius Bikelas (b. 1835). +The popular language has been generally adopted by the younger +generation of poets, among whom may be mentioned Aristomenes Probelegios +(b. 1850), George Bizyenos (1853-1896), George Drosines, Kostes Palamas +(b. 1859), John Polemes, Argyres Ephthaliotes, and Jacob Polylas (d. +1896). + + + Poetical writers in the conventional language. + +Contemporary with the first-mentioned or Ionic group, there existed at +Constantinople a school of poets who wrote in the accepted literary +language, and whose writings serve as models for the later group which +gathered at Athens after the emancipation of Greece. The literary +traditions founded by Alexander Rizos Rhangabes (1810-1892) and the +brothers Alexander and Panagiotis Soutzos (1803-1863 and 1800-1868), who +belonged to Phanariot families, were maintained in Athens by Spiridion +Basiliades (1843-1874) Angelos Vlachos (b. 1838), John Karasoutzas +(1824-1873), Demetrios Paparrhegopoulos (1843-1873), and Achilles +Paraschos (b. 1838). The last, a poet of fine feeling, has also employed +the popular language. In general the practice of versification in the +conventional literary language has declined, though sedulously +encouraged by the university of Athens, and fostered by annual poetic +competitions with prizes provided by patriotic citizens. Greek lyric +poetry during the first half of the century was mainly inspired by the +patriotic sentiment aroused by the struggle for independence, but in the +present generation it often shows a tendency towards the philosophic and +contemplative mood under the influence of Western models. + + + Dramatists, translators and satirists. + +There has been an abundant production of dramatic literature in recent +years. In succession to Alexander Rhangabes, John Zampelios and the two +Soutzos, who belong to the past generation, Kleon Rhangabes, Angelos +Vlachos, Demetrios Koromelas, Basiliades and Bernadakes are the most +prominent among modern dramatic writers. Numerous translations of +foreign masterpieces have appeared, among which the metrical versions of +_Romeo and Juliet_, _Othello_, _King Lear_, _Hamlet_, _Macbeth_ and _The +Merchant of Venice_, by Demetrios Bikelas, deserve mention as examples +of artistic excellence. Goethe's _Faust_ has been rendered into verse by +Probelegios, and _Hamlet_, _Antony and Cleopatra_, _Coriolanus and +Julius Caesar_, into prose by Damiroles. Among recent satirists, George +Soures (b. 1853) occupies a unique position. He reviews social and +political events in the [Greek: Rhomeos], a witty little newspaper +written entirely in verse, which is read with delight by all classes of +the population. + + + Recent prose writers. + +Almost all the prose writers have employed the literary language. In +historical research the Greeks continue to display much activity and +erudition, but no great work comparable to Spiridion Trikoupis's +_History of the Revolution_ has appeared in the present generation. A +history of the Greek nation from the earliest times to the present day, +by Spiridion Lampros, and a general history of the 19th century by +Karolides, have recently been published. The valuable [Greek: Mnemeia] +of Sathas, the [Greek: meletai Byzantines historias] of Spiridion +Zampelios and Mavrogiannes's _History of the Ionian Islands_ deserve +special mention, as well as the essays of Bikelas, which treat of the +Byzantine and modern epochs of Greek history. Some of the last-named +were translated into English by the late marquis of Bute. Among the +writers on jurisprudence are Peter Paparrhegopoulos, Kalligas, Basileios +Oekonomedes and Nikolaos Saripolos. Brailas-Armenes and John +Skaltzounes, the latter an opponent of Darwin, have written +philosophical works. The _Ecclesiastical History_ of Diomedes Kyriakos +and the _Theological Treatises_ of Archbishop Latas should be noted. The +best-known writers of philological works are Constantine Kontos, a +strong advocate of literary purism, George Hatzidakes, Theodore +Papademetrakopoulos and John Psichari; in archaeology, Stephen +Koumanoudes, Panagiotes Kavvadias and Christos Tsountas have won a +recognized position among scholars. John Svoronos is a high authority on +numismatics. The works of John Hatzidakes on mathematics, Anast. +Christomanos on chemistry, and Demetrios Aeginetes on astronomy are well +known. + + + Fiction. + +The earlier works of fiction, written in the period succeeding the +emancipation of Greece, were much affected by foreign influence. Modern +Greece has not produced any great novelist. The [Greek: Kretikoi gamoi] +of Spiridion Zampelios, the scene of which is laid in Crete, and the +_Thanos Blechas_ of Kalligas are interesting, the former for accuracy of +historical detail, the latter as a picture of peasant life in the +mountains of Greece. Original novel writing has not been much +cultivated, but translations of foreign romances abound. In later times +the short story has come into vogue through the example of D. Bikelas, +whose tales have acquired great popularity; one of them, _Loukis Laras_, +has been translated into many languages. The example of Bikelas has been +followed by Drosines Karkavitzas, Ephthaliotis, Xenopoulos and many +others. + + + Prose writers in the vernacular. + +The most distinguished of the writers who adhere to the vernacular in +prose is John Psichari, professor of the Ecole des Hautes Etudes in +Paris. He is the recognized leader of the vulgarists. Among the best +known of his works are [Greek: To taxeidi mou], a narrative of a journey +in Greek lands, [Greek: Toneiro tou Giannire], [Greek: He Zoulea], and +[Greek: ho Magos]. The tales of Karkavitzas and Ephthaliotis are also in +the vernacular. Among the younger of M. Psichari's followers is M. +Palli, who has recently published a translation of the _Iliad_. Owing to +the limited resources of the popular language, the writers of this +school are sometimes compelled to employ strange and little-known words +borrowed from the various dialects. The vernacular has never been +adopted by writers on scientific subjects, owing to its inherent +unsuitability and the incongruity arising from the introduction of +technical terms derived from the ancient language. Notwithstanding the +zeal of its adherents, it seems unlikely to maintain its place in +literature outside the domain of poetry; nor can any other result be +expected, unless its advocates succeed in reforming the system of public +instruction in Greece. + + + Periodicals and Journals. + +Many periodicals are published at Athens, among which may be mentioned +the _Athena_, edited by Constantine Kontos, the _Ethnike Agoge_, a +continuation of the old _Hestia_, the _Harmonia_ and the [Greek: +Diaplasis ton paidon], an educational review. The Parnassos, the +Archaeological Society and other learned bodies issue annual or +quarterly reports. The Greek journals are both numerous and widely read. +They contain much clever writing, which is often marred by inaccuracy +and a deficient sense of responsibility. Their tendency to exaggerated +patriotic sentiment sometimes borders on the ludicrous. For many years +the Nea _Hemera_ of Trieste exerted a considerable influence over the +Greek world, owing to the able political reviews of its editor, +Anastasios Byzantios (d. 1898), a publicist of remarkable insight and +judgment. + + AUTHORITIES.--Constantine Sathas, [Greek: Neoellenike philologia] + (Athens, 1868); D. Bikelas, [Greek: Peri neoellenikes philologias + dokimion] (London, 1871), reprinted in [Greek: Dialexeis kai + anamneseis] (Athens, 1893); J. S. Blackie, _Horae Hellenicae_ (London, + 1874); R. Nicolai, _Geschichte der neugriechischen Literatur_ + (Leipzig, 1876); A. R. Rhangabe, _Histoire litteraire de la Grece + moderne_ (Paris, 1877); C. Gidel, _Etudes sur la litterature grecque + moderne_ (Paris, 1878); E. Legrand, _Bibliotheque grecque vulgaire_ + (vol. i., Paris, 1880); J. Lamber, _Poetes grecs contemporains_ + (Paris, 1881); Kontos, [Greek: Glossikai paratereseis] (Athens, 1882); + Rhangabe and Sanders, _Geschichte der neugriechischen Literatur von + ihren Anfangen bis auf die neueste Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1885); J. Psichari, + _Essais de grammaire historique neo-grecque_ (2 vols., Paris, 1886 and + 1889); _Etudes de philologie neo-grecque_ (Paris, 1892); F. Blass, + _Die Aussprache des Griechischen_ (3rd ed., Berlin, 1888); + Papademetrakopoulos, [Greek: Basanos hellenikes prophoras] (Athens, + 1889); M. Konstantinides, _Neo-hellenica_ (_Dialogues in Modern Greek, + with Appendix on the Cypriot Dialect_) (London, 1892); Rhoides, + [Greek: Ta Eidola. Glossike melete] (Athens, 1893); Polites, [Greek: + Meletai peri tou biou kai tes glosses Hellenikou laou] (2 vols., + Athens, 1899). + + For the Klephtic ballads and folk-songs: C. Fauriel, _Chants + populaires de la Grece moderne_ (Paris, 1824, 1826); Passow, + _Popularia carmina Graeciae recentioris_ (Leipzig, 1860); von Hahn, + _Griechische und albanesische Marchen_ (Leipzig, 1864); [Greek: + Tepharikes, Lianotragouda] (2nd ed., Athens, 1868); E. Legrand, + _Recueil de chansons populaires grecques_ (Paris, 1874); _Recueil de + contes populaires grecs_ (Paris, 1881); Paul de Lagarde, + _Neugriechisches aus Kleinasien_ (Gottingen, 1886); A. Jannaris, + [Greek: Asmata Kretika] (_Kreta's Volkslieder_) (Leipzig, 1876); A. + Sakellariou, [Greek: Ta Kypriaka] (Athens, 1891); [Greek: Zographeios + Hagon], published by the [Greek: Hellenikos philologikos syllogos] + (Constantinople, 1891). Translations: L. Garnett, _Greek Folksongs + from the Turkish Provinces of Greece_ (London, 1885); E. M. Geldart, + _Folklore of Modern Greece_ (London, 1884). Lexicons: A. N. Jannaris, + _A Concise Dictionary of the English and Modern Greek Languages_ + (English-Greek) (London, 1895); Byzantios (Skarlatos D.), [Greek: + Lexikon tes Hellenikes glosses] (Athens, 1895); A. Sakellario, [Greek: + Lexikon tes Hellenikes glosses] (5th ed., Athens, 1898); S. + Koumanoudes, [Greek: Synagoge neon lexeon] (Athens, 1900). Grammars: + Mitsotakes, _Praktische Grammatik der neugriechischen Schrift- und + Umgangssprache_ (Stuttgart, 1891); M. Gardner, _A Practical Modern + Greek Grammar_ (London, 1892); G. N. Hatzidakes, _Einleitung in die + neugriechische Grammatik_ (Leipzig, 1892); E. Vincent and T. G. + Dickson, _Handbook to Modern Greek_ (London, 1893); A. Thumb, + _Handbuch der neugriechischen Volkssprache_ (Strassburg, 1895); C. + Wied, _Die Kunst der neugriechischen Volkssprache durch + Selbstunterricht schnell und leicht zu lernen_ (2nd ed., undated, + Vienna); A. N. Jannaris, _Historical Greek Grammar_ (London, 1897). + (J. D. B.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] For authorities and criticisms see T. W. Allen in _Classical + Quarterly_ (Jan. and April 1908). + + [2] Others attribute it, as well as the _Margites_, to Pigres of + Halicarnassus, the supposed brother of the Carian queen Artemisia, + who fought on the side of Xerxes at the battle of Salamis. + + [3] The extant fragments of Solon have been augmented by lengthy + quotations in the _Constitution of Athens_. + + [4] Since the above was written, four considerable fragments + generally assigned to Sappho have been discovered: a prayer to the + Nereids for the safe return of her brother Charaxus; the leave-taking + of a favourite pupil; a greeting to Atthis, one of her friends, in + Lydia; the fourth, much mutilated, addressed to another pupil, + Gongyla. They are of great beauty and throw considerable light on the + personality of Sappho and the language and metre of her poems. + + [5] Recently increased by specimens of the _Partheneia_ (choral songs + for maidens) and paeans. + + [6] His Constitution of Athens (q.v.), of which a papyrus MS. was + found in Egypt and published in 1891, forms part of a larger work on + the constitution of 158 Greek and foreign cities. + + [7] See Ad. Bauer and J. Strzygowski, "Eine alexandrinische + Weltchronik" (1905) (_Denkschrift der kaiserlich. Akademie der + Wissenschaften_, li.). + + [8] The patriarch Cyrillos Lucares (1572-1638), who had studied for a + time in England and whose sympathies with Protestantism made him many + enemies, established a Greek printing-press at Constantinople, from + which he had the temerity to issue a work condemning the faith of + Mahomet; he was denounced to the Turks by the Jesuits, and his + printing-press was suppressed. + + + + +GREEK RELIGION. The recent development of anthropological science and of +the comparative study of religions has enabled us at last to assign to +ancient Greek religion its proper place in the classification of creeds +and to appreciate its importance for the history of civilization. In +spite of all the diversities of local cults we may find a general +definition of the theological system of the Hellenic communities, and +with sufficient accuracy may describe it as an anthropomorphic +polytheism, preserving many traces of a pre-anthropomorphic period, +unchecked by any exacting dogma or tradition of revelation, and +therefore pliantly adapting itself to all the changing circumstance of +the social and political history of the race, and easily able to +assimilate alien ideas and forms. Such a religion, continuing in whole +or in part throughout a period of at least 2000 years, was more capable +of progress than others, possibly higher, that have crystallized at an +early period into a fixed dogmatic type; and as, owing to its essential +character, it could not be convulsed by any inner revolution that might +obliterate the deposits of its earlier life, it was likely to preserve +the imprints of the successive ages of culture, and to reveal more +clearly than any other testimony the evolution of the race from savagery +to civilization. Hence it is that Greek religion appears to teem with +incongruities, the highest forms of religious life being often +confronted with the most primitive. And for this reason the student of +savage anthropology and the student of the higher religions of the +world are equally rewarded by its study. + +Modern ethnology has arrived at the conviction that the Hellenic nation, +like others that have played great parts in history, was the product of +a blend of populations, the conquering tribes of Aryan descent coming +from the north and settling among and upon certain pre-Hellenic +Mediterranean stocks. The conclusion that is naturally drawn from this +is that Hellenic religion is also the product of a blend of early Aryan +or Indo-Germanic beliefs with the cult-ideas and practices of the +Mediterranean area that were from of old indigenous in the lands which +the later invaders conquered. But to disentangle these two component +parts of the whole, which might seem to be the first problem for the +history of the development of this religion, is by no means an easy +task; we may advance further towards its solution, when the mysterious +pre-Hellenic Mediterranean language or group of languages, of which +traces remain in Hellenic place-names, and which may be lying +uninterpreted on the brick-tablets of the palace of Cnossus, has found +its interpreter. For the first question is naturally one of language. +But the comparative study of the Indo-European speech-group, great as +its philological triumphs have been, has been meagre in its +contributions to our positive knowledge of the original belief of the +primitive stock. It is not possible to reconstruct a common +Indo-European religion. The greater part of the separate Aryan +cult-systems may have developed after the diffusion and may have been +the result of contact in prehistoric days with non-Aryan peoples. And +many old religious etymological equations, such as [Greek: Ouranos] = +Sanskrit Varuna, [Greek: Hermes] = Saramey[=a]s, Athena = Ahana, were +uncritically made and have been abandoned. The chief fact that philology +has revealed concerning the religious vocabulary of the Aryan peoples is +that many of them are found to have designated a high god by a word +derived from a root meaning "bright," and which appears in Zeus, +Jupiter, Sanskrit _Dyaus_. This is important enough, but we should not +exaggerate its importance, nor draw the unwarranted inference that +therefore the primitive Indo-Europeans worshipped one supreme God, the +Sky-Father. Besides the word "Zeus," the only other names of the +Hellenic pantheon that can be explained wholly or partly as words of +Aryan formation are Poseidon, Demeter, Hestia, Dionysus (whose name and +cult were derived from the Aryan stock of the Thraco-Phrygians) and +probably Pan. But other names, such as Athena, Ares, Apollo, Artemis, +Hera, Hermes, have no discovered affinities with other Aryan +speech-groups; and yet there is nothing suspiciously non-Aryan in the +formation of these words, and they may all have belonged to the earliest +Hellenic-Aryan vocabulary. In regard to others, such as Rhea, Hephaestus +and Aphrodite, it is somewhat more probable that they belonged to an +older pre-Hellenic stock that survived in Crete and other islands, and +here and there on the mainland; while we know that Zeus derived certain +unintelligible titles in Cretan cult from the indigenous Eteo-cretan +speech. + +A minute consideration of a large mass of evidence justifies the +conclusion that the main tribes of the Aryan Hellenes, pushing down from +the north, already possessed certain deities in common such as Zeus, +Poseidon and Apollo with whom they associated certain goddesses, and +that they maintained the cult of Hestia or "Holy Hearth." Further, a +comparison of the developed religions of the respective Aryan peoples +suggests that they tended to give predominance to the male divinity, +although we have equally good reason to assert that the cult of +goddesses, and especially of the earth-goddess, is a genuinely "Aryan" +product. But when the tribes of this family poured into the Greek +peninsula, it is probable that they would find in certain centres of a +very ancient civilization, such as Argolis and Crete, the dominant cult +of a female divinity.[1] The recent excavations on the site of the Hera +temple at Argos prove that a powerful goddess was worshipped here many +centuries before it is probable that the Hellenic invader appeared. He +may have even found the name Hera there, or may have brought it with him +and applied it to the indigenous divinity. Again, we are certain that +the great mother-goddess of Crete, discovered by Dr Arthur Evans, is the +ancestress of Rhea and of the Greek "Mother of the gods": and it is a +reasonable conjecture that she accounts for many of the forms of Artemis +and perhaps for Athena. But the evidence by no means warrants us in +assuming as an axiom that wherever we find a dominant goddess-cult, as +that of Demeter at Eleusis, we are confronted with a non-Hellenic +religious phenomenon. The very name "Demeter" and the study of other +Aryan religions prove the prominence of the worship of the earth-goddess +in our own family of the nations. Finally, we must reckon with the +possibility that the other great nations which fringed the +Mediterranean, Hittite, Semitic and Egyptian peoples, left their impress +on early Greek religion, although former scholars may have made rash use +of this hypothesis.[2] + + + Animism. + +Recognizing then the great perplexity of these problems concerning the +ethnic origins of Hellenic religion, we may at least reduce the tangle +of facts to some order by distinguishing its lower from its higher +forms, and thus provide the material for some theory of evolution. We +may collect and sift the phenomena that remain over from a +pre-anthropomorphic period, the imprints of a savage past, the beliefs +and practices that belong to the animistic or even the pre-animistic +period, fetishism, the worship of animals, human sacrifice. We shall at +once be struck with the contrast between such civilized cults as those +of Zeus, Athena, Apollo, high personal divinities to whom the attributes +of a progressive morality could be attached, and practices that long +survived in backward communities, such as the Arcadian worship of the +thunder and the winds, the cult of Zeus [Greek: Keraunos] "the thunder" +at Mantinea and Zeus [Greek: Kappotas] in Laconia, who is none other +than the mysterious meteoric stone that falls from heaven. These are +examples of a religious view in which certain natural phenomena or +objects are regarded as mysteriously divine or sacred in their own right +and a personal divinity has not yet emerged or been separated from them. +A noteworthy product of primitive animistic feeling is the universally +prevalent cult of Hestia, who is originally "Holy Hearth" pure and +simple, and who even under the developed polytheism, in which she played +no small part, was never established as a separate anthropomorphic +personage. + + + Fetishism + +The animistic belief that certain material objects can be charged with a +divine potency or spirit gives rise to fetishism, a term which properly +denotes the worshipful or superstitious use of objects made by art and +invested with mysterious power, so as to be used like amulets for the +purposes of protective magic or for higher purposes of communion with +the divinity. From the earliest discoverable period down to the present +day fetishism has been a powerful factor in the religion of the +Graeco-Roman world. The importance of the sacred stone and pillar in the +"Mycenaean" or "Minoan" period which preceded Homer has been +impressively shown by Dr Arthur Evans, and the same fetishistic worship +continued throughout the historic ages of classic paganism, the rude +aniconic emblem of pillar or tree-trunk surviving often by the side of +the iconic masterpiece. It is a reasonable conjecture that the earliest +anthropomorphic images of divinities, which were beginning to make their +appearance by the time of Homer, were themselves evolved by slow +transformation from the upright sacred column. And the altar itself may +have arisen as another form of this; the simple heap of stones, such as +those erected to Hermes by the way-side and called [Greek: Hermaioi +lophoi], may have served both as a place of worship and as an _agalma_ +that could attract and absorb a divine potency into itself. Hence the +fetishistic power of the altar was fully recognized in Greek ritual, and +hence also in the cult of Apollo Agyieus the god and the altar are +called by the same name. + +It has been supposed that the ancestors of the historic Greeks, before +they were habituated to conceive of their divinities as in human form, +may have been accustomed to invest them with animal attributes and +traits. We must not indeed suppose it to be a general law of religious +evolution that "theriomorphism" must always precede anthropomorphism and +that the latter transcends and obliterates the former. The two systems +can exist side by side, and savages of low religious development can +conceive of their deities as assuming at one time human, at another +bestial, shape. Now the developed Greek religion was devotedly +anthropomorphic, and herein lay its strength and its weakness; +nevertheless, the advanced Hellene could imagine his Dionysus entering +temporarily into the body of the sacrificial bull or goat, and the men +of Phigalia in Arcadia were attached to their horse-headed Demeter, and +the primitive Laconians possibly to a ram-headed Apollo. Theriolatry in +itself, i.e. the worship of certain animals as of divine power in their +own right, apart from any association with higher divinities, can +scarcely be traced among the Greek communities at any period. They are +not found to have paid reverence to any species, though individual +animals could acquire temporarily a divine character through communion +with the altar or with the god. The wolf might at one time have been +regarded as the incarnation of Apollo, the wolf-god, and here and there +we find faint traces of a wolf-sacrifice and of offerings laid out for +wolves. But the occasional propitiation of wild beasts may fall short of +actual worship. The Athenian who slew a wolf might give it a sumptuous +funeral, probably to avoid a blood-feud with the wolf's relatives, yet +the Athenian state offered rewards for a wolf's head. Nor did any Greek +individual or state worship flies as a class, although a small oblation +might be thrown to the flies before the great sacrifice to Apollo on the +Leucadian rock, to please them and to persuade them not to worry the +worshippers at the great solemnity, where the reek of roast flesh would +be likely to attract them. + + + Totemism. + +Theriolatry suggests totemism; and though we now know that the former +can arise and exist quite independently of the latter, recent +anthropologists have interpreted the apparent sanctity or prestige of +certain animals in parts of Greek mythology and religion as the deposit +of an earlier totemistic system. But this interpretation, originated and +maintained with great acumen by Andrew Lang and W. Robertson Smith, +appears now somewhat hazardous; and as a scientific hypothesis there are +many flaws in it. The more observant study of existing totem-tribes has +weakened our impression of the importance of totemism as a primitive +religious phenomenon. It is in reality more important as a social than +as a religious factor. If indeed we choose to regard totemism as a mere +system of nomenclature, by which a tribe names itself after some animal +or plant, then we might quote a few examples of Hellenic tribes +totemistic in this sense. But totemism is a fact of importance only when +it affects the tribal marriage laws or the tribal religion. And the +tribal marriage laws of ancient Greece, so far as they are known, betray +no clear mark of totemistic arrangements; nor does the totemism of +contemporary savages appear to affect their religion in any such way as +to suggest a natural explanation for any of the peculiar phenomena of +early Hellenic polytheism. Here and there we have traces of a +snake-tribe in Greece, the [Greek: Ophieis] in Aetolia, the [Greek: +Ophiogeneis] in Cyprus and Parium, but we are not told that these +worshipped the snake, though the latter clan were on terms of intimacy +with it. Where the snake was actually worshipped in Hellenic cult--the +cases are few and doubtful--it may have been regarded as the incarnation +of the ancestor or as the _avatar_ of the under-world divinity. + + + Human sacrifice. + +Finally, among the primitive or savage phenomena the practice of human +sacrifice looms large. Encouraged at one time by the Delphic oracle, it +was becoming rare and repellent to the conscience by the 6th century +B.C.; but it was not wholly extinct in the Greek world even by the time +of Porphyry. The facts are very complex and need critical handling, and +a satisfying scientific explanation of them all is still to be sought. + +We can now observe the higher aspects of the advanced polytheism. And at +the outset we must distinguish between mythology and religion strictly +understood, between the stories about the divinities and the private or +public religious service. No doubt the former are often a reflection of +the latter, in many cases being suggested by the ritual which they may +have been invented to interpret, and often envisaging important +cult-ideas. Such for example are the myths about the purification and +trial of Orestes, Theseus, Ixion, the story of Demeter's sorrow, of the +sufferings and triumph of Dionysus, and those about the abolition of +human sacrifice. Yet Greek mythology as a whole was irresponsible, +without reserve, and unchecked by dogma or sacerdotal prohibition; and +frequently it sank below the level of the current religion, which was +almost free from the impurities which shock the modern reader of +Hellenic myths. Nor again did any one feel himself called upon to +believe any particular myth; in fact, faith, understood in the sense in +which the term is used in Christian theology, as the will to believe +certain dogmatic statements about the nature and action of divinity, is +a concept which was neither named nor recognized in Hellenic ethics or +religious doctrine; only, if a man proclaimed his disbelief in the +existence of the gods and refused to join in the ritual of the +community, he would become "suspect," and might at times be persecuted +by his fellows. Greek religion was not so much an affair of doctrine as +of ritual, religious formulae of which the cult-titles of the divinities +were an important component, and prayer; and the most illuminative +sources of our knowledge of it are the ritual-inscriptions and other +state-documents, the private dedications, the monuments of religious art +and certain passages in the literature, philology and archaeology being +equally necessary to the equipment of the student. + + + Religion in Homer. + +We are tempted to turn to Homer as the earliest authority. And though +Homer is not primitive and does not present even an approximately +complete account of Greek religion, we can gather from his poems a +picture of an advanced polytheism which in form and structure at least +is that which was presented to the world of Aeschylus. We discern a +pantheon already to some extent systematized, a certain hierarchy and +family of divinities in which the supremacy of Zeus is established as +incontestable. And the anthropomorphic impulse, the strongest trend in +the Greek religious imagination, which filled the later world with +fictitious personages, generating transparent shams such as an +Ampidromus for the ritual of the Ampidromia, Amphiction for the +Amphictiones, a hero [Greek: Keramos] for the gild of potters, is +already at its height in the Homeric poems. The deities are already +clear-cut, individual personalities of distinct ethos, plastically +shaped figures such as the later sculpture and painting could work upon, +not vaguely conceived _numina_ like the forms of the old Roman religion. +Nor can we call them for the most part nature-deities like the +personages of the Vedic system, thinly disguised "personifications" of +natural phenomena. Athena is not the blue sky nor Apollo the sun; they +are simply Athena and Apollo, divine personages with certain powers and +character, as real for their people as Christ and the Virgin for +Christendom. By the side of these, though generally in a subordinate +position, we find that Homer recognized certain divinities that we may +properly call nature-powers, such as Helios, Gaia and the river-deities, +forms descending probably from a remote animistic period, but +maintaining themselves within the popular religion till the end of +Paganism. Again, though Homer may talk and think at times with levity +and _banalite_ about his deities, his deeper utterances impute an +advanced morality to the supreme God. His Zeus is on the whole a power +of righteousness, dealing with men by a righteous law of nemesis, never +being himself the author of evil--an idea revealed in the opening +passage of the _Odyssey_--but protecting the good and punishing the +wicked. Vengeance, indeed, was one of the attributes of divinity both +for Homer and the average Greek of the later period, as it is in Judaic +and Christian theology, though Plato and Euripides protested strongly +against such a view. But the Homeric Zeus is equally a god of pity and +mercy, and the man who neglects the prayers of the sorrowful and +afflicted, who violates the sanctity of the suppliant and guest, or +oppresses the poor or the wanderer, may look for divine punishment. +Though not regarded as the physical author of the universe or the +Creator, he is in a moral sense the father of gods and men. And though +the sense of sin and the need of piacular sacrifice are expressed in the +Homeric poems, the relations between gods and men that they reveal are +on the whole genial and social; the deity sits unseen at the good man's +festal sacrifice, and there is a simple apprehension of the idea of +divine communion. There is also indeed a glimmering of the dark +background of the nether world, and the chthonian powers that might send +up the Erinys to fulfil the curse of the wronged. Yet on the whole the +religious atmosphere is generally cheerful and bright; freer than that +of the later ages from the taint of magic and superstition; nor is Homer +troubled much about the life after death; he scarcely recognizes the +cult of the dead,[3] and is not oppressed by fear of the ghost-world. + + + The post-Homeric period. + +If we look now broadly over the salient facts of the Greek public and +private worship of the historic period we find much in it that agrees +with Homeric theology. His "Olympian" system retains a certain life +almost to the end of Paganism, and it is a serious mistake to suppose +that it had lost its hold upon the people of the 5th and 4th century +B.C. We find it, indeed, enriched in the post-Homeric period with new +figures of prestige and power; Dionysus, of whom Homer had only faintly +heard, becomes a high god with a worship full of promise for the future. +Demeter and Kore, the mother and the girl, whom Homer knew well enough +but could not use for his epic purposes, attract the ardent affections +and hopes of the people; and Asclepius, whom the old poet did not +recognize as a god, wins a conspicuous place in the later shrines. But +much that has been said of the Homeric may be said of the later +classical theology. The deities remain anthropomorphic, and appear as +clearly defined individuals. A certain hierarchy is recognized; Zeus is +supreme, even in the city of Athena, but each of the higher divinities +played many parts, and local enthusiasm could frustrate the departmental +system of divine functions; certain members of the pantheon had a +preference for the life of the fields, but as the _polis_ emerged from +the village communities, Demeter, Hermes, Artemis and others, the gods +and goddesses of the husbandmen and shepherds, become powers of the +council-chamber and the market-place. The moral ideas that we find in +the Homeric religion are amply attested by cult-records of the later +period. The deities are regarded on the whole as beneficent, though +revengeful if wronged or neglected; the cult-titles used in prayer, +which more than any other witnesses reveal the thought and wish of the +worshipper, are nearly always euphemistic, the doubtful title of Demeter +Erinys being possibly an exception. The important cults of Zeus [Greek: +Hikesios] and [Greek: Prostropaios], the suppliant's protecting deity, +embody the ideas of pity and mercy that mark advanced religion; and many +momentous steps in the development of morality and law were either +suggested or assisted by the state-religion. For example, the sanctity +of the oath, the main source of the secular virtue of truthfulness, was +originally a religious sanction, and though the Greek may have been +prone to perjury, yet the Hellenic like the Hebraic religious ethics +regarded it as a heinous sin. The sanctity of family duties, the +sacredness of the life of the kinsman, were ideas fostered by early +Hellenic religion before they generated principles of secular ethics. In +the post-Homeric period, the development of the doctrine of purity, +which was associated with the Apolline religion, combining with a +growing dread of the ghost-world, stimulated and influenced in many +important ways the evolution of the Greek law concerning homicide.[4] +And the beginnings of international law and morality were rooted in +religious sanctions and taboo. In fact, Greek state-life was indebted in +manifold ways to Greek religion, and the study of the Greek oracles +would alone supply sufficient testimony of this. In many cases the very +origin of the state was religious, the earliest _polis_ sometimes having +arisen under the shadow of the temple. + +Yet as Greek religion was always in the service of the state, and the +priest a state-official, society was the reverse of theocratic. Secular +advance, moral progress and the march of science, could never long be +thwarted by religious tradition; on the contrary, speculative thought +and artistic creation were considered as attributes of divinity. We may +say that the religion of Hellas penetrated the whole life of the people, +but rather as a servant than as a master. + +Distinct and apart from these public worships and those of the clan and +family were the mystic cults of Eleusis, Andania and Samothrace, and the +private services of the mystic brotherhoods. The latter were scattered +broadcast over Hellas, and the influence of the former was strengthened +and their significance intensified by the wave of mysticism that spread +at first from the north from the beginning of the 7th century onwards, +and derived its strength from the power of Dionysus and the Orphic +brotherhoods. New ideals and hopes began to stir in the religious +consciousness, and we find a strong Salvationist tendency, the promise +of salvation relying on mystic communion with the deity. Also a new and +vital principle is at work; Orphism is the only force in Greek religion +of a clear apostolic purpose, for it broke the barriers of the old +tribal and civic cults, and preached its message to bond and free, +Hellene and barbarian. + +The later history of Greek paganism is mainly concerned with its gradual +penetration by Oriental ideas and worships, and the results of this +[Greek: theokrasia] are discerned in an ever increasing mysticism and a +tendency towards monotheism. Obliterated as the old Hellenic religion +appeared to be by Christianity, it nevertheless retained a certain life, +though transformed, under the new creed to which it lent much of its +hieratic organization and religious terminology. The indebtedness of +Christianity to Hellenism is one of the most interesting problems of +comparative religion; and for an adequate estimate a minute knowledge of +the ritual and the mystic cults of Hellas is one of the essential +conditions. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Older Authorities: A. Maury, _Histoire des religions de + la Grece antique_ (3 vols., 1857-1859); Welcker, _Griechische + Gotterlehre_ (3 vols., 1857-1863); Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_, + 2 vols. (4th edition by C. Robert, 1887), all antiquated in regard to + theory, but still of some value for collection of materials. Recent + Literature--(a) General Treatises: O. Gruppe, "Griechische Mythologie + und Religionsgeschichte" in Iwan von Muller's _Handbuch der + klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_, v. 2. 2 (1902-1906); L. R. + Farnell's _Cults of the Greek States_, 4 vols. (1896-1906, vol. 5, + 1908); Miss Jane Harrison's _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek + Religion_ (ed. 1908); Chantepie de la Saussaye's _Lehrbuch der + Religionsgeschichte_ (Greek section, 1904); (b) Special Works or + Dissertations: articles in Roscher's _Ausfuhrliches Lexikon der + griechischen und romischen Mythologie_, and Pauly-Wissowa + _Encyklopadie_ (1894- ); Immerwahr, _Kulte und Mythen Arkadiens_ + (1891); Wide, _Lakonische Kulte_ (1893); de Visser, _De Graecorum diis + non referentibus speciem humanam_ (Leiden, 1900). Greek Ritual and + Festivals--A. Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen_ (1898); P. Stengel, + "Die griechischen Sacralaltertumer" in Iwan von Muller's _Handbuch_, + v. 3 (1898); W. H. D. Rouse, _Greek Votive Offerings_ (1902). Greek + Religious Thought and Speculation--L. Campbell's _Religion in Greek + Literature_ (1898); Ducharme, _La Critique des traditions religieuses + chez les Grecs des origines au temps de Plutarque_ (Paris, 1904). See + also articles on individual deities, and cf. ROMAN RELIGION; + MYSTERIES; MITHRAS. (L. R. F.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] This has often been explained as a result of _Mutterrecht_, or + reckoning descent through the female: for reasons against this + hypothesis see L. R. Farnell in _Archiv fur vergleichende + Religionswissenschaft_ (1904); cf. A. J. Evans, "Mycenaean Tree and + Pillar Cult," in _Journ. of Hellenic Studies_ (1901). + + [2] V. Berard has recently revived the discredited theory of a + prevalent Phoenician influence in his ingenious but uncritical work, + _L'Origine des cultes arcadiens_. M. P. Foucart believes in very + early borrowing from Egypt, as explaining much in the religion of + Demeter and Dionysus; see _Les Grands Mysteres d'Eleusis_ and _Le + Culte de Dionysos en Attique_. + + [3] This became very powerful from the 7th century onward, and there + are reasons for supposing that it existed in the pre-Homeric, or + Mycenaean, period; _vide_ Rohde's _Psyche_ (new edition), Tsountas + and Manatt, _The Mycenaean Age_. + + [4] See L. R. Farnell, _Evolution of Religion_ (Hibbert Lectures, + 1905), pp. 139-152. + + + + +GREELEY, HORACE (1811-1872), American statesman and man of letters, was +born at Amherst, New Hampshire, on the 3rd of February 1811. His parents +were of Scottish-Irish descent, but the ancestors of both had been in +New England for several generations. He was the third of seven children. +His father, Zaccheus Greeley, owned a farm of 50 acres of stony, sterile +land, from which a bare support was wrung. Horace was a feeble and +precocious lad, taking little interest in the ordinary sports of +childhood, learning to read before he was able to talk plainly, and the +prodigy of the neighbourhood for accurate spelling. Before Horace was +ten years old (1820), his father became bankrupt, his home was sold by +the sheriff, and Zaccheus Greeley himself fled the state to escape +arrest for debt. The family soon removed to West Haven, Vermont, where, +all working together, they made a scanty living as day labourers. Horace +from childhood desired to be a printer, and, when barely eleven years +old, tried to be taken as an apprentice in an office at Whitehall, New +York, but was rejected on account of his youth. After three years more +with the family as a day labourer at West Haven, he succeeded, with his +father's consent, in being apprenticed in the office of _The Northern +Spectator_, at East Poultney, Vermont. Here he soon became a good +workman, developed a passion for politics and especially for political +statistics, came to be depended upon for more or less of the editing of +the paper, and was a figure in the village debating society. He received +only $40 a year, but he sent most of his money to his father. In June +1830 _The Northern Spectator_ was suspended. Meantime his father had +removed to a small tract of wild land in the dense forests of Western +Pennsylvania, 30 m. from Erie. The released apprentice now visited his +parents, and worked for a little time with them on the farm, meanwhile +seeking employment in various printing offices, and, when he got it, +giving nearly all his earnings to his father. At last, with no further +prospect of work nearer home, he started for New York. He travelled on +foot and by canal-boat, entering New York in August 1831, with all his +clothes in a bundle carried over his back with a stick, and with but $10 +in his pocket. More than half of this sum was exhausted while he made +vain efforts to find employment. Many refused to employ him, in the +belief that he was a runaway apprentice, and his poor, ill-fitting +apparel and rustic look were everywhere greatly against him. At last he +found work on a 32mo New Testament, set in agate, double columns, with a +middle column of notes in pearl. It was so difficult and so poorly paid +that other printers had all abandoned it. He barely succeeded in making +enough to pay his board bill, but he finished the task, and thus found +subsequent employment easier to get. + +In January 1833 Greeley formed a partnership with Francis V. Story, a +fellow-workman. Their combined capital amounted to about $150. Procuring +their type on credit, they opened a small office, and undertook the +printing of the _Morning Post_, the first cheap paper published in New +York. Its projector, Dr Horatio D. Shepard, meant to sell it for one +cent, but under the arguments of Greeley he was persuaded to fix the +price at two cents. The paper failed in less than three weeks, the +printers losing only $50 or $60 by the experiment. They still had a +_Bank Note Reporter_ to print, and soon got the printing of a tri-weekly +paper, the _Constitutionalist_, the organ of some lottery dealers. +Within six months Story was drowned, but his brother-in-law, Jonas +Winchester, took his place in the firm. Greeley was now asked by James +Gordon Bennett to go into partnership with him in starting _The Herald_. +He declined the venture, but recommended the partner whom Bennett +subsequently took. On the 2nd of March 1834, Greeley and Winchester +issued the first number of _The New Yorker_, a weekly literary and news +paper, the firm then supposing itself to be worth about $3000. Of the +first number they sold about 100 copies; of the second, nearly 200. +There was an average increase for the next month of about 100 copies per +week. The second volume began with a circulation of about 4550 copies, +and with a loss on the first year's publication of $3000. The second +year ended with 7000 subscribers and a further loss of $2000. By the end +of the third year _The New Yorker_ had reached a circulation of 9500 +copies, and had sustained a total loss of $7000. It was published seven +years (until the 20th of September 1841), and was never profitable, but +it was widely popular, and it gave Greeley, who was its sole editor, +much prominence. On the 5th of July 1836 Greeley married Miss Mary Y. +Cheney, a Connecticut school teacher, whom he had met in a Grahamite +(vegetarian) boarding-house in New York. + +During the publication of _The New Yorker_ he added to the scanty income +which the job printing brought him by supplying editorials to the +short-lived _Daily Whig_ and various other publications. In 1838 he had +gained such standing as a writer that he was selected by Thurlow Weed, +William H. Seward, and other leaders of the Whig Party, for the +editorship of a campaign paper entitled _The Jeffersonian_, published at +Albany. He continued _The New Yorker_, and travelled between Albany and +New York each week to edit the two papers. The _Jeffersonian_ was a +quiet and instructive rather than a vehement campaign sheet, and the +Whigs believed that it had a great effect upon the elections of the next +year. When, on the 2nd of May 1840, some time after the nomination by +the Whig party of William Henry Harrison for the Presidency, Greeley +began the publication of a new weekly campaign paper, _The Log Cabin_, +it sprang at once into a great circulation; 40,000 copies of the first +number were sold, and it finally rose to 80,000. It was considered a +brilliant political success, but it was not profitable, and in September +1841 was merged in the _Weekly Tribune_. On the 3rd of April 1841, +Greeley announced that on the following Saturday (April 10th) he would +begin the publication of a daily newspaper of the same general +principles, to be called _The Tribune_. He was now entirely without +money. From a personal friend, James Coggeshall, he borrowed $1000, on +which capital and the editor's reputation _The Tribune_ was founded. It +began with 500 subscribers. The first week's expenses were $525 and the +receipts $92. By the end of the fourth week it had run up a circulation +of 6000, and by the seventh reached 11,000, which was then the full +capacity of its press. It was alert, cheerful and aggressive, was +greatly helped by the attacks of rival papers, and promised success +almost from the start. + +From this time Greeley was popularly identified with _The Tribune_, and +its share in the public discussion of the time is his history. It soon +became moderately prosperous, and his assured income should have placed +him beyond pecuniary worry. His income was long above $15,000 per year, +frequently as much as $35,000 or more. But he lacked business thrift, +inherited a disposition to endorse for his friends, and was often unable +to distinguish between deserving applicants for aid and adventurers. He +was thus frequently straitened, and, as his necessities pressed, he sold +successive interests in his newspaper. At the outset he owned the whole +of it. When it was already firmly established (in July 1841), he took in +Thomas McElrath as an equal partner, upon the contribution of $2000 to +the common fund. By the 1st of January 1849 he had reduced his interest +to 31-1/2 shares out of 100; by July 2nd, 1860, to 15 shares; in 1868 he +owned only 9; and in 1872, only 6. In 1867 the stock sold for $6500 per +share, and his last sale was for $9600. He bought wild lands, took stock +in mining companies, desiccated egg companies, patent looms, +photo-lithographic companies, gave away profusely, lent to plausible +rascals, and was the ready prey of every new inventor who chanced to +find him with money or with property that he could readily convert into +money. + +In September 1841 Greeley merged his weekly papers, _The Log Cabin_ and +_The New Yorker_, into _The Weekly Tribune_, which soon attained as wide +circulation as its predecessors, and was much more profitable. It rose +in a time of great political excitement to a total circulation of a +quarter of a million, and it sometimes had for successive years 140,000 +to 150,000. For several years it was rarely much below 100,000. Its +subscribers were found throughout all quarters of the northern half of +the Union from Maine to Oregon, large packages going to remote districts +beyond the Mississippi or Missouri, whose only connexion with the +outside world was through a weekly or semi-weekly mail. The readers of +this weekly paper acquired a personal affection for its editor, and he +was thus for many years the American writer most widely known and most +popular among the rural classes. The circulation of _The Daily Tribune_ +was never proportionately great--its advocacy of a protective tariff, +prohibitory liquor legislation and other peculiarities, repelling a +large support which it might otherwise have commanded in New York. It +rose within a short time after its establishment to a circulation of +20,000, reached 50,000 and 60,000 during the Civil War, and thereafter +ranged at from 30,000 to 45,000. After May 1845 a semi-weekly edition +was also printed, which ultimately reached a steady circulation of from +15,000 to 25,000. + +From the outset it was a cardinal principle with Greeley to hear all +sides, and to extend a special hospitality to new ideas. In March 1842 +_The Tribune_ began to give one column daily to a discussion of the +doctrines of Charles Fourier, contributed by Albert Brisbane. Gradually +Greeley came to advocate some of these doctrines editorially. In 1846 he +had a sharp discussion upon them with a former subordinate, Henry J. +Raymond, then employed upon a rival journal. It continued through twelve +articles on each side, and was subsequently published in book form. +Greeley became personally interested in one of the Fourierite +associations, the North American Phalanx, at Red Bank, N. J. +(1843-1855), while the influence of his discussions doubtless led to or +gave encouragement to other socialistic experiments, such as that at +Brook Farm. When this was abandoned, its leader George Ripley, with one +or two other members, sought employment from Greeley upon _The Tribune_. +Greeley dissented from many of Fourier's propositions, and in later +years was careful to explain that the principle of association for the +common good of working men and the elevation of labour was the chief +feature which attracted him. Co-operation among working men he continued +to urge throughout his life. In 1850 the Fox Sisters, on his wife's +invitation, spent several weeks in his house. His attitude towards their +"rappings" and "spiritual manifestations" was one of observation and +inquiry; and in his _Recollections_ he wrote concerning these +manifestations: "That some of them are the result of juggle, collusion +or trick I am confident; that others are _not_, I decidedly believe." + +From boyhood he had believed in a protective tariff, and throughout his +active life he was its most trenchant advocate and propagandist. Besides +constantly urging it in the columns of _The Tribune_, he appeared as +early as 1843 in a public debate on "The Grounds of Protection," with +Samuel J. Tilden and Parke Godwin as his opponents. A series of popular +essays on the subject were published over his own signature in _The +Tribune_ in 1869, and subsequently republished in book form, with a +title-page describing protection to home industry as a system of +national co-operation for the elevation of labour. He opposed woman +suffrage on the ground that the majority of women did not want it and +never would, and declared that until woman should "emancipate herself +from the thraldom to etiquette," he "could not see how the 'woman's +rights theory' is ever to be anything more than a logically defensible +abstraction." He aided practical efforts, however, for extending the +sphere of woman's employments. He opposed the theatres, and for a time +refused to publish their advertisements. He held the most rigid views on +the sanctity of marriage and against easy divorce, and vehemently +defended them in controversies with Robert Dale Owen and others. He +practised and pertinaciously advocated total abstinence from spirituous +liquors, but did not regard prohibitory laws as always wise. He +denounced the repudiation of state debts or the failure to pay interest +on them. He was zealous for Irish repeal, once held a place in the +"Directory of the Friends of Ireland," and contributed liberally to its +support. He used the occasion of Charles Dickens's first visit to +America to urge international copyright, and was one of the few editors +to avoid alike the flunkeyism with which Dickens was first received, and +the ferocity with which he was assailed after the publication of his +_American Notes_. On the occasion of Dickens's second visit to America, +Greeley presided at the great banquet given him by the press of the +country. He made the first elaborate reports of popular scientific +lectures by Louis Agassiz and other authorities. He gave ample hearing +to the advocates of phonography and of phonographic spelling. He was one +of the most conspicuous advocates of the Pacific railroads, and of many +other internal improvements. + +But it is as an anti-slavery leader, and as perhaps the chief agency in +educating the mass of the Northern people to that opposition through +legal forms to the extension of slavery which culminated in the election +of Abraham Lincoln and the Civil War, that Greeley's main work was done. +Incidents in it were his vehement opposition to the Mexican War as a +scheme for more slavery territory, the assault made upon him in +Washington by Congressman Albert Rust of Arkansas in 1856, an indictment +in Virginia in the same year for circulating incendiary documents, +perpetual denunciation of him in Southern newspapers and speeches, and +the hostility of the Abolitionists, who regarded his course as too +conservative. His anti-slavery work culminated in his appeal to +President Lincoln, entitled "The Prayer of Twenty Millions," in which he +urged "that all attempts to put down the rebellion and at the same time +uphold its inciting cause" were preposterous and futile, and that "every +hour of deference to slavery" was "an hour of added and deepened peril +to the Union." President Lincoln in his reply said: "My paramount object +is to save the Union, and not either to save or destroy slavery.... What +I do about slavery and the coloured race, I do because I believe it +helps to save this Union; and what I forbear, I forbear because I do not +believe it would help to save the Union ... I have here stated my +purpose according to my views of official duty; and I intend no +modification of my oft-expressed personal wish that all men everywhere +could be free." Precisely one month after the date of this reply the +Emancipation Proclamation was issued. + +Greeley's political activity, first as a Whig, and then as one of the +founders of the Republican party, was incessant; but he held few +offices. In 1848-1849 he served a three months' term in Congress, +filling a vacancy. He introduced the first bill for giving small tracts +of government land free to actual settlers, and published an exposure of +abuses in the allowance of mileage to members, which corrected the evil, +but brought him much personal obloquy. In the National Republican +Convention in 1860, not being sent by the Republicans of his own state +on account of his opposition to William Seward as a candidate, he was +made a delegate for Oregon. His active hostility to Seward did much to +prevent the success of that statesman, and to bring about instead the +nomination of Abraham Lincoln. This was attributed by his opponents to +personal motives, and a letter from Greeley to Seward, the publication +of which he challenged, was produced, to show that in his struggling +days he had been wounded at Seward's failure to offer him office. In +1861 he was a candidate for United States senator, his principal +opponent being William M. Evarts. When it was clear that Evarts could +not be elected, his supporters threw their votes for a third candidate, +Ira Harris, who was thus chosen over Greeley by a small majority. At the +outbreak of the war he favoured allowing the Southern states to secede, +provided a majority of their people at a fair election should so decide, +declaring "that he hoped never to live in a Republic whereof one section +was pinned to the other by bayonets." When the war began he urged the +most vigorous prosecution of it. The "On to Richmond" appeal, which +appeared day after day in _The Tribune_, was incorrectly attributed to +him, and it did not wholly meet his approval; but after the defeat in +the first battle of Bull Run he was widely blamed for it. In 1864 he +urged negotiations for peace with representatives of the Southern +Confederacy in Canada, and was sent by President Lincoln to confer with +them. They were found to have no sufficient authority. In 1864 he was +one of the Lincoln Presidential electors for New York. At the close of +the war, contrary to the general feeling of his party, he urged +universal amnesty and impartial suffrage as the basis of reconstruction. +In 1867 his friends again wished to elect him to the Senate of the +United States, and the indications were all in his favour. But he +refused to be elected under any misapprehension of his attitude, and +with what his friends thought unnecessary candour re-stated his +obnoxious views on universal amnesty at length, just before the time for +the election, with the certainty that this would prevent his success. +Some months later he signed the bail bond of Jefferson Davis, and this +provoked a torrent of public indignation. He had written a popular +history of the late war, the first volume having an immense sale and +bringing him unusually large profits. The second was just issued, and +the subscribers, in their anger, refused by thousands to receive it. An +unsuccessful attempt was also made to expel him from the Union League +Club of New York. + +In 1867 he was a delegate-at-large to the convention for the revision of +the state constitution, and in 1869 and 1870 he was the Republican +candidate for controller of the state and member of Congress +respectively, but in each case was defeated. + +He was dissatisfied with General Grant's administration, and became its +sharp critic. The discontent which he did much to develop ended in the +organization of the Liberal Republican party, which held its National +Convention at Cincinnati in 1872, and nominated Greeley for the +presidency. For a time the tide of feeling ran strongly in his favour. +It was first checked by the action of his life-long opponents, the +Democrats, who also nominated him at their National Convention. He +expected their support, on account of his attitude toward the South and +hostility to Grant, but he thought it a mistake to give him their formal +nomination. The event proved his wisdom. Many Republicans who had +sympathized with his criticisms of the administration, and with the +declaration of principles adopted at the first convention, were repelled +by the coalition. This feeling grew stronger until the election. His old +party associates regarded him as a renegade, the Democrats gave him a +half-hearted support. The tone of the canvass was one of unusual +bitterness, amounting sometimes to actual ferocity. In August, on +representations of the alarming state of the contest, he took the field +in person, and made a series of campaign speeches, beginning in New +England and extending throughout Pennsylvania, Ohio and Indiana, which +aroused great enthusiasm, and were regarded at the time by both friends +and opponents as the most brilliant continuous exhibition of varied +intellectual power ever made by a candidate in a presidential canvass. +General Grant received in the election 3,597,070 votes, Greeley +2,834,079. The only states Greeley carried were Georgia, Kentucky, +Maryland, Missouri, Tennessee and Texas. + +He had resigned his editorship of _The Tribune_ immediately after the +nomination; he now resumed it cheerfully; but it was soon apparent that +his powers had been overstrained. For years he had suffered greatly from +sleeplessness. During the intense excitement of the campaign the +difficulty was increased. Returning from his campaign tour, he went +immediately to the bedside of his dying wife, and for some weeks had +practically no sleep at all. This resulted in an inflammation of the +upper membrane of the brain, delirium and death. He expired on the 29th +of November 1872. His funeral was a simple but impressive public +pageant. The body lay in state in the City Hall, where it was surrounded +by crowds of many thousands. The ceremonies were attended by the +President and Vice-President of the United States, the Chief-Justice of +the Supreme Court, and a large number of eminent public men of both +parties, who followed the hearse in a solemn procession, preceded by the +mayor and other civic authorities, down Broadway. He had been the target +of constant attack during his life, and his personal foibles, careless +dress and mental eccentricities were the theme of endless ridicule. But +his death revealed the high regard in which he was generally held as a +leader of opinion and faithful public servant. "Our later Franklin" +Whittier called him, and it is in some such light his countrymen +remember him. + +In 1851 Greeley visited Europe for the first time, serving as a juryman +at the Crystal Palace Exhibition, appearing before a committee of the +House of Commons on newspaper taxes, and urging the repeal of the stamp +duty on advertisements. In 1855 he made a second trip to Europe. In +Paris he was arrested on the suit of a sculptor, whose statue had been +injured in the New York World's Fair (of which he had been a director), +and spent two days in Clichy, of which he gave an amusing account. In +1859 he visited California by the overland route, and had numerous +public receptions. In 1871 he visited Texas, and his trip through the +southern country, where he had once been so hated, was an ovation. About +1852 he purchased a farm at Chappaqua, New York, where he afterwards +habitually spent his Saturdays, and experimented in agriculture. He was +in constant demand as a lecturer from 1843, when he made his first +appearance on the platform, always drew large audiences, and, in spite +of his bad management in money matters, received considerable sums, +sometimes $6000 or $7000 for a single winter's lecturing. He was also +much sought for as a contributor, over his own signature, to the weekly +newspapers, and was sometimes largely paid for these articles. In +religious faith he was from boyhood a Universalist, and for many years +was a conspicuous member of the leading Universalist church in New York. + +His published works are: _Hints Toward Reforms_ (1850); _Glances at +Europe_ (1851); _History of the Struggle for Slavery Extension_ (1856); +_Overland Journey to San Francisco_ (1860); _The American Conflict_ (2 +vols., 1864-1866); _Recollections of a Busy Life_ (1868; new edition, +with appendix containing an account of his later years, his argument +with Robert Dale Owen on Marriage and Divorce, and Miscellanies, 1873); +_Essays on Political Economy_ (1870); and _What I know of Farming_ +(1871). He also assisted his brother-in-law, John F. Cleveland, in +editing _A Political Text-book_ (1860), and supervised for many years +the annual issues of _The Whig Almanac_ and _The Tribune Almanac_, +comprising extensive political statistics. + + The best Lives of Greeley are those by James Parton (New York, 1855; + new ed., Boston, 1872) and W. A. Linn (N.Y. 1903). Lives have also + been written by L. U. Reavis (New York, 1872), and L. D. Ingersoll + (Chicago, 1873); and there is a _Memorial of Horace Greeley_ (New + York, 1873). (W. R.) + + + + +GREELEY, a city and the county-seat of Weld county, Colorado, U.S.A., +about 50 m. N. by E. of Denver. Pop. (1890) 2395; (1900) 3023 (286 +foreign-born); (1910) 8179. It is served by the Union Pacific and the +Colorado & Southern railways. In 1908 a franchise was granted to the +Denver & Greeley Electric railway. The city is the seat of the State +Normal School of Colorado (1889). There are rich coal-fields near the +city. The county is naturally arid and unproductive, and its +agricultural importance is due to an elaborate system of irrigation. In +1899 Weld county had under irrigation 226,613 acres, representing an +increase of 102.2% since 1889, and a much larger irrigated area than in +any other county of the state. Irrigation ditches are supplied with +water chiefly from the Cache la Poudre, Big Thompson and South Platte +rivers, near the foothills. The principal crops are potatoes, sugar +beets, onions, cabbages and peas; in 1899 Weld county raised 2,821,285 +bushels of potatoes on 23,195 acres (53% of the potato acreage for the +entire state). The manufacture of beet sugar is a growing industry, a +large factory having been established at Greeley in 1902. Beets are also +grown as food for live stock, especially sheep. Peas, tomatoes, cabbages +and onions are canned here. Greeley was founded in 1870 by Nathan Cook +Meeker (1817-1879), agricultural editor of the New York _Tribune_. With +the support of Horace Greeley (in whose honour the town was named), he +began in 1869 to advocate in _The Tribune_ the founding of an +agricultural colony in Colorado. Subsequently President Hayes appointed +him Indian agent at White River, Colorado, and he was killed at what is +now Meeker, Colorado, in an uprising of the Ute Indians. Under Meeker's +scheme, which attracted mainly people from New England and New York +state, most of whom were able to contribute at least a little capital, +the Union Colony of Colorado was organized and chartered, and bought +originally 11,000 acres of land, each member being entitled to buy from +it one residence lot, one business lot, and a tract of farm land. The +funds thus acquired were, to a large extent, expended in making public +improvements. A clause inserted in all deeds forbade the sale of +intoxicating liquors on the land concerned, under pain of the reversion +of such property to the colony. The initiation fees ($5) were used for +the expenses of locating the colony, and the membership certificate fees +($150) were expended in the construction of irrigating ditches, as was +the money received from the sale of town lots, except about $13,000 +invested in a school building (now the Meeker Building). Greeley was +organized as a town in 1871, and was chartered as a city of the second +class in 1886. The "Union Colony of Colorado" still exists as an +incorporated body and holds reversionary rights in streets, alleys and +public grounds, and in all places "where intoxicating liquors are +manufactured, sold or given away, as a beverage." + + See Richard T. Ely, "A Study of a 'Decreed' Town," _Harper's + Magazine_, vol. 106 (1902-1903), p. 390 sqq. + + + + +GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832-1896), English geologist, son of the Rev. +Thomas Sheldon Green, master of the Ashby Grammar School, was born at +Maidstone on the 10th of October 1832. He was educated partly at his +father's school, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, and afterwards at Gonville and Caius +College, Cambridge, where he graduated as sixth wrangler in 1855 and was +elected a fellow of his college. In 1861 he joined the Geological Survey +of Great Britain, and surveyed large areas of the midland counties, +Derbyshire and Yorkshire. He wrote (wholly or in part) memoirs on the +Geology of Banbury (1864), of Stockport (1866), of North Derbyshire +(1869, 2nd ed. 1887), and of the Yorkshire Coal-field (1878). In 1874 he +retired from the Geological Survey, having been appointed professor of +geology in the Yorkshire College at Leeds; in 1885 he became also +professor of mathematics, while for many years he held the lectureship +on geology at the school of military engineering at Chatham. He was +elected F.R.S. in 1886, and two years later was chosen professor of +geology in the university of Oxford. His manual of _Physical Geology_ +(1876, 3rd ed. 1882) is an excellent book. He died at Boar's Hill, +Oxford, on the 19th of August 1896. + + A portrait of him, with brief memoir, was published in _Proc. Yorksh. + Geol. and Polytechnic Soc._ xiii. 232. + + + + +GREEN, DUFF (1791-1875), American politician and journalist, was born in +Woodford county, Kentucky, on the 15th of August 1791. He was a school +teacher in his native state, served during the War of 1812 in the +Kentucky militia, and then settled in Missouri, where he worked as a +schoolmaster and practised law. He was a member of the Missouri +Constitutional Convention of 1820, and was elected to the state House of +Representatives in 1820 and to the state Senate in 1822, serving one +term in each house. Becoming interested in journalism, he purchased and +for two years edited the St Louis _Enquirer_. In 1825 he bought and +afterwards edited in Washington, D.C., _The United States Telegraph_, +which soon became the principal organ of the Jackson men in opposition +to the Adams administration. Upon Andrew Jackson's election to the +presidency, the _Telegraph_ became the principal mouthpiece of the +administration, and received printing patronage estimated in value at +$50,000 a year, while Green became one of the coterie of unofficial +advisers of Jackson known as the "Kitchen Cabinet." In the quarrel +between Jackson and John C. Calhoun, Green supported the latter, and +through the columns of the _Telegraph_ violently attacked the +administration. In consequence, his paper was deprived of the government +printing in the spring of 1831. Green, however, continued to edit it in +the Calhoun interest until 1835, and gave vigorous support to that +leader's nullification views. From 1835 to 1838 he edited _The +Reformation_, a radically partisan publication, devoted to free trade +and the extreme states' rights theory. In 1841-1843 he was in Europe on +behalf of the Tyler administration, and he is said to have been +instrumental in causing the appointment of Lord Ashburton to negotiate +in Washington concerning the boundary dispute between Maine and Canada. +In January 1843 Green established in New York City a short-lived +journal, _The Republic_, to combat the spoils system and to advocate +free trade. In September 1844 Calhoun, then secretary of state, sent +Green to Texas ostensibly as consul at Galveston, but actually, it +appears, to report to the administration, then considering the question +of the annexation of Texas, concerning the political situation in Texas +and Mexico. After the close of the war with Mexico Green was sent to +that country in 1849 by President Taylor to negotiate concerning the +moneys which, by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the United States had +agreed to pay; and he saved his country a considerable sum by arranging +for payment in exchange instead of in specie. Subsequently Green was +engaged in railway building in Georgia and Alabama. On the 10th of June +1875 he died in Dalton, Georgia, a city which in 1848 he had helped to +found. + + + + +GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837-1883), English historian, was born at Oxford +on 12th December 1837, and educated at Magdalen College School and at +Jesus College, where he obtained an open scholarship. On leaving Oxford +he took orders and became the incumbent of St Philip's, Stepney. His +preaching was eloquent and able; he worked diligently among his poor +parishioners and won their affection by his ready sympathy. Meanwhile he +studied history in a scholarly fashion, and wrote much for the _Saturday +Review_. Partly because his health was weak and partly because he ceased +to agree with the teaching of the Church of England, he abandoned +clerical life and devoted himself to history; in 1868 he took the post +of librarian at Lambeth, but his health was already breaking down and he +was attacked by consumption. His _Short History of the English People_ +(1874) at once attained extraordinary popularity, and was afterwards +expanded in a work of four volumes (1877-1880). Green is pre-eminently a +picturesque historian; he had a vivid imagination and a keen eye for +colour. His chief aim was to depict the progressive life of the English +people rather than to write a political history of the English state. In +accomplishing this aim he worked up the results of wide reading into a +series of brilliant pictures. While generally accurate in his statement +of facts, and showing a firm grasp of the main tendency of a period, he +often builds more on his authorities than is warranted by their words, +and is apt to overlook points which would have forced him to modify his +representations and lower the tone of his colours. From his animated +pages thousands have learned to take pleasure in the history of their +own people, but could scarcely learn to appreciate the complexity +inherent in all historical movement. His style is extremely bright, but +it lacks sobriety and presents some affectations. His later histories, +_The Making of England_ (1882) and _The Conquest of England_ (1883), are +more soberly written than his earlier books, and are valuable +contributions to historical knowledge. Green died at Mentone on the 7th +of March 1883. He was a singularly attractive man, of wide intellectual +sympathies and an enthusiastic temperament; his good-humour was +unfailing and he was a brilliant talker; and his work was done with +admirable courage in spite of ill-health. It is said that Mrs Humphry +Ward's _Robert Elsmere_ is largely a portrait of him. In 1877 Green +married Miss Alice Stopford; and Mrs Green, besides writing a memoir of +her husband, prefixed to the 1888 edition of his _Short History_, has +herself done valuable work as an historian, particularly in her _Henry +II._ in the "English Statesmen" series (1888), her _Town Life in the +15th Century_ (1894), and _The Making of Ireland and its Undoing_ +(1908). + + See the _Letters of J. R. Green_ (1901), edited by Leslie Stephen. + (W. Hu.) + + + + +GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737), English poet, was born of Nonconformist +parents. He had a post in the custom house, and the few anecdotes that +have been preserved of him show him to have been as witty as his poems +would lead one to expect. He died unmarried at his lodging in Nag's Head +Court, Gracechurch Street, in 1737. His _Grotto_, a poem on Queen +Caroline's grotto at Richmond, was printed in 1732; and his chief poem, +_The Spleen_, in 1737 with a preface by his friend Richard Glover. These +and some other short poems were printed in Dodsley's collection (1748), +and subsequently in various editions of the British poets. They were +edited In 1796 with a preface by Dr Aikin and in 1883 by R. E. A. +Willmott with the poems of Gray and others. _The Spleen_ is an epistle +to Mr Cuthbert Jackson, advocating cheerfulness, exercise and a quiet +content as remedies. It is full of witty sayings. Thomas Gray said of +it: "There is a profusion of wit everywhere; reading would have formed +his judgment, and harmonized his verse, for even his wood-notes often +break out into strains of real poetry and music." + + + + +GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882), English philosopher, the most typical +English representative of the school of thought called _Neo-Kantian_, or +_Neo-Hegelian_, was born on the 7th of April 1836 at Birkin, a village +in the West Riding of Yorkshire, of which his father was rector. On the +paternal side he was descended from Oliver Cromwell, whose honest, +sturdy independence of character he seemed to have inherited. His +education was conducted entirely at home until, at the age of fourteen, +he entered Rugby, where he remained five years. In 1855 he became an +undergraduate member of Balliol College, Oxford, of which society he +was, in 1860, elected fellow. His life henceforth, was devoted to +teaching (mainly philosophical) in the university--first as college +tutor, afterwards, from 1878 until his death (at Oxford on the 26th of +March 1882) as Whyte's Professor of Moral Philosophy. The lectures he +delivered as professor form the substance of his two most important +works, viz. the _Prolegomena to Ethics_ and the _Lectures on the +Principles of Political Obligation_, which contain the whole of his +positive constructive teaching. These works were not published until +after his death, but Green's views were previously known indirectly +through the _Introduction_ to the standard edition of Hume's works by +Green and T. H. Grose (d. 1906), fellow of Queen's College, in which the +doctrine of the "English" or "empirical" philosophy was exhaustively +examined. + +Hume's empiricism, combined with a belief in biological evolution +(derived from Herbert Spencer), was the chief feature in English thought +during the third quarter of the 19th century. Green represents primarily +the reaction against doctrines which, when carried out to their logical +conclusion, not only "rendered all philosophy futile," but were fatal to +practical life. By reducing the human mind to a series of unrelated +atomic sensations, this teaching destroyed the possibility of knowledge, +and further, by representing man as a "being who is simply the result of +natural forces," it made conduct, or any theory of conduct, unmeaning; +for life in any human, intelligible sense implies a personal self which +(1) _knows_ what to do, (2) has _power_ to do it. Green was thus driven, +not theoretically, but as a practical necessity, to raise again the +whole question of man in relation to nature. When (he held) we have +discovered what man in himself is, and what his relation to his +environment, we shall then know his function--what he is fitted to do. +In the light of this knowledge we shall be able to formulate the moral +code, which, in turn, will serve as a criterion of actual civic and +social institutions. These form, naturally and necessarily, the +objective expression of moral ideas, and it is in some civic or social +whole that the moral ideal must finally take concrete shape. + +To ask "What is man?" is to ask "What is experience?" for experience +means that of which I am conscious. The facts of consciousness are the +only facts which, to begin with, we are justified in asserting to exist. +On the other hand, they are valid evidence for whatever is necessary to +their own explanation, i.e. for whatever is logically involved in them. +Now the most striking characteristic of man, that in fact which marks him +specially, as contrasted with other animals, is _self_-consciousness. The +simplest mental act into which we can analyse the operations of the human +mind--the act of sense-perception--is never merely a _change_, physical +or psychical, but is the _consciousness_ of a change. Human experience +consists, not of processes in an animal organism, but of these processes +recognized as such. That which we perceive is from the outset an +apprehended fact--that is to say, it cannot be analysed into isolated +elements (so-called sensations) which, as such, are not constituents of +consciousness at all, but exists from the first as a synthesis of +relations in a consciousness which keeps distinct the "self" and the +various elements of the "object," though holding all together in the +unity of the act of perception. In other words, the whole mental +structure we call knowledge consists, in its simplest equally with its +most complex constituents, of the "work of the mind." Locke and Hume held +that the work of the mind was _eo ipso_ unreal because it was "made by" +man and not "given to" man. It thus represented a subjective creation, +not an objective fact. But this consequence follows only upon the +assumption that the work of the mind is arbitrary, an assumption shown to +be unjustified by the results of exact science, with the distinction, +universally recognized, which such science draws between truth and +falsehood, between the real and "mere ideas." This (obviously valid) +distinction logically involves the consequence that the object, or +content, of knowledge, viz. reality, is an intelligible ideal reality, a +system of thought relations, a spiritual cosmos. How is the existence of +this ideal whole to be accounted for? Only by the existence of some +"principle which renders all relations possible and is itself determined +by none of them"; an eternal self-consciousness which knows in whole what +we know in part. To God the world _is_, to man the world _becomes_. Human +experience is God gradually made manifest. + +Carrying on the same analytical method into the special department of +moral philosophy, Green held that ethics applies to the peculiar +conditions of social life that investigation into man's nature which +metaphysics began. The faculty employed in this further investigation is +no "separate moral faculty," but that same reason which is the source of +all our knowledge--ethical and other. Self-reflection gradually reveals +to us human capacity, human function, with, consequently, human +responsibility. It brings out into clear consciousness certain +potentialities in the realization of which man's true good must consist. +As the result of this analysis, combined with an investigation into the +surroundings man lives in, a "content"--a moral code--becomes gradually +evolved. Personal good is perceived to be realizable only by making +actual the conceptions thus arrived at. So long as these remain +potential or ideal, they form the motive of action; motive consisting +always in the idea of some "end" or "good" which man presents to himself +as an end in the attainment of which he would be satisfied, that is, in +the realization of which he would find his true self. The determination +to realize the self in some definite way constitutes an "act of will," +which, as thus constituted, is neither arbitrary nor externally +determined. For the motive which may be said to be its cause lies _in_ +the man himself, and the identification of the self with such a motive +is a _self_-determination, which is at once both rational and free. The +"freedom of man" is constituted, not by a supposed ability to do +anything he may choose, but in the power to identify himself with that +true good which reason reveals to him as _his_ true good. This good +consists in the realization of personal character; hence the final good, +i.e. the moral ideal, as a whole, can be realized only in some society +of persons who, while remaining ends to themselves in the sense that +their individuality is not lost but rendered more perfect, find this +perfection attainable only when the separate individualities are +integrated as part of a social whole. Society is as necessary to form +persons as persons are to constitute society. Social union is the +indispensable condition of the development of the special capacities of +the individual members. Human self-perfection cannot be gained in +isolation; it is attainable only in inter-relation with fellow-citizens +in the social community. + +The law of our being, so revealed, involves in its turn civic or +political duties. Moral goodness cannot be limited to, still less +constituted by, the cultivation of self-regarding virtues, but consists +in the attempt to realize in practice that moral ideal which +self-analysis has revealed to us as _our_ ideal. From this fact arises +the ground of political obligation, for the institutions of political or +civic life are the concrete embodiment of moral ideas in terms of our +day and generation. But, as society exists only for the proper +development of persons, we have a criterion by which to test these +institutions, viz. do they, or do they not, contribute to the +development of moral character in the individual citizens? It is obvious +that the final moral ideal is not realized in any body of civic +institutions actually existing, but the same analysis which demonstrates +this deficiency points out the direction which a true development will +take. Hence arises the conception of rights and duties which _should_ +be maintained by law, as opposed to those actually maintained; with the +further consequence that it may become occasionally a moral duty to +rebel against the state in the interest of the state itself, that is, in +order better to subserve that end or function which constitutes the +_raison d'etre_ of the state. The state does not consist in any definite +concrete organization formed once for all. It represents a "general +will" which is a desire for a common good. Its basis is not a coercive +authority imposed upon the citizens from without, but consists in the +spiritual recognition, on the part of the citizens, of that which +constitutes their true nature. "Will, not force, is the basis of the +state." + + Green's teaching was, directly and indirectly, the most potent + philosophical influence in England during the last quarter of the 19th + century, while his enthusiasm for a common citizenship, and his + personal example in practical municipal life, inspired much of the + effort made, in the years succeeding his death, to bring the + universities more into touch with the people, and to break down the + rigour of class distinctions. + + Of his philosophical doctrine proper, the most striking characteristic + is Integration, as opposed to Disintegration, both in thought and in + reality. "That which is" is a _whole_, not an _aggregate_; an organic + complex of parts, not a mechanical mass; a "whole" too not material + but spiritual, a "world of thought-relations." On the critical side + this teaching is now admittedly valid against the older empiricism, + and the cogency of the reasoning by which his constructive theory is + supported is generally recognized. Nevertheless, Green's statement of + his conclusions presents important difficulties. Even apart from the + impossibility of conceiving a whole of relations which are relations + and nothing else (this objection is perhaps largely verbal), no + explanation is given of the fact (obvious in experience) that the + spiritual entities of which the Universe is composed _appear_ + material. Certain elements present themselves in feeling which seem + stubbornly to resist any attempt to explain them in terms of thought. + While, again, legitimately insisting upon personality as a fundamental + constituent in any true theory of reality, the relation between human + individualities and the divine Person is left vague and obscure; nor + is it easy to see how the existence of several individualities--human + or divine--in one cosmos is theoretically possible. It is at the + solution of these two questions that philosophy in the immediate + future may be expected to work. + + Green's most important treatise--the _Prolegomena to + Ethics_--practically complete in manuscript at his death--was + published in the year following, under the editorship of A. C. Bradley + (4th ed., 1899). Shortly afterwards R. L. Nettleship's standard + edition of his _Works_ (exclusive of the _Prolegomena_) appeared in + three volumes: vol. i. containing reprints of Green's criticism of + Hume, Spencer, Lewes; vol. ii. Lectures on Kant, on Logic, on the + Principles of Political Obligation; vol. iii. Miscellanies, preceded + by a full _Memoir_ by the Editor. The _Principles of Political + Obligation_ was afterwards published in separate form. A criticism of + _Neo-Hegelianism_ will be found in Andrew Seth (Pringle Pattison), + _Hegelianism and Personality_. See also articles in _Mind_ (January + and April 1884) by A. J. Balfour and Henry Sidgwick, in the _Academy_ + (xxviii. 242 and xxv. 297) by S. Alexander, and in the _Philosophical + Review_ (vi., 1897) by S. S. Laurie; W. H. Fairbrother, _Philosophy of + T. H. Green_ (London and New York, 1896); D. G. Ritchie, _The + Principles of State Interference_ (London, 1891); H. Sidgwick, + _Lectures on the Philosophy of Kant_ (London, 1905); J. H. Muirhead, + _The Service of the State: Four Lectures on the Political Teaching of + T. H. Green_ (1908); A. W. Benn, _English Rationalism in the XIXth + Century_ (1906), vol. ii., pp. 401 foll. (W. H. F.,* X.) + + + + +GREEN, VALENTINE (1739-1813), British engraver, was born at Halesowen. +He was placed by his father in a solicitor's office at Evesham, where he +remained for two years; but ultimately he decided, on his own +responsibility, to abandon the legal profession and became a pupil of a +line engraver at Worcester. In 1765 he migrated to London and began work +as a mezzotint engraver, having taught himself the technicalities of +this art, and quickly rose to a position in absolutely the front rank of +British engravers. He became a member of the Incorporated Society of +Artists in 1767, an associate-engraver of the Royal Academy in 1775, and +for some forty years he followed his profession with the greatest +success. The exclusive right of engraving and publishing plates from the +pictures in the Dusseldorf gallery was granted him by the duke of +Bavaria in 1789, but, after he had issued more than twenty of these +plates, the siege of that city by the French put an end to this +undertaking and caused him serious financial loss. From this cause, and +through the failure of certain other speculations, he was reduced to +poverty; and in consequence he took the post of keeper of the British +Institution in 1805, and continued in this office for the remainder of +his life. During his career as an engraver he produced some four hundred +plates after portraits by Reynolds, Romney, and other British artists, +after the compositions of Benjamin West, and after pictures by Van Dyck, +Rubens, Murillo, and other old masters. It is claimed for him that he +was one of the first engravers to show how admirably mezzotint could be +applied to the translation of pictorial compositions as well as +portraits, but at the present time it is to his portraits that most +attention is given by collectors. His engravings are distinguished by +exceptional richness and subtlety of tone, and by very judicious +management of relations of light and shade; and they have, almost +without exception, notable freshness and grace of handling. + + See _Valentine Green_, by Alfred Whitman (London, 1902). + + + + +GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (1825-1900), American Hebrew scholar, was born in +Groveville, near Bordentown, New Jersey, on the 27th of January 1825. He +was descended in the sixth generation from Jonathan Dickinson, first +president of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), and +his ancestors had been closely connected with the Presbyterian church. +He graduated in 1840 from Lafayette College, where he was tutor in +mathematics (1840-1842) and adjunct professor (1843-1844). In 1846 he +graduated from Princeton Theological Seminary, and was instructor in +Hebrew there in 1846-1849. He was ordained in 1848 and was pastor of the +Central Presbyterian church of Philadelphia in 1849-1851. From August +1851 until his death, in Princeton, New Jersey, on the 10th of February +1900, he was professor of Biblical and Oriental Literature in Princeton +Theological Seminary. From 1859 the title of his chair was Oriental and +Old Testament Literature. In 1868 he refused the presidency of Princeton +College; as senior professor he was long acting head of the Theological +Seminary. He was a great Hebrew teacher: his _Grammar of the Hebrew +Language_ (1861, revised 1888) was a distinct improvement in method on +Gesenius, Roediger, Ewald and Nordheimer. All his knowledge of Semitic +languages he used in a "conservative Higher Criticism," which is +maintained in the following works: _The Pentateuch Vindicated from the +Aspersions of Bishop Colenso_ (1863), _Moses and the Prophets_ (1883), +_The Hebrew Feasts in their Relation to Recent Critical Hypotheses +Concerning the Pentateuch_ (1885), _The Unity of the Book of Genesis_ +(1895), _The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch_ (1895), and _A General +Introduction to the Old Testament_, vol. i. Canon (1898), vol. ii. +_Text_ (1899). He was the scholarly leader of the orthodox wing of the +Presbyterian church in America, and was moderator of the General +Assembly of 1891. Green was chairman of the Old Testament committee of +the Anglo-American Bible revision committee. + + See the articles by John D. Davis in _The Biblical World_, new series, + vol. xv., pp. 406-413 (Chicago, 1900), and _The Presbyterian and + Reformed Review_, vol. xi. pp. 377-396 (Philadelphia, 1900). + + + + +GREENAWAY, KATE (1846-1901), English artist and book illustrator, was +the daughter of John Greenaway, a well-known draughtsman and engraver on +wood, and was born in London on the 17th of March 1846. After a course +of study at South Kensington, at "Heatherley's" life classes, and at the +Slade School, Kate Greenaway began, in 1868, to exhibit water-colour +drawings at the Dudley Gallery, London. Her more remarkable early work, +however, consisted of Christmas cards, which, by reason of their quaint +beauty of design and charm of draughtsmanship, enjoyed an extraordinary +vogue. Her subjects were, in the main, young girls, children, flowers, +and landscape; and the air of artless simplicity, freshness, humour, and +purity of these little works so appealed to public and artists alike +that the enthusiastic welcome habitually accorded to them is to be +attributed to something more than love of novelty. In the line she had +struck out Kate Greenaway was encouraged by H. Stacy Marks, R.A., and +she refused to listen to those friends who urged her to return to a more +conventional manner. Thenceforward her illustrations for children (such +as for _Little Folks_, 1873, _et seq._) attracted much attention. In +1877 her drawings at the Dudley Gallery were sold for L54, and her Royal +Academy picture for eighteen guineas; and in the same year she began to +draw for the _Illustrated London News_. In the year 1879 she produced +_Under the Window_, of which 150,000 copies are said to have been sold, +and of which French and German editions were also issued. Then followed +_The Birthday Book_, _Mother Goose_, _Little Ann_, and other books for +children which were appreciated not less by adults, and were to be found +on sale in the bookshops of every capital in Europe and in the cities of +America. The extraordinary success achieved by the young girl may be +estimated by the amounts paid to her as her share of the profits: for +_Under the Window_ she received L1130; for _The Birthday Book_, L1250; +for _Mother Goose_, L905; and for _Little Ann_, L567. These four books +alone produced a clear return of L8000. "Toy-books" though they were, +these little works created a revolution in illustration, and so were of +real importance; they were loudly applauded by John Ruskin (_Art of +England_ and _Fors Clavigera_), by Ernest Chesneau and Arsene Alexandre +in France, by Dr Muther in Germany, and by leading art-critics +throughout the world. In 1890 Kate Greenaway was elected a member of the +Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours, and in 1891, 1894 and 1898 +she exhibited water-colour drawings, including illustrations for her +books, at the gallery of the Fine Art Society (by which a representative +selection was exhibited in 1902), where they surprised the world by the +infinite delicacy, tenderness, and grace which they displayed. A leading +feature in Miss Greenaway's work was her revival of the delightfully +quaint costume of the beginning of the 19th century; this lent humour to +her fancy, and so captivated the public taste that it has been said, +with poetic exaggeration, that "Kate Greenaway dressed the children of +two continents." Her drawings of children have been compared with +Stothard's for grace and with Reynolds's for naturalness, and those of +flowers with the work of van Huysum and Botticelli. From 1883 to 1897, +with a break only in 1896, she issued a series of _Kate Greenaway's +Almanacs_. Although she illustrated _The Pied Piper of Hamelin_ and +other works, the artist preferred to provide her own text; the numerous +verses which were found among her papers after her death prove that she +might have added to her reputation with her pen. She had great charm of +character, but was extremely shy of public notice, and not less modest +in private life. She died at Hampstead on the 6th of November 1901. + + See the _Life_, by M. H. Spielmann and G. S. Layard (1905). + (M. H. S.) + + + + +GREENBACKS, a form of paper currency in the United States, so named from +the green colour used on the backs of the notes. They are treasury +notes, and were first issued by the government in 1862, "as a question +of hard necessity," to provide for the expenses of the Civil War. The +government, following the example of the banks, had suspended specie +payment. The new notes were therefore for the time being an +inconvertible paper currency, and, since they were made legal tender, +were really a form of fiat money. The first act, providing for the issue +of notes to the amount of $150,000,000, was that of the 25th February +1862; the acts of 11th July 1862 and 3rd March 1863 each authorized +further issues of $150,000,000. The notes soon depreciated in value, and +at the lowest were worth only 35 cents on the dollar. The act of 12th +April 1866 authorized the retirement of $10,000,000 of notes within six +months and of $4,000,000 per month thereafter; this was discontinued by +act of 4th February 1868. On 1st January 1879 specie payment was +resumed, and the nominal amount of notes then stood at $346,681,000, +which is still outstanding. + + The so-called _Greenback party_ (also called the _Independent_, and + the _National_ party) first appeared in a presidential campaign in + 1876, when its candidate, Peter Cooper, received 81,740 votes. It + advocated increasing the volume of greenbacks, forbidding bank issues, + and the paying in greenbacks of the principal of all government bonds + not expressly payable in coin. In 1878 the party, by various fusions, + cast over 1,000,000 votes and elected 14 Congressmen; and in 1880 + there was fusion with labour reformers and it cast 308,578 votes for + its presidential candidate, J. B. Weaver, and elected 8 Congressmen. + In 1884 their candidate Benjamin F. Butler (also the candidate of the + Anti-Monopoly party) received 175,370 votes. Subsequently the party + went out of existence. + + + + +GREEN BAY, a city and the county-seat of Brown county, Wisconsin, +U.S.A., at the S. extremity of Green Bay, at the mouth of the Fox +river, 114 m. N. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) 9069; (1900) 18,684, of whom +4022 were foreign-born and 33 were negroes; (1910 census) 25,236. The +city is served by the Chicago & North-Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & +St Paul, the Kewaunee, Green Bay & Western, and the Green Bay & Western +railways, by an inter-urban electric railway connecting with other Fox +River Valley cities, and by lake and river steamboat lines. Green Bay +lies on high level ground on both sides of the river, which is here +crossed by several bridges. The city has the Kellogg Public Library, the +Brown County Court House, two high schools, a business college, several +academies, two hospitals, an orphan asylum and the State Odd Fellows' +Home. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic cathedral, the bishopric being +the earliest established in the North-west. The so-called "Tank +Cottage," now in Washington Park, is said to be the oldest house in +Wisconsin; it was built on the W. bank of the river near its mouth by +Joseph Roy, a French-Canadian _voyageur_, in 1766, was subsequently +somewhat modified, and in 1908 was bought and removed to its present +site by the Green Bay Historical Society. Midway between Green Bay and +De Pere (5 m. S.W. of Green Bay) is the state reformatory, opened in +1899-1901. Green Bay's fine harbour accommodates a considerable lake +commerce, and the city is the most important railway and wholesale +distributing centre in N.E. Wisconsin. Its manufactures include lumber +and lumber products, furniture, wagons, woodenware, farm implements and +machinery, flour, beer, canned goods, brick and tile and dairy products; +and it has lumber yards, grain elevators, fish warehouses and railway +repair shops. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was +$4,873,027, an increase of 79.9% since 1900. The first recorded visit of +a European to the vicinity of what is now Green Bay is that of Jean +Nicolet, who was sent west by Champlain in 1634, and found, probably at +the Red Banks, some 10 m. below the present city, a village of Winnebago +Indians, who he thought at first were Chinese. Between 1654 and 1658 +Radisson and Groseilliers and other _coureurs des bois_ were at Green +Bay. Claude Jean Allouez, the Jesuit missionary, established a mission +on the W. shore of the bay, about 20 m. from the present city. Later he +removed his mission to the Red Banks, and in the winter of 1671-1672 +established it permanently 5 m. above the present city, at Rapides des +Peres, on the E. shore of the Fox river. In 1673 Joliet and Marquette +visited the spot. In 1683-1685 Le Sueur and Nicholas Perrot traded with +the Indians here. In 1718-1720 Fort St Francis was erected at the mouth +of the river on the W. bank, and after being several times deserted was +permanently re-established in 1732. About 1745 Augustin de Langlade +established a trading post at La Baye and later brought his family there +from Mackinac. This was the first permanent settlement at Green Bay and +in Wisconsin. The British garrison which occupied the fort from 1761 to +1763, during which time the fort received the name of Fort Edward +Augustus, was removed at the time of Pontiac's rising, and the fort was +never re-garrisoned by the English, except for a short time during the +War of 1812. The inhabitants of La Baye were, however, acknowledged +subjects of Great Britain, the jurisdiction of the United States being +practically a dead letter until the American fort (Fort Howard) was +garrisoned in 1816. As early as 1810 fur traders, employed by John Jacob +Astor, were stationed here; about 1820 Astor erected a warehouse and +other buildings; and for many years Green Bay consisted of two distinct +settlements, Astor and Navarino, which were finally united in 1839 as +Green Bay. The city was chartered in 1854. In 1893 Fort Howard was +consolidated with it. The Green Bay _Intelligencer_, the first newspaper +in Wisconsin, began publication here in 1833. + + See Neville and Martin, _Historic Green Bay_ (Green Bay, 1893); and + Martin and Beaumont, _Old Green Bay_ (Green Bay, 1900). + + + + +GREENCASTLE, a city and the county-seat of Putnam county, Indiana, +U.S.A., about 38 m. W. by S. of Indianapolis and on the Big Walnut +river. Pop. (1900) 3661; (1910) 3790. It is served by the Cleveland, +Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis, the Chicago, Indianapolis & +Louisville, the Vandalia, and the Terre Haute, Indianapolis & Eastern +(electric) railways. It has manufactures of some importance, including +lumber, pumps, kitchen-cabinets, drag-saws, lightning-rods and +tin-plate, is in the midst of a blue grass region, and is a shipping +point for beef cattle. The city has a Carnegie library and is the seat +of the de Pauw University (co-educational), a Methodist Episcopal +institution, founded as Indiana Asbury University in 1837, and renamed +in 1884 in honour of Washington Charles de Pauw (1822-1887), a +successful capitalist, banker and glass manufacturer. The total gifts of +Mr de Pauw and his family to the institution amount to about $600,000. +Among the presidents of the university have been Bishop Matthew Simpson, +Bishop Thomas Bowman (b. 1817), and Bishop Edwin Holt Hughes (b. 1866), +all of the Methodist Episcopal church. The university comprises the +Asbury College of Liberal Arts, a School of Music, a School of Art and +an Academy, and had in 1909-1910 43 instructors, a library of 37,000 +volumes, and 1017 students. Greencastle was first settled about 1820, +and was chartered as a city in 1861. + + + + +GREENE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1811-1883), American historian, was born at +East Greenwich, Rhode Island, on the 8th of April 1811, the grandson of +Major-General Nathanael Greene. He entered Brown University in 1824, +left in his junior year on account of ill-health, was in Europe during +the next twenty years, except in 1833-1834, when he was principal of +Kent Academy at East Greenwich, and was the United States consul at Rome +from 1837 to 1845. He was instructor in modern languages in Brown +University from 1848 to 1852; and in 1871-1875 was non-resident lecturer +in American history in Cornell University. He died at East Greenwich, +Rhode Island, on the 2nd of February 1883. His published works include +French and Italian text-books; _Historical Studies_ (1850); +_Biographical Studies_ (1860); _Historical View of the American +Revolution_ (1865); _Life of Nathanael Greene_ (3 vols., 1867-1871); +_The German Element in the War of American Independence_ (1876); and a +_Short History of Rhode Island_ (1877). + + + + +GREENE, MAURICE (1695-1755) English musical composer, was born in +London. He was the son of a clergyman in the city, and soon became a +chorister of St Paul's cathedral, where he studied under Charles King, +and subsequently under Richard Brind, organist of the cathedral from +1707 to 1718, whom, on his death in the last-named year, he succeeded. +Nine years later he became organist and composer to the chapel royal, on +the death of Dr Croft. In 1730 he was elected to the chair of music in +the university of Cambridge, and had the degree of doctor of music +conferred on him. Dr Greene was a voluminous composer of church music, +and his collection of _Forty Select Anthems_ became a standard work of +its kind. He wrote a "Te Deum," several oratorios, a masque, _The +Judgment of Hercules_, and a pastoral opera, _Phoebe_ (1748); also glees +and catches: and a collection of _Catches and Canons for Three and Four +Voices_ is amongst his compositions. In addition he composed many +occasional pieces for the king's birthday, having been appointed master +of the king's band in 1735. But it is as a composer of church music that +Greene is chiefly remembered. It is here that his contrapuntal skill and +his sound musical scholarship are chiefly shown. With Handel, Greene was +originally on intimate terms, but his equal friendship for Buononcini, +Handel's rival, estranged the German master's feelings from him, and all +personal intercourse between them ceased. Greene, in conjunction with +the violinist Michael Christian Festing (1727-1752) and others, +originated the Society of Musicians, for the support of poor artists and +their families. He died on the 1st of December 1755. + + + + +GREENE, NATHANAEL (1742-1786), American general, son of a Quaker farmer +and smith, was born at Potowomut, in the township of Warwick, Rhode +Island, on the 7th of August (not, as has been stated, 6th of June) +1742. Though his father's sect discouraged "literary accomplishments," +he acquired a large amount of general information, and made a special +study of mathematics, history and law. At Coventry, R.I., whither he +removed in 1770 to take charge of a forge built by his father and his +uncles, he was the first to urge the establishment of a public school; +and in the same year he was chosen a member of the legislature of Rhode +Island, to which he was re-elected in 1771, 1772 and 1775. He +sympathized strongly with the Whig, or Patriot, element among the +colonists, and in 1774 joined the local militia. At this time he began +to study the art of war. In December 1774 he was on a committee +appointed by the assembly to revise the militia laws. His zeal in +attending to military duty led to his expulsion from the Society of +Friends. + +In 1775, in command of the contingent raised by Rhode Island, he joined +the American forces at Cambridge, and on the 22nd of June was appointed +a brigadier by Congress. To him Washington assigned the command of the +city of Boston after it was evacuated by Howe in March 1776. Greene's +letters of October 1775 and January 1776 to Samuel Ward, then a delegate +from Rhode Island to the Continental Congress, favoured a declaration of +independence. On the 9th of August 1776 he was promoted to be one of the +four new major-generals and was put in command of the Continental troops +on Long Island; he chose the place for fortifications (practically the +same as that picked by General Charles Lee) and built the redoubts and +entrenchments of Fort Greene on Brooklyn Heights. Severe illness +prevented his taking part in the battle of Long Island. He was prominent +among those who advised a retreat from New York and the burning of the +city, so that the British might not use it. Greene was placed in command +of Fort Lee, and on the 25th of October succeeded General Israel Putnam +in command of Fort Washington. He received orders from Washington to +defend Fort Washington to the last extremity, and on the 11th of October +Congress had passed a resolution to the same effect; but later +Washington wrote to him to use his own discretion. Greene ordered +Colonel Magaw, who was in immediate command, to defend the place until +he should hear from him again, and reinforced it to meet General Howe's +attack. Nevertheless, the blame for the losses of Forts Washington and +Lee was put upon Greene, but apparently without his losing the +confidence of Washington, who indeed himself assumed the responsibility. +At Trenton Greene commanded one of the two American columns, his own, +accompanied by Washington, arriving first; and after the victory here he +urged Washington to push on immediately to Princeton, but was over-ruled +by a council of war. At the Brandywine Greene commanded the reserve. At +Germantown Greene's command, having a greater distance to march than the +right wing under Sullivan, failed to arrive in good time--a failure +which Greene himself thought (without cause) would cost him Washington's +regard; on this, with the affair of Fort Washington, Bancroft based his +unfavourable estimate of Greene's ability. But on their arrival, Greene +and his troops distinguished themselves greatly. + +At the urgent request of Washington, on the 2nd of March 1778, at Valley +Forge, he accepted the office of quartermaster-general (succeeding +Thomas Mifflin), and of his conduct in this difficult work, which +Washington heartily approved, a modern critic, Colonel H. B. Carrington, +has said that it was "as good as was possible under the circumstances of +that fluctuating uncertain force." He had become quartermaster-general +on the understanding, however, that he should retain the right to +command troops in the field; thus we find him at the head of the right +wing at Monmouth on the 28th of June. In August Greene and Lafayette +commanded the land forces sent to Rhode Island to co-operate with the +French admiral d'Estaing, in an expedition which proved abortive. In +June 1780 Greene commanded in a skirmish at Springfield, New Jersey. In +August he resigned the office of quartermaster-general, after a long and +bitter struggle with Congress over the interference in army +administration by the Treasury Board and by commissions appointed by +Congress. Before his resignation became effective it fell to his lot to +preside over the court which, on the 29th of September, condemned Major +John Andre to death. + +On the 14th of October he succeeded Gates as commander-in-chief of the +Southern army, and took command at Charlotte, N.C., on the 2nd of +December. The army was weak and badly equipped and was opposed by a +superior force under Cornwallis. Greene decided to divide his own +troops, thus forcing the division of the British as well, and creating +the possibility of a strategic interplay of forces. This strategy led to +General Daniel Morgan's victory of Cowpens (just over the South Carolina +line) on the 17th of January 1781, and to the battle at Guilford Court +House, N.C. (March 15), in which after having weakened the British +troops by continual movements, and drawn in reinforcements for his own +army, Greene was defeated indeed, but only at such cost to the victor +that Tarleton called it "the pledge of ultimate defeat." Three days +after this battle Cornwallis withdrew toward Wilmington. Greene's +generalship and judgment were again conspicuously illustrated in the +next few weeks, in which he allowed Cornwallis to march north to +Virginia and himself turned swiftly to the reconquest of the inner +country of South Carolina. This, in spite of a reverse sustained at Lord +Rawdon's hands at Hobkirk's Hill (2 m. N. of Camden) on the 25th of +April, he achieved by the end of June, the British retiring to the +coast. Greene then gave his forces a six weeks' rest on the High Hills +of the Santee, and on the 8th of September, with 2600 men, engaged the +British under Lieut.-Colonel James Stuart (who had succeeded Lord +Rawdon) at Eutaw Springs; the battle, although tactically drawn, so +weakened the British that they withdrew to Charleston, where Greene +penned them during the remaining months of the war. Greene's Southern +campaign showed remarkable strategic features that remind one of those +of Turenne, the commander whom he had taken as his model in his studies +before the war. He excelled in dividing, eluding and tiring his opponent +by long marches, and in actual conflict forcing him to pay for a +temporary advantage a price that he could not afford. He was greatly +assisted by able subordinates, including the Polish engineer, Tadeusz +Kosciusko, the brilliant cavalry captains, Henry ("Light-Horse Harry") +Lee and William Washington, and the partisan leaders, Thomas Sumter and +Francis Marion. + +South Carolina and Georgia voted Greene liberal grants of lands and +money. The South Carolina estate, Boone's Barony, S. of Edisto in +Bamberg County, he sold to meet bills for the rations of his Southern +army. On the Georgia estate, Mulberry Grove, 14 m. above Savannah, on +the river, he settled in 1785, after twice refusing (1781 and 1784) the +post of secretary of war, and there he died of sunstroke on the 19th of +June 1786. Greene was a singularly able, and--like other prominent +generals on the American side--a self-trained soldier, and was second +only to Washington among the officers of the American army in military +ability. Like Washington he had the great gift of using small means to +the utmost advantage. His attitude towards the Tories was humane and +even kindly, and he generously defended Gates, who had repeatedly +intrigued against him, when Gates's conduct of the campaign in the South +was criticized. There is a monument to Greene in Savannah (1829). His +statue, with that of Roger Williams, represents the state of Rhode +Island in the National Hall of Statuary in the Capitol at Washington; in +the same city there is a bronze equestrian statue of him by H. K. Brown. + + See the _Life of Nathanael Greene_ (3 vols., 1867-1871), by his + grandson, George W. Greene, and the biography (New York, 1893), by + Brig.-Gen. F. V. Greene, in the "Great Commanders Series." + + + + +GREENE, ROBERT (c. 1560-1592), English dramatist and miscellaneous +writer, was born at Norwich about 1560. The identity of his father has +been disputed, but there is every reason to believe that he belonged to +the tradesmen's class and had small means. It is doubtful whether Robert +Greene attended Norwich grammar school; but, as an eastern counties man +(to one of whose plays, _Friar Bacon_, the Norfolk and Suffolk +borderland owes a lasting poetic commemoration) he naturally found his +way to Cambridge, where he entered St John's College as a sizar in 1575 +and took his B.A. thence in 1579, proceeding M.A. in 1583 from Clare +Hall. His life at the university was, according to his own account, +spent "among wags as lewd as himself, with whom he consumed the flower +of his youth." In 1588 he was incorporated at Oxford, so that on some +of his title-pages he styles himself "utriusque Academiae in Artibus +Magister"; and Nashe humorously refers to him as "utriusque Academiae +Robertus Greene." Between the years 1578 and 1583 he had travelled +abroad, according to his own account very extensively, visiting France, +Germany, Poland and Denmark, besides learning at first-hand to "hate the +pride of Italie" and to know the taste of that poet's fruit, "Spanish +mirabolones." The grounds upon which it has been suggested that he took +holy orders are quite insufficient; according to the title-page of a +pamphlet published by him in 1585 he was then a "student in phisicke." +Already, however, after taking his M.A. degree, he had according to his +own account begun his London life, and his earliest extant literary +production was in hand as early as 1580. He now became "an author of +playes and a penner of love-pamphlets, so that I soone grew famous in +that qualitie, that who for that trade growne so ordinary about London +as Robin Greene?" "Glad was that printer," says Nashe, "that might bee +so blest to pay him deare for the very dregs of his wit." By his own +account he rapidly sank into the worst debaucheries of the town, though +Nashe declares that he never knew him guilty of notorious crime. He was +not without passing impulses towards a more righteous and sober life, +and was derided in consequence by his associates as a "Puritane and +Presizian." It is possible that he, as well as his bitter enemy, Gabriel +Harvey, exaggerated the looseness of his conduct. His marriage, which +took place in 1585 or 1586, failed to steady him; if Francesco, in +Greene's pamphlet _Never too late to mend_ (1590), is intended for the +author himself, it had been a runaway match; but the fiction and the +autobiographical sketch in the _Repentance_ agree in their account of +the unfaithfulness which followed on the part of the husband. He lived +with his wife, whose name seems to have been Dorothy ("Doll"; and cf. +Dorothea in _James IV._), for a while; "but forasmuch as she would +perswade me from my wilful wickednes, after I had a child by her, I cast +her off, having spent up the marriage-money which I obtained by her. +Then left I her at six or seven, who went into Lincolnshire, and I to +London," where his reputation as a playwright and writer of pamphlets of +"love and vaine fantasyes" continued to increase, and where his life was +a feverish alternation of labour and debauchery. In his last years he +took it upon himself to make war on the cutpurses and "conny-catchers" +with whom he came into contact in the slums, and whose doings he +fearlessly exposed in his writings. He tells us how at last he was +friendless "except it were in a fewe alehouses," where he was respected +on account of the score he had run up. When the end came he was a +dependant on the charity of the poor and the pitying love of the +unfortunate. Henri Murger has drawn no picture more sickening and more +pitiful than the story of Greene's death, as told by his Puritan +adversary, Gabriel Harvey--a veracious though a far from unprejudiced +narrator. Greene had taken up the cudgels provided by the Harvey +brothers on their intervention in the Marprelate controversy, and made +an attack (immediately suppressed) upon Gabriel's father and family in +the prose-tract _A Quip for an Upstart Courtier, or a Quaint Dispute +between Velvet Breeches and Cloth Breeches_ (1592). After a banquet +where the chief guest had been Thomas Nashe--an old associate and +perhaps a college friend of Greene's, any great intimacy with whom, +however, he seems to have been anxious to disclaim--Greene had fallen +sick "of a surfeit of pickle herringe and Rennish wine." At the house of +a poor shoemaker near Dowgate, deserted by all except his compassionate +hostess (Mrs Isam) and two women--one of them the sister of a notorious +thief named "Cutting Ball," and the mother of his illegitimate son, +Fortunatus Greene--he died on the 3rd of September 1592. Shortly before +his death he wrote under a bond for L10 which he had given to the good +shoemaker, the following words addressed to his long-forsaken wife: +"Doll, I charge thee, by the loue of our youth and by my soules rest, +that thou wilte see this man paide; for if hee and his wife had not +succoured me, I had died in the streetes.--Robert Greene." + +_Four Letters and Certain Sonnets_, Harvey's attack on Greene, appeared +almost immediately after his death, as to the circumstances of which his +relentless adversary had taken care to inform himself personally. Nashe +took up the defence of his dead friend and ridiculed Harvey in _Strange +News_ (1593); and the dispute continued for some years. But, before this, +the dramatist Henry Chettle published a pamphlet from the hand of the +unhappy man, entitled _Greene's Groat's-worth of Wit bought with a +Million of Repentance_ (1592), containing the story of Roberto, who may +be regarded, for practical purposes, as representing Greene himself. This +ill-starred production may almost be said to have done more to excite the +resentment of posterity against Greene's name than all the errors for +which he professed his repentance. For in it he exhorted to repentance +three of his _quondam_ acquaintance. Of these three Marlowe was one--to +whom and to whose creation of "that Atheist Tamberlaine" he had +repeatedly alluded. The second was Peele, the third probably Nashe. But +the passage addressed to Peele contained a transparent allusion to a +fourth dramatist, who was an actor likewise, as "an vpstart crow +beautified with our feathers, that with his _Tygres heart wrapt in a +player's hyde_ supposes hee is as well able to bombast out a blanke-verse +as the best of you; and being an absolute Iohannes-fac-totum, is in his +owne conceyt the onely shake-scene in a countrey." The phrase italicized +parodies a passage occurring in _The True Tragedie of Richard, Duke of +York_, &c., and retained in Part III. of Henry VI. If Greene (as many +eminent critics have thought) had a hand in _The True Tragedie_, he must +here have intended a charge of plagiarism against Shakespeare. But while +it seems more probable that (as the late R. Simpson suggested) the +upstart crow beautified with the feathers of the three dramatists is a +sneering description of the actor who declaimed their verse, the _animus_ +of the whole attack (as explained by Dr Ingleby) is revealed in its +concluding phrases. This "shake-scene," i.e. this _actor_ had ventured to +intrude upon the domain of the regular staff of playwrights--their +monopoly was in danger! + +Two other prose pamphlets of an autobiographical nature were issued +posthumously. Of these, _The Repentance of Robert Greene, Master of +Arts_ (1592), must originally have been written by him on his death-bed, +under the influence, as he says, of Father Parsons's _Booke of +Resolution_ (_The Christian Directorie, appertayning to Resolution_, +1582, republished in an enlarged form, which became very popular, in +1585); but it bears traces of having been improved from the original; +while _Greene's Vision_ was certainly not, as the title-page avers, +written during his last illness. + +Altogether not less than thirty-five prose-tracts are ascribed to +Greene's prolific pen. Nearly all of them are interspersed with verses; +in their themes they range from the "misticall" wonders of the heavens +to the familiar but "pernitious sleights" of the sharpers of London. But +the most widely attractive of his prose publications were his +"love-pamphlets," which brought upon him the outcry of Puritan censors. +The earliest of his novels, as they may be called, _Mamillia_, was +licensed in 1583. This interesting story may be said to have accompanied +Greene through life; for even part ii., of which, though probably +completed several years earlier, the earliest extant edition bears the +date 1593, had a sequel, _The Anatomie of Love's Flatteries_, which +contains a review of suitors recalling Portia's in _The Merchant of +Venice_. _The Myrrour of Modestie_ (the story of Susanna) (1584); _The +Historie of Arhasto, King of Denmarke_ (1584); _Morando, the Tritameron +of Love_ (a rather tedious imitation of the _Decameron_ (1584); +_Planetomachia_ (1585) (a contention in story-telling between Venus and +Saturn); _Penelope's Web_ (1587) (another string of stories); _Alcida_, +_Greene's Metamorphosis_ (1588), and others, followed. In these popular +productions he appears very distinctly as a follower of John Lyly; +indeed, the first part of _Mamillia_ was entered in the Stationers' +Registers in the year of the appearance of _Euphues_, and two of +Greene's novels are by their titles announced as a kind of sequel to the +parent romance: _Euphues his Censure to Philautus_ (1587), _Menaphon. +Camilla's Alarum to Slumbering Euphues_ (1589), named in some later +editions _Greene's Arcadia_. This pastoral romance, written in direct +emulation of Sidney's, with a heroine called Samila, contains St +Sephestia's charming lullaby, with its refrain "Father's sorowe, +father's joy." But, though Greene's style copies the balanced +oscillation, and his diction the ornateness (including the proverbial +philosophy) of Lyly, he contrives to interest by the matter as well as +to attract attention by the manner of his narratives. Of his highly +moral intentions he leaves the reader in no doubt, since they are +exposed on the title-pages. The full title of the _Myrrour of Modestie_ +for instance continues: "wherein appeareth as in a perfect glasse how +the Lord delivereth the innocent from all imminent perils, and plagueth +the blood-thirsty hypocrites with deserved punishments," &c. On his +_Pandosto, The Triumph of Time_ (1588) Shakespeare founded _A Winter's +Tale_; in fact, the novel contains the entire plot of the comedy, except +the device of the living statue; though some of the subordinate +characters in the play, including Autolycus, were added by Shakespeare, +together with the pastoral fragrance of one of its episodes. + +In Greene's _Never too Late_ (1590), announced as a "Powder of +Experience: sent to all youthfull gentlemen" for their benefit, the +hero, Francesco, is in all probability intended for Greene himself, the +sequel or second part is, however, pure fiction. This episodical +narrative has a vivacity and truthfulness of manner which savour of an +18th century novel rather than of an Elizabethan tale concerning the +days of "Palmerin, King of Great Britain." Philador, the prodigal of +_The Mourning Garment_ (1590), is obviously also in some respects a +portrait of the writer. The experiences of the Roberto of _Greene's +Groat's-worth of Wit_ (1592) are even more palpably the experiences of +the author himself, though they are possibly overdrawn--for a born +rhetorician exaggerates everything, even his own sins. Besides these and +the posthumous pamphlets on his repentance, Greene left realistic +pictures of the very disreputable society to which he finally descended, +in his pamphlets on "conny-catching": _A Notable Discovery of Coosnage_ +(1591), _The Blacke Bookes Messenger, Laying open the Life and Death of +Ned Browne, one of the most Notable Cutpurses, Crossbiters, and +Conny-catchers that ever lived in England_ (1592). Much in Greene's +manner, both in his romances and in his pictures of low life, +anticipated what proved the slow course of the actual development of the +English novel; and it is probable that his true _metier_, and that which +best suited the bright fancy, ingenuity and wit of which his genius was +compounded, was pamphlet-spinning and story-telling rather than dramatic +composition. It should be added that, euphuist as Greene was, few of his +contemporaries in their lyrics warbled wood-notes which like his +resemble Shakespeare's in their native freshness. + +Curiously enough, as Mr Churton Collins has pointed out, Greene, except +in the two pamphlets written just before his death, never refers to his +having written plays; and before 1592 his contemporaries are equally +silent as to his labours as a playwright. Only four plays remain to us +of which he was indisputably the sole author. The earliest of these +seems to have been the _Comicall History of Alphonsus, King of Arragon_, +of which Henslowe's _Diary_ contains no trace. But it can hardly have +been first acted long after the production of Marlowe's _Tamburlaine_, +which had, in all probability, been brought on the stage in 1587. For +this play, "comical" only in the negative sense of having a happy +ending, was manifestly written in emulation as well as in direct +imitation of Marlowe's tragedy. While Greene cannot have thought himself +capable of surpassing Marlowe as a tragic poet, he very probably wished +to outdo him in "business," and to equal him in the rant which was sure +to bring down at least part of the house. _Alphonsus_ is a _history_ +proper--a dramatized chronicle or narrative of warlike events. Its fame +could never equal that of Marlowe's tragedy; but its composition showed +that Greene could seek to rival the most popular drama of the day, +without falling very far short of his model. + +In the _Honourable History of Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay_ (not known +to have been acted before February, 1592, but probably written in 1589) +Greene once more attempted to emulate Marlowe; and he succeeded in +producing a masterpiece of his own. Marlowe's _Doctor Faustus_, which +doubtless suggested the composition of Greene's comedy, reveals the +mighty tragic genius of its author; but Greene resolved on an altogether +distinct treatment of a cognate theme. Interweaving with the popular +tale of Friar Bacon and his wondrous doings a charming idyl (so far as +we know, of his own invention), the story of Prince Edward's love for +the Fair Maid of Fressingfield, he produced a comedy brimful of amusing +action and genial fun. _Friar Bacon_ remains a dramatic picture of +English Elizabethan life with which _The Merry Wives_ alone can vie; and +not even the ultra-classicism in the similes of its diction can destroy +the naturalness which constitutes its perennial charm. _The History of +Orlando Furioso, one of the Twelve Peeres of France_ has on +unsatisfactory evidence been dated as before 1586, and is known to have +been acted on the 21st of February 1592. It is a free dramatic +adaptation of Ariosto, Harington's translation of whom appeared in 1591, +and who in one passage is textually quoted; and it contains a large +variety of characters and a superabundance oi action. Fairly lucid in +arrangement and fluent in style, the treatment of the madness oi Orlando +lacks tragic power. Very few dramatists from Sophocles to Shakespeare +have succeeded in subordinating the grotesque effect of madness to the +tragic; and Greene is not to be included in the list. + +In _The Scottish Historie of James IV._ (acted 1592, licensed for +publication 1594) Greene seems to have reached the climax of his +dramatic powers. The "historical" character of this play is pure +pretence. The story is taken from one of Giraldi Cinthio's tales. Its +theme is the illicit passion of King James for the chaste lady Ida, to +obtain whose hand he endeavours, at the suggestion of a villain called +Ateukin, to make away with his own wife. She escapes in doublet and +hose, attended by her faithful dwarf; but, on her father's making war +upon her husband to avenge her wrongs, she brings about a reconciliation +between them. Not only is this well-constructed story effectively worked +out, but the characters are vigorously drawn, and in Ateukin there is a +touch of Iago. The fooling by Slipper, the clown of the piece, is +unexceptionable; and, lest even so the play should hang heavy on the +audience, its action is carried off by a "pleasant comedie"--i.e. a +prelude and some dances between the acts--"presented by Oboram, King of +Fayeries," who is, however, a very different person from the Oberon of +_A Midsummer Night's Dream_. + +_George-a-Greene the Pinner of Wakefield_ (acted 1593, printed 1599), a +delightful picture of English life fully worthy of the author of _Friar +Bungay_, has been attributed to him; but the external evidence is very +slight, and the internal unconvincing. Of the comedy of _Fair Em_, which +resembles _Friar Bacon_ in more than one point, Greene cannot have been +the author; the question as to the priority between the two plays is not +so easily solved. The conjecture as to his supposed share in the plays +on which the second and third parts of _Henry VI._ are founded has been +already referred to. He was certainly joint author with Thomas Lodge of +the curious drama called _A Looking Glasse for London and England_ +(acted in 1592 and printed in 1594)--a dramatic apologue conveying to +the living generation of Englishmen the warning of Nineveh's corruption +and prophesied doom. The lesson was frequently repeated in the streets +of London by the "Ninevitical motions" of the puppets; but there are +both fire and wealth of language in Greene and Lodge's oratory. The +comic element is not absent, being supplied in abundance by Adam, the +clown of the piece, who belongs to the family of Slipper, and of Friar +Bacon's servant, Miles. + +Greene's dramatic genius has nothing in it of the intensity of Marlowe's +tragic muse; nor perhaps does he ever equal Peele at his best. On the +other hand, his dramatic poetry is occasionally animated with the breezy +freshness which no artifice can simulate. He had considerable +constructive skill, but he has created no character of commanding +power--unless Ateukin be excepted; but his personages are living men and +women, and marked out from one another with a vigorous but far from rude +hand. His comic humour is undeniable, and he had the gift of light and +graceful dialogue. His diction is overloaded with classical ornament, +but his versification is easy and fluent, and its cadence is at times +singularly sweet. He creates his best effects by the simplest means; and +he is indisputably one of the most attractive of early English dramatic +authors. + + Greene's dramatic works and poems were edited by Alexander Dyce in + 1831 with a life of the author. This edition was reissued in one + volume in 1858. His complete works were edited for the Huth Library by + A. B. Grosart. This issue (1881-1886) contains a translation of + Nicholas Storojhenko's monograph on Greene (Moscow, 1878). Greene's + plays and poems were edited with introductions and notes by J. Churton + Collins in 2 vols. (Oxford, 1905); the general introduction to this + edition has superseded previous accounts of Greene and his dramatic + and lyrical writings. An account of his pamphlets is to be found in J. + J. Jusserand's _English Novel in the Time of Shakespeare_ (Eng. + trans., 1890). See also W. Bernhardi, _Robert Greenes Leben und + Schriften_ (1874); F. M. Bodenstedt, in _Shakespeare's Zeitgenossen + und ihre Werke_ (1858); and an introduction by A. W. Ward to _Friar + Bacon and Friar Bungay_ (Oxford, 1886, 4th ed., 1901). (A. W. W.) + + + + +GREENFIELD, a township and the county-seat of Franklin county, in N.E. +Massachusetts, U.S.A., including an area of 20 sq. m. of meadow and hill +country, watered by the Green and Deerfield rivers and various small +tributaries. Pop. (1890) 5252, (1900) 7927, of whom 1431 were +foreign-born; (1910 census) 10,427. The principal village, of the same +name as the township, is situated on the N. bank of the Deerfield river, +and on the Boston & Maine railway and the Connecticut Valley street +railway (electric). Among Greenfield's manufactures are cutlery, +machinery, and taps and dies. Greenfield, originally part of Deerfield, +was settled about 1682, was established as a "district" in 1753, and on +the 23rd of August 1775 was, by a general Act, separated from Deerfield +and incorporated as a separate township, although it had assumed full +township rights in 1774 by sending delegates to the Provincial Congress. +In 1793 part of it was taken to form the township of Gill; in 1838 part +of it was annexed to Bernardston; and in 1896 it annexed a part of +Deerfield. It was much disaffected at the time of Shays's Rebellion. + + See F. M. Thompson, _History of Greenfield_ (2 vols., Greenfield, + 1904). + + + + +GREENFINCH (Ger. _Grunfink_), or GREEN LINNET, as it is very often +called, a common European bird, the _Fringilla chloris_ of Linnaeus, +ranked by many systematists with one section of hawfinches, +_Coccothraustes_, but apparently more nearly allied to the other section +_Hesperiphona_, and perhaps justifiably deemed the type of a distinct +genus, to which the name _Chloris_ or _Ligurinus_ has been applied. The +cock, in his plumage of yellowish-green and yellow is one of the most +finely coloured of common English birds, but he is rather heavily built, +and his song is hardly commended. The hen is much less brightly tinted. +Throughout Britain, as a rule, this species is one of the most plentiful +birds, and is found at all seasons of the year. It pervades almost the +whole of Europe, and in Asia reaches the river Ob. It visits Palestine, +but is unknown in Egypt. It is, however, abundant in Mauritania, whence +specimens are so brightly coloured that they have been deemed to form a +distinct species, the _Ligurinus aurantiiventris_ of Dr Cabanis, but +that view is now generally abandoned. In the north-east of Asia and its +adjacent islands occur two allied species--the _Fringilla sinica_ of +Linnaeus and the _F. kawarahiba_ of Temminck. (A. N.) + + + + +GREENHEART, one of the most valuable of timbers, the produce of +_Nectandra Rodiaei_, natural order Lauraceae, a large tree, native of +tropical South America and the West Indies. The Indian name of the tree +is _sipiri_ or _bibiru_, and from its bark and fruits is obtained the +febrifuge principle bibirine. Greenheart wood is of a dark-green colour, +sap wood and heart wood being so much alike that they can with difficulty +be distinguished from each other. The heart wood is one of the most +durable of all timbers, and its value is greatly enhanced by the fact +that it is proof against the ravages of many marine borers which rapidly +destroy piles and other submarine structures of most other kinds of wood +available for such purposes. In the Kelvingrove Museum, Glasgow, there +are two pieces of planking from a wreck submerged during eighteen years +on the west coast of Scotland. The one specimen--greenheart--is merely +slightly pitted on the surface, the body of the wood being perfectly +sound and untouched, while the other--teak--is almost entirely eaten +away. Greenheart, tested either by transverse or by tensile strain, is +one of the strongest of all woods, and it is also exceedingly dense, its +specific gravity being about 1150. It is included in the second line of +Lloyd's Register for shipbuilding purposes, and it is extensively used +for keelsons, beams, engine-bearers and planking, &c., as well as in the +general engineering arts, but its excessive weight unfits it for many +purposes for which its other properties would render it eminently +suitable. + + + + +GREENLAND (Danish, &c., _Gronland_), a large continental island, the +greater portion of which lies within the Arctic Circle, while the whole +is arctic in character. It is not connected with any portion of Europe +or America except by suboceanic ridges; but in the extreme north it is +separated only by a narrow strait from Ellesmere Land in the archipelago +of the American continent. It is bounded on the east by the North +Atlantic, the Norwegian and Greenland Seas--Jan Mayen, Iceland, the +Faeroe Islands and the Shetlands being the only lands between it and +Norway. Denmark Strait is the sea between it and Iceland, and the +northern Norwegian Sea or Greenland Sea separates it from Spitsbergen. +On the west Davis Strait and Baffin Bay separate it from Baffin Land. +The so-called bay narrows northward into the strait successively known +as Smith Sound, Kane Basin, Kennedy Channel and Robeson Channel. A +submarine ridge, about 300 fathoms deep at its deepest, unites Greenland +with Iceland (across Denmark Strait), the Faeroes and Scotland. A +similar submarine ridge unites it with the Cumberland Peninsula of +Baffin Land, across Davis Strait. Two large islands (with others +smaller) lie probably off the north coast, being apparently divided from +it by very narrow channels which are not yet explored. If they be +reckoned as integral parts of Greenland, then the north coast, fronting +the polar sea, culminates about 83 deg. 40' N. Cape Farewell, the most +southerly point (also on a small island), is in 59 deg. 45' N. The +extreme length of Greenland may therefore be set down at about 1650 m., +while its extreme breadth, which occurs about 77 deg. 30' N., is +approximately 800 m. The area is estimated at 827,275 sq. m. Greenland +is a Danish colony, inasmuch as the west coast and also the southern +east coast belong to the Danish crown. The scattered settlements of +Europeans on the southern parts of the coasts are Danish, and the trade +is a monopoly of the Danish government. + +The southern and south-western coasts have been known, as will be +mentioned later, since the 10th century, when Norse settlers appeared +there, and the names of many famous arctic explorers have been +associated with the exploration of Greenland. The communication between +the Norse settlements in Greenland and the motherland Norway was broken +off at the end of the 14th and the beginning of the 15th century, and +the Norsemen's knowledge about their distant colony was gradually more +or less forgotten. The south and west coast of Greenland was then +re-discovered by John Davis in July 1585, though previous explorers, as +Cortereal, Frobisher and others, had seen it, and at the end of the 16th +and the beginning of the 17th century the work of Davis (1586-1588). +Hudson (1610) and Baffin (1616) in the western seas afforded some +knowledge of the west coast. This was added to by later explorers and by +whalers and sealers. Among explorers who in the 19th century were +specially connected with the north-west coast may be mentioned E. A. +Inglefield (1852) who sailed into Smith's Sound,[1] Elisha Kent Kane +(1853-1855)[2] who worked northward through Smith Sound into Kane Basin, +and Charles Francis Hall (1871) who explored the strait (Kennedy Channel +and Robeson Channel) to the north of this.[3] + +The northern east coast was sighted by Hudson (1607) in about 73 deg. +30' N. (C. Hold with Hope), and during the 17th century and later this +northern coast was probably visited by many Dutch whalers. The first who +gave more accurate information was the Scottish whaler, Captain William +Scoresby, jun. (1822), who, with his father, explored the coast between +69 deg. and 75 deg. N., and gave the first fairly trustworthy map of +it.[4] Captains Edward Sabine and Clavering (1823) visited the coast +between 72 deg. 5' and 75 deg. 12' N. and met the only Eskimo ever seen +in this part of Greenland. The second German polar expedition in 1870, +under Carl Christian Koldewey[5] (1837-1908), reached 77 deg. N. (Cape +Bismarck); and the duke of Orleans, in 1905, ascertained that this point +was on an island (the Dove Bay of the German expedition being in reality +a strait) and penetrated farther north, to about 78 deg. 16'. From this +point the north-east coast remained unexplored, though a sight was +reported in 1670 by a whaler named Lambert, and again in 1775 as far +north as 79 deg. by Daines Barrington, until a Danish expedition under +Mylius Erichsen in 1906-1908 explored it, discovering North-East +Foreland, the easternmost point (see Polar Regions and map). The +southern part of the east coast was first explored by the Dane Wilhelm +August Graah (1829-1830) between Cape Farewell and 65 deg. 16' N.[6] In +1883-1885 the Danes G. Holm and T. V. Garde carefully explored and +mapped the coast from Cape Farewell to Angmagssalik, in 66 deg. N.[7] F. +Nansen and his companions also travelled along a part of this coast in +1888.[8] A. E. Nordenskiold, in the "Sophia," landed near Angmagssalik, +in 65 deg. 36' N., in 1883.[9] Captain C. Ryder, in 1891-1892, explored +and mapped the large Scoresby Sound, or, more correctly, Scoresby +Fjord.[10] Lieutenant G. Amdrup, in 1899, explored the coast from +Angmagssalik north to 67 deg. 22' N.[11] A part of this coast, about 67 +deg. N., had also been seen by Nansen in 1882.[12] In 1899 Professor A. +G. Nathorst explored the land between Franz Josef Fjord and Scoresby +Fjord, where the large King Oscar Fjord, connecting Davy's Sound with +Franz Joseph Fjord, was discovered.[13] In 1900 Lieutenant Amdrup +explored the still unknown east coast from 690 10' N. south to 67 deg. +N.[14] + +From the work of explorers in the north-west it had been possible to +infer the approximate latitude of the northward termination of Greenland +long before it was definitely known. Towards the close of the 19th +century several explorers gave attention to this question. Lieutenant +(afterwards Admiral) L. A. Beaumont (1876), of the Nares Expedition, +explored the coast north-east of Robeson Channel to 82 deg. 20' N.[15] +In 1882 Lieut. J. B. Lockwood and Sergeant (afterwards Captain) D. L. +Brainard, of the U.S. expedition to Lady Franklin Bay,[16] explored the +north-west coast beyond Beaumont's farthest to a promontory in 83 deg. +24' N. and 40 deg. 46' E. and they saw to the north-east Cape +Washington, in about 83 deg. 38' N. and 39 deg. 30' E., the most +northerly point of land till then observed. In July 1892 R. E. Peary and +E. Astrup, crossing by land from Inglefield Gulf, Smith Sound, +discovered Independence Bay on the north-east coast in 81 deg. 37' N. +and 34 deg. 5' W.[17] In May 1895 it was revisited by Peary, who +supposed this bay to be a sound communicating with Victoria Inlet on the +north-west coast. To the north Heilprin Land and Melville Land were seen +stretching northwards, but the probability seemed to be that the coast +soon trended north-west. In 1901 Peary rounded the north point, and +penetrated as far north as 83 deg. 50' N. The scanty exploration of the +great ice-cap, or inland ice, which may be asserted to cover the whole +of the interior of Greenland, has been prosecuted chiefly from the west +coast. In 1751 Lars Dalager, a Danish trader, took some steps in this +direction from Frederikshaab. In 1870 Nordenskiold and Berggren walked +35 m. inland from the head of Aulatsivik Fjord (near Disco Bay) to an +elevation of 2200 ft. The Danish captain Jens Arnold Dietrich Jensen +reached, in 1878, the Jensen Nunataks (5400 ft. above the sea), about 45 +m. from the western margin, in 62 deg. 50' N.[18] Nordenskiold +penetrated in 1883 about 70 m. inland in 68 deg. 20' N., and two Lapps +of his expedition went still farther on skis, to a point nearly under 45 +deg. W. at an elevation of 6600 ft. Peary and Maigaard reached in 1886 +about 100 m. inland, a height of 7500 ft. in 69 deg. 30' N. Nansen with +five companions in 1888 made the first complete crossing of the inland +ice, working from the east coast to the west, about 64 deg. 25' N., and +reached a height of 8922 ft. Peary and Astrup, as already indicated, +crossed in 1892 the northern part of the inland ice between 78 deg. and +82 deg. N., reaching a height of about 8000 ft., and determined the +northern termination of the ice-covering. Peary made very nearly the +same journey again in 1895. Captain T. V. Garde explored in 1893 the +interior of the inland ice between 61 deg. and 62 deg. N. near its +southern termination, and he reached a height of 7080 ft. about 60 m. +from the margin.[19] + +[Illustration: Map of Greenland.] + + _Coasts._--The coasts of Greenland are for the most part deeply + indented with fjords, being intensely glaciated. The coast-line of + Melville Bay (the northern part of the west coast) is to some degree + an exception, though the fjords may here be somewhat filled with + glaciers, and, for another example, it may be noted that Peary + observed a marked contrast on the north coast. Eastward as far as Cape + Morris Jesup there are precipitous headlands and islands, as + elsewhere, with deep water close inshore. East of the same cape there + is an abrupt change; the coast is unbroken, the mountains recede + inland, and there is shoal-water for a considerable distance from the + coast. Numerous islands lie off the coasts where they are indented; + but these are in no case large, excepting those off the north coast, + and that of Disco off the west, which is crossed by the parallel of + 70 deg. N. This island, which is separated by Waigat Strait from the + Nugsuak peninsula, is lofty, and has an area of 3005 sq. m. Steenstrup + in 1898 discovered in it the warmest spring known in Greenland, having + a temperature of 66 deg. F. + + The unusual glaciation of the east coast is evidently owing to the + north polar current carrying the ice masses from the north polar basin + south-westward along the land, and giving it an entirely arctic + climate down to Cape Farewell. In some parts the interior ice-covering + extends down to the outer coast, while in other parts its margin is + situated more inland, and the ice-bare coast-land is deeply + intersected by fjords extending far into the interior, where they are + blocked by enormous glaciers or "ice-currents" from the interior + ice-covering which discharge masses of icebergs into them. The east + coast of Greenland is in this respect highly interesting. All coasts + in the world which are much intersected by deep fjords have, with very + few exceptions, a western exposure, e.g. Norway, Scotland, British + Columbia and Alaska, Patagonia and Chile, and even Spitsbergen and + Novaya Zemlya, whose west coasts are far more indented than their east + ones. Greenland forms the most prominent exception, its eastern coast + being quite as much indented as its western. The reason is to be found + in its geographical position, a cold ice-covered polar current running + south along the land, while not far outside there is an open warmer + sea, a circumstance which, while producing a cold climate, must also + give rise to much precipitation, the land being thus exposed to the + alternate erosion of a rough atmosphere and large glaciers. On the + east coast of Baffin Land and Labrador there are similar conditions. + The result is that the east coast of Greenland has the largest system + of typical fjords known on the earth's surface. Scoresby Fjord has a + length of about 180 m. from the outer coast to the point where it is + blocked by the glaciers, and with its numerous branches covers an + enormous area. Franz Josef Fjord, with its branch King Oscar Fjord, + communicating with Davy's Sound, forms a system of fjords on a similar + scale. These fjords are very deep; the greatest depth found by Ryder + in Scoresby Sound was 300 fathoms, but there are certainly still + greater depths; like the Norwegian fjords they have, however, probably + all of them, a threshold or sill, with shallow water, near their + mouths. A few soundings made outside this coast seem to indicate that + the fjords continue as deep submarine valleys far out into the sea. On + the west coast there are also many great fjords. One of the best known + from earlier days is the great Godthaab Fjord (or Baals Revier) north + of 64 deg. N. Along the east coast there are many high mountains, + exceeding 6000 and 7000 ft. in height. One of the highest peaks + hitherto measured is at Tiningnertok, on the Lindenov Fjord, in 60 + deg. 35' N., which is 7340 ft. high. At the bottom of Mogens Heinesen + Fjord, 62 deg. 30' N., the peaks are 6300 ft., and in the region of + Umanak, 63 deg. N., they even exceed 6600 ft. At Umivik, where Nansen + began his journey across the inland ice, the highest peak projecting + through the ice-covering was Gamel's Nunatak, 6440 ft., in 64 deg. 34' + N. In the region of Angmagssalik, which is very mountainous, the + mountains rise to 6500 ft., the most prominent peak being Ingolf's + Fjeld, in 66 deg. 20' N., about 6000 ft., which is seen from far out + at sea, and forms an excellent landmark. This is probably the Blaaserk + (i.e. Blue Sark or blue shirt) of the old Norsemen, their first + landmark on their way from Iceland to the Oster Bygd, the present + Julianehaab district, on the south-west coast of Greenland. A little + farther north the coast is much lower, rising only to heights of 2000 + ft., and just north of 67 deg. 10' N. only to 500 ft. or less.[20] The + highest mountains near the inner branches of Scoresby Fjord are about + 7000 ft. The Petermann Spitze, near the shore of Franz Josef Fjord, + measured by Payer and found to be 11,000 ft., has hitherto been + considered to be the highest mountain in Greenland, but according to + Nathorst it "is probably only two-thirds as high as Payer supposed," + perhaps between 8000 and 9000 ft. + + Along the west coast of Greenland the mountains are generally not + quite so high, but even here peaks of 5000 and 6000 ft. are not + uncommon. As a whole the coasts are unusually mountainous, and + Greenland forms in this respect an interesting exception, as there is + no other known land of such a size so filled along its coasts on all + sides with high mountains and deep fjords and valleys. + + _The Inland Ice._--The whole interior of Greenland is completely + covered by the so-called inland ice, an enormous glacier forming a + regular shield-shaped expanse of snow and glacier ice, and burying all + valleys and mountains far below its surface. Its area is about 715,400 + sq. m., and it is by far the greatest glacier of the northern + hemisphere. Only occasionally there emerge lofty rocks, isolated but + not completely covered by the ice-cap; such rocks are known as + _nunataks_ (an Eskimo word). The inland ice rises in the interior to a + level of 9000, and in places perhaps 10,000 ft. or more, and descends + gradually by extremely gentle slopes towards the coasts or the bottom + of the fjords on all sides, discharging a great part of its yearly + drainage or surplus of precipitation in the form of icebergs in the + fjords, the so-called ice-fjords, which are numerous both on the west + and on the east coast. These icebergs float away, and are gradually + melted in the sea, the temperature of which is thus lowered by cold + stored up in the interior of Greenland. The last remains of these + icebergs are met with in the Atlantic south of Newfoundland. The + surface of the inland ice forms in a transverse section from the west + to the east coast an extremely regular curve, almost approaching an + arc of a wide circle, which along Nansen's route has its highest ridge + somewhat nearer the east than the west coast. The same also seems to + be the case farther south. The curve shows, however, slight + irregularities in the shape of undulations. The angle of the slope + decreases gradually from the margin of the inland ice, where it may be + 1 deg. or more, towards the interior, where it is 0 deg. In the + interior the surface of the inland ice is composed of dry snow which + never melts, and is constantly packed and worked smooth by the winds. + It extends as a completely even plain of snow, with long, almost + imperceptible, undulations or waves, at a height of 7000 to 10,000 + ft., obliterating the features of the underlying land, the mountains + and valleys of which are completely interred. Over the deepest valleys + of the land in the interior this ice-cap must be at least 6000 or 7000 + ft. thick or more. Approaching the coasts from the interior, the snow + of the surface gradually changes its structure. At first it becomes + more coarse-grained, like the _Firn Schnee_ of the Alps, and is moist + by melting during the summer. Nearer the coast, where the melting on + the surface is more considerable, the wet snow freezes hard during the + winter and is more or less transformed into ice, on the surface of + which rivers and lakes are formed, the water of which, however, soon + finds its way through crevasses and holes in the ice down to its under + surface, and reaches the sea as a sub-glacial river. Near its margin + the surface of the inland ice is broken up by numerous large + crevasses, formed by the outward motion of the glacier covering the + underlying land. The steep ice-walls at the margin of the inland ice + show, especially where the motion of the ice is slow, a distinct + striation, which indicates the strata of annual precipitation with the + intervening thin seams of dust (Nordenskiold's kryokonite). This is + partly dust blown on to the surface of the ice from the ice-bare + coast-land and partly the dust of the atmosphere brought down by the + falling snow and accumulated on the surface of the glacier's covering + by the melting during the summer. In the rapidly moving glaciers of + the ice-fjords this striation is not distinctly visible, being + evidently obliterated by the strong motion of the ice masses. + + The ice-cap of Greenland must to some extent be considered as a + viscous mass, which, by the vertical pressure in its interior, is + pressed outwards and slowly flows towards the coasts, just as a mass + of pitch placed on a table and left to itself will in the course of + time flow outwards towards all sides. The motion of the + outwards-creeping inland ice will naturally be more independent of the + configurations of the underlying land in the interior, where its + thickness is so enormous, than near the margin where it is thinner. + Here the ice converges into the valleys and moves with increasing + velocity in the form of glaciers into the fjords, where they break off + as icebergs. The drainage of the interior of Greenland is thus partly + given off in the solid form of icebergs, partly by the melting of the + snow and ice on the surface of the ice-cap, especially near its + western margin, and to some slight extent also by the melting produced + on its under side by the interior heat of the earth. After Professor + Amund Helland had, in July 1875, discovered the amazingly great + velocity, up to 64-3/4 ft. in twenty-four hours, with which the + glaciers of Greenland move into the sea, the margin of the inland ice + and its glaciers was studied by several expeditions. K. J. V. + Steenstrup during several years, Captain Hammer in 1879-1880, Captain + Ryder in 1886-1887, Dr Drygalski in 1891-1893,[21] and several + American expeditions in later years, all examined the question + closely. The highest known velocities of glaciers were measured by + Ryder in the Upernivik glacier (in 73 deg. N.), where, between the + 13th and 14th of August of 1886, he found a velocity of 125 ft. in + twenty-four hours, and an average velocity during several days of 101 + ft. (Danish).[22] It was, however, ascertained that there is a great + difference between the velocities of the glaciers in winter and in + summer. For instance, Ryder found that the Upernivik glacier had an + average velocity of only 33 ft. in April 1887. There seem to be + periodical oscillations in the extension of the glaciers and the + inland ice similar to those that have been observed on the glaciers of + the Alps and elsewhere. But these interesting phenomena have not + hitherto been subject to systematic observation, and our knowledge of + them is therefore uncertain. Numerous glacial marks, however, such as + polished striated rocks, moraines, erratic blocks, &c., prove that the + whole of Greenland, even the small islands and skerries outside the + coast, has once been covered by the inland ice. + + Numerous raised beaches and terraces, containing shells of marine + mollusca, &c., occur along the whole coast of Greenland, and indicate + that the whole of this large island has been raised, or the sea has + sunk, in post-glacial times, after the inland ice covered its now + ice-bare outskirts. In the north along the shores of Smith Sound these + traces of the gradual upheaval of the land, or sinking of the sea, are + very marked; but they are also very distinct in the south, although + not found so high above sea-level, which seems to show that the + upheaval has been greater in the north. In Uvkusigsat Fjord (72 deg. + 20' N.) the highest terrace is 480 ft. above the sea.[23] On Manitsok + (65 deg. 30' N.) the highest raised beach was 360 ft. above the + sea.[24] In the Isortok Fjord (67 deg. 11' N.) the highest raised + beach is 380 ft. above sea-level.[25] In the Ameralik Fjord (64 deg. + 14' N.) the highest marine terrace is about 340 ft. above sea-level, + and at Ilivertalik (63 deg. 14' N.), north of Fiskernaes, the highest + terrace is about 325 ft. above the sea. At Kakarsuak, near the + Bjornesund (62 deg. 50' N.), a terrace is found at 615 ft. above the + sea, but it is doubtful whether this is of marine origin.[26] In the + Julianehaab district, between 60 deg. and 61 deg. N., the highest + marine terraces are found at about 160 ft. above the sea.[27] The + highest marine terrace observed in Scoresby Fjord, on the east coast, + was 240 ft. above sea-level.[28] There is a common belief that during + quite recent times the west and south-west coast, within the Danish + possessions, has been sinking. Although there are many indications + which may make this probable, none of them can be said to be quite + decisive.[29] + + [_Geology._--So far as made out, the structure of explored Greenland + is as follows: + + 1. _Laurentian gneiss_ forms the greatest mass of the exposed rocks of + the country bare of ice. They are found on both sides of Smith Sound, + rising to heights of 2000 ft., and underlie the Miocene and Cretaceous + rocks of Disco Island, Noursoak Peninsula and the Oolites of Pendulum + Island in East Greenland. Ancient schists occur on the east coast + south of Angmagssalik, and basalts and schists are found in Scoresby + Fjord. It is possible that some of these rocks are also of Huronian + age, but it is doubtful whether the rocks so designated by the + geologists of the "Alert" and "Discovery" expedition are really the + rocks so known in Canada, or are a continuous portion of the + fundamental or oldest gneiss of the north-west of Scotland and the + western isles. + + 2. _Silurian._--Upper Silurian, having a strong relation to the + Wenlock group of Britain, but with an American facies, and Lower + Silurian, with a succession much the same as in British North America, + are found on the shores of Smith Sound, and Nathorst has discovered + them in King Oscar Fjord, but not as yet so far south as the Danish + possessions. + + 3. _Devonian_ rocks are believed to occur in Igaliko and Tunnudiorbik + Fjords, in S.W. Greenland, but as they are unfossiliferous sandstone, + rapidly disintegrating, this cannot be known. It is, however, likely + that this formation occurs in Greenland, for in Dana Bay, Captain + Feilden found a species of _Spirifera_ and _Productus mesolobus_ or + _costatus_, though it is possible that these fossils represent the + "Ursa stage" (Heer) of the Lower Carboniferous. A few Devonian forms + have also been recorded from the Parry Archipelago, and Nathorst has + shown the existence of Old Red Sandstone facies of Devonian in Traill + Island, Geographical Society Island, Ymer Island and Gauss Peninsula. + + 4. _Carboniferous._--In erratic blocks of sandstone, found on the + Disco shore of the Waigat have been detected a _Sigillaria_ and a + species of either _Pecopteris_ or _Gleichenia_, perhaps of this age; + and probably much of the extreme northern coast of Ellesmere Land, and + therefore, in all likelihood, the opposite Greenland shore, contains a + clearly developed Carboniferous Limestone fauna, identical with that + so widely distributed over the North American continent, and referable + also to British and Spitsbergen species. Of the Coal Measures above + these, if they occur, we know nothing at present. Capt. Feilden notes + as suggestive that, though the explorers have not met with this + formation on the northern shores of Greenland, yet it was observed + that a continuation of the direction of the known strike of the + limestones of Feilden peninsula, carried over the polar area, passes + through the neighbourhood of Spitsbergen, where the formation occurs, + and contains certain species identical with those of the Grinnell Land + rocks of this horizon. The facies of the fossils is, according to Mr + Etheridge, North American and Canadian, though many of the species are + British. The corals are few in number, but the _Molluscoida_ + (_Polyzoa_) are more numerous in species and individuals. No Secondary + rocks have been discovered in the extreme northern parts of West + Greenland, but they are present on the east and west coasts in more + southerly latitudes than Smith Sound. + + 5. _Jurassic._--These do not occur on the west coast, but on the east + coast the German expedition discovered marls and sandstones on Kuhn + Island, resembling those of the Russian Jurassic, characterized by the + presence of the genus _Aucella_, _Olcostephanus Payeri_, _O. + striolaris_, _Belemnites Panderianus_, _B. volgensis_, _B. absolutus_, + and a _Cyprina_ near to _C. syssolae_. On the south coast of the same + island are coarse-grained, brownish micaceous and light-coloured + calcareous sandstone and marls, containing fossils, which render it + probable that they are of the same age as the coal-bearing Jurassic + rocks of Brora (Scotland) and the Middle Dogger of Yorkshire. There is + also coal on Kuhn Island. + + The Danish expeditions of 1899-1900 have added considerably to our + knowledge of the Jurassic rocks of East Greenland. Rhaetic-Lias plants + have been described by Dr Hartz from Cape Stewart and Vardekloft. Dr + Madsen has recognized fossils that correspond with those from the + Inferior oolite, Cornbrash and Callovian of England. Upper Kimmeridge + and Portlandian beds also occur. + + 6. _Cretaceous._--Beds of this age, consisting of sandstones and coal, + are found on the northern coast of Disco Island and the southern side + of the Noursoak Peninsula, the beds in the former locality, "the Kome + strata" of Nordenskiold, being the oldest. They reach 1000 ft. in + thickness, occupying undulating hollows in the underlying gneiss, and + dip towards the Noursoak Peninsula at 20 deg., when the overlying + Atanakerdluk strata come in. Both these series contain numerous plant + remains, evergreen oaks, magnolias, aralias, &c., and seams of lignite + (coal), which is burnt; but in neither occur the marine beds of the + United States. Still, the presence of dicotyledonous leaves, such as + _Magnolia alternans_, in the Atanakerdluk strata, proves their close + alliance with the Dakota series of the United States. The underlying + Kome beds are not present in the American series. They are + characterized by fine cycads (_Zamites arcticus_ and _Glossozamites + Hoheneggeri_), which also occur in the Urgonian strata of Wernsdorff. + + 7. _Miocene._--This formation, one of the most widely spread in polar + lands, though the most local in Greenland, is also the best known + feature in its geology. It is limited to Disco Island, and perhaps to + a small part of the Noursoak Peninsula, and the neighbouring country, + and consists of numerous thin beds of sandstone, shale and coal--the + sideritic shale containing immense quantities of leaves, stems, fruit, + &c., as well as some insects, and the coal pieces of retinite. The + study of these plant and insect remains shows that forests containing + a vegetation very similar to that of California and the southern + United States, in some instances even the species of trees being all + but identical, flourished in 70 deg. N. during geological periods + comparatively recent. These beds, as well as the Cretaceous series, + from which they are as yet only imperfectly distinguished, are + associated with sheets of basalt, which penetrate them in great dikes, + and in some places, owing to the wearing away of the softer + sedimentary rocks, stand out in long walls running across the beds. + These Miocene strata have not been found farther north on the + Greenland shore than the region mentioned; but in Lady Franklin Bay, + on the Grinnell Land side of Smith Sound, they again appear, so that + the chances are they will be found on the opposite coast, though + doubtless the great disintegration Greenland has undergone and is + undergoing has destroyed many of the softer beds of fossiliferous + rocks. On the east coast, more particularly in Hochstetter Foreland, + the Miocene beds again appear, and we may add that there are traces of + them even on the west coast, between Sonntag Bay and Foulke Fjord, at + the entrance to Smith Sound. It thus appears that since early Tertiary + times there has been a great change in the climate of Greenland. + + Nathorst has suggested that the whole of Greenland is a "horst," in + the subordinate folds of which, as well as in the deeper "graben," the + younger rocks are preserved, often with a covering of Tertiary or + later lava flows.[30]--J. A. H.] + + _Minerals._--Native iron was found by Nordenskiold at Ovifak, on Disco + Island, in 1870, and brought to Sweden (1871) as meteorites. The + heaviest nodule weighed over 20 tons. Similar native iron has later + been found by K. J. V. Steenstrup in several places on the west coast + enclosed as smaller or larger nodules in the basalt. This iron has + very often beautiful Widmannstatten figures like those of iron + meteorites, but it is obviously of telluric origin.[31] In 1895 Peary + found native iron at Cape York; since John Ross's voyage in 1818 it + has been known to exist there, and from it the Eskimo got iron for + their weapons. In 1897 Peary brought the largest nodule to New York; + it was estimated to weigh nearly 100 tons. This iron is considered by + several of the first authorities on the subject to be of meteoric + origin,[32] but no evidence hitherto given seems to prove decisively + that it cannot be telluric. That the nodules found were lying on + gneissic rock, with no basaltic rocks in the neighbourhood, does not + prove that the iron may not originate from basalt, for the nodules may + have been transported by the glaciers, like other erratic blocks, and + will stand erosion much longer than the basalt, which may long ago + have disappeared. This iron seems, however, in several respects to be + unlike the celebrated large nodules of iron found by Nordenskiold at + Ovifak, but appears to resemble much more closely the softer kind of + iron nodules found by Steenstrup in the basalt;[33] it stands exposure + to the air equally well, and has similar Widmannstatten figures very + sharp, as is to be expected in such a large mass. It contains, + however, more nickel and also phosphorus. A few other minerals may be + noticed, and some have been worked to a small extent--graphite is + abundant, particularly near Upernivik; cryolite is found almost + exclusively at Ivigtut; copper has been observed at several places, + but only in nodules and laminae of limited extent; and coal of poor + quality is found in the districts about Disco Bay and Umanak Fjord. + Steatite or soapstone has long been used by the natives for the + manufacture of lamps and vessels. + + _Climate._--The climate is very uncertain, the weather changing + suddenly from bright sunshine (when mosquitoes often swarm) to dense + fog or heavy falls of snow and icy winds. At Julianehaab in the + extreme south-west the winter is not much colder than that of Norway + and Sweden in the same locality; but its mean temperature for the + whole year probably approximates to that on the Norwegian coast 600 m. + farther north. The climate of the interior has been found to be of a + continental character, with large ranges of temperature, and with an + almost permanent anti-cyclonic region over the interior of the inland + ice, from which the prevailing winds radiate towards the coasts. On + the 64th parallel the mean annual temperature at an elevation of 6560 + ft. is supposed to be -13 deg. F., or reduced to sea-level 5 deg. F. + The mean annual temperature in the interior farther north is supposed + to be -10 deg. F. reduced to sea-level. The mean temperature of the + warmest month, July, in the interior should be, reduced to sea-level, + on the 64th parallel 32 deg. F., and that of the coldest month, + January, about -22 deg. F., while in North Greenland it is probably + -40 deg. reduced to sea-level. Here we may probably find the lowest + temperatures of the northern hemisphere. The interior of Greenland + contains both summer and winter a pole of cold, situated in the + opposite longitude to that of Siberia, with which it is well able to + compete in extreme severity. On Nansen's expedition temperatures of + about -49 deg. F. were experienced during the nights in the beginning + of September, and the minimum during the winter may probably sink to + -90 deg. F. in the interior of the inland ice. These low temperatures + are evidently caused by the radiation of heat from the snow-surface in + the rarefied air in the interior. The daily range of temperature is + therefore very considerable, sometimes amounting to 40 deg. Such a + range is elsewhere found only in deserts, but the surface of the + inland ice may be considered to be an elevated desert of snow.[34] The + climate of the east coast is on the whole considerably more arctic + than that of the west coast on corresponding latitudes; the land is + much more completely snow-covered, and the snow-line goes considerably + lower. The probability also is that there is more precipitation, and + that the mean temperatures are lower.[35] The well-known strangely + warm and dry _fohn_-winds of Greenland occur both on the west and the + east coast; they are more local than was formerly believed, and are + formed by cyclonic winds passing either over mountains or down the + outer slope of the inland ice.[36] Mirage and similar phenomena and + the aurora are common. + + _Fauna and Flora._--It was long a common belief that the fauna and + flora of Greenland were essentially European, a circumstance which + would make it probable that Greenland has been separated by sea from + America during a longer period of time than from Europe. The + correctness of this hypothesis may, however, be doubted. The land + mammals of Greenland are decidedly more American than European; the + musk-ox, the banded lemming (_Cuniculus torquatus_), the white polar + wolf, of which there seems to have been a new invasion recently round + the northern part of the country to the east coast, the Eskimo and the + dog--probably also the reindeer--have all come from America, while the + other land mammals, the polar bear, the polar fox, the Arctic hare, + the stoat (_Mustela erminea_), are perfectly circumpolar forms. The + species of seals and whales are, if anything, more American than + European, and so to some extent are the fishes. The bladder-nose seal + (_Cystophora cristata_), for instance, may be said to be a + Greenland-American species, while a Scandinavian species, such as the + grey seal (_Halichoerus grypus_), appears to be very rare both in + Greenland and America. Of the sixty-one species of birds breeding in + Greenland, eight are European-Asiatic, four are American, and the rest + circumpolar or North Atlantic and North Pacific in their + distribution.[37] About 310 species of vascular plants are found, of + which about forty species are American, forty-four European-Asiatic, + fifteen endemic, and the rest common both to America and Europe or + Asia. We thus see that the American and the European-Asiatic elements + of the flora are nearly equivalent; and if the flora of Arctic North + America were better known, the number of plants common to America + might be still more enlarged.[38] + + In the south, a few goats, sheep, oxen and pigs have been introduced. + The whaling industry was formerly prolific off the west coast but + decayed when the right whale nearly disappeared. The white whale + fishery of the Eskimo, however, continued, and sealing is important; + walruses are also caught and sometimes narwhal. There are also + important fisheries for cod, caplin, halibut, red fish (_Sebastes_) + and _nepisak_ (_Cyclopterus lumpus_); a shark (_Somniosus + microcephalus_) is taken for the oil from its liver; and sea-trout are + found in the streams and small lakes of the south. On land reindeer + were formerly hunted, to their practical extinction in the south, but + in the districts of Godthaab, Sukkertoppen and Holstensborg there are + still many reindeer. The eider-duck, guillemot and other sea-birds are + in some parts valuable for food in winter, and so is the ptarmigan. + Eggs of sea-birds are collected and eider-down. Valuable fur is + obtained from the white and blue fox, the skin of the eider-duck and + the polar bear. + + At Tasiusak (73 deg. 22' N.), the most northern civilized settlement + in the world, gardening has been attempted without success, but + several plants do well in forcing frames. At Umanak (70 deg. 40' N.) + is the most northern garden in the world. Broccoli and radishes grow + well, turnips (but not every year), lettuce and chervil succeed + sometimes, but parsley cannot be reared. At Jacobshavn (69 deg. 12' + N.), only some 15 m. from the inland ice, gardening succeeds very + well; broccoli and lettuce grow willingly; the spinach produces large + leaves; chervil, pepper-grass, leeks, parsley and turnips grow very + well; the radishes are sown and gathered twice during the summer (June + to August). In the south, in the Julianehaab district, even flowering + plants, such as aster, nemophilia and mignonette, are cultivated, and + broccoli, spinach, sorrel, chervil, parsley, rhubarb, turnips, + lettuce, radishes grow well. Potatoes give fair results when they are + taken good care of, carrots grow to a thickness of 1-1/2 in., while + cabbage does poorly. Strawberries and cucumbers have been ripened in a + forcing frame. In the "Kongespeil" (King's mirror) of the 13th century + it is stated that the old Norsemen tried in vain to raise barley. + + The wild vegetation in the height of summer is, in favourable + situations, profuse in individual plants, though scanty in species. + The plants are of the usual arctic type, and identical with or allied + to those found in Lapland or on the summits of the highest British + hills. Forest there is none in all the country. In the north, where + the lichen-covered or ice-shaven rocks do not protrude, the ground is + covered with a carpet of mosses, creeping dwarf willows, crow-berries + and similar plants, while the flowers most common are the andromeda, + the yellow poppy, pedicularis, pyrola, &c. besides the flowering + mosses; but in South Greenland there is something in the shape of + bush, the dwarf birches even rising a few feet in very sheltered + places, the willows may grow higher than a man, and the vegetation is + less arctic and more abundant. + +_Government and Trade._--The trade of Greenland is a monopoly of the +Danish crown, dating from 1774, and is administered in Copenhagen by a +government board (_Kongelige Gronlandske Handel_) and in the country by +various government officials. In order to meet the double purposes of +government and trade the west coast, up to nearly 74 deg. N., is divided +into two inspectorates, the southern extending to 67 deg. 40' N., the +northern comprising the rest of the country; the respective seats of +government being at Godthaab and Godhavn. These inspectorates are ruled +by two superior officials or governors responsible to the director of +the board in Copenhagen. Each of the inspectorates is divided into +districts, each district having, in addition to the chief settlement or +_coloni_, several outlying posts and Eskimo hunting stations, each +presided over by an _udligger_, who is responsible to the +_coloni-bestyrer_, or superintendent of the district. These trading +settlements, which dot the coast for a distance of 1000 m., are about +sixty in number. From the Eskimo hunting and fishing stations blubber is +the chief article received, and is forwarded in casks to the _coloni_, +where it is boiled into oil, and prepared for being despatched to +Copenhagen by means of the government ships which arrive and leave +between May and November. For the rest of the year navigation is +stopped, though the winter months form the busy seal-killing season. The +principle upon which the government acts is to give the natives low +prices for their produce, but to sell them European articles of +necessity at prime cost, and other stores, such as bread, at prices +which will scarcely pay for the purchase and freight, while no +merchandise is charged, on an average, more than 20% over the cost price +in Denmark. In addition the Greenlanders are allowed to order goods from +private dealers on paying freight for them at the rate of 2-1/2d. per 10 +lb., or 1s. 6d. per cub. ft. The prices to be paid for European and +native articles are fixed every year, the prices current in Danish and +Eskimo being printed and distributed by the government. Out of the +payment five-sixths are given to the sellers, and one-sixth devoted to +the Greenlanders' public fund, spent in "public works," in charity, and +on other unforeseen contingencies. The object of the monopoly is solely +for the good of the Greenlanders--to prevent spirits being sold to them, +and the vice, disease and misery which usually attend the collision +between natives and civilization of the trader's type being introduced +into the primitive arctic community. The inspectors, in addition to +being trade superintendents, are magistrates, but serious crime is very +rare. Though the officials are all-powerful, local councils or +_parsissaet_ were organized in 1857 in every district. To these parish +parliaments delegates are sent from every station. These _parsissoks_, +elected at the rate of about one representative to 120 voters, wear a +cap with a badge (a bear rampant), and aid the European members of the +council in distributing the surplus profit apportioned to each district, +and generally in advising as to the welfare of that part of Greenland +under their partial control. The municipal council has the disposal of +20% of the annual profits made on produce purchased within the confines +of each district. It holds two sessions every year, and the discussions +are entirely in the Eskimo language. In addition to their functions as +guardians of the poor, the parish members have to investigate crimes and +punish misdemeanours, settle litigations and divide inheritances. They +can impose fines for small offences not worth sending before the +inspector, and, in cases of high misdemeanour, have the power of +inflicting corporal punishment. + +A Danish _coloni_ in Greenland might seem to many not to be a cheerful +place at best; though in the long summer days they would certainly find +some of those on the southern fjords comparatively pleasant. The fact +is, however, that most people who ever lived some time in Greenland +always long to go back. There are generally in a _coloni_ three or four +Danish houses, built of wood and pitched over, in addition to +storehouses and a blubber-boiling establishment. The Danish residents +may include, besides a _coloni-bestyrer_ and his assistant, a +_missionair_ or clergyman, at a few places also a doctor, and perhaps a +carpenter and a schoolmaster. In addition there are generally from +twenty to several hundred Eskimo, who live in huts built of stone and +turf, each entered by a short tunnel. Lately their houses in the +_colonis_ have also to some extent been built of imported wood. +Following the west coast northward, the trading centres are these: in +the south inspectorate, Julianehaab, near which are remains of the early +Norse settlements of Eric the Red and his companions (the _Oster-Bygd_); +Frederikshaab, in which district are the cryolite mines of Ivigtut; +Godthaab, the principal settlement of all, in the neighbourhood of which +are also early Norse remains (the _Vester-Bygd_); Sukkertoppen, a most +picturesque locality; and Holstenborg. In the north inspectorate the +centres are: Egedesminde, on an islet at the mouth of Disco Bay; +Christianshaab, one of the pleasantest settlements in the north, and +Jacobshavn, on the inner shores of the same bay; Godhavn (or Lievely) on +the south coast of Disco Island, formerly an important seat of the +whaling industry; Ritenbenk, Umanak, and, most northerly of all, +Upernivik. On the east coast there is but one coloni, Angmagssalik, in +65 deg. 30' N., only established in 1894. For ecclesiastical purposes +Danish Greenland is reckoned in the province of the bishop of Zeeland. +The Danish mission in Greenland has a yearly grant of L2000 from the +trading revenue of the colony, besides a contribution of L880 from the +state. The Moravian mission, which had worked in Greenland for a century +and a half, retired from the country in 1900. The trade of Greenland has +on the whole much decreased in modern times, and trading and missions +cost the Danish state a comparatively large sum (about L11,000 every +year), although this is partly covered by the income from the royalty of +the cryolite mines at Ivigtut. There is, however, a yearly deficiency of +more than L6000. The decline in the value of the trade, which was +formerly very profitable, has to a great extent been brought about by +the fall in the price of seal-oil. It might be expected that there +should be a decrease in the Greenland seal fisheries, caused by the +European and American sealers catching larger quantities every year, +especially along the coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador, and so +actually diminishing the number of the animals in the Greenland seas. +The statistics of South Greenland, however, do not seem to demonstrate +any such decrease. The average number of seals killed annually is about +33,000.[39] The annual value of imports, consisting of manufactured +goods, foodstuffs, &c., may be taken somewhat to exceed L40,000. The +chief articles of export (together with those that have lapsed) have +been already indicated; but they may be summarized as including +seal-oil, seal, fox, bird and bear skins, fish products and eiderdown, +with some quantity of worked skins. Walrus tusks and walrus hides, which +in the days of the old Norse settlements were the chief articles of +export, are now of little importance. + +_Population._--The area of the entire Danish colony is estimated at +45,000 sq. m., and its population in 1901 was 11,893. The Europeans +number about 300. The Eskimo population of Danish Greenland (west coast) +seems to have decreased since the middle of the 18th century. Hans Egede +estimated the population then at 30,000, but this is probably a large +over-estimate. The decrease may chiefly have been due to infectious +diseases, especially a very severe epidemic of smallpox. During the last +half of the 19th century there was on the whole a slight increase of the +native population. The population fluctuates a good deal, owing, to some +extent, to an immigration of natives from the east to the west coast. +The population of the east coast seems on the whole to be decreasing in +number, several hundreds chiefly living at Angmagssalik. In the north +part of the east coast, in the region of Scoresby Fjord and Franz Josef +Fjord, numerous ruins of Eskimo settlements are found, and in 1823 +Clavering met Eskimo there, but now they have either completely died out +or have wandered south. A little tribe of Eskimo living in the region of +Cape York near Smith Sound--the so-called "Arctic Highlanders" or Smith +Sound Eskimo--number about 240. + +_History._--In the beginning of the 10th century the Norwegian +Gunnbjorn, son of Ulf Kraka, is reported to have found some islands to +the west of Iceland, and he may have seen, without landing upon it, the +southern part of the east coast of Greenland. In 982 the Norwegian Eric +the Red sailed from Iceland to find the land which Gunnbjorn had seen, +and he spent three years on its south-western coasts exploring the +country. On his return to Iceland in 985 he called the land Greenland in +order to make people more willing to go there, and reported so +favourably on its possibilities that he had no difficulty in obtaining +followers. In 986 he started again from Iceland with 25 ships, but only +14 of them reached Greenland, where a colony was founded on the +south-west coast, in the present Julianehaab district. Eric built his +house at Brattalid, near the inner end oi the fjord Tunugdliarfik, just +north of the present Julianehaab. Other settlers followed and in a few +years two colonies had been formed, one called Osterbygd in the present +district of Julianehaab comprising later about 190 farms, and another +called Vesterbygd farther north on the west coast in the present +district of Godthaab, comprising later about 90 farms. Numerous ruins in +the various fjords of these two districts indicate now where these +colonies were. Wooden coffins, with skeletons wrapped in coarse hairy +cloth, and both pagan and Christian tombstones with runic inscriptions +have been found. On a voyage from Norway to Greenland Leif Ericsson (son +of Eric the Red) discovered America in the year 1000, and a few years +later Torfinn Karlsefne sailed with three ships and about 150 men, from +Greenland to Nova Scotia to form a colony, but returned three years +later (see VINLAND). + +When the Norsemen came to Greenland they found various remains +indicating, as the old sagas say, that there had been people of a +similar kind as those they met with in Vinland, in America, whom they +called _Skraeling_ (the meaning of the word is uncertain, it means +possibly weak people); but the sagas do not report that they actually +met the natives then. But somewhat later they have probably met with the +Eskimo farther north on the west coast in the neighbourhood of Disco +Bay, where the Norsemen went to catch seals, walrus, &c. The Norse +colonists penetrated on these fishing expeditions at least to 73 deg. +N., where a small runic stone from the 14th century has been found. On a +voyage in 1267 they penetrated even still farther north into the +Melville Bay. + +Christianity was introduced by Leif Ericsson at the instance of Olaf +Trygvasson, king of Norway, in 1000 and following years. In the +beginning of the 12th century Greenland got its own bishop, who resided +at Garolar, near the present Eskimo station Igoliko, on an isthmus +between two fjords, Igaliksfjord (the old Einarsfjord) and Tunugdliarfik +(the old Eriksfjord), inside the present colony Julianehaab. The Norse +colonies had twelve churches, one monastery and one nunnery in the +Osterbygd, and four churches in the Vesterbygd. Greenland, like Iceland, +had a republican organization up to the years 1247 to 1261, when the +Greenlanders were induced to swear allegiance to the king of Norway. +Greenland belonged to the Norwegian crown till 1814, when, at the +dissolution of the union between Denmark and Norway, neither it nor +Iceland and the Faeroes were mentioned, and they, therefore, were kept +by the Danish king and thus came to Denmark. The settlements were called +respectively _Oster Bygd_ (or eastern settlement) and _Vester_ (western) +_Bygd_, both being now known to be on the south and west coast (in the +districts of Julianehaab and Godthaab respectively), though for long the +view was persistently held that the first was on the east coast, and +numerous expeditions have been sent in search of these "lost colonies" +and their imaginary survivors. These settlements at the height of their +prosperity are estimated to have had 10,000 inhabitants, which, however, +is an over-estimate, the number having probably been nearer one-half or +one-third of that number. The last bishop appointed to Greenland died in +1540, but long before that date those appointed had never reached their +sees; the last bishop who resided in Greenland died there in 1377. After +the middle of the 14th century very little is heard of the settlements, +and their communication with the motherland, Norway, evidently gradually +ceased. This may have been due in great part to the fact that the +shipping and trade of Greenland became a monopoly of the king of Norway, +who kept only one ship sailing at long intervals (of years) to +Greenland; at the same time the shipping and trade of Norway came more +and more in the hands of the Hanseatic League, which took no interest in +Greenland. The last ship that is known to have visited the Norse colony +in Greenland returned to Norway in 1410. With no support from home the +settlements seem to have decayed rapidly. It has been supposed that they +were destroyed by attacks of the Eskimo, who about this period seem to +have become more numerous and to have extended southwards along the +coast from the north. This seems a less feasible explanation; it is more +probable that the Norse settlers intermarried with the Eskimo and were +gradually absorbed. About the end of the 15th or the beginning of the +16th century it would appear that all Norse colonization had practically +disappeared. When in 1585 John Davis visited it there was no sign of any +people save the Eskimo, among whose traditions are a few directly +relating to the old Norsemen, and several traces of Norse influence.[40] +For more than two hundred years Greenland seems to have been neglected, +almost forgotten. It was visited by whalers, chiefly Dutch, but nothing +in the form of permanent European settlements was established until the +year 1721, when the first missionary, the Norwegian clergyman Hans +Egede, landed, and established a settlement near Godthaab. Amid many +hardships and discouragements he persevered; and at the present day the +native race is civilized and Christianized. Many of the colonists of the +18th century were convicts and other offenders; and in 1750 the trade +became a monopoly in the hands of a private company. In 1733-1734 there +was a dreadful epidemic of smallpox, which destroyed a great number of +the people. In 1774 the trade ceased to be profitable as a private +monopoly, and to prevent it being abandoned the government took it over. +Julianehaab was founded in the following year. In 1807-1814, owing to +the war, communication was cut off with Norway and Denmark; but +subsequently the colony prospered in a languid fashion. + + _Authorities._--As to the discovery of Greenland by the Norsemen and + its early history see Konrad Maurer's excellent paper, "Geschichte der + Entdeckung Ostgronlands" in the report of _Die zweite deutsche + Nordpolarfahrt 1869-1870_ (Leipzig, 1874), vol. i.; G. Storm, _Studies + on the "Vineland" Voyages_ (Copenhagen, 1889); _Extraits des Memoires + de la Societe Royale des Antiquaires du Nord_ (1888); K. J. V. + Steenstrup, "Om Osterbygden," _Meddelelser om Gronland_, part ix. + (1882), pp. 1-51; Finnur Jonsson, "Gronlands gamle Topografi efter + Kilderne" in _Meddelelser om Gronland_, part xx. (1899), pp. 265-329; + Joseph Fischer, _The Discoveries of the Norsemen in America_, + translated from German by B. H. Soulsby (London, 1903). As to the + general literature on Greenland, a number of the more important modern + works have been noticed in footnotes. The often-quoted _Meddelelser om + Gronland_ is of especial value; it is published in parts (Copenhagen) + since 1879, and is chiefly written in Danish, but each part has a + summary in French. In part xiii. there is a most valuable list of + literature about Greenland up to 1880. See also _Geographical + Journal_, passim. + + Amongst other important books on Greenland may be mentioned: Hans + Egede, _Description of Greenland_ (London, 1745); Crantz, _History of + Greenland_ (2 vols., London, 1820); _Gronlands historiske + Mindesmerker_ (3 vols., Copenhagen, 1838-1845); H. Rink, _Danish + Greenland_ (London, 1877); H. Rink, _Tales of the Eskimo_ (London, + 1875); (see also same, "Eskimo Tribes" in _Meddelelser om Gronland_, + part xi.); Johnstrup, _Giesecke's Mineralogiske Reise i Gronland_ + (Copenhagen, 1878). (F. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Inglefield, _Summer Search for Franklin_ (London, 1853). + + [2] _Second Grinnell Expedition_ (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1856). + + [3] Davis, Polaris (_Hall's_) _North Polar Expedition_ (Washington, + 1876). See also Bessels, _Die amerikanische Nordpol-Expedition_ + (Leipzig, 1879). + + [4] _Journal of a Voyage to the Northern Whale Fishery_ (1823). + + [5] _Die zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt_ (1873-1875). + + [6] _Reise til Ostkysten af Gronland_ (1832; trans. by G. Gordon + Macdougall, 1837). + + [7] _Meddelelser om Gronland_, parts ix. and x. (Copenhagen, 1888). + + [8] _The First Crossing of Greenland_, vol. i. (London, 1890), H. + Mohn and F. Nansen; "Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse von Dr F. Nansen + Durchquerung von Gronland" (1888). Erganzungsheft No. 105 zu + _Petermanns Mitteilungen_ (Gotha, 1892). + + [9] A. F. Nordenskiold, _Den andra Dicksonska Expeditionen til + Gronland_ (Stockholm, 1885). + + [10] _Meddelelser om Gronland_, pts. xvii.-xix. (Copenhagen, + 1895-1896). + + [11] _Geografisk Tidskrift_, xv. 53-71 (Copenhagen, 1899). + + [12] _Ibid._ vii. 76-79 (Copenhagen, 1884). + + [13] _The Geographical Journal_, xiv. 534 (1899); xvii. 48 (1901); + _Tva Somrar i Norra Ishafvet_ (Stockholm, 1901). + + [14] _Meddelelser om Gronland_, parts xxvi.-xxvii. + + [15] Nares, _Voyage to the Polar Sea_ (2 vols. London, 1877). See + also Blue Book, journals, &c., (Nares) Expedition, 1875-1876 (London, + 1877). + + [16] A. W. Greely, _Report on the Proceedings of the United States + Expedition to Lady Franklin Bay, Grinnell Land_, vols. i. and ii. + (Washington, 1885); _Three Years of Arctic Service_ (2 vols. London, + 1886). + + [17] R. E. Peary, _Northward over the "Great Ice"_ (2 vols. New York, + 1898); E. Astrup, _Blandt Nordpolen's Naboer_ (Christiania, 1895). + + [18] _Meddelelser om Gronland_, part i. (Copenhagen, 1879). + + [19] _Ibid._ part xvi. (Copenhagen, 1896). + + [20] See C. Kruuse in _Geografisk Tidskrift_, xv. 64 (Copenhagen, + 1899). See also F. Nansen, "Die Ostkuste Gronlands," Erganzungsheft + No. 105 zu _Petermanns Mitteilungen_ (Gotha, 1892), p. 55 and pl. + iv., sketch No. 11. + + [21] E. v. Drygalski, _Gronland-Expedition der Gesellschaft fur + Erdkunde zu Berlin, 1891-1893_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1897). + + [22] _Meddelelser om Gronland_, part viii. pp. 203-270 (Copenhagen, + 1889). + + [23] _Ibid._ part iv. p. 230 (Copenhagen, 1883); see also part xiv. + pp. 317 et seq., 323. + + [24] _Ibid._ part xiv. p. 323 (Copenhagen, 1898). + + [25] _Ibid._ part ii. pp. 181-188 (Copenhagen, 1881). + + [26] _Ibid._ part i. pp. 99-101 (Copenhagen, 1879). + + [27] _Ibid._ part ii. p. 39 (Copenhagen, 1881); part xvi. pp. 150-154 + (1896). + + [28] _Ibid._, part xix. p. 175 (1896). + + [29] _Ibid._ part i. p. 34; part ii. p. 40; part xiv. pp. 343-347; + part iv. p. 237; part viii. p. 26. + + [30] See A. G. Nathorst, "Bidrag till nordostra Gronlands geologi," + with map _Geologiska Foreningens i Stockholm Forhandlingar_, No. 257, + Bd. 23, Heft 4, 1901; O. Heer, _Flora fossilis Arctica_ (7 vols., + 1868-1883), and especially _Meddelelser om Gronland_ for numerous + papers on the geology and palaeontology. + + [31] _Medd. om Gronl._, part iv. pp. 115-131 (Copenhagen, 1883). + + [32] See Peary, _Northward over the "Great Ice,"_ ii. 604 et seq. + (New York, 1898). + + [33] See _loc. cit._ pp. 127-128. + + [34] H. Mohn, "The Climate of the Interior of Greenland," _The Scott. + Geogr. Magazine_, vol. ix. (Edinburgh, 1893), pp. 142-145, 199; H. + Mohn and F. Nansen, "Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse," &c. + Erganzungsheft No. 105 _zu Petermanns Mitteilungen_ (1892), p. 51. + + [35] On the climate of the east coast of Greenland see V. + Willaume-Jantzen, _Meddelelser om Gronland_, part ix. (1889), pp. + 285-310, part xvii. (1895), pp. 171-180. + + [36] See A. Paulsen, _Meteorolog. Zeitschrift_ (1889), p. 241; F. + Nansen, _The First Crossing of Greenland_ (London, 1890), vol. ii. + pp. 496-497; H. Mohn and F. Nansen, "Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse," + &c. Erganzungsheft No. 105 _zu Petermanns Mitteilungen_ (1892), p. + 51. + + [37] H. Winge, "Gronlands Fugle," _Meddelelser om Gronland_, part + xxi. pp. 62-63 (Copenhagen, 1899). + + [38] See J. Lange, "Conspectus florae Groenlandicae," _Meddelelser om + Gronland_, part iii. (Copenhagen, 1880 and 1887); E. Warming, "Om + Gronlands Vegetation," _Meddelelser om Gronland_, part xii. + (Copenhagen, 1888); and in _Botanische Jahrbucher_, vol. x. + (1888-1889). See also A. Blytt, _Englers Jahrbucher_, ii. (1882), pp. + 1-50; A. G. Nathorst, _Otversigt af K. Vetenskap. Akad. Forhandl._ + (Stockholm, 1884); "Kritische Bemerkungen uber die Geschichte der + Vegetation Gronlands," _Botanische Jahrbucher_, vol. xiv. (1891). + + [39] Owing to representations of the Swedish government in 1874 as to + the killing of seals at breeding time on the east coast of Greenland, + and the consequent loss of young seals left to die of starvation, the + Seal Fisheries Act 1875 was passed in England to provide for the + establishment of a close time for seal fishery in the seas in + question. This act empowered the crown, by order in council, to put + its provisions in force, when any foreign state, whose ships or + subjects were engaged in the seal fishery in the area mentioned in + the schedule thereto, had made, or was about to make, similar + provisions with respect to its ships and subjects. An order in + council under the act, declaring the season to begin on the 3rd of + April in each year, was issued February 8, 1876. Rescinded February + 15, 1876, it was re-enacted on November 28, 1876, and is still + operative. + + [40] Cf. F. Nansen, _Eskimo Life_ (London, 1893). + + + + +GREENLAW (a "grassy hill"), a town of Berwickshire, Scotland. Pop. +(1901) 611. It is situated on the Blackadder, 62-1/4 m. S.E. of +Edinburgh by the North British railway company's branch line from Reston +Junction to St Boswells. The town was built towards the end of the 17th +century, to take the place of an older one, which stood about a mile to +the S.E. It was the county town from 1696 to 1853, when for several +years it shared this dignity with Duns, which, however, is now the sole +capital. The chief manufactures are woollens and agricultural +implements. About 3 m. to the S. the ruin of Hume Castle, founded in the +13th century, occupies a commanding site. Captured by the English in +1547, in spite of Lady Home's gallant defence, it was retaken two years +afterwards, only to fall again in 1569. After its surrender to Cromwell +in 1650 it gradually decayed. Towards the close of the 18th century the +3rd earl of Marchmont had the walls rebuilt out of the old stones, and +the castle, though a mere shell of the original structure, is now a +picturesque ruin. + + + + +GREENLEAF, SIMON (1783-1853), American jurist, was born at Newburyport, +Massachusetts, on the 5th of December 1783. When a child he was taken by +his father to Maine, where he studied law, and in 1806 began to practise +at Standish. He soon removed to Gray, where he practised for twelve +years, and in 1818 removed to Portland. He was reporter of the supreme +court of Maine from 1820 to 1832, and published nine volumes of _Reports +of Cases in the Supreme Court of Maine_ (1822-1835). In 1833 he became +Royall professor, and in 1846 succeeded Judge Joseph Story as Dane +professor of law in Harvard University; in 1848 he retired from his +active duties, and became professor emeritus. After being for many years +president of the Massachusetts Bible Society, he died at Cambridge, +Mass., on the 6th of October 1853. Greenleaf's principal work is a +_Treatise on the Law of Evidence_ (3 vols., 1842-1853). He also +published _A Full Collection of Cases Overruled, Denied, Doubted, or +Limited in their Application, taken from American and English Reports_ +(1821), and _Examination of the Testimony of the Four Evangelists by the +Rules of Evidence administered in the Courts of Justice, with an account +of the Trial of Jesus_ (1846; London, 1847). He revised for the American +courts William Cruise's _Digest of Laws respecting Real Property_ (3 +vols., 1849-1850). + + + + +GREEN MONKEY, a west African representative of the typical group of the +guenon monkeys technically known as _Cercopithecus callitrichus_, taking +its name from the olive-greenish hue of the fur of the back, which forms +a marked contrast to the white whiskers and belly. + + + + +GREENOCK, a municipal and police burgh and seaport of Renfrewshire, +Scotland, on the southern shore of the Firth of Clyde, 23 m. W. by N. of +Glasgow by the Caledonian and the Glasgow & South-Western railways, 21 +m. by the river and firth. Pop. (1901) 68,142. The town has a water +frontage of nearly 4 m. and rises gradually to the hills behind the town +in which are situated, about 3 m. distant, Loch Thom and Loch Gryfe, +from both of which is derived the water supply for domestic use, and for +driving several mills and factories. The streets are laid out on the +comparatively level tract behind the firth, the older thoroughfares and +buildings lying in the centre. The west end contains numerous handsome +villas and a fine esplanade, 1-1/2 m. long, running from Prince's Pier to +Fort Matilda, which is supplied with submarine mines for the defence of +the river. The capacious bay, formerly known as the Bay of St Lawrence +from a religious house long since demolished, is protected by a sandbank +that ends here, and is hence known as the Tail of the Bank. The fairway +between this bank, which begins to the west of Dumbarton, and the +southern shore constitutes the safest anchorage in the upper firth. +There is a continuous line of electric tramways, connecting with Port +Glasgow on the east and Gourock on the west, a total distance of 7-1/2 m. +The annual rainfall amounts to 64 in. and Greenock thus has the +reputation of being the wettest town in Scotland. + +Many of the public buildings are fine structures. The municipal +buildings, an ornate example of Italian Renaissance, with a tower 244 +ft. high, were opened in 1887. The custom house on the old steamboat +quay, in classic style with a Doric portico, dates from 1818. The county +buildings (1867) have a tower and spire 112 ft. high. The Watt +Institution, founded in 1837 by a son of the famous engineer, James +Watt, contains the public library (established in 1783), the Watt +scientific library (presented in 1816 by Watt himself), and the marble +statue of James Watt by Sir Francis Chantrey. Adjoining it are the +museum and lecture hall, the gift of James McLean, opened in 1876. Other +buildings are the sheriff court house, and the Spence Library, founded +by the widow of William Spence the mathematician. In addition to +numerous board schools there are the Greenock academy for secondary +education, the technical college (1900), the school of art, and a school +of navigation and engineering. The charitable institutions include the +infirmary; the cholera hospital; the eye infirmary; the fever reception +house; Sir Gabriel Wood's mariners' asylum, an Elizabethan building +erected in 1851 for the accommodation of aged merchant seamen; and the +Smithson poorhouse and lunatic asylum, built beyond the southern +boundary in 1879. Near Albert Harbour stands the old west now the north +parish church (a Gothic edifice dating from 1591) containing some +stained-glass windows by William Morris; in its kirkyard Burns's +"Highland Mary" was buried (1786). The west parish church in Nicholson +Street (1839) is in the Italian Renaissance style and has a campanile. +The middle parish church (1759) in Cathcart Square is in the Classic +style with a fine spire. Besides burial grounds near the infirmary and +attached to a few of the older churches, a beautiful cemetery, 90 acres +in extent, has been laid out in the south-western district. The parks +and open spaces include Wellington Park, Well Park in the heart of the +town (these were the gift of Sir Michael Shaw-Stewart), Whin Hill, Lyle +Road--a broad drive winding over the heights towards Gourock, +constructed as a "relief work" in the severe winter of 1879-1880. + +Greenock is under the jurisdiction of a town council with provost and +bailies. It is a parliamentary burgh, represented by one member. The +corporation owns the supplies of water (the equipment of works and +reservoirs is remarkably complete), gas, electric light and power, and +the tramways (leased to a company). The staple industries are +shipbuilding (established in 1760) and sugar refining (1765). +Greenock-built vessels have always been esteemed, and many Cunard, P. & +O. and Allan liners have been constructed in the yards. The town has +been one of the chief centres of the sugar industry. Other important +industries include the making of boilers, steam-engines, locomotives, +anchors, chain-cables, sailcloth, ropes, paper, woollen and worsted +goods, besides general engineering, an aluminium factory, a +flax-spinning mill, distilleries and an oil-refinery. The seal and whale +fisheries, once vigorously prosecuted, are extinct, but the +fishing-fleets for the home waters and the Newfoundland grounds are +considerable. Till 1772 the town leased the first harbour (finished in +1710) from Sir John Shaw, the superior, but acquired it in that and the +following year, and a graving dock was opened in 1786. Since then +additions and improvements have been periodically in progress, and there +are now several tidal harbours--among them Victoria harbour, Albert +harbour, the west harbour, the east harbour, the northern tidal harbour, +the western tidal harbour, the great harbour and James Watt dock +(completed in 1886 at a cost of L650,000 with an area of 2000 ft. by 400 +ft. with a depth at low water of 32 ft.), Garvel graving dock and other +dry docks. The quayage exceeds 100 acres in area and the quay walls are +over 3 m. in length. Both the Caledonian and the Glasgow & South-Western +railways (in Prince's Pier the latter company possesses a landing-stage +nearly 1400 ft. long) have access to the quays. From first to last the +outlay on the harbour has exceeded L1,500,000. + +In the earlier part of the 17th century Greenock was a fishing village, +consisting of one row of thatched cottages. A century later there were +only six slated houses in the place. In 1635 it was erected by Charles +I. into a burgh of barony under a charter granted to John Shaw, the +government being administered by a baron-bailie, or magistrate, +appointed by the superior. Its commercial prosperity received an +enormous impetus from the Treaty of Union (1707), under which trade with +America and the West Indies rapidly developed. The American War of +Independence suspended progress for a brief interval, but revival set in +in 1783, and within the following seven years shipping trebled in +amount. Meanwhile Sir John Shaw--to whom and to whose descendants, the +Shaw-Stewarts, the town has always been indebted--by charter (dated 1741 +and 1751) had empowered the householders to elect a council of nine +members, which proved to be the most liberal constitution of any Scots +burgh prior to the Reform Act of 1832, when Greenock was raised to the +status of a parliamentary burgh with the right to return one member to +parliament. Greenock was the birthplace of James Watt, William Spence +(1777-1815) and Dr John Caird (1820-1898), principal of Glasgow +University, who died in the town and was buried in Greenock cemetery. +John Galt, the novelist, was educated in Greenock, where he also served +some time in the custom house as a clerk. Rob Roy is said to have raided +the town in 1715. + + + + +GREENOCKITE, a rare mineral composed of cadmium sulphide, CdS, occurring +as small, brilliant, honey-yellow crystals or as a canary-yellow powder. +Crystals are hexagonal with hemimorphic development, being differently +terminated at the two ends. The faces of the hexagonal prism and of the +numerous hexagonal pyramids are deeply striated horizontally. The +crystals are translucent to transparent, and have an adamantine to +resinous lustre; hardness 3-3-1/2; specific gravity 4.9. Crystals have +been found only in Scotland, at one or two places in the neighbourhood +of Glasgow, where they occur singly on prehnite in the amygdaloidal +cavities of basaltic igneous rocks--a rather unusual mode of occurrence +for a metallic sulphide. The first, and largest crystal (about 1/2 in. +across) was found, about the year 1810, in the dolerite quarry at +Bowling in Dumbartonshire, but this was thought to be blende. A larger +number of crystals, but of smaller size, were found in 1840 during the +cutting of the Bishopton tunnel on the Glasgow & Greenock railway; they +were detected by Lord Greenock, afterwards the 2nd earl of Cathcart, +after whom the mineral was named. A third locality is the Boyleston +quarry near Barrhead. At all other localities--Przibram in Bohemia, +Laurion in Greece, Joplin in Missouri, &c.--the mineral is represented +only as a powder dusted over the surface of zinc minerals, especially +blende and calamine, which contain a small amount of cadmium replacing +zinc. + +Isomorphous with greenockite is the hexagonal zinc sulphide (ZnS) known +as wurtzite. Both minerals have been prepared artificially, and are not +uncommon as furnace products. Previous to the recent discovery in +Sardinia of cadmium oxide as small octahedral crystals, greenockite was +the only known mineral containing cadmium as an essential constituent. + (L. J. S.) + + + + +GREENORE, a seaport and watering-place of county Louth, Ireland, +beautifully situated at the north of Carlingford Lough on its western +shore. It was brought to importance by the action of the London & +North-Western railway company of England, which owns the pier and +railways joining the Great Northern system at Dundalk (12-1/2 m.) and +Newry (14 m.). A regular service of passenger steamers controlled by +the company runs to Holyhead, Wales, 80 m. S.E. A steam ferry crosses +the Lough to Greencastle, for Kilkeel, and the southern watering-places +of county Down. The company also owns the hotel, and laid out the golf +links. In the vicinity a good example of raised beach, some 10 ft. above +present sea-level, is to be seen. + + + + +GREENOUGH, GEORGE BELLAS (1778-1855), English geologist, was born in +London on the 18th of January 1778. He was educated at Eton, and +afterwards (1795) entered Pembroke College, Oxford, but never graduated. +In 1798 he proceeded to Gottingen to prosecute legal studies, but having +attended the lectures of Blumenbach he was attracted to the study of +natural history, and, coming into the possession of a fortune, he +abandoned law and devoted his attention to science. He studied +mineralogy at Freiburg under Werner, travelled in various parts of +Europe and the British Isles, and worked at chemistry at the Royal +Institution. A visit to Ireland aroused deep interest in political +questions, and he was in 1807 elected member of parliament for the +borough of Gatton, continuing to hold his seat until 1812. Meanwhile his +interest in geology increased, he was elected F.R.S. in 1807, and he was +the chief founder with others of the Geological Society of London in +1807. He was the first chairman of that Society, and in 1811, when it +was more regularly constituted, he was the first president: and in this +capacity he served on two subsequent occasions, and did much to promote +the advancement of geology. In 1819 he published _A Critical Examination +of the First Principles of Geology_, a work which was useful mainly in +refuting erroneous theories. In the same year was published his famous +_Geological Map of England and Wales_, in six sheets; of which a second +edition was issued in 1839. This map was to a large extent based on the +original map of William Smith; but much new information was embodied. In +1843 he commenced to prepare a geological map of India, which was +published in 1854. He died at Naples on the 2nd of April 1855. + + + + +GREENOUGH, HORATIO (1805-1852), American sculptor, son of a merchant, +was born at Boston, on the 6th of September 1805. At the age of sixteen +he entered Harvard, but he devoted his principal attention to art, and +in the autumn of 1825 he went to Rome, where he studied under +Thorwaldsen. After a short visit in 1826 to Boston, where he executed +busts of John Quincy Adams and other people of distinction, he returned +to Italy and took up his residence at Florence. Here one of his first +commissions was from James Fenimore Cooper for a group of Chanting +Cherubs; and he was chosen by the American government to execute the +colossal statue of Washington for the national capital. It was unveiled +in 1843, and was really a fine piece of work for its day; but in modern +times it has been sharply criticized as unworthy and incongruous. +Shortly afterwards he received a second government commission for a +colossal group, the "Rescue," intended to represent the conflict between +the Anglo-Saxon and Indian races. In 1851 he returned to Washington to +superintend its erection, and in the autumn of 1852 he was attacked by +brain fever, of which he died in Somerville near Boston on the 18th of +December. Among other works of Greenough may be mentioned a bust of +Lafayette, the Medora and the Venus Victrix in the gallery of the Boston +Athenaeum. Greenough was a man of wide culture, and wrote well both in +prose and verse. + + See H. T. Tuckerman, _Memoir of Horatio Greenough_ (New York, 1853). + + + + +GREENOUGH, JAMES BRADSTREET (1833-1901), American classical scholar, was +born in Portland, Maine, on the 4th of May 1833. He graduated at Harvard +in 1856, studied one year at the Harvard Law School, was admitted to the +Michigan bar, and practised in Marshall, Michigan, until 1865, when he +was appointed tutor in Latin at Harvard. In 1873 he became assistant +professor, and in 1883 professor of Latin, a post which he resigned +hardly six weeks before his death at Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the +11th of October 1901. Following the lead of Goodwin's _Moods and Tenses_ +(1860), he set himself to study Latin historical syntax, and in 1870 +published _Analysis of the Latin Subjunctive_, a brief treatise, +privately printed, of much originality and value, and in many ways +coinciding with Berthold Delbruck's _Gebrauch des Conjunctivs und +Optativs in Sanskrit und Griechischen_ (1871), which, however, quite +overshadowed the Analysis. In 1872 appeared _A Latin Grammar for Schools +and Colleges, founded on Comparative Grammar_, by Joseph A. Allen and +James B. Greenough, a work of great critical carefulness. His theory of +_cum_-constructions is that adopted and developed by William Gardner +Hale. In 1872-1880 Greenough offered the first courses in Sanskrit and +comparative philology given at Harvard. His fine abilities for advanced +scholarship were used outside the classroom in editing the Allen and +Greenough Latin Series of text-books, although he occasionally +contributed to _Harvard Studies in Classical Philology_ (founded in 1889 +and endowed at his instance by his own class) papers on Latin syntax, +prosody and etymology--a subject on which he planned a long work--on +Roman archaeology and on Greek religion at the time of the New Comedy. +He assisted largely in the founding of Radcliffe College. An able +English scholar and an excellent etymologist, he collaborated with +Professor George L. Kittredge on _Words and their Ways in English +Speech_ (1901), one of the best books on the subject in the language. He +wrote clever light verse, including _The Blackbirds_, a comedietta, +first published in _The Atlantic Monthly_ (vol. xxxix. 1877); _The Rose +and the Ring_ (1880), a pantomime adapted from Thackeray; _The Queen of +Hearts_ (1885), a dramatic fantasia; and _Old King Cole_ (1889), an +operetta. + + See the sketch by George L. Kittredge in _Harvard Studies in Classical + Philology_, vol. xiv. (1903). pp. 1-17 (also printed in _Harvard + Graduates' Magazine_, vol. x., Dec. 1901, pp. 196-201). + + + + +GREEN RIBBON CLUB, one of the earliest of the loosely combined +associations which met from time to time in London taverns or +coffee-houses for political purposes in the 17th century. It had its +meeting-place at the King's Head tavern at Chancery Lane End, and was +therefore known as the "King's Head Club." It seems to have been founded +about the year 1675 as a resort for members of the political party +hostile to the court, and as these associates were in the habit of +wearing in their hats a bow, or "bob," of green ribbon, as a +distinguishing badge useful for the purpose of mutual recognition in +street brawls, the name of the club became changed, about 1679, to the +Green Ribbon Club. The frequenters of the club were the extreme faction +of the country party, the men who supported Titus Oates, and who were +concerned in the Rye House Plot and Monmouth's rebellion. Roger North +tells us that "they admitted all strangers that were confidingly +introduced, for it was a main end of their institutions to make +proselytes, especially of the raw estated youth newly come to town." +According to Dryden (_Absalom and Achitophel_) drinking was the chief +attraction, and the members talked and organized sedition over their +cups. Thomas Dangerfield supplied the court with a list of forty-eight +members of the Green Ribbon Club in 1679; and although Dangerfield's +numerous perjuries make his unsupported evidence worthless, it receives +confirmation as regards several names from a list given to James II. by +Nathan Wade in 1885 (_Harleian MSS._ 6845), while a number of more +eminent personages are mentioned in _The Cabal_, a satire published in +1680, as also frequenting the club. From these sources it would appear +that the duke of Monmouth himself, and statesmen like Halifax, +Shaftesbury, Buckingham, Macclesfield, Cavendish, Bedford, Grey of +Warke, Herbert of Cherbury, were among those who fraternized at the +King's Head Tavern with third-rate writers such as Scroop, Mulgrave and +Shadwell, with remnants of the Cromwellian regime like Falconbridge, +Henry Ireton and Claypole, with such profligates as Lord Howard of +Escrik and Sir Henry Blount, and with scoundrels of the type of +Dangerfield and Oates. An allusion to Dangerfield, notorious among his +other crimes and treacheries for a seditious paper found in a meal-tub, +is found in connexion with the club in _The Loyal Subjects' Litany_, one +of the innumerable satires of the period, in which occur the lines: + + "From the dark-lanthorn Plot, and the Green Ribbon Club + From brewing sedition in a sanctified Tub, + _Libera nos, Domine_." + +The club was the headquarters of the Whig opposition to the court, and +its members were active promoters of conspiracy and sedition. The +president was either Lord Shaftesbury or Sir Robert Peyton, M.P. for +Middlesex, who afterwards turned informer. The Green Ribbon Club served +both as a debating society and an intelligence department for the Whig +faction. Questions under discussion in parliament were here threshed out +by the members over their tobacco and ale; the latest news from +Westminster or the city was retailed in the tavern, "for some or others +were continually coming and going," says Roger North, "to import or +export news and stories." Slander of the court or the Tories was +invented in the club and sedulously spread over the town, and measures +were there concerted for pushing on the Exclusion Bill, or for promoting +the pretensions of the duke of Monmouth. The popular credulity as to +Catholic outrages in the days of the Popish Plot was stimulated by the +scandalmongers of the club, whose members went about in silk armour, +supposed to be bullet proof, "in which any man dressed up was as safe as +a house," says North, "for it was impossible to strike him for +laughing"; while in their pockets, "for street and crowd-work," they +carried the weapon of offence invented by Stephen College and known as +the "Protestant Flail." + +The genius of Shaftesbury found in the Green Ribbon Club the means of +constructing the first systematized political organization in England. +North relates that "every post conveyed the news and tales legitimated +there, as also the malign constructions of all the good actions of the +government, especially to places where elections were depending, to +shape men's characters into fit qualifications to be chosen or +rejected." In the general election of January and February 1679 the Whig +interest throughout the country was managed and controlled by a +committee sitting at the club in Chancery Lane. The club's organizing +activity was also notably effective in the agitation of the Petitioners +in 1679. This celebrated movement was engineered from the Green Ribbon +Club with all the skill and energy of a modern caucus. The petitions +were prepared in London and sent down to every part of the country, +where paid canvassers took them from house to house collecting +signatures with an air of authority that made refusal difficult. The +great "pope-burning" processions in 1680 and 1681, on the anniversary of +Queen Elizabeth's accession, were also organized by the club. They ended +by the lighting of a huge bon-fire in front of the club windows; and as +they proved an effective means of inflaming the religious passions of +the populace, it was at the Green Ribbon Club that the _mobile vulgus_ +first received the nickname of "the mob." The activity of the club was, +however, short-lived. The failure to carry the Exclusion Bill, one of +the favourite projects of the faction, was a blow to its influence, +which declined rapidly after the flight of Shaftesbury, the confiscation +of the city of London's charter, and the discovery of the Rye House +Plot, in which many of its members were implicated. In 1685 John +Ayloffe, who was found to have been "a clubber at the King's Head Tavern +and a green-ribon man," was executed in front of the premises on the +spot where the "pope-burning" bon-fires had been kindled; and although +the tavern was still in existence in the time of Queen Anne, the Green +Ribbon Club which made it famous did not survive the accession of James +II. The precise situation of the King's Head Tavern, described by North +as "over against the Inner Temple Gate," was at the corner of Fleet +Street and Chancery Lane, on the east side of the latter thoroughfare. + + See Sir George Sitwell, _The First Whig_ (Scarborough, 1894), + containing an illustration of the Green Ribbon Club and a pope-burning + procession; Roger North, _Examen_ (London, 1740); Anchitell Grey, + _Debates of the House of Commons_, 1667-1684, vol. viii. (10 vols., + London, 1769); Sir John Bramston, _Autobiography_ (Camden Soc., + London, 1845). (R. J. M.) + + + + +GREENSAND, in geology, the name that has been applied to no fewer than +three distinct members of the Cretaceous System, viz. the Upper +Greensand (see GAULT), the Lower Greensand and the so-called Cambridge +Greensand, a local phase of the base of the Chalk (q.v.). The term was +introduced by the early English geologists for certain sandy rocks which +frequently exhibited a greenish colour on account of the presence of +minute grains of the green mineral glauconite. Until the fossils of +these rocks came to be carefully studied there was much confusion +between what is now known as the Upper Greensand (Selbornian) and the +Lower Greensand. Here we shall confine our attention to the latter. + +The Lower Greensand was first examined in detail by W. H. Fitton +(_Q.J.G.S._ iii., 1847), who, in 1845, had proposed the name "Vectine" +for the formation. The name was revived under the form "Vectian" in 1885 +by A. J. Jukes-Browne, because, although sands and sandstones prevail, +the green colour has often changed by oxidation of the iron to various +shades of red and brown, and other lithological types, clays and +limestones represent this horizon in certain areas. The Lower Greensand +is typically developed in the Wealden district, in the Isle of Wight, in +Dorsetshire about Swanage, and it appears again beneath the northern +outcrop of the Chalk in Berkshire, Oxfordshire and Bedfordshire, and +thence it is traceable through Norfolk and Lincolnshire into east +Yorkshire. It rests conformably upon the Wealden formation in the south +of England, but it is clearly separable from the beds beneath by the +occurrence of marine fossils, and by the fact that there is a marked +overlap of the Lower Greensand on the Weald in Wiltshire, and derived +pebbles are found in the basal beds. The whole series is 800 ft. thick +at Atherfield in the Isle of Wight, but it thins rapidly westward. It is +usually clearly marked off from the overlying Gault. + +In the Wealden area the Lower Greensand has been subdivided as follows, +although the several members are not everywhere recognizable:-- + + Isle of Wight. + Folkestone Beds (70-100 ft.) Carstone and Sand rock series. + Sandgate Beds (75-100 ft.) Ferruginous Sands (Shanklin sands). + Hythe Beds (80-300 ft.) Ferruginous Sands (Walpen sands). + Atherfield Clay (20-90 ft.) Atherfield Clay. + +The Atherfield Clay is usually a sandy clay, fossiliferous. The basal +portion, 5-6 ft., is known as the "Perna bed" from the abundance of +_Perna Mulleti_; other fossils are _Hoplites Deshayesii_, _Exogyra +sinuata_, _Ancyloceras Mathesonianum_. The Hythe beds are +interstratified thin limestones and sandstones; the former are +bluish-grey in colour, compact and hard, with a certain amount of quartz +and glauconite. The limestone is known locally as "rag"; the Kentish Rag +has been largely employed as a building stone and roadstone; it +frequently contains layers of chert (known as Sevenoaks stone near that +town). The sandy portions are very variable; the stone is often clayey +and calcareous and rarely hard enough to make a good building stone; +locally it is called "hassock" (or Calkstone). The two stones are well +exposed in the Iguanodon Quarry near Maidstone (so called from the +discovery of the bones of that reptile). Southwest of Dorking sandstone +and grit become more prevalent, and it is known there as "Bargate +stone," much used around Godalming. Pulborough stone is another local +sandstone of the Hythe beds. Fuller's earth occurs in parts of this +formation in Surrey. The Sandgate beds, mainly dark, argillaceous sand +and clay, are well developed in east Kent, and about Midhurst, +Pulborough and Petworth. At Nutfield the celebrated fuller's earth +deposits occur on this horizon; it is also found near Maidstone, at +Bletchingley and Red Hill. The Folkestone beds are light-coloured, +rather coarse sands, enclosing layers of siliceous limestone (Folkestone +stone) and chert; a phosphatic bed is found near the top. These beds are +well seen in the cliffs at Folkestone and near Reigate. At Ightham there +is a fine, hard, white sandstone along with a green, quartzitic variety +(Ightham stone). In Sussex the limestone and chert are usually lacking, +but a ferruginous grit, "carstone," occurs in lenticular masses and +layers, which is used for road metal at Pulborough, Fittleworth, &c. + +The Lower Greensand usually forms picturesque, healthy country, as about +Leith Hill, Hindhead, Midhurst, Petworth, at Woburn, or at Shanklin and +Sandown in the Isle of Wight. Outside the southern area the Lower +Greensand is represented by the Faringdon sponge-bearing beds in +Berkshire, the Sandy and Potton beds in Bedfordshire, the Shotover iron +sands of Oxfordshire, the sands and fuller's earth of Woburn, the +Leighton Buzzard sands, the brick clays of Snettisham, and perhaps the +Sandringham sands of Norfolk, and the carstone of that county and +Lincolnshire. The upper ironstone, limestone and clay of the +Lincolnshire Tealby beds appear to belong to this horizon along with the +upper part of the Speeton beds of Yorkshire. The sands of the Lower +Greensand are largely employed for the manufacture of glass, for which +purpose they are dug at Aylesford, Godstone, near Reigate, Hartshill, +near Aylesbury and other places; the ferruginous sand is worked as an +iron ore at Seend. + +This formation is continuous across the channel into France, where it is +well developed in Boulonnais. According to the continental +classification the Atherfield Clay is equivalent to the Urgonian or +Barremian; the Sandgate and Hythe beds belong to the Aptian (q.v.); +while the upper part of the Folkestone beds would fall within the lower +Albian (q.v.). + + See the _Memoirs of the Geological Survey_, "Geology of the Weald" + (1875), "Geology of the Isle of Wight" (2nd ed., 1889), "Geology of + the Isle of Purbeck" (1898); and the _Record of Excursions_, + Geologists' Association (London, 1891). (J. A. H.) + + + + +GREENSBORO, a city and the county-seat of Guilford county, North +Carolina, U.S.A., about 80 m. N.W. of Raleigh. Pop. (1890) 3317, (1900) +10,035, of whom 4086 were negroes; (1910 census), 15,895. Greensboro is +served by several lines of the Southern railway. It is situated in the +Piedmont region of the state and has an excellent climate. The city is +the seat of the State Normal and Industrial College (1892) for girls; of +the Greensboro Female College (Methodist Episcopal, South; chartered in +1838 and opened in 1846), of which the Rev. Charles F. Deems was +president in 1850-1854, and which, owing to the burning of its +buildings, was suspended from 1863 to 1874; and of two institutions for +negroes--a State Agricultural and Mechanical College, and Bennett +College (Methodist Episcopal, co-educational, 1873). Another school for +negroes, Immanuel Lutheran College (Evangelical Lutheran, +co-educational), was opened at Concord, N.C., in 1903, was removed to +Greensboro in 1905, and in 1907 was established at Lutherville, E. of +Greensboro. About 6 m. W. of Greensboro is Guilford College +(co-educational; Friends), founded as "New Garden Boarding School" in +1837 and rechartered under its present name in 1888. Greensboro has a +Carnegie library, St Leo hospital and a large auditorium. It is the +shipping-point for an agricultural, lumbering and trucking region, among +whose products Indian corn, tobacco and cotton are especially important; +is an important insurance centre; has a large wholesale trade; and has +various manufactures, including cotton goods[1] (especially blue denim), +tobacco and cigars, lumber, furniture, sash, doors and blinds, +machinery, foundry products and terra-cotta. The value of the factory +products increased from $925,411 in 1900 to $1,828,837 in 1905, or +97.6%. The municipality owns and operates the water-works. Greensboro +was named in honour of General Nathanael Greene, who on the 15th of +March 1781 fought with Cornwallis the battle of Guilford Court House, +about 6 m. N.W. of the city, where there is now a Battle-Ground Park of +100 acres (including Lake Wilfong); this park contains a Revolutionary +museum, and twenty-nine monuments, including a Colonial Column, an arch +(1906) in memory of Brig.-General Francis Nash (1720-1777), of North +Carolina, who died in October 1777 of wounds received at Germantown, and +Davidson Arch (1905), in honour of William Lee Davidson (1746-1781), a +brigadier-general of North Carolina troops, who was killed at Catawba +and in whose honour Davidson College, at Davidson, N.C., was named. +Greensboro was founded and became the county-seat in 1808, was organized +as a town in 1829, and was first chartered as a city in 1870. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] One of the first cotton mills in the South and probably the first + in this state was established at Greensboro in 1832. It closed about + 20 years afterwards, and in 1889 new mills were built. Three very + large mills were built in the decade after 1895, and three mill + villages, Proximity, Revolution and White Oak, named from these three + mills, lie immediately N. of the city; in 1908 their population was + estimated at 8000. The owners of these mills maintain schools for the + children of operatives and carry on "welfare work" in these villages. + + + + +GREENSBURG, a borough and the county-seat of Westmoreland county, +Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 31 m. E.S.E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 4202; +(1900) 6508 (484 foreign-born); (1910) 5420. It is served by two lines +of the Pennsylvania railway. It is an important coal centre, and +manufactures engines, iron and brass goods, flour, lumber and bricks. In +addition to its public school system, it has several private schools, +including St Mary's Academy and St Joseph's Academy, both Roman +Catholic. About 3 m. N.E. of what is now Greensburg stood the village of +Hanna's Town, settled about 1770 and almost completely destroyed by the +Indians on the 13th of July 1782; here what is said to have been the +first court held west of the Alleghanies opened on the 6th of April +1773, and the county courts continued to be held here until 1787. +Greensburg was settled in 1784-1785, immediately after the opening of +the state road, not far from the trail followed by General John Forbes +on his march to Fort Duquesne in 1758; it was made the county-seat in +1787, and was incorporated in 1799. In 1905 the boroughs of Ludwick +(pop. in 1900, 901), East Greensburg (1050), and South-east Greensburg +(620) were merged with Greensburg. + + See John N. Boucher's _History of Westmoreland County, Pa._ (3 vols., + New York, 1906). + + + + +GREENSHANK, one of the largest of the birds commonly known as +sandpipers, the _Totanus glottis_ of most ornithological writers. Some +exercise of the imagination is however needed to see in the dingy +olive-coloured legs of this species a justification of the English name +by which it goes, and the application of that name, which seems to be +due to Pennant, was probably by way of distinguishing it from two allied +but perfectly distinct species of _Totanus_ (_T. calidris_ and _T. +fuscus_) having red legs and usually called redshanks. The greenshank is +a native of the northern parts of the Old World, but in winter it +wanders far to the south, and occurs regularly at the Cape of Good Hope, +in India and thence throughout the Indo-Malay Archipelago to Australia. +It has also been recorded from North America, but its appearance there +must be considered accidental. Almost as bulky as a woodcock, it is of a +much more slender build, and its long legs and neck give it a graceful +appearance, which is enhanced by the activity of its actions. Disturbed +from the moor or marsh, where it has its nest, it rises swiftly into the +air, conspicuous by its white back and rump, and uttering shrill cries +flies round the intruder. It will perch on the topmost bough of a tree, +if a tree be near, to watch his proceedings, and the cock exhibits all +the astounding gesticulations in which the males of so many other +_Limicolae_ indulge during the breeding-season--with certain variations, +however, that are peculiarly its own. It breeds in no small numbers in +the Hebrides, and parts of the Scottish Highlands from Argyllshire to +Sutherland, as well as in the more elevated or more northern districts +of Norway, Sweden and Finland, and probably also thence to Kamchatka. In +North America it is represented by two species, _Totanus semipalmatus_ +and _T. melanoleucus_, there called willets, telltales or tattlers, +which in general habits resemble the greenshank of the Old World. + (A. N.) + + + + +GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Washington county, +Mississippi, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Mississippi river, about 75 +m. N. of Vicksburg. Pop. (1890) 6658; (1900) 7642 (4987 negroes); (1910) +9610. Greenville is served by the Southern and the Yazoo & Mississippi +Valley railways, and by various passenger and freight steamboat lines on +the Mississippi river. It is situated in the centre of the Yazoo Delta, +a rich cotton-producing region, and its industries are almost +exclusively connected with that staple. There are large warehouses, +compresses and gins, extensive cotton-seed oil works and sawmills. Old +Greenville, about 1 m. S. of the present site, was the county seat of +Jefferson county until 1825 (when Fayette succeeded it), and later +became the county-seat of Washington county. Much of the old town caved +into the river, and during the Civil War it was burned by the Federal +forces soon after the capture of Memphis. The present site was then +adopted. The town of Greenville was incorporated in 1870; in 1886 it was +chartered as a city. + + + + +GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Darke county, Ohio, U.S.A., on +Greenville Creek, 36 m. N.W. of Dayton. Pop. (1900) 5501; (1910) 6237. +It is served by the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis and the +Cincinnati Northern railways, and by interurban electric railways. It is +situated about 1050 ft. above sea-level and is the trade centre of a +large and fertile agricultural district, producing cereals and tobacco. +It manufactures lumber, foundry products, canned goods and creamery +products and has grain elevators and tobacco warehouses. In the city is +a Carnegie library, and 3 m. distant there is a county Children's Home +and Infirmary. The municipality owns and operates its water-works. +Greenville occupies the site of an Indian village and of Fort Greenville +(built by General Anthony Wayne in 1793 and burned in 1796). Here, on +the 3rd of August 1795, General Wayne, the year after his victory over +the Indians at Fallen Timbers, concluded with them the treaty of +Greenville, the Indians agreeing to a cessation of hostilities and +ceding to the United States a considerable portion of Ohio and a number +of small tracts in Indiana, Illinois and Michigan (including the sites +of Sandusky, Toledo, Defiance, Fort Wayne, Detroit, Mackinac, Peoria and +Chicago), and the United States agreeing to pay to the Indians $20,000 +worth of goods immediately and an annuity of goods, valued at $9500, for +ever. The tribes concerned were the Wyandots, the Delawares, the +Shawnees, the Ottawas, the Chippewas, the Pottawatomies, the Miamis, the +Weeas, the Kickapoos, the Piankashas, the Kaskaskias and the Eel-river +tribe. Tecumseh lived at Greenville from 1805 to 1809, and a second +Indian treaty was negotiated there in July 1814 by General W. H. +Harrison and Lewis Cass, by which the Wyandots, the Delawares, the +Shawnees, the (Ohio) Senecas and the Miamis agreed to aid the United +States in the war with Great Britain. The first permanent white +settlement of Greenville was established in 1808 and the town was laid +out in the same year. It was made the county-seat of the newly erected +county in 1809, was incorporated as a town in 1838 and chartered as a +city in 1887. + + + + +GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Greenville county, South +Carolina, U.S.A., on the Reedy river, about 140 m. N.W. of Columbia, in +the N.W. part of the state. Pop. (1890) 8607; (1900) 11,860, of whom +5414 were negroes; (1910, census) 15,741. It is served by the Southern, +the Greenville & Knoxville and the Charleston & Western Carolina +railways. It lies 976 ft. above sea-level, near the foot of the Blue +Ridge Mountains, its climate and scenery attracting summer visitors. It +is in an extensive cotton-growing and cotton-manufacturing district. +Greenville's chief interest is in cotton, but it has various other +manufactures, including carriages, wagons, iron and fertilizers. The +total value of the factory products of the city in 1905 was $1,676,774, +an increase of 73.5% since 1900. The city is the seat of Furman +University, Chicora College for girls (1893; Presbyterian), and +Greenville Female College (1854; Baptist), which in 1907-1908 had 379 +students, and which, besides the usual departments, has a conservatory +of music, a school of art, a school of expression and physical culture +and a kindergarten normal training school. Furman University (Baptist; +opened in 1852) grew out of the "Furman Academy and Theological +Institution," opened at Edgefield, S.C., in 1827, and named in honour of +Richard Furman (1755-1825), a well-known Baptist clergyman of South +Carolina, whose son, James C. Furman (1809-1891), was long president of +the University. In 1907-1908 the university had a faculty of 15 and 250 +students, of whom 101 were in the Furman Fitting School. Greenville was +laid out in 1797, was originally known as Pleasantburg and was first +chartered as a city in 1868. + + + + +GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Hunt county, Texas, U.S.A., +near the headwaters of the Sabine river, 48 m. N.E. of Dallas. Pop. +(1900) 6860, of whom 114 were foreign-born and 1751 were negroes; (1910) +8850. It is served by the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the St Louis +South-Western and the Texas Midland railways. It is an important cotton +market, has gins and compresses, a large cotton seed oil refinery, and +other manufactories, and is a trade centre for a rich agricultural +district. The city owns and operates its electric-lighting plant. It is +the seat of Burleson College (Baptist), founded in 1893, and 1 m. from +the city limits, in the village of Peniel (pop. 1908, about 500), a +community of "Holiness" people, are the Texas Holiness University +(1898), a Holiness orphan asylum and a Holiness press. Greenville was +settled in 1844, and was chartered as a city in 1875. In 1907 the Texas +legislature granted to the city a new charter establishing a commission +government similar to that of Galveston. + + + + +GREENWICH, a township of Fairfield county, Connecticut, U.S.A., on Long +Island Sound, in the extreme S.W. part of the state, about 28 m. N.E. of +New York City. It contains a borough of the same name and the villages +of Cos Cob, Riverside and Sound Beach, all served by the New York, New +Haven & Hartford Railway; the township has steamboat and electric +railway connexions with New York City. Pop. of the township (1900) +12,172, of whom 3271 were foreign-born; (1910) 16,463; of the borough +(1910) 3886. Greenwich is a summer resort, principally for New Yorkers. +Among the residents have been Edwin Thomas Booth, John Henry Twachtman, +the landscape painter, and Henry Osborne Havemeyer (1847-1907), founder +of the American Sugar Company. There are several fine churches in the +township; of one in Sound Beach the Rev. William H. H. Murray +(1840-1904), called "Adirondack Murray," from his _Camp Life in the +Adirondack Mountains_ (1868), was once pastor. In the borough are a +public library, Greenwich Academy (1827; co-educational), the Brunswick +School for boys (1901), with which Betts Academy of Stamford was united +in 1908, and a hospital. The principal manufactures are belting, +woollens, tinners' hardware, iron and gasolene motors. Oysters are +shipped from Greenwich. The first settlers came from the New Haven +Colony in 1640; but the Dutch, on account of the exploration of Long +Island Sound by Adrian Blok in 1614, laid claim to Greenwich, and as New +Haven did nothing to assist the settlers, they consented to union with +New Netherland in 1642. Greenwich then became a Dutch manor. By a treaty +of 1650, which fixed the boundary between New Netherland and the New +Haven Colony, the Dutch relinquished their claim to Greenwich, but the +inhabitants of the town refused to submit to the New Haven Colony until +October 1656. Six years later Greenwich was one of the first towns of +the New Haven Colony to submit to Connecticut. The township suffered +severely during the War of Independence on account of the frequent +quartering of American troops within its borders, the depredations of +bands of lawless men after the occupation of New York by the British in +1778 and its invasion by the British in 1779 (February 25) and 1781 +(December 5). There was also a strong loyalist sentiment. On the old +post-road in Greenwich is the inn, built about 1729, at which Israel +Putnam was surprised in February 1779 by a force under General Tryon; +according to tradition he escaped by riding down a flight of steep stone +steps. The inn was purchased in 1901 by the Daughters of the American +Revolution, who restored it and made it a Putnam Memorial. The township +government of Greenwich was instituted in the colonial period. The +borough of Greenwich was incorporated in 1858. + + See D. M. Mead, _History of the Town of Greenwich_ (New York, 1857). + + + + +GREENWICH, a south-eastern metropolitan borough of London, England, +bounded N. by the river Thames, E. by Woolwich, S. by Lewisham and W. by +Deptford. Pop. (1901) 95,770. Area, 3851.7 acres. It has a +river-frontage of 4-1/2 m., the Thames making two deep bends, enclosing +the Isle of Dogs on the north and a similar peninsula on the Greenwich +side. Greenwich is connected with Poplar on the north shore by the +Greenwich tunnel (1902), for foot-passengers, to the Isle of Dogs +(Cubitt Town), and by the Blackwall Tunnel (1897) for street traffic, +crossing to a point between the East and West India Docks (see POPLAR). +The main thoroughfares from W. to E. are Woolwich and Shooter's Hill +Roads, the second representing the old high road through Kent, the Roman +Watling Street. Greenwich is first noticed in the reign of Ethelred, +when it was a station of the Danish fleet (1011-1014). + +The most noteworthy buildings are the hospital and the observatory. +Greenwich Hospital, as it is still called, became in 1873 a Royal Naval +College. Upon it or its site centre nearly all the historical +associations of the place. The noble buildings, contrasting strangely +with the wharves adjacent and opposite to it, make a striking picture, +standing on the low river-bank with a background formed by the wooded +elevation of Greenwich Park. They occupy the site of an ancient royal +palace called Greenwich House, which was a favourite royal residence as +early as 1300, but was granted by Henry V. to Thomas Beaufort, duke of +Exeter, from whom it passed to Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, who largely +improved the property and named it _Placentia_. It did not revert to the +crown till his death in 1447. It was the birthplace of Henry VIII., +Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth, and here Edward VI. died. The building +was enlarged by Edward IV., by Henry VIII., who made it one of his chief +residences, by James I. and by Charles I., who erected the "Queen's +House" for Henrietta Maria. The tenure of land from the crown "as of the +manor of East Greenwich" became at this time a recognized formula, and +occurs in a succession of American colonial charters from those of +Virginia in 1606, 1609 and 1612 to that of New Jersey in 1674. Along +with other royal palaces Greenwich was at the Revolution appropriated by +the Protector, but it reverted to the crown on the restoration of +Charles II., by whom it was pulled down, and the west wing of the +present hospital was erected as part of an extensive design which was +not further carried out. In its unfinished state it was assigned by the +patent of William and Mary to certain of the great officers of state, as +commissioners for its conversion into a hospital for seamen; and it was +opened as such in 1705. The building consists of four blocks. Behind a +terrace 860 ft. in length, stretching along the river side, are the +buildings erected in the time of Charles II. from Inigo Jones's designs, +and in that of Queen Anne from designs by Sir Christopher Wren; and +behind these buildings are on the west those of King William and on the +east those of Queen Mary, both from Wren's designs. In the King William +range is the painted hall. Here in 1806 the remains of Nelson lay in +state before their burial in St Paul's Cathedral. Its walls and ceiling +were painted by Sir James Thornhill with various emblematic devices, and +it is hung with portraits of the most distinguished admirals and +paintings of the chief naval battles of England. In the Queen Anne range +is the Royal Naval Museum, containing models, relics of Nelson and of +Franklin, and other objects. In the centre of the principal quadrangle +of the hospital there is a statue of George II. by Rysbrack, sculptured +out of a single block of marble taken from the French by Admiral Sir +George Rooke. In the upper quadrangle is a bust of Nelson by Chantrey, +and there are various other memorials and relics. The oldest part of the +building was in some measure rebuilt in 1811, and the present chapel was +erected to replace one destroyed by fire in 1779. The endowments of the +hospital were increased at various periods from bequests and forfeited +estates. Formerly 2700 retired seamen were boarded within it, and 5000 +or 6000 others, called out-pensioners, received stipends at various +rates out of its funds; but in 1865 an act was passed empowering the +Admiralty to grant liberal pensions in lieu of food and lodging to such +of the inmates as were willing to quit the hospital, and in 1869 another +act was passed making their leaving on these conditions compulsory. It +was then devoted to the accommodation of the students of the Royal Naval +College, the Infirmary being granted to the Seamen's Hospital Society. +Behind the College is the Royal Hospital School, where 1000 boys, sons +of petty officers and seamen, are boarded. + +To the south of the hospital is Greenwich Park (185 acres), lying high, +and commanding extensive views over London, the Thames and the plain of +Essex. It was enclosed by Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, and laid out by +Charles II., and contains a fine avenue of Spanish chestnuts planted in +his time. In it is situated the Royal Observatory, built in 1675 for the +advancement of navigation and nautical astronomy. From it the exact time +is conveyed each day at one o'clock by electric signal to the chief +towns throughout the country; British and the majority of foreign +geographers reckon longitude from its meridian. A standard clock and +measures are seen at the entrance. A new building was completed in 1899, +the magnetic pavilion lying some 400 yds. to the east, so placed to +avoid the disturbance of instruments which would be occasioned by the +iron used in the principal building. South of the park lies the open +common of Blackheath, mainly within the borough of Lewisham, and in the +east the borough includes the greater part of Woolwich Common. + +At Greenwich an annual banquet of cabinet ministers, known as the +whitebait dinner, formerly took place. This ceremony arose out of a +dinner held annually at Dagenham, on the Essex shore of the Thames, by +the commissioners for engineering works carried out there in +1705-1720--a remarkable achievement for this period--to save the +lowlands from flooding. To one of these dinners Pitt was invited, and +was subsequently accompanied by some of his colleagues. Early in the +19th century the venue of the dinner, which had now become a ministerial +function, was transferred to Greenwich, and though at first not always +held here, was later celebrated regularly at the "Ship," an hotel of +ancient foundation, closed in 1908. The banquet continued till 1868, was +revived in 1874-1880, and was held for the last time in 1894. + +The parish church of Greenwich, in Church Street, is dedicated to St +Alphege, archbishop, who was martyred here by the Danes in 1012. In the +church Wolfe, who died at Quebec (1759), and Tallis, the musician, are +buried. A modern stained-glass window commemorates Wolfe. + +The parliamentary borough of Greenwich returns one member. Two burgesses +were returned in 1577, but it was not again represented till the same +privilege was conferred on it in 1832. The borough council consists of a +mayor, five aldermen and thirty councillors. + + + + +GREENWOOD, FREDERICK (1830-1909), English journalist and man of letters, +was born in April 1830. He was one of three brothers--the others being +James and Charles--who all gained reputation as journalists. Frederick +started life in a printing house, but at an early age began to write in +periodicals. In 1853 he contributed a sketch of Napoleon III. to a +volume called _The Napoleon Dynasty_ (2nd ed., 1855). He also wrote +several novels: _The Loves of an Apothecary_ (1854), _The Path of Roses_ +(1859) and (with his brother James) _Under a Cloud_ (1860). To the +second number of the _Cornhill Magazine_ he contributed "An Essay +without End," and this led to an introduction to Thackeray. In 1862, +when Thackeray resigned the editorship of the _Cornhill_, Greenwood +became joint editor with G. H. Lewes. In 1864 he was appointed sole +editor, a post which he held until 1868. While at the _Cornhill_ he +wrote an article in which he suggested, to some extent, how Thackeray +might have intended to conclude his unfinished work _Denis Duval_, and +in its pages appeared _Margaret Denzil's History_, Greenwood's most +ambitious work of fiction, published in volume form in 1864. At that +time Greenwood had conceived the idea of an evening newspaper, which, +while containing "all the news proper to an evening journal," should, +for the most part, be made up "of original articles upon the many things +which engage the thoughts, or employ the energies, or amuse the leisure +of mankind." Public affairs, literature and art, "and all the influences +which strengthen or dissipate society" were to be discussed by men whose +independence and authority were equally unquestionable. Canning's +_Anti-Jacobin_ and the _Saturday Review_ of 1864 were the joint models +Greenwood had before him. The idea was taken up by Mr George Smith, and +the _Pall Mall Gazette_ (so named after Thackeray's imaginary paper in +_Pendennis_) was launched in February 1865, with Greenwood as editor. +Within a few years he had come to exercise a great influence on public +affairs. His views somewhat rapidly ripened from what was described as +philosophic Liberalism into Conservatism. No minister in Great Britain, +Mr Gladstone declared, ever had a more able, a more zealous, a more +effective supporter for his policy than Lord Beaconsfield had in +Greenwood. It was on the suggestion of Greenwood that Beaconsfield +purchased in 1875 the Suez Canal shares of the Khedive Ismail; the +British government being ignorant, until informed by Greenwood, that the +shares were for sale and likely to be bought by France. It was +characteristic of Greenwood that he declined to publish the news of the +purchase of the shares in the _Pall Mall_ before the official +announcement was made. + +Early in 1880 the _Pall Mall_ changed owners, and the new proprietor +required it to support Liberal policy. Greenwood at once resigned his +editorship, but in May a new paper, the _St James's Gazette_, was +started for him by Mr Henry Hucks Gibbs (afterwards Lord Aldenham), and +Greenwood proceeded to carry on in it the tradition which he had +established in the _Pall Mall_. At the _St James's_ Greenwood remained +for over eight years, continuing to exercise a marked influence upon +political affairs, notably as a pungent critic of the Gladstone +administration (1880-1885) and an independent supporter of Lord +Salisbury. His connexion with the paper ceased in August 1888, owing to +disagreements with the new proprietor, Mr E. Steinkopff, who had bought +the _St James's_ at Greenwood's own suggestion. In January 1891 +Greenwood brought out a weekly review which he named the _Anti-Jacobin_. +It failed, however, to gain public support, the last number appearing in +January 1892. In 1893 he published _The Lover's Lexicon_ and in 1894 +_Imagination in Dreams_. He continued to express his views on political +and social questions in contributions to newspapers and magazines, +writing frequently in the _Westminster Gazette_, the _Pall Mall_, +_Blackwood_, the _Cornhill_, &c. Towards the end of his life his +political views reverted in some respects to the Liberalism of his early +days. + +In the words of George Meredith "Greenwood was not only a great +journalist, he had a statesman's head. The national interests were +always urgent at his heart." He was remarkable for securing for his +papers the services of the ablest writers of the day, and for the gift +of recognizing merit in new writers, such, for instance, as Richard +Jeffries and J. M. Barrie. His instinct for capacity in others was as +sure as was his journalistic judgment. In 1905, on the occasion of his +75th birthday, a dinner was given in his honour by leading statesmen, +journalists, and men of letters (with John Morley--who had succeeded him +as editor of the _Pall Mall_--in the chair). In May 1907 he contributed +to _Blackwood_ an article on "The New Journalism," in which he drew a +sharp contrast between the old and the new conditions under which the +work of a newspaper writer is conducted. He died at Sydenham on the 14th +of December 1909. + + See _Honouring Frederick Greenwood_, being a report of the speeches at + the dinner on the 8th of April 1905 (London, privately printed, 1905); + "Birth and Infancy of the _Pall Mall Gazette_," an article contributed + by Greenwood to the _Pall Mall_ of the 14th of April 1897; "The + Blowing of the Trumpet" in the introduction to the _St James's_ (May + 31, 1880); obituary notices in the _Athenaeum_ (Dec. 25, 1909) and + _The Times_ (Dec. 17, 1909). + + + + +GREENWOOD, JOHN (d. 1593), English Puritan and Separatist (the date and +place of his birth are unknown), entered as a sizar at Corpus Christi +College, Cambridge, on the 18th of March 1577-1578, and commenced B.A. +1581. Whether he was directly influenced by the teaching of Robert +Browne (q.v.), a graduate of the same college, is uncertain; in any case +he held strong Puritan opinions, which ultimately led him to Separatism +of the most rigid type. In 1581 he was chaplain to Lord Rich, at +Rochford, Essex. At some unspecified time he had been made deacon by +John Aylmer, bishop of London, and priest by Thomas Cooper, bishop of +Lincoln; but ere long he renounced this ordination as "wholly unlawful." +Details of the next few years are lacking; but by 1586 he was the +recognized leader of the London Separatists, of whom a considerable +number had been imprisoned at various times since 1567. Greenwood was +arrested early in October 1586, and the following May was committed to +the Fleet prison for an indefinite time, in default of bail for +conformity. During his imprisonment he wrote some controversial tracts +in conjunction with his fellow-prisoner Henry Barrowe (q.v.). He is +understood to have been at liberty in the autumn of 1588; but this may +have been merely "the liberty of the prison." However, he was certainly +at large in September 1592, when he was elected "teacher" of the +Separatist church. Meanwhile he had written (1590) "An Answer to George +Gifford's pretended Defence of Read Prayers." On the 5th of December he +was again arrested; and the following March was tried, together with +Barrowe, and condemned to death on a charge of "devising and circulating +seditious books." After two respites, one at the foot of the gallows, he +was hanged on the 6th of April 1593. + + AUTHORITIES.--H. M. Dexter, _Congregationalism during the last three + hundred years_; _The England and Holland of the Pilgrims_; F. J. + Powicke, _Henry Barrowe and the Exiled Church of Amsterdam_; B. Brook, + _Lives of the Puritans_; C. H. Cooper, _Athenae Cantabrigienses_, vol. + ii. + + + + +GREG, WILLIAM RATHBONE (1809-1881), English essayist, the son of a +merchant, was born at Manchester in 1809. He was educated at the +university of Edinburgh and for a time managed a mill of his father's at +Bury, and in 1832 began business on his own account. He entered with +ardour into the struggle for free trade, and obtained in 1842 the prize +offered by the Anti-Corn Law League for the best essay on "Agriculture +and the Corn Laws." He was too much occupied with political, economical +and theological speculations to give undivided attention to his +business, which he gave up in 1850 to devote himself to writing. His +_Creed of Christendom_ was published in 1851, and in 1852 he contributed +no less than twelve articles to four leading quarterlies. Disraeli +praised him; Sir George Cornewall Lewis bestowed a Commissionership of +Customs upon him in 1856; and in 1864 he was made Comptroller of the +Stationery Office. Besides contributions to periodicals he produced +several volumes of essays on political and social philosophy. The +general spirit of these is indicated by the titles of two of the best +known, _The Enigmas of Life_ (1872) and _Rocks Ahead_ (1874). They +represent a reaction from the high hopes of the author's youth, when +wise legislation was assumed to be a remedy for every public ill. Greg +was a man of deep moral earnestness of character and was interested in +many philanthropic works. He died at Wimbledon on the 15th of November +1881. His brother, ROBERT HYDE GREG (1795-1875), was an economist and +antiquary of some distinction. Another brother, SAMUEL GREG (1804-1876), +became well known in Lancashire by his philanthropic efforts on behalf +of the working-people. PERCY GREG (1836-1889), son of William Rathbone +Greg, also wrote, like his father, on politics, but his views were +violently reactionary. His _History of the United States to the +Reconstruction of the Union_ (1887) is a polemic rather than a history. + + + + +GREGARINES (mod. Lat. _Gregarina_, from _gregarius_, collecting in a +flock or herd, _grex_) a large and abundant order of Sporozoa Ectospora, +in which a very high degree of morphological specialization and +cytological differentiation of the cell-body is frequently found. On the +other hand, the life-cycle is, in general, fairly simple. Other +principal characters which distinguish Gregarines from allied Sporozoan +parasites are as follows:--The fully-grown adult (trophozoite) is always +"free" in some internal cavity, i.e. it is extracellular; in nearly all +cases prior to sporulation two Gregarines (associates) become attached +to one another, forming a couple (syzygy), and are surrounded by a +common cyst; inside the cyst the body of each associate becomes +segmented up into a number of sexual elements (gametes, primary +sporoblasts), which then conjugate in pairs; the resulting copula +(zygote, definitive sporoblast) becomes usually a spore by the secretion +of spore-membranes (sporocyst), its protoplasm (sporoplasm) dividing up +to form the germs (sporozoites). + + + Historical. + +F. Redi (1684) is said to have been the first to observe a Gregarine +parasite, but his claim to this honour is by no means certain. Much +later (1787) Cavolini described and figured an indubitable Gregarine +(probably the form now known as _Aggregata conformis_) from a Crustacean +(_Pachygrapsus_), which, however, he regarded as a tapeworm. Leon +Dufour, who in his researches on insect anatomy came across several +species of these parasites, also considered them as allied to the worms +and proposed the generic name of _Gregarina_. The unicellular nature of +Gregarines was first realized by A. von Kolliker, who from 1845-1848 +added considerably to our knowledge of the frequent occurrence and wide +distribution of these organisms. Further progress was due to F. Stein +who demonstrated about this time the relation of the "pseudo-navicellae" +(spores) to the reproduction of the parasites. + +[Illustration: From Wasielewswi's _Sporozoenkunde_, after Pfeiffer. + +FIG. 1.--a, Transverse Section of Intestine of Mealworm, infected with +_Gregarina_ (_Clepsydrina_) _polymorpha_;[1] b, Part of a highly +magnified.] + +Apart from the continually increasing number of known species, matters +remained at about this stage for many years. It is, in fact, only since +the closing years of the 19th century that the complete life-history has +been fully worked out; this has now been done in many cases, thanks to +the researches of M. Siedlecki, L. Cuenot, L. Leger, O. Duboscq, A. +Laveran, M. Caullery, F. Mesnil and others, to whom also we owe most of +our knowledge regarding the relations of the parasites to the cells of +their host during their early development. + + + Occurrence; mode of infection. + +Gregarines are essentially parasites of Invertebrates; they are not +known to occur in any true Vertebrate although met with in Ascidians. By +far the greatest number of hosts is furnished by the Arthropods. Many +members of the various groups of worms (especially the Annelids) also +harbour the parasites, and certain very interesting forms are found in +Echinoderms; in the other classes, they either occur only sporadically +or else are absent. Infection is invariably of the accidental (casual) +type, by way of the alimentary canal, the spores being usually swallowed +by the host when feeding; a novel variation of this method has been +described by Woodcock (31) in the case of a Gregarine parasitic in +Cucumaria, where the spores are sucked up through the cloaca into the +respiratory trees, by the inhalant current. + +[Illustration: From Wasielewski, after Leger. + +FIG. 2.--Cysts of a Coelomic Gregarine, in the body-cavity of a larva of +_Tipula_.] + + + Habitat and effects on host. + +The favourite habitat is either the intestine (fig. 1) or its +diverticula (e.g. the Malpighian tubules), or the body-cavity. In the +latter case, after infection has occurred, the liberated germs at once +traverse the intestinal epithelium. They may come to rest in the +connective tissue of the sub-mucosa (remaining, however, +extracellular), grow considerably in that situation, and ultimately fall +into the body-cavity (e.g. _Diplocystis_); or they may pass straightway +into the body-cavity and there come into relation with some organ or +tissue (e.g. _Monocystis_) of the earthworm, which is for a time +intracellular in the spermatoblasts (fig. 4, c). In the case of +intestinal Gregarines, the behaviour of the young trophozoite with +respect to the epithelial cells of its host varies greatly. The parasite +may remain only attached to the host-cell, never becoming actually +intracellular (e.g. _Pterocephalus_); more usually it penetrates +partially into it, the extracellular portion of the Gregarine, however, +giving rise subsequently to most of the adult (e.g. _Gregarina_); or +lastly, in a few forms, the early development is entirely intracellular +(e.g. _Lankesteria_, _Stenophora_). + +[Illustration: From Lankester. + +FIG. 3.--_Porospora gigantea f_, (E. van Ben.), from the intestine of +the lobster. a, Nucleus.] + +[Illustration: From Lankester, after various authors. + +FIG. 4. + + a-c, Trophozoites of _Monocystis agilis_. + a and b, Young individuals showing changes of body-form. + c, Older individual, still enveloped in a coat of spermatozoa. + d, e, Trophozoites of _M. magna_ attached to seminal funnel of + _Lumbricus_. + Goblet-shaped epithelial cells, in which the extremity of the parasite + is inserted.] + +The effects on the host are confined to the parasitized cells. These +generally undergo at first marked hypertrophy and alteration in +character; this condition is succeeded by one of atrophy, when the +substance of the cell becomes in one way or another practically absorbed +by the growing parasite (cf. also COCCIDIA). Since, however, the +Gregarines never overrun their hosts in the way that many other Sporozoa +do (because of their lack, in general, of the power of endogenous +multiplication), the number of cells of any tissue attacked, even in the +case of a strong infection, is only a very small percentage of the +whole. In short the hosts do not, as a rule, suffer any appreciable +inconvenience from the presence of the parasites. + + + Morphology. + + The body of a Gregarine is always of a definite shape, usually oval + or elongated; in one or two instances (e.g. _Diplodina_) it is + spherical, and, on the other hand, in _Porospora_ (fig. 3) it is + greatly drawn out and vermiform. In many adult Gregarines, the body is + divided into two distinct but unequal regions or halves, the anterior + part being known as the _protomerite_, the hinder, generally the + larger, as the _deutomerite_. This feature is closely associated with + another important morphological character, one which is observable, + however, only during the earlier stages of growth and development, + namely, the presence of a definite organ, the _epimerite_, which + serves for the attachment of the parasite to the host-cell (fig. 6). + + [Illustration: After Siedlecki, from Lankester's _Treatise on + Zoology_. + + FIG. 5.--Part of a section through the apparatus of fixation of a + _Pterocephalus_, showing root-like processes extending from the + Gregarine between the epithelial cells. g, Head of Gregarine; r, + Root-like processes; ep, Epithelial cells.] + + In those Gregarines (most intestinal forms) which become attached to + an epithelial cell, the attachment occurs by means of a minute + projection or beak (rostrum) at the anterior end of the sporozoite, + which pushes its way into the cell, followed by the first part of the + growing germ. This portion of the body increases in size much quicker + at first than the rest (the extracellular part), more or less fills up + the host-cell, and forms the well-developed epimerite or secondary + attaching organella. The extracellular part of the Gregarine next + grows rapidly, and a transverse septum is formed at a short distance + away from (outside) the point where the body penetrates into the cell + (fig. 6); this marks off the large deutomerite posteriorly (distally). + Leger thinks that this partition most likely owes its origin to + trophic considerations, i.e. to the slightly different manner in which + the two halves of the young parasite (the proximal, largely + intracellular part, and the distal, extracellular one) may be supposed + to obtain their nutriment. In the case of the one half, the host-cell + supplies the nutriment, in that of the other, the intestinal liquid; + and the septum is, as it were, the expression of the conflicting limit + between these two methods. Nevertheless, the present writer does not + think that mechanical considerations should be altogether left out of + account. The septum may also be, to some extent, an adaption for + strengthening the body of the fixed parasite against lateral thrusts + or strains, due to the impact of foreign bodies (food, &c.) in the + intestine. + + [Illustration: From Wasielewski, after Leger. + + FIG. 6.--_Corycella armata_, Leger. a, Cephalont; b, Epimerite in + host-cell; c, Sporont.] + + At the point where the body becomes actually intracellular, it is + constricted, and this constriction marks off the epimerite + (internally) from the middle portion (between this point and the + septum), which is the protomerite. Further growth is restricted, + practically, to the extracellular regions, and the epimerite often + comes to appear ultimately as a small appendage at the anterior end of + the protomerite. A Gregarine at this stage is known as a cephalont. + Later on, the parasite breaks loose from the host-cell and becomes + free in the lumen, the separation taking place at the constriction + between the protomerite and the epimerite; the latter is left behind + in the remains of the host-cell, the former becomes the anterior part + of the free trophozoite. + + In other Gregarines, however, those, namely, which pass inwards, + ultimately becoming "coelomic," as well as those which become entirely + intracellular, no epimerite is ever developed, and, further, the body + remains single or unseptate. These forms, which include, for instance, + _Monocystis_ (fig. 4), _Lankesteria_, _Diplocystis_, are + distinguished, as _Acephalina_ or _Aseptata_ (_Haplocyta_, + _Monocystida_), according to which character is referred to, from the + others, termed _Cephalina_ or _Septata_ (_Polycystida_). + + The two sets of terms are not, however, completely identical or + interchangeable, for there are a few forms which possess an epimerite, + but which lack the division into protomerite and deutomerite, and are + hence known as _Pseudomonocystida_; this condition may be primitive + (_Doliocystis_) or (possibly) secondary, the partition having in + course of time disappeared. Again, _Stenophora_ is a septate form + which has become, secondarily, completely intracellular during the + young stages, and, doubtless correlated with this, shows no sign of an + epimerite. + + [Illustration: From Wasielewski, after Leger. + + FIG. 7.--Forms of Epimerites. + + 1, _Gregarina longa_. + 2, _Sycia inopinata_. + 3, _Pileocephalus heerii_. + 4, _Stylorhynchus longicollis_. + 5, _Beloides firmus_. + 6, _Cometoides crinitus_. + 7, _Geneiorhynchus monnieri_. + 8, _Echinomera hispida_. + 9, _Pterocephalus nobilis_.] + + With regard to the epimerites themselves, they are of all variety of + form and shape and need not be described in detail (fig. 7). In one or + two cases, however, another variety of attaching organella is met + with. Thus in _Pterocephalus_, only the rostrum of the sporozoite + penetrates into the host-cell, and no epimerite is formed. Instead, a + number of fine root-like processes are developed from near the + anterior end, which pass in between the host-cells (fig. 5) and thus + anchor the parasite firmly. Similarly, in the curious + _Schizogregarinae_, the anterior end of the (unseptate) body forms a + number of stiff, irregular processes, which perform the same function + (fig. 8). It is to be noted that these processes are non-motile, and + not in any way comparable to pseudopodia, to which they were formerly + likened. + + A very interesting and remarkable morphological peculiarity has been + recently described by Leger (18) in the case of a new Gregarine, + _Taeniocystis_. In this form the body is elongated and metamerically + segmented, recalling that of a segmented worm, the adult trophozoites + possessing numerous partitions or segments (each corresponding to the + septum between the proto- and deuto-merite in an ordinary Polycystid), + which divide up the cytoplasm into roughly equal compartments. Leger + thinks only the deutomerite becomes thus segmented, the protomerite + remaining small and undivided. The nucleus remains single, so that + there is no question as to the unicellular or individual nature of the + entire animal. + + [Illustration: After Leger and Hagenmuller, from Lankester's _Treatise + on Zoology_. + + FIG. 8.--Three Individuals (G) of _Ophryocystis schneideri_, attached + to wall of Malpighian tubule of _Blaps_ sp. p, Syncytial protoplasm of + the tubule; c, Cilia lining the lumen.] + + + Minute structure. + + The general cytoplasm usually consists of distinct ectoplasm and + endoplasm, and is limited by a membrane or cuticle (epicyte), secreted + by the former. The cuticle varies considerably in thickness, being + well developed in active, intestinal forms, but very thin and delicate + in non-motile coelomic forms (e.g. _Diplodina_). In the former case it + may show longitudinal striations. The cuticle also forms the hooks or + spines of many epimerites. The ectoplasm usually shows (fig. 9A) a + differentiation into two layers, an outer, firmer layer, clear and + hyaline, the sarcocyte, and an inner layer, the myocyte, which is + formed of a network of muscle-fibrillae (mainly longitudinal and + transverse, fig. 9B). The sarcocyte alone constitutes the septum, + traversing the endoplasm, in septate Gregarines. The myonemes are + undoubtedly the agents responsible for the active "gregarinoid" + movements (of flexion and contraction) to be observed in many forms. + The peculiar gliding movements were formerly thought to be produced by + the extrusion of a gelatinous thread posteriorly, but Crawley (8) has + recently ascribed them to a complicated succession of wave-like + contractions of the myocyte layer. This view is supported by the fact + that certain coelomic forms, like _Diplodina_ and others, which either + lack muscle-fibrils or else show no ectoplasmic differentiation at + all, are non-motile. The endoplasm, or nutritive plasm, consists of a + semi-fluid matrix in which are embedded vast numbers of grains and + spherules of various kinds and of all sizes, representing an + accumulation of food-material which is being stored up prior to + reproduction. The largest and most abundant grains are of a substance + termed para-glycogen, a carbohydrate; in addition, flattened + lenticular platelets, of an albuminoid character, and + highly-refringent granules often occur. + + [Illustration: After Schewiakoff, from Lankester's _Treatise on + Zoology_. + + FIG. 9A.--Longitudinal section of a Gregarine in the region of the + septum between protomerite and deutomerite. + + Pr, Protomerite. + De, Deutomerite. + s, Septum. + en, Endoplasm. + sc, Sarcocyte. + c, Cuticle. + m, f, Myocyte fibrils (cut across). + g, Gelatinous layer.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 9B.--_Gregarina munieri_, showing the network of + myocyte fibrillae.] + + The nucleus is always lodged in the endoplasm, and, in the septate + forms, in the deutomeritic half of the body. It is normally spherical + and always limited by a distinct nuclear membrane, which itself often + contains chromatin. The most characteristic feature of the nucleus is + the deeply-staining, more or less vacuolated spherical karyosome + (consisting of chromatin intimately bound up with a plastinoid basis) + which is invariably present. In one or two instances (e.g. + _Diplocystis schneideri_) the nucleus has more than one karyosome. All + the chromatin of the nucleus is not, however, confined to the + karyosome, some being in the form of grains in the nuclear sap; and in + some cases at any rate (e.g. _Diplodina, Lankesteria_) there is a + well-marked nuclear reticulum which is impregnated with granules and + dots of chromatin. + + [Illustration: From Wasielewski, after A. Schneider. + + FIG. 10.--Schizogony in _Ophryocystis francisci_. a, Rosette of small + individuals, produced from a schizont which has just divided; b, A + later stage, the daughter-individuals about to separate and assuming + the characters of the adult.] + + + Life-history. + + A sexual multiplication (schizogony) is only known certainly to occur + in a few cases, one being in a Monocystid form, a species of + _Gonospora_, which is for a long time intracellular (Caullery and + Mesnil [4]), the rest among the _Schizogregarinae_, so named for this + reason, in which schizogonous fission takes place regularly during the + free, trophic condition. Usually, the body divides up, by a process of + multiple fission (fig. 10), into a few (up to eight) + daughter-individuals; but in a new genus (_Eleutheroschizon_), Brasil + (3) finds that a great number of little merozoites are formed, and a + large amount of vacuolated cytoplasm is left over unused. + + In the vast majority of Gregarines, however, the life-cycle is limited + to gametogony and sporogony. A very general, if not indeed universal, + prelude to gametogony is the characteristic and important feature of + the order, known as association, the biological significance of which + has only lately been fully brought out (see H. M. Woodcock [31]). In + normal association, two individuals which are to be regarded as of + opposite sex, come into close contact with each other and remain thus + attached. The manner in which the parasites join varies in different + forms; the association may be end-to-end (terminal), either by like or + by unlike poles, or it may be side-to-side (lateral) (fig. 12). The + couple (syzygy) thus formed may proceed forthwith to encystment and + sporoblast-formation (_Lankesteria, Monocystis_), or may continue in + the trophic phase for some time longer (_Gregarina_). In one or two + instances (_Zygocystis_), association occurs as soon as the + trophozoites become adult. This leads on to the interesting + phenomenon of precocious association (neogamy), found in non-motile, + coelomic Gregarines (e.g. _Cystobia_, _Diplodina_ and _Diplocystis_), + in which the parasitism is most advanced. Woodcock (_loc. cit._) has + described and compared the different methods adopted to ensure a + permanent union, and the degree of neogamy attained, in these forms. + Here it must suffice to say that, in the extreme condition (seen, for + instance, in _Diplodina minchinii_) the union takes place very early + in the life-history, between individuals which are little more than + sporozoites, and is of a most intimate character, the actual cytoplasm + of the two associates joining. In such cases, there is absolutely + nothing to indicate the "double" nature of the growing trophozoite, + but the presence of the two nuclei which remain quite distinct. + + [Illustration: From Wasielewski, after Leger. + + FIG. 11.--_Eirmocystis spp._ a, b, Associations of two and three + Gregarines; c, Chain of five parasites; p, Primite; s, Satellites.] + + There can be little doubt that, in the great majority, if not in all + Gregarines, association is necessary for subsequent sporulation to + take place; i.e. that the cytotactic attraction imparts a + developmental stimulus to both partners, which is requisite for the + formation of primary sporoblasts (gametes). This association is + usually permanent; but in one or two cases (perhaps _Gonospora sp._) + temporary association may suffice. While association has fundamentally + a reproductive (sexual) significance, in some cases, this function may + be delayed or, as it were, temporarily suspended, the cytotactic + attraction serving meanwhile a subsidiary purpose in trophic life. + Thus, probably, are to be explained the curious multiple associations + and long chains of Gregarines (fig. 11) sometimes met with (e.g. + _Eirmocystis_, _Clepsydrina_). + + Encystment is nearly always double, i.e. of an associated couple. + Solitary encystment has been described, but whether successful + independent sporulation results, is uncertain; if it does, the + encystment in such cases is, in all probability, only after prior + (temporary) association. In the case of free parasites, a + well-developed cyst is secreted by the syzygy, which rotates and + gradually becomes spherical. A thick, at first gelatinous, outer + cyst-membrane (_ectocyst_) is laid down, and then a thin, but firm + internal one (endocyst). The cyst once formed, further development is + quite independent of the host, and, in fact, often proceeds outside + it. In certain coelomic Gregarines, on the other hand, which remain in + very close relation with the host's tissues, little or nothing of an + encystment-process on the part of the parasites is recognizable, the + cyst-wall being formed by an enclosing layer of the host + (_Diplodina_). + + [Illustration: From Wasielewski, after Leger. + + FIG. 12.--Associations of _Gonospora sparsa_.] + + The nuclear changes and multiplication which precede + sporoblast-formation vary greatly in different Gregarines and can only + be outlined here. In the formation of both sets of sexual elements + (gametes) there is always a comprehensive nuclear purification or + maturation. This elimination of a part of the nuclear material (to be + distinguished as trophic or somatic, from the functional or germinal + portion, which forms the sexual nuclei) may occur at widely-different + periods. In some cases (_Lankesteria_, _Monocystis_), a large part of + the original (sporont-) nucleus of each associate is at once got rid + of, and the resulting (segmentation-) nucleus, which is + highly-specialized, represents the sexual part. In other cases, again, + the entire sporont-nucleus proceeds to division, and the distinction + between somatic and germinal portions does not become manifest until + after nuclear multiplication has continued for some little time, when + certain of the daughter-nuclei become altered in character, and + ultimately degenerate, the remainder giving rise to the + sporoblast-nuclei (_Diplodina_, _Stylorhynchus_). Even after the + actual sporoblasts (sex-cells) themselves are constituted, their + nuclei may yet undergo a final maturation (e.g. _Clepsydrina ovata_); + and in _Monocystis_, indeed, Brasil (2) finds that what is apparently + a similar process is delayed until after conjugation and formation of + the zygote (definitive sporoblast). + + Nuclear multiplication is usually indirect, the mitosis being, as a + rule, more elaborate in the earlier than in the later divisions. The + attraction-spheres are generally large and conspicuous, sometimes + consisting of a well-developed centrosphere, with or without + centrosomic granules, at other times of very large centrosomes with a + few astral rays. In those cases where the karyosome is retained, and + the sporont-nucleus divides up as a whole, however, the earliest + nuclear divisions are direct; the daughter-nuclei being formed either + by a process of simple constriction (e.g. _Diplodina_), or by a kind + of multiple fission or fragmentation (_Gregarina_ and _Selenidium + spp._). Nevertheless, the later divisions, at any rate in _Diplodina_, + are indirect. + + By the time nuclear multiplication is well advanced or completed, the + bodies of the two parent-Gregarines (associates) have usually become + very irregular in shape, and produced into numerous lobes and + processes. While in some forms (e.g. _Monocystis_, _Urospora_, + _Stylorhynchus_) the two individuals remain fairly separate and + independent of each other, in others (_Lankesteria_) they become + intertwined and interlocked, often to a remarkable extent + (_Diplodina_). The sexual nuclei next pass to the surface of the + processes and segments, where they take up a position of uniform + distribution. Around each, a small area of cytoplasm becomes + segregated, the whole often projecting as a little bud or hillock from + the general surface. These uninuclear protuberances are at length cut + off as the sporoblasts or gametes. Frequently a large amount of the + general protoplasm of each parent-individual is left over unused, + constituting two cystal residua, which may subsequently fuse; in + _Diplodina_, however, practically the whole cytoplasm is used up in + the formation of the gametes. + + [Illustration: After Leger, from Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_. + + FIG. 13.--Development of the Gametes and Conjugation in _Stylorhynchus + longicollis_. + + a, Undifferentiated gamete, attached to body of parent-individual. + b-d, Stages in development of motile male gamete. + e, Mature female gamete. + f, g, Stages in conjugation and nuclear union of the two elements. + h, Zygote (copula). + i, Spore, still with single nucleus and undivided sporoplasm.] + + The sporoblasts themselves show all gradations from a condition of + marked differentiation into male and female (anisogamy), to one of + complete equality (isogamy). Anisogamy is most highly developed in + _Pterocephalus_. Here, the male elements (microgametes) are minute, + elongated and spindle-like in shape, with a minute rostrum anteriorly + and a long flagellum posteriorly, and very active; the female elements + (megagametes) are much larger, oblong to ovoid, and quite passive. In + _Stylorhynchus_ the difference between the conjugating gametes is not + quite so pronounced (fig. 13), the male elements being of about the + same bulk as the females, but pyriform instead of round, and + possessing a distinct flagellum; a most interesting point about this + parasite is that certain highly motile and spermatozoon-like male + gametes are formed (fig. 13), which are, however, quite sterile and + have acquired a subsidiary function. In other cases, again, the two + kinds of element exhibit either very slight differences (_Monocystis_) + or none (_Urospora_, _Gonospora_), in size and appearance, the chief + distinction being in the nuclei, those of the male elements being + smaller and chromatically denser than those of the females. + + Lastly, in _Lankesteria_, _Gregarina_, _Clepsydrina_, _Diplocystis_ + and _Diplodina_ complete isogamy is found, there being no apparent + difference whatever between the conjugating elements. Nevertheless, + these forms are also to be regarded as instances of binary sexuality + and not merely of exogamy; for it is practically certain that this + condition of isogamy is derived from one of typical anisogamy, through + a stage such as is seen in _Gonospora_, &c. And, similarly, just as in + all instances where the formation of differentiated gametes has been + observed, the origin of the two conjugates is from different + associates (parent-sporonts), and all the elements arising from the + same parent are of the same sex, so it is doubtless the case here. + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Cyst of _Monocystis agilis_, the common + Gregarine of the Earthworm, showing ripe spores and absence of any + residual protoplasm in the cyst. (From Lankester.)] + + The actual union is brought about or facilitated by the well-known + phenomenon termed the _danse des sporoblastes_, which is due to + various causes. In the case of highly-differentiated gametes + (_Pterocephalus_), the actively motile microgametes rush about here + and there, and seek out the female elements. In _Stylorhynchus_, Leger + has shown that the function of the sterile male gametes is to bring + about, by their vigorous movements, the _melee sexuelle_. In the forms + where the gametes are isogamous or only slightly differentiated and + (probably) not of themselves motile, other factors aid in producing + the necessary commingling. Thus in _Gregarina sp._ from the mealworm, + the unused somata or cystal residua become amoeboid and send out + processes which drive the peripherally-situated gametes round in the + cyst; in some cases where the residual soma becomes liquefied + (_Urospora_) the movements of the host are considered to be + sufficient; and lastly, in _Diplodina_, owing to the extent to which + the intertwining process is carried, if each gamete is not actually + contiguous to a suitable fellow-conjugant, a very slight movement or + mutual attraction will bring two such, when liberated, into contact. + + An unusual modification of the process of sporoblast-formation and + conjugation, which occurs in _Ophryocystis_, must be mentioned. Here + encystment of two associates takes place as usual; the sporont-nucleus + of each, however, only divides twice, and one of the daughter-nuclei + resulting from each division degenerates. Hence only one + sporoblast-nucleus, representing a quarter of the original + nuclear-material, persists in each half. Around this some of the + cytoplasm condenses, the rest forming a residuum. The sporoblast or + gamete thus formed is completely isogamous and normally conjugates + with the like one from the other associate, when a single zygote + results which becomes a spore containing eight sporozoites, in the + ordinary manner. Sometimes, however, the septum between the two halves + of the cyst does not break down, in which case parthenogenesis occurs, + each sporoblast developing by itself into a small spore. + + The two conjugating elements unite completely, cytoplasm with + cytoplasm and nucleus with nucleus, to form the definitive sporoblast + or zygote. The protoplasm assumes a definite outline, generally that + of an ovoid or barrel, and secretes a delicate membrane, the + ectospore. This subsequently becomes thickened, and often produced + into rims, spines or processes, giving rise to the characteristic + appearance of the Gregarine spore. Internal to the ectocyst, another, + thinner membrane, the endocyst, is also laid down. These two membranes + form the spore-wall (sporocyst). Meanwhile the contents of the spore + have been undergoing division. By successive divisions, usually + mitotic, the zygote-nucleus gives rise to eight daughter-nuclei, each + of which becomes the nucleus of a sporozoite. Next, the sporoplasm + becomes split longitudinally, around each nucleus, and thus eight + sickle-shaped (falciform) sporozoites are formed. There is usually a + certain amount of unused sporoplasm left over in the centre of the + spore, constituting the sporal residuum. It is important to note that + in all known Gregarines, with one exception, the number of sporozoites + in the spore is eight; the exception is _Selenidium_, in many ways far + from typical, where the number is half, viz. four. + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Ripe Cyst of _Gregarina blattarum_, partially + emptied. (From Lankester.) a, Channels leading to the sporoducts; b, + Mass of spores still left in the cyst; c, Endocyst; d, The everted + sporoducts; e, Gelatinous ectocyst.] + + Hitherto a variation from the general mode of spore-formation has been + considered to occur in certain Crustacean Gregarines, the + _Aggregatidae_ and the _Porosporidae_. The spores of these forms have + been regarded as gymnospores (naked), lacking the enveloping membranes + (sporocyst) of the ordinary spores, and the sporozoites, consequently, + as developed freely in the cyst. In the case of the first-named + parasites, however, what was taken for sporogony has been proved to be + really schizogony, and on other grounds these forms are, in the + present writer's opinion, preferably associated with the Coccidia + (q.v.). With regard to the _Porosporidae_, also, it is quite likely + that the gymnosporous cysts considered to belong to the Gregarine + _Porospora_ (as known in the trophic condition) have really no + connexion with it, but represent the schizogonous generation of some + other form, similar to _Aggregata_; in which case the true spores of + _Porospora_ have yet to be identified. + + In the intestine of a fresh host the cysts rupture and the spores are + liberated. This is usually largely brought about by the swelling of + the residual protoplasm. Sometimes (e.g. _Gregarina_) long tubular + outgrowths, known as sporoducts (fig. 15), are developed from the + residual protoplasm, for the passage of the spores to the exterior. + + + Classification. + + The Gregarines are extremely numerous, and include several families, + characterized, for the most part, by the form of the spores (fig. 16). + The specialized _Schizogregarinae_ are usually separated off from the + rest as a distinct sub-order. + + SUB-ORDER I.--_Schizogregarinae._ + + Forms in which schizogonic reproduction is of general occurrence + during the extra-cellular, trophic phase. Three genera, + _Ophryocystis_, _Schizocystis_ and _Eleutheroschizon_, different + peculiarities of which have been referred to above. Mostly parasitic + in the intestine or Malpighian tubules of insects. (In this type of + parasite, as exemplified by _Ophryocystis_, the body was formerly + wrongly considered as amoeboid, and hence this genus was placed in a + special order, the _Amoebosporidia_.) + + [Illustration: From Wasielewski, after Leger. + + FIG. 16.--Spores of various Gregarines. + + a, _Eirmocystis, Sphaerocystis_, &c. + b, _Echinomera, Pterocephalus_, &c. + c, _Gregarina_, &c. + d, _Beloides_. + e, _Ancyrophora_. + f, _Stylorhynchidae_ (type of). + g, _Menosporidae_. + h, _Gonospora terebellae_. + i, _Ceratospora_. + k, _Urospora synaptae_.] + + SUB-ORDER II.--_Eugregarinae._ + + Schizogony very exceptional, only occurring during the intracellular + phase, if at all. Gregarines fall naturally into two tribes, described + as cephalont and septate, or as acephalont and aseptate (haplocytic), + respectively. In strictness, however, as already mentioned, these two + sets of terms do not agree absolutely, and whichever set is adopted, + the other must be taken into account in estimating the proper position + of certain parasites. Here the cephalont or acephalont condition is + regarded as the more primary and fundamental. + + Tribe A.--_Cephalina_ (practically equivalent to _Septata_). + + Save exceptionally, the body possesses an epimerite, at any rate + during the early stages of growth, and is typically septate. Mostly + intestinal parasites of Arthropods. + + The chief families, with representative genera, are as follows: + _Porosporidae_, with _Porospora gigantea_, at present thought to be + gymnosporous; _Gregarinidae_ (_Clepsydrinidae_), with _Gregarina_, + _Clepsydrina_, _Eirmocystis_, _Hyalospora_, _Cmenidospora_, + _Stenophora_; _Didymophyidae_, with _Didymophyes_; _Dactylophoridae_, + with _Dactylophorus_, _Pterocephalus_, _Echinomera_, _Rhopalonia_; + _Actinocephalidae_ with _Actinocephalus_, _Pyxinia_, _Coleorhynchus_, + _Stephanophora_, _Legeria_, _Stictospora_, _Pileocephalus_, + _Sciadophora_; _Acanthosporidae_ with _Acanthospora_, _Corycella_, + _Cometoides_; _Menosporidae_ with _Menospora_, _Hoplorhynchus_; + _Stylorhynchidae_, with _Stylorhynchus_, _Lophocephalus_; + _Doliocystidae_ with _Doliocystis_; and _Taeniocystidae_, with + _Taeniocystis_. The curious genus _Selenidium_ is somewhat apart. + + Tribe B.--_Acephalina_ (practically equivalent to _Aseptata_, + _Haplocyta_). + + The body never possesses an epimerite and is non-septate. Chiefly + coelomic parasites of "worms," Holothurians and insects. + + The _Aseptata_ have not been so completely arranged in families as the + _Septata_. Leger has distinguished two well-marked ones, but the + remaining genera still want classifying more in detail. Fam. + _Gonosporidae_, with _Gonospora_, _Diplodina_; and _Urosporidae_, with + _Urosopora_, _Cystobia_, _Lithocystis_, _Ceratospora_; the genera + _Monocystis_, _Diplocystis Lankesteria_ and _Zygocystis_ probably + constitute another; _Pterospora_ and, again, _Syncystis_ are distinct; + lastly, certain forms, e.g. _Zygosoma_, _Anchora_ (_Anchorina_), are + incompletely known. + + There remains for mention the remarkable parasite, recently described + by J. Nusbaum (24) under the appropriate name of _Schaudinnella + henleae_, which inhabits the intestine of _Henlea leptodera_. Briefly + enumerated, the principal features in the life-cycle are as follows. + The young trophozoites (aseptate) are attached to the intestinal + cells, but practically entirely extracellular. Association is very + primitive in character and indiscriminate; it takes place + indifferently between individuals which will give rise to gametes of + the same or opposite sex. Often it is only temporary; at other times + it is multiple, several adults becoming more or less enclosed in a + gelatinous investment. Nevertheless, in no case does true encystment + occur, the sex-cells being developed practically free. The female + gametes are large and egg-like; the males, minute and sickle-like, but + with no flagellum and apparently non-motile. While many of the zygotes + ("amphionts") resulting from copulation pass out to the exterior, to + infect a new host, others, possessing a more delicate + investing-membrane, penetrate in between the intestinal cells, + producing a further infection (auto-infection). Numerous sporozoites + are formed in each zygote. It will be seen that _Schaudinnella_ is a + practically unique form. While, on the one hand, it recalls the + Gregarines in many ways, on the other hand it differs widely from them + in several characteristic features, being primitive in some respects, + but highly specialized in others, so that it cannot be properly + included in the order. _Schaudinnella_ rather represents a primitive + Ectosporan parasite, which has proceeded upon a line of its own, + intermediate between the Gregarines and Coccidia. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Among the important papers relating to Gregarines are + the following: 1. A. Berndt, "Beitrag zur Kenntnis der ... + Gregarinen," _Arch. Protistenk._ I, p. 375, 3 pls. (1902); 2. L. + Brasil, "Recherches sur la reproduction des Gregarines monocystidees," + _Arch. zool. exp._ (4) 3, p. 17, pl. 2 (1905), and _op. cit._ 4, p. + 69, 2 pls. (1905); 3. L. Brazil, "_Eleutheroschizon duboscqi_, + parasite nouveau, &c.," _op. cit._ (N. et R.) (4), p. xvii., 5 figs. + (1906); 4. M. Caullery and F. Mesnil, "Sur une Gregarine ... + presentant ... une phase de multiplication asporulee," _C.R. Ac. Sci._ + 126, p. 262 (1898); 5. M. Caullery and F. Mesnil, "Le Parasitisme + intracellulaire des Gregarines," _op. cit._ 132, p. 220 (1901); 6. M. + Caullery and F. Mesnil, "Sur une mode particuliere de division + nucleaire chez les Gregarines," _Arch. anat. microsc._ 3, p. 146, 1 + pl. (1900); 7. M. Caullery and F. Mesnil, "Sur quelques parasites + internes des Annelides," _Misc. biol._ (_Trav. Stat. Wimereux_), 9, p. + 80, 1 pl. (1899); 7a. J. Cecconi, "Sur l'_Anchorina sagittata_, &c.," + _Arch. Protistenk._ 6, p. 230, 2 pls. (1905); 8. H. Crawley, + "Progressive Movement of Gregarines," _P. Ac. Philad._ 54, p. 4, 2 + pls. (1902), also _op. cit._ 57, p. 89 (1905); 9. H. Crawley, "List of + the Polycystid Gregarines of the U.S.," _op. cit._ 55, pp. 41, 632, 4 + pls. (1903); 10. L. Cuenot, "Recherches sur l'evolution et la + conjugaison des Gregarines," _Arch. biol._ 17, p. 581, 4 pls. (1901); + 11. A. Laveran and F. Mesnil, "Sur quelques particularites de + l'evolution d'une Gregarine et la reaction de la cellule-hote," _C.R. + Soc. Biol._ 52, p. 554, 9 figs. (1900); 12. L. Leger, "Recherches sur + les Gregarines," _Tabl. zool._ 3, p. i., 22 pls. (1892); 13. L. Leger, + "Contribution a la connaissance des Sporozoaires, &c.," _Bull. Sci. + France_, 30, p. 240, 3 pls. (1897); 14. L. Leger, "Sur un nouveau + Sporozoaire (_Schizocystis_), &c.," _C.R. Ac. Sci._ 131, p. 722 + (1900); 15. L. Leger, "La Reproduction sexuee chez les Ophryocystis," + _t. c._ p. 761 (1900); 16. L. Leger, "Sur une nouvelle Gregarine + (_Aggregata coelomica_,), &c." _op. cit._ 132, p. 1343 (1901); 17. L. + Leger, "La Reproduction sexuee chez les Stylorhynchus," _Arch. + Protistenk._ 3, p. 304, 2 pls. (1904); 18. L. Leger, "Etude sur + _Taeniocystis mira_ (Leger), &c.," _op. cit._ 7, p. 307, 2 pls. + (1906); 19. L. Leger and O. Duboscq, "La Reproduction sexuee chez + _Pterocephalus_," _Arch. zool. exp._ (N. et R.) (4) 1, p. 141, 11 + figs. (1903); 20. L. Leger and O. Duboscq, "_Aggregata vagans_, n. + sp., &c." _t. c._ p. 147, 6 figs. (1903); 21. L. Leger and O. Duboscq, + "Les Gregarines et l'epithelium intestinal, &c.," _Arch. parasitol._ + 6, p. 377, 4 pls. (1902); 22. L. Leger and O. Duboscq, "Nouvelles + Recherches sur les Gregarines, &c.," _Arch. Protistenk._ 4, p. 335, 2 + pls. (1904); 23. M. Luhe, "Bau und Entwickelung der Gregarinen," _t. + c._ p. 88, several figs. (1904); 24. J. Nusbaum, "Uber die ... + Fortpflanzung einer ... Gregarine, _Schaudinnella henleae_," _Zeit. + wiss. Zool._ 75, p. 281, pl. 22 (1903); 25. F. Paehler, "Uber die + Morphologie, Fortpflanzung ... von _Gregarina ovata_," _Arch. + Protistenk._ 4, p. 64, 2 pls. (1904); 26. S. Prowazek, "Zur + Entwickelung der Gregarinen," _op. cit._, 1, p. 297, pl. 9 (1902); 27. + A. Schneider (Various memoirs on Gregarines), _Tabl. zool._ 1 and 2 + (1886-1892); 28. H. Schnitzler, "Uber die Fortpflanzung von + _Clepsydrina ovata_," _Arch. Protistenk._ 6, p. 309, 2 pls. (1905); + 29. M. Siedlecki, "Uber die geschlechtliche Vermehrung der _Monocystis + ascidiae_," _Bull. Ac. Cracovie_, p. 515, 2 pls. (1900); 30. M. + Siedlecki, "Contribution a l'etude des changements cellulaires + provoquees par les Gregarines," _Arch. anat. microsc._ 4, p. 87, 9 + figs. (1901); 31. H. M. Woodcock, "The Life-Cycle of _Cystobia + irregularis_, &c.," _Q.J.M. Sci._ 50, p. 1. 6 pls. (1906). + (H. M. Wo.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Figures 1, 2, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12 and 16 are redrawn from + Wasielewski's _Sporozoenkunde_, by permission of the author and of + the publisher, Gustav Fischer, Jena. + + + + +GREGOIRE, HENRI (1750-1831), French revolutionist and constitutional +bishop of Blois, was born at Veho near Luneville, on the 4th of December +1750, the son of a peasant. Educated at the Jesuit college at Nancy, he +became cure of Embermenil and a teacher at the Jesuit school at +Pont-a-Mousson. In 1783 he was crowned by the academy of Nancy for his +_Eloge de la poesie_, and in 1788 by that of Metz for an _Essai sur la +regeneration physique et morale des Juifs_. He was elected in 1789 by +the clergy of the _bailliage_ of Nancy to the states-general, where he +soon became conspicuous in the group of clerical and lay deputies of +Jansenist or Gallican sympathies who supported the Revolution. He was +among the first of the clergy to join the third estate, and contributed +largely to the union of the three orders; he presided at the permanent +sitting of sixty-two hours while the Bastille was being attacked by the +people, and made a vehement speech against the enemies of the nation. He +subsequently took a leading share in the abolition of the privileges of +the nobles and the Church. Under the new civil constitution of the +clergy, to which he was the first priest to take the oath (December 27, +1790), he was elected bishop by two departments. He selected that of +Loire-et-Cher, taking the old title of bishop of Blois, and for ten +years (1791-1801) ruled his diocese with exemplary zeal. An ardent +republican, it was he who in the first session of the National +Convention (September 21, 1792) proposed the motion for the abolition of +the kingship, in a speech in which occurred the memorable phrase that +"kings are in the moral order what monsters are in the natural." On the +15th of November he delivered a speech in which he demanded that the +king should be brought to trial, and immediately afterwards was elected +president of the Convention, over which he presided in his episcopal +dress. During the trial of Louis XVI., being absent with other three +colleagues on a mission for the union of Savoy to France, he along with +them wrote a letter urging the condemnation of the king, but omitting +the words _a mort_; and he endeavoured to save the life of the king by +proposing in the Convention that the penalty of death should be +suspended. + +When on the 7th of November 1793 Gobel, bishop of Paris, was intimidated +into resigning his episcopal office at the bar of the Convention, +Gregoire, who was temporarily absent from the sitting, hearing what had +happened, hurried to the hall, and in the face of a howling mob of +deputies refused to abjure either his religion or his office. He was +prepared to face the death which he expected; but his courage, a rare +quality at that time, won the day, and the hubbub subsided in cries of +"Let Gregoire have his way!" Throughout the Terror, in spite of attacks +in the Convention, in the press, and on placards posted at the street +corners, he appeared in the streets in his episcopal dress and daily +read mass in his house. After Robespierre's fall he was the first to +advocate the reopening of the churches (speech of December 21, 1794). He +also exerted himself to get measures put in execution for restraining +the vandalistic fury against the monuments of art, extended his +protection to artists and men of letters, and devoted much of his +attention to the reorganization of the public libraries, the +establishment of botanic gardens, and the improvement of technical +education. He had taken during the Constituent Assembly a great interest +in Negro emancipation, and it was on his motion that men of colour in +the French colonies were admitted to the same rights as whites. On the +establishment of the new constitution, Gregoire was elected to the +Council of 500, and after the 18th Brumaire he became a member of the +Corps Legislatif, then of the Senate (1801). He took the lead in the +national church councils of 1797 and 1801; but he was strenuously +opposed to Napoleon's policy of reconciliation with the Holy See, and +after the signature of the concordat he resigned his bishopric (October +8, 1801). He was one of the minority of five in the Senate who voted +against the proclamation of the empire, and he opposed the creation of +the new nobility and the divorce of Napoleon from Josephine; but +notwithstanding this he was subsequently created a count of the empire +and officer of the Legion of Honour. During the later years of +Napoleon's reign he travelled in England and Germany, but in 1814 he had +returned to France and was one of the chief instigators of the action +that was taken against the empire. + +To the clerical and ultra-royalist faction which was supreme in the +Lower Chamber and in the circles of the court after the second +Restoration, Gregoire, as a revolutionist and a schismatic bishop, was +an object of double loathing. He was expelled from the Institute and +forced into retirement. But even in this period of headlong reaction his +influence was felt and feared. In 1814 he had published a work, _De la +constitution francaise de l'an 1814_, in which he commented on the +Charter from a Liberal point of view, and this reached its fourth +edition in 1819. In this latter year he was elected to the Lower Chamber +by the department of Isere. By the powers of the Quadruple Alliance this +event was regarded as of the most sinister omen, and the question was +even raised of a fresh armed intervention in France under the terms of +the secret treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. To prevent such a catastrophe +Louis XVIII. decided on a modification of the franchise; the Dessolle +ministry resigned; and the first act of Decazes, the new premier, was to +carry a vote in the chamber annulling the election of Gregoire. From +this time onward the ex-bishop lived in retirement, occupying himself in +literary pursuits and in correspondence with most of the eminent savants +of Europe; but as he had been deprived of his pension as a senator he +was compelled to sell his library to obtain means of support. He died on +the 20th of May 1831. + +To the last Gregoire remained a devout Catholic, exactly fulfilling all +his obligations as a Christian and a priest; but he refused to budge an +inch from his revolutionary principles. During his last illness he +confessed to his parish _cure_, a priest of Jansenist sympathies, and +expressed his desire for the last sacraments of the Church. These the +archbishop of Paris would only concede on condition that he would +retract his oath to the civil constitution of the clergy, which he +peremptorily refused to do. Thereupon, in defiance of the archbishop, +the abbe Baradere gave him the _viaticum_, while the rite of extreme +unction was administered by the abbe Guillon, an opponent of the civil +constitution, without consulting the archbishop or the parish cure. The +attitude of the archbishop roused great excitement in Paris, and the +government had to take precautions to avoid a repetition of the riots +which in the preceding February had led to the sacking of the church of +St Germain l'Auxerrois and the archiepiscopal palace. On the day after +his death Gregoire's funeral was celebrated at the church of the +Abbaye-aux-Bois; the clergy of the church had absented themselves in +obedience to the archbishop's orders, but mass was sung by the abbe +Grieu assisted by two clergy, the catafalque being decorated with the +episcopal insignia. After the hearse set out from the church the horses +were unyoked, and it was dragged by students to the cemetery of +Montparnasse, the cortege being followed by a sympathetic crowd of some +20,000 people. + +Whatever his merits as a writer or as a philanthropist, Gregoire's name +lives in history mainly by reason of his wholehearted effort to prove +that Catholic Christianity is not irreconcilable with modern conceptions +of political liberty. In this effort he was defeated, mainly because the +Revolution, for lack of experience in the right use of liberty, changed +into a military despotism which allied itself with the spiritual +despotism of Rome; partly because, when the Revolution was overthrown, +the parties of reaction sought salvation in the "union of altar and +throne." Possibly Gregoire's Gallicanism was fundamentally +irreconcilable with the Catholic idea of authority. At least it made +their traditional religion possible for those many French Catholics who +clung passionately to the benefits the Revolution had brought them; and +had it prevailed, it might have spared France and the world that fatal +gulf between Liberalism and Catholicism which Pius IX.'s Syllabus of +1864 sought to make impassable. + + Besides several political pamphlets, Gregoire was the author of + _Histoire des sectes religieuses, depuis le commencement du siecle + dernier jusqu'a l'epoque actuelle_ (2 vols., 1810); _Essai historique + sur les libertes de l'eglise gallicane_ (1818); _De l'influence du + Christianisme sur la condition des femmes_ (1821); _Histoire des + confesseurs des empereurs, des rois, et d'autres princes_ (1824); + _Histoire du mariage des pretres en France_ (1826). _Gregoireana, ou + resume general de la conduite, des actions, et des ecrits de M. le + comte Henri Gregoire_, preceded by a biographical notice by Cousin + d'Avalon, was published in 1821; and the _Memoires ... de Gregoire_, + with a biographical notice by H. Carnot, appeared in 1837 (2 vols.). + See also A. Debidour, _L'Abbe Gregoire_ (1881); A. Gazier, Etudes sur + l'histoire religieuse de la Revolution Francaise (1883); L. Maggiolo, + La Vie et les oeuvres de l'abbe Gregoire (Nancy, 1884), and numerous + articles in _La Revolution Francaise_; E. Meaume, _Etude hist. et + biog. sur les Lorrains revolutionnaires_ (Nancy, 1882); and A. Gazier, + _Etudes sur l'histoire religieuse de la Revolution Francaise_ (1887). + + + + +GREGORAS, NICEPHORUS (c. 1295-1360), Byzantine historian, man of +learning and religious controversialist, was born at Heraclea in Pontus. +At an early age he settled at Constantinople, where his reputation for +learning brought him under the notice of Andronicus II., by whom he was +appointed Chartophylax (keeper of the archives). In 1326 Gregoras +proposed (in a still extant treatise) certain reforms in the calendar, +which the emperor refused to carry out for fear of disturbances; nearly +two hundred years later they were introduced by Gregory XIII. on almost +the same lines. When Andronicus was dethroned (1328) by his grandson +Andronicus III., Gregoras shared his downfall and retired into private +life. Attacked by Barlaam, the famous monk of Calabria, he was with +difficulty persuaded to come forward and meet him in a war of words, in +which Barlaam was worsted. This greatly enhanced his reputation and +brought him a large number of pupils. Gregoras remained loyal to the +elder Andronicus to the last, but after his death he succeeded in +gaining the favour of his grandson, by whom he was appointed to conduct +the unsuccessful negotiations (for a union of the Greek and Latin +churches) with the ambassadors of Pope John XXII. (1333). Gregoras +subsequently took an important part in the Hesychast controversy, in +which he violently opposed Gregorius Palamas, the chief supporter of the +sect. After the doctrines of Palamas had been recognized at the synod of +1351, Gregoras, who refused to acquiesce, was practically imprisoned in +a monastery for two years. Nothing is known of the end of his life. His +chief work is his _Roman History_, in 37 books, of the years 1204 to +1359. It thus partly supplements and partly continues the work of George +Pachymeres. Gregoras shows considerable industry, but his style is +pompous and affected. Far too much space is devoted to religious matters +and dogmatic quarrels. This work and that of John Cantacuzene supplement +and correct each other, and should be read together. The other writings +of Gregoras, which (with a few exceptions) still remain unpublished, +attest his great versatility. Amongst them may be mentioned a history of +the dispute with Palamas; biographies of his uncle and early instructor +John, metropolitan of Heraclea, and of the martyr Codratus of Antioch; +funeral orations for Theodore Metochita, and the two emperors +Andronicus; commentaries on the wanderings of Odysseus and on Synesius's +treatise on dreams; tracts on orthography and on words of doubtful +meaning; a philosophical dialogue called _Florentius or Concerning +Wisdom_; astronomical treatises on the date of Easter and the +preparation of the astrolabe; and an extensive correspondence. + + _Editions_: in Bonn _Corpus scriptorum hist. Byz._, by L. Schopen and + I. Bekker, with life and list of works by J. Boivin (1829-1855); J. P. + Migne, _Patrologia graeca_, cxlviii., cxlix.; see also C. Krumbacher, + _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897). + + + + + +GREGOROVIUS, FERDINAND (1821-1891), German historian, was born at +Neidenburg on the 19th of January 1821, and studied at the university of +Konigsberg. After spending some years in teaching he took up his +residence in Italy in 1852, remaining in that country for over twenty +years. He was made a citizen of Rome, and he died at Munich on the 1st +of May 1891. Gregorovius's interest in and acquaintance with Italy and +Italian history is mainly responsible for his great book, _Geschichte +der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter_ (Stuttgart, 1859-1872, and other +editions), a work of much erudition and interest, which has been +translated into English by A. Hamilton (13 vols., 1894-1900), and also +into Italian at the expense of the Romans (Venice, 1874-1876). It deals +with the history of Rome from about A.D. 400 to the death of Pope +Clement VII. in 1534, and in the words of its author it describes "how, +from the time of Charles the Great to that of Charles V., the historic +system of the papacy remained inseparable from that of the Empire." The +other works of Gregorovius include: _Geschichte des Kaisers Hadrian und +seiner Zeit_ (Konigsberg, 1851), English translation by M. E. Robinson +(1898); _Corsica_ (Stuttgart, 1854), English translation by R. Martineau +(1855); _Lucrezia Borgia_ (Stuttgart, 1874), English translation by J. +L. Garner (1904); _Die Grabdenkmaler der Papste_ (Leipzig, 1881), +English translation by R. W. Seton-Watson (1903); _Wanderjahre in +Italien_ (5 vols., Leipzig, 1888-1892); _Geschichte der Stadt Athen im +Mittelalter_ (1889); _Kleine Schriften zur Geschichte der Kultur_ +(Leipzig, 1887-1892); and _Urban VIII. im Widerspruch zu Spanien und dem +Kaiser_ (Stuttgart, 1879). This last work was translated into Italian by +the author himself (Rome, 1879). Gregorovius was also something of a +poet; he wrote a drama, _Der Tod des Tiberius_ (1851), and some +_Gedichte_ (Leipzig, 1891). + + His _Romische Tagebucher_ were edited by F. Althaus (Stuttgart, 1892), + and were translated into English as the _Roman Journals of F. + Gregorovius_, by A. Hamilton (1907). + + + + +GREGORY, ST (c. 213-c. 270), surnamed in later ecclesiastical tradition +Thaumaturgus (the miracle-worker), was born of noble and wealthy pagan +parents at Neocaesarea in Pontus, about A.D. 213. His original name was +Theodorus. He took up the study of civil law, and, with his brother +Athenodorus, was on his way to Berytus to complete his training when at +Caesarea he met Origen, and became his pupil and then his convert (A.D. +233). In returning to Cappadocia some five years after his conversion, +it had been his original intention to live a retired ascetic life (Eus. +_H.E._ vi. 30), but, urged by Origen, and at last almost compelled by +Phaedimus of Amasia, his metropolitan, neither of whom was willing to +see so much learning, piety and masculine energy practically lost to the +church, he, after many attempts to evade the dignity, was consecrated +bishop of his native town (about 240). His episcopate, which lasted some +thirty years, was characterized by great missionary zeal, and by so much +success that, according to the (doubtless somewhat rhetorical) statement +of Gregory of Nyssa, whereas at the outset of his labours there were +only seventeen Christians in the city, there were at his death only +seventeen persons in all who had not embraced Christianity. This result +he achieved in spite of the Decian persecution (250-251), during which +he had felt it to be his duty to absent himself from his diocese, and +notwithstanding the demoralizing effects of an irruption of barbarians +(Goths and Boranians) who laid waste the diocese in A.D. 253-254. +Gregory, although he has not always escaped the charge of Sabellianism, +now holds an undisputed place among the fathers of the church; and +although the turn of his mind was practical rather than speculative, he +is known to have taken an energetic part in most of the doctrinal +controversies of his time. He was active at the first synod of Antioch +(A.D. 264-265), which investigated and condemned the heresies of Paul of +Samosata; and the rapid spread in Pontus of a Trinitarianism approaching +the Nicene type is attributed in large measure to the weight of his +influence. Gregory is believed to have died in the reign of Aurelian, +about the year 270, though perhaps an earlier date is more probable. His +festival (semiduplex) is observed by the Roman Catholic Church on the +17th of November. + + For the facts of his biography we have an outline of his early years + in his eulogy on Origen, and incidental notices in the writings of + Eusebius, of Basil of Caesarea and Jerome. Gregory of Nyssa's + untrustworthy panegyric represents him as having wrought miracles of a + very startling description; but nothing related by him comes near the + astounding narratives given in the _Martyrologies_, or even in the + _Breviarium Romanum_, in connexion with his name. + + The principal works of Gregory Thaumaturgus are the _Panegyricus in + Origenem_ ([Greek: Eis Origenen panegyrikos logos]), which he wrote + when on the point of leaving the school of that great master (it + contains a valuable minute description of Origen's mode of + instruction), a _Metaphrasis in Ecclesiasten_, characterized by Jerome + as "short but useful"; and an _Epistola canonica_, which treats of the + discipline to be undergone by those Christians who under pressure of + persecution had relapsed into paganism, but desired to be restored to + the privileges of the Church. It gives a good picture of the + conditions of the time, and shows Gregory to be a true shepherd (cf. + art PENANCE). The [Greek: Ekthesis pisteos] (_Expositio fidei_), a + short creed usually attributed to Gregory, and traditionally alleged + to have been received by him immediately in vision from the apostle + John himself, is probably authentic. A sort of Platonic dialogue of + doubtful authenticity "on the impassivity and the passivity of God" in + Syriac is in the British Museum. + + _Editions_: Gerhard Voss (Mainz, 1604), Fronto Ducaus (Paris, 1622), + Migne, Patr. Graec. x. 963. + + _Translations_: S. D. F. Salmond in _Ante-Nicene Fathers_, vi.; + _Lives_, by Pallavicini (Rome, 1644); J. L. Boye (Jena, 1709); H. R. + Reynolds (_Dict. Chr. Biog._ ii.); G. Kruger, _Early Chr. Lit._ 226; + Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyk._ vii. (where full bibliographies are given). + + + + +GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329-389), surnamed Theologus, one of the four +great fathers of the Eastern Church, was born about the year A.D. 329, +at or near Nazianzus, Cappadocia. His father, also named Gregory, had +lately become bishop of the diocese; his mother, Nonna, exercised a +powerful influence over the religious convictions of both father and +son. Gregory visited successively the two Caesareas, Alexandria and +Athens, as a student of grammar, mathematics, rhetoric and philosophy; +at Athens he had for fellow-students Basil (q.v.), who afterwards became +bishop of Caesarea, and Julian, afterwards emperor. Shortly after his +return to his father's house at Nazianzus (about the year 360) Gregory +received baptism. He resolved to give himself to the service of +religion; but for some time, and indeed more or less throughout his +whole life, was in a state of hesitation as to the form which that +service ought to take. Strongly inclined by nature and education to a +contemplative life spent among books and in the society of congenial +friends, he was continually urged by outward circumstances, as well as +by an inward call, to active pastoral labour. The spirit of refined +intellectual monasticism, which clung to him through life and never +ceased to struggle for the ascendancy, was about this time strongly +encouraged by his intercourse with Basil, who induced him to share the +exalted pleasures of his retirement in Pontus. To this period belongs +the preparation of the [Greek: Philokalia], a sort of chrestomathy +compiled by the two friends from the writings of Origen. But the events +which were stirring the political and ecclesiastical life of Cappadocia, +and indeed of the whole Roman world, made a career of learned leisure +difficult if not impossible to a man of Gregory's position and +temperament. The emperor Constantius, having by intrigue and +intimidation succeeded in thrusting a semi-Arian formula upon the +Western bishops assembled at Ariminum in Italy, had next attempted to +follow the same course with the Eastern episcopate. The aged bishop of +Nazianzus having yielded to the imperial threats, a great storm arose +among the monks of the diocese, which was only quelled by the influence +of the younger Gregory, who shortly afterwards (about 361) was ordained +to the priesthood. After a vain attempt to evade his new duties and +responsibilities by flight, he appears to have continued to act as a +presbyter in his father's diocese without interruption for some +considerable time; and it is probable that his two _Invectives_ against +Julian are to be assigned to this period. Subsequently (about 372), +under a pressure which he somewhat resented, he allowed himself to be +nominated by Basil as bishop of Sasima, a miserable little village some +32 m. from Tyana; but he seems hardly, if at all, to have assumed the +duties of this diocese, for after another interval of "flight" we find +him once more (about 372-373) at Nazianzus, assisting his aged father, +on whose death (374) he retired to Seleucia in Isauria for a period of +some years. Meanwhile a more important field for his activities was +opening up. Towards 378-379 the small and depressed remnant of the +orthodox party in Constantinople sent him an urgent summons to undertake +the task of resuscitating their cause, so long persecuted and borne down +by the Arians of the capital. With the accession of Theodosius to the +imperial throne, the prospect of success to the Nicene doctrine had +dawned, if only it could find some courageous and devoted champion. The +fame of Gregory as a learned and eloquent disciple of Origen, and still +more of Athanasius, pointed him out as such a defender; nor could he +resist the appeal made to him, although he took the step reluctantly. +Once arrived in Constantinople, he laboured so zealously and well that +the orthodox party speedily gathered strength; and the small apartment +in which they had been accustomed to meet was soon exchanged for a vast +and celebrated church which received the significant name of Anastasia, +the Church of the Resurrection. Among the hearers of Gregory were to be +found, not only churchmen like Jerome and Evagrius, but also heretics +and pagans; and it says much for the sound wisdom and practical tact of +the preacher that he set himself less to build up and defend a doctrinal +position than to urge his flock to the cultivation of the loving +Christian spirit which cherishes higher aims than mere heresy hunting or +endless disputation. Doctrinal, nevertheless, he was, as is abundantly +shown by the famous five discourses on the Trinity, which earned for him +the distinctive appellation of [Greek: theologos]. These orations are +the finest exposition of the Catholic doctrine of the Trinity as +conceived by the orthodox teachers of the East, and they were directed +especially against the Eunomians and Macedonians. "There is perhaps no +single book in Greek patristic literature to which the student who +desires to gain an exact and comprehensive view of Greek theology can be +more confidently referred." With the arrival of Theodosius in 380 came +the visible triumph of the orthodox cause; the metropolitan see was then +conferred upon Gregory, and after the assembling of the second +ecumenical council in 381 he received consecration from Meletius. In +consequence, however, of a spirit of discord and envy which had +manifested itself in connexion with this promotion, he soon afterwards +resigned his dignity and withdrew into comparative retirement. The rest +of his days were spent partly at Nazianzus in ecclesiastical affairs, +and partly on his neighbouring patrimonial estate at Arianzus, where he +followed his favourite literary pursuits, especially poetical +composition, until his death, which occurred in 389 or 390. His festival +is celebrated in the Eastern Church on the 25th and 30th of January, in +the Western on the 9th of May (duplex). + + His extant works consist of poems, epistles and orations. The poems, + which include epigrams, elegies and an autobiographical sketch, have + been frequently printed, the _editio princeps_ being the Aldine + (1504). Other editions are those of Tollius (1696) and Muratori + (1709); a volume of _Carmina selecta_ also has been edited by Dronke + (1840). The tragedy entitled [Greek: Christos paschon] usually + included is certainly not genuine. Gregory's poetry did not absorb his + best energies; it was adopted in his later years as a recreation + rather than as a serious pursuit; thus it is occasionally delicate, + graphic, beautiful, but it is not sustained. Of the hymns none have + passed into ecclesiastical use. The letters are entitled to a higher + place in literature. They are always easy and natural; and there is + nothing forced in the manner in which their acute, witty and profound + sayings are introduced. Those to Basil introduce us to the story of a + most romantic friendship, those to Cledonius have theological value + for their bearing on the Apollinarian controversy. As an orator he was + so facile, vigorous and persuasive, that men forgot his small stature + and emaciated countenance. Forty-five orations are extant. Gregory was + less an independent theologian than an interpreter. He was influenced + by Athanasius in his Christology, by Origen in his anthropology, for, + though teaching original sin and deriving human mortality from the + Fall, he insists on the ability of the human will to choose the good + and to co-operate in the work of salvation with the will of God. + Though possessed neither of Basil's gift of government nor of Gregory + of Nyssa's power of speculative thought, he worthily takes a place in + that triumvirate of Cappadocians whom the Catholic Church gratefully + recognizes as having been, during the critical struggles in the latter + half of the 4th century, the best defenders of its faith. The _Opera + omnia_ were first published by Hervagius (Basel, 1550); the + subsequent editions have been those of Billius (Paris, 1609, 1611; + aucta ex interpretatione Morelli, 1630), of the Benedictines (begun in + 1778, but interrupted by the French Revolution and not completed until + 1840, Caillau being the final editor) and of Migne. The _Theological + Orations_ (edited by A. J. Mason) were published separately at + Cambridge in 1899. + + Scattered notices of the life of Gregory Nazianzen are to be found in + the writings of Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret and Rufinus, as well as + in his own letters and poems. The data derived from these sources do + not always harmonize with the account of Suidas. The earlier modern + authorities, such as Tillemont (_Mem. Eccl._ t. ix.) and Leclerc + (_Bib. Univ._ t. xviii.), were used by Gibbon. See also C. Ullmann, + _Gregorius von Nazianz, der Theologe_ (1825; Eng. trans. by G. F. + Coxe, M.A., 1857); A. Benoit, _St Gregoire de Nazianze; sa vie, ses + oeuvres, et son epoque_ (1877); Montaut, _Revue critique de quelques + questions historiques se rapportant a St Gregoire de Nazianze_ (1879); + F. W. Farrar, _Lives of the Fathers_, i. 491-582, and F. Loofs in + Hauck-Herzog's _Realencyk. fur prot. Theologie_, vii. 138. + + + + +GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (c. 331-c. 396), one of the four great fathers of +the Eastern Church, designated by one of the later ecumenical councils +as "a father of fathers," was a younger brother of Basil (the Great), +bishop of Caesarea, and was born (probably) at Neocaesarea about A.D. +331. For his education he was chiefly indebted to his elder brother. At +a comparatively early age he entered the church, and held for some time +the office of anagnost or reader; subsequently he manifested a desire to +devote himself to the secular life as a rhetorician, an impulse which +was checked by the earnest remonstrances of Gregory of Nazianzus. +Finally, in 371 or 372 he was ordained by his brother Basil to the +bishopric of Nyssa, a small town in Cappadocia. Here he is usually said +(but on inadequate data) to have adopted the opinion then gaining ground +in favour of the celibacy of the clergy, and to have separated from his +wife Theosebia, who became a deaconess in the church. His strict +orthodoxy on the subject of the Trinity and the Incarnation, together +with his vigorous eloquence, combined to make him peculiarly obnoxious +to the Arian faction, which was at that time in the ascendant through +the protection of the emperor Valens; and in 375, the synod of Ancyra, +convened by Demetrius the Arian governor of Pontus, condemned him for +alleged irregularities in his election and in the administration of the +finances of his diocese. In 376 he was deprived of his see, and Valens +sent him into exile, whence he did not return till the publication of +the edict of Gratian in 378. Shortly afterwards he took part in the +proceedings of the synod which met at Antioch in Caria, principally in +connexion with the Meletian schism. At the great ecumenical council held +at Constantinople in 381, he was a conspicuous champion of the orthodox +faith; according to Nicephorus, indeed, the additions made to the Nicene +creed were entirely due to his suggestion, but this statement is of +doubtful authority. That his eloquence was highly appreciated is shown +by the facts that he pronounced the discourse at the consecration of +Gregory of Nazianzus, and that he was chosen to deliver the funeral +oration on the death of Meletius the first president of the council. In +the following year, moreover (382), he was commissioned by the council +to inspect and set in order the churches of Arabia, in connexion with +which mission he also visited Jerusalem. The impressions he gathered +from this journey may, in part at least, be gathered from his famous +letter _De euntibus Hierosolyma_, in which an opinion strongly +unfavourable to pilgrimages is expressed. In 383 he was probably again +in Constantinople; where in 385 he pronounced the funeral orations of +the princess Pulcheria and afterwards of the empress Placilla. Once more +we read of him in 394 as having been present in that metropolis at the +synod held under the presidency of Nectarius to settle a controversy +which had arisen among the bishops of Arabia; in the same year he +assisted at the consecration of the new church of the apostles at +Chalcedon, on which occasion there is reason to believe that his +discourse commonly but wrongly known as that [Greek: Eis ten heautou +cheirotonian] was delivered. The exact date of his death is unknown; +some authorities refer it to 396, others to 400. His festival is +observed by the Greek Church on the 10th of January; in the Western +martyrologies he is commemorated on the 9th of March. + +Gregory of Nyssa was not so firm and able an administrator as his +brother Basil, nor so magnificent an orator as Gregory of Nazianzus, but +he excelled them both, alike as a speculative and constructive +theologian, and in the wide extent of his acquirements. His teaching, +though strictly trinitarian, shows considerable freedom and originality +of thought; in many points his mental and spiritual affinities with +Origen show themselves with advantage, as in his doctrine of [Greek: +apokatastasis] or final restoration. There are marked pantheistic +tendencies, e.g. the inclusion of sin as a necessary part of the +cosmical process, which make him akin to the pantheistic monophysites +and to some modern thinkers. + + His style has been frequently praised by competent authorities for + sweetness, richness and elegance. His numerous works may be classified + under five heads: (1) Treatises in doctrinal and polemical theology. + Of these the most important is that _Against Eunomius_ in twelve + books. Its doctrinal thesis (which is supported with great philosophic + acumen and rhetorical power) is the divinity and consubstantiality of + the Word; incidentally the character of Basil, which Eunomius had + aspersed, is vindicated, and the heretic himself is held up to scorn + and contempt. This is the work which, most probably in a shorter + draft, was read by its author when at Constantinople before Gregory + Nazianzen and Jerome in 381 (Jerome, _De vir. ill._ 128). To the same + class belong the treatise _To Ablavius_, against the tritheists; _On + Faith_, against the Arians; _On Common Notions_, in explanation of the + terms in current employment with regard to the Trinity; _Ten + Syllogisms_, against the Manichaeans; _To Theophilus_, against the + Apollinarians; an _Antirrhetic_ against the same; _Against Fate_, a + disputation with a heathen philosopher; _De anima et resurrectione_, a + dialogue with his dying sister Macrina; and the _Oratio catechetica + magna_, an argument for the incarnation as the best possible form of + redemption, intended to convince educated pagans and Jews. (2) + Practical treatises. To this category belong the tracts _On Virginity_ + and _On Pilgrimages_; as also the _Canonical Epistle_ upon the rules + of penance. (3) Expository and homiletical works, including the + _Hexaemeron_, and several series of discourses _On the Workmanship of + Man_, _On the Inscriptions of the Psalms_, _On the Sixth Psalm_, _On + the first three Chapters of Ecclesiastes_, _On Canticles_, _On the + Lord's Prayer_ and _On the Eight Beatitudes_. (4) Biographical, + consisting chiefly of funeral orations. (5) Letters. + + The only complete editions of the whole works are those by Fronton le + Duc (Fronto Ducaus, Paris, 1615; with additions, 1618 and 1638) and by + Migne. G. H. Forbes began an excellent critical edition, but only two + parts of the first volume appeared (Burntisland, 1855 and 1861) + containing the _Explicatio apologetica in hexaemeron_ and the _De + opificio hominis_. Of the new edition projected by F. Oehler only the + first volume, containing the _Opera dogmatica_, has appeared (1865). + There have been numerous editions of several single treatises, as for + example of the _Oratio catechetica_ (J. G. Krabinger, Munich, 1838; J. + H. Crawley, Cambridge, 1903), _De precatione_ and _De anima et + resurrectione_. + + See F. W. Farrar, _Lives of the Fathers_, ii. 56-83, the monograph by + J. Rupp (_Gregors, des Bischofs von Nyssa, Leben und Meinungen_, + Leipzig, 1834), and compare P. Heyns (_Disputatio historico-theologica + de Greg. Nyss._, 1835), C. W. Moller (_Gregorii Nyss. doctrinam de + hominis natura et illustravit et cum Origeniana comparavit_, 1854) and + J. N. Stigler, _Die Psychologie des h. Gregors von Nyssa_ (Regensburg, + 1857), and many smaller monographs cited in Hauck-Herzog's _Realencyk. + fur prot. Theol._ vii. 149. + + + + +GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594), historian of the Franks, was born in +the chief city of the Arverni (the modern Clermont-Ferrand) on the 30th +of November 538. His real name was Georgius Florentius, Georgius being +his grandfather's name and Florentius his father's. He was called +Gregory after his maternal great-grandfather, the bishop of Langres. +Gregory belonged to an illustrious senatorial family, many of whose +members held high office in the church and bear honoured names in the +history of Christianity. He was descended, it is said, from Vettius +Epagathus, who was martyred at Lyons in 177 with St Pothinus; his +paternal uncle, Gallus, was bishop of Clermont; his maternal +grand-uncle, Nicetius (St Nizier), occupied the see of Lyons; and he was +a kinsman of Euphronius, bishop of Tours. + +Gregory lost his father early, and his mother Armentaria settled in the +kingdom of Burgundy on an estate belonging to her near Cavaillon, where +her son often visited her. Gregory was brought up at Clermont-Ferrand by +his uncle Gallus and by his successor, Avitus, and there he received his +education. Among profane authors he read the first six books of the +_Aeneid_ and Sallust's history of the Catiline conspiracy, but his +education was mainly religious. The principles of religion he learnt +from the Bible, Sulpicius Severus and some lives of saints, but to +patristic literature and the subtleties of theology he remained a +stranger. In 563, at the age of twenty-five, he was ordained deacon. +Falling seriously ill, he went to Tours to seek a cure at the tomb of St +Martin. At Tours he lived with Euphronius, and so great was the young +man's popularity that, on the death of Euphronius in 573, the people +unanimously designated him bishop. + +At that time Tours belonged to Austrasia, and King Sigebert hastened to +confirm Gregory's election. After the assassination of Sigebert (575), +the province was ruled by Chilperic for nine years, during which period +Gregory displayed the greatest energy in protecting his town and church +from the Frankish king. He had to contend with Count Leudast, the +governor of Tours; despite all the king's threats, he refused to give up +Chilperic's son Meroving, who had sought refuge from his father's wrath +at the sanctuary of St Martin; and he defended Bishop Pretextatus +against Chilperic, by whom he had been condemned for celebrating the +marriage of Merovech and Queen Brunhilda. In 580 Gregory was himself +accused before a council at Berny of using abusive language against +Queen Fredegond, but he cleared himself of the charge by an oath and was +acquitted. On the death of Chilperic, Tours remained for two years +(584-585) in the hands of Guntram, but when Guntram adopted his nephew +Childebert, Sigebert's son, it again became Austrasian. This change was +welcome to Gregory, who often visited the court. In 586 he was at +Coblenz, and on his return to Yvois (the modern Carignan) visited the +stylite Wulfilaic; in 588 we hear of him at Metz and also at +Chalon-sur-Saone, whither he was sent to obtain from King Guntram the +ratification of the pact of Andelot; in 593 he was at Orleans, where +Childebert had just succeeded his uncle Guntram. In the intervals of +these journeys he governed Tours with great firmness, repressing +disorders and reducing the monks and nuns to obedience. He died on the +17th of November 594. + +Gregory left many writings, of which he himself gives an enumeration at +the end of his _Historia Francorum_: "Decem libros Historiarum, septem +Miraculorum, unum de Vita Patrum scripsi; in Psalterii tractatu librum +unum commentatus sum; de Cursibus etiam ecclesiasticis unum librum +condidi." The ten books of history are discussed below. The seven books +of miracles are divided into the _De gloria martyrum_, the _De +virtutibus sancti Juliani_, four books of _Miracula sancti Martini_, and +the _De gloria confessorum_, the last dealing mainly with confessors who +had dwelt in the cities of Tours and Clermont. The _Vitae patrum_ +consists of twenty biographies of bishops, abbots and hermits belonging +to Gaul. The commentary on the Psalms is lost, the preface and the +titles of the chapters alone being extant. The treatise _De cursibus +ecclesiasticis_, discovered in 1853, is a liturgical manual for +determining the hour of divers nocturnal offices by the position of the +stars. Gregory also left a life of St Andrew, translated from the Greek, +and a history of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, translated from Syriac. + +His most important work, however, is the _Historia Francorum_, which is +divided into three parts. The first four books, which were composed at +one time, cover the period from the creation of the world to the death +of Sigebert in 575. The first book, which is a mere compilation from the +chronicles of St Jerome and Orosius, is of no value. The second book, +from 397 to 511, deals with the invasions of the Franks, and is based on +the histories of Sulpicius Alexander and Renatus Profuturus Frigeridus, +now lost; on the catalogues of the bishops of Clermont and Tours; on +some lives of saints, e.g. Remigius and Maxentius, now lost; on the +annals of Arles and Angers, now lost; and on legends, either collected +by Gregory himself from oral tradition, or cantilenes or epics written +in the Latin and Germanic languages. In the third and fourth books the +earlier part is based on materials collected from men older than +himself; of the later events he was himself an eye-witness. The fifth +and sixth books, up to the death of Chilperic (584), deal with matters +within his own experience. The first six books are often separate in the +MSS., and it was these alone that were used by the chronicler +Fredegarius in his abridgment of Gregory's history. To the first six +books Gregory subsequently added chapters on the bishops Salonius and +Sagittarius, and on his quarrels with Felix of Nantes. The authenticity +of these chapters has been undeservedly attacked by Catholic writers. +Books vii. to x., from 584 to 591, were written in the form of a diary; +of each important event, as it occurred, he inserted an account in his +book. The last six books are of great historical value. + +Gregory had an intimate knowledge of contemporary events. He was +frequently at court, and he found Tours an excellent place for +collecting information. The shrine of St Martin attracted the sick from +all quarters, and the basilica of the saint was a favourite sanctuary +for political refugees. Moreover, Tours was on the high road between the +north and south of France, and was a convenient stage for travellers, +the ambassadors going to and from Spain frequently halting there. +Gregory plied every one with questions, and in this way gathered a great +mass of detailed information. He was, besides, at great pains to be an +impartial writer, but was not always successful. His devotion to +Austrasia made him very bitter against, and perhaps unjust to, the +sovereigns of Neustria, Chilperic and Fredegond. As an orthodox +Christian, he had no good word for the Arians. He excuses the crimes of +kings who protected the church, such as Clovis, Clotaire I. and Guntram, +but had no mercy for those who violated ecclesiastical privileges. This +attitude, no doubt, explains his hatred for Chilperic. But if Gregory's +historical judgments are suspect, he at least concealed nothing and +invented nothing; and we can correct his judgments by his own narrative. +His history is a curious compound of artlessness and shrewdness. He was +ignorant of the rules of grammar, confused genders and cases, and wrote +in the vernacular Latin of his time, apart from certain passages which +are especially elaborated and filled with poetical and elegant +expressions. But in spite of his shortcomings he is an exceedingly +attractive writer, and his mastery of the art of narrative has earned +for him the name of the Herodotus of the barbarians. + + T. Ruinart brought out a complete edition of Gregory's works at Paris + in 1699. The best modern complete edition is that of W. Arndt and B. + Krusch in _Mon. Germ. hist. script. rer. Merov._ (vol. i., 1885). Of + the many editions of the _Historia Francorum_ may be mentioned those + of Guadet and Taranne in the _Soc. de l'hist. de France_ (4 vols., + with French translation, 1836-1838), of Omont (the first six books; a + reproduction of the Corvey MS.) and of G. Collon (the last four books; + a reproduction of the Brussels MS. No. 9, 403). Gregory's hagiographic + works were published by H. Bordier in the _Soc. de l'hist. de France_ + (4 vols., with French translation, 1857-1864). Cf. J. W. Lobell, + _Gregor von Tours und seine Zeit_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1868); G. Monod, + "Etudes critiques sur les sources de l'histoire merovingienne" in the + _Bibl. de l'Ecole des Hautes Etudes_ (1872); G. Kurth, "Gregoire de + Tours et les etudes classiques au VI^e siecle" in the _Revue des + questions historiques_ (xxiv. 586 seq., 1878); Max Bonnet, _Le Latin + de Gregoire de Tours_ (Paris, 1890). For details, see Ulysse + Chevalier, _Biobibliographie_ (2nd ed.). (C. Pf.) + + + + +GREGORY THE ILLUMINATOR, the reputed founder of the Armenian Church. His +legend is briefly as follows. His father Anak, head of the Parthian clan +of Suren, was bribed about the time of his birth (c. 257) by the +Sassanid king of Persia to assassinate the Armenian king, Chosroes, who +was of the old Arsacid dynasty, and father of Tiridates or Trdat, first +Christian king of Armenia. Anak was slain by his victim's soldiers; +Gregory was rescued by his Christian nurse, carried to Caesarea in +Cappadocia, and brought up a Christian. Grown to manhood he took service +under Tiridates, now king of Armenia, in order by his own fidelity to +atone for his father's treachery. Presently at a feast of Anahite +Gregory refused to assist his sovereign in offering pagan sacrifice, and +his parentage being now revealed, was thrown into a deep pit at +Artashat, where he languished for fourteen years, during which +persecution raged in Armenia. + +The scene of the legend now shifts to Rome, where Diocletian falls in +love with a lovely nun named Ripsime; she, rather than gratify his +passion, flees with her abbess Gaiana and several priests to Armenia. +Diocletian asks her back of Tiridates, who meanwhile has fallen in love +with her himself. He too is flouted, and in his rage tortures and slays +her and her companions. The traditional date of this massacre is the 5th +of October, A.D. 301. Providence, incensed at such cruelty, turns +Tiridates into a wild boar, and afflicts his subjects with madness; but +his sister, Chosrowidukht, has a revelation to bring Gregory back out of +his pit. The king consents, the saint is acclaimed, the bodies of the +thirty-seven martyrs solemnly interred, and the king, after fasting +five, and listening to Gregory's homilies for sixty days, is healed. +This all took place at Valarshapat, where Gregory, anxious to fix a site +on which to build shrines for the relics of Ripsime and Gaiana, saw the +Son of God come down in a sheen of light, the stars of heaven attending, +and smite the earth with a golden hammer till the nether world resounded +to his blows. Three chapels were built on the spot, and Gregory raised +his cross there and elsewhere for the people to worship, just as St Nino +was doing about the same time in Georgia. There followed a campaign +against the idols whose temples and books were destroyed. The time had +now come for Gregory, who was still a layman and father of two sons, to +receive ordination; so he went to Caesarea, where Leontius ordained and +consecrated him catholicos or vicar-general of Armenia. This was +sometime about 290, when Leontius may have acceded, though we first hear +of him as bishop in 314. + +Gregory's ordination at Caesarea is historical. The vision at +Valarshapat was invented later by the Armenians when they broke with the +Greeks, in order to give to their church the semblance, if not of +apostolic, at least of divine origin. + +According to Agathangelus, Tiridates went to Rome with Gregory, +Aristaces, son of Gregory, and Albianos, head of the other priestly +family, to make a pact with Constantine, newly converted to the faith, +and receive a pallium from Silvester. The better sources make Sardica +the scene of meeting and name Eusebius (of Nicomedia) as the prelate who +attended Constantine. There is no reason to doubt that some such visit +was made about the year 315, when the death of Maximin Daza left +Constantine supreme. Eusebius testifies (_H.E._ ix. 8) that the +Armenians were ardent Christians, and ancient friends and allies of the +Roman empire when Maximin attacked them about the year 308. The +conversion of Tiridates was probably a matter of policy. His kingdom was +honeycombed with Christianity, and he wished to draw closer to the West, +where he foresaw the victory of the new faith, in order to fortify his +realm against the Sassanids of Persia. Following the same policy he sent +Aristaces in 325 to the council of Nice. Gregory is related to have +added a clause to the creed which Aristaces brought back; he became a +hermit on Mount Sebuh about the year 332, and died there. + +Is the Ripsime episode mere legend? The story of the conversion of +Georgia by St Nino in the same age is so full of local colour, and +coheres so closely with the story of Ripsime and Gaiana, that it seems +over-sceptical to explain the latter away as a mere doublet of the +legend of Prisca and Valeria. The historians Faustus of Byzant and Lazar +of Pharp in the 5th century already attest the reverence with which +their memory was invested. We know from many sources the prominence +assigned to women prophets in the Phrygian church. Nino's story reads +like that of such a female missionary, and something similar must +underlie the story of her Armenian companions. + +The history of Gregory by Agathangelus is a compilation of about 450, +which was rendered into Greek 550. Professor Marr has lately published +an Arabic text from a MS. in Sinai which seems to contain an older +tradition. A letter of Bishop George of Arabia to Jeshu, a priest of the +town Anab, dated 714 (edited by Dashian, Vienna, 1891), contains an +independent tradition of Gregory, and styles him a Roman by birth. + +In spite of legendary accretions we can still discern the true outlines +and significance of his life. He did not really illumine or convert +great Armenia, for the people were in the main already converted by +Syrian missionaries to the Adoptionist or Ebionite type of faith which +was dominant in the far East, and was afterwards known as Nestorianism. +Marcionites and Montanists had also worked in the field. Gregory +persuaded Tiridates to destroy the last relics of the old paganism, and +carried out in the religious sphere his sovereign's policy of detaching +Great Armenia from the Sassanid realm and allying it with the +Graeco-Roman empire and civilization. He set himself to Hellenize or +Catholicize Armenian Christianity, and in furtherance of this aim set up +a hierarchy officially dependent on the Cappadocian. He in effect turned +his country into a province of the Greek see of Cappadocia. This +hierarchical tie was soon snapped, but the Hellenizing influence +continued to work, and bore its most abundant fruit in the 5th century. +His career was thus analogous to that of St Patrick in Ireland. + + AUTHORITIES.--S. Weber, _Die Catholische Kirche in Armenien_ + (Freiburg, 1903, with bibliography); Bollandii, _Acta sanctorum sept._ + tom. 8; A. Carriere, _Les Huit Sanctuaires de l'Armenie_ (Paris, + 1899); "Chrysostom" in Migne, _P. Gr._ tom. 63, col. 943 foll.; C. + Fortescue, _The Armenian Church_ (London, 1872); H. Gelzer, _Die + Anfange der armenischen Kirche_ (Leipzig, 1895) (_Sachs. Gesells. der + Wissensch._); and s.v. "Armenien" in Herzog-Hauck (Leipzig, 1897); v. + Gutschmid, _Kleine Schriften_ (Leipzig, 1892); Himpel, _Gregor der + Erleuchter_, Kl. v.; Issaverdenz, _Hist. of Arm. Church_ (Venice, + 1875); de Lagarde, _Agathangelos_ (Gottingen, 1888); Arshak Ter + Mikelian, _Die arm. Kirche_ (Leipzig, 1892); Palmieri, "La Conversione + ufficiale degli Iberi," _Oriens Christ._ (Rome, 1902); Ryssel, _Ein + Brief Gregors, ubersetzt, Studien und Kritiken_, 56, Bd. (1883); + Samuelian, _Bekehrung Armeniens_ (Vienna, 1844); Vetter, "Die arm. + Vater," in Nischl's _Lehrbuch der Patrol._ iii. 215-262, (Mainz, + 1881-1885); Malan, _S. Gregory the Illuminator_ (Rivingtons, 1868). + (F. C. C.) + + + + +GREGORY (_Gregorius_), the name of sixteen popes and one anti-pope. + +SAINT GREGORY, surnamed the Great (_c._ 540-604), the first pope of that +name, and the last of the four doctors of the Latin Church, was born in +Rome about the year 540. His father was Gordianus "the regionary," a +wealthy man of senatorial rank, owner of large estates in Sicily and of +a palace on the Caelian Hill in Rome; his mother was Silvia, who is +commemorated as a saint on the 3rd of November. Of Gregory's early +period we know few details, and almost all the dates are conjectural. He +received the best education to be had at the time, and was noted for his +proficiency in the arts of grammar, rhetoric and dialectic. Entering on +a public career he held, about 573, the high office of prefect of the +city of Rome; but about 574, feeling irresistibly attracted to the +"religious" life, he resigned his post, founded six monasteries in +Sicily and one in Rome, and in the last--the famous monastery of St +Andrew--became himself a monk. This grateful seclusion, however, he was +not permitted long to enjoy. About 578 he was ordained "seventh deacon" +(or possibly archdeacon) of the Roman Church, and in the following +spring Pope Pelagius II. appointed him "apocrisiarius," or resident +ambassador, at the imperial court in Constantinople. Here he represented +the interests of his church till about 586, when he returned to Rome and +was made abbot of St Andrew's monastery. His rule, though popular, was +characterized by great severity, as may be inferred from the story of +the monk Justus, who was denied Christian burial because he had secreted +a small sum of money. About this time Gregory completed and published +his well-known exposition of the book of Job, commenced in +Constantinople: he also delivered lectures on the Heptateuch, the books +of Kings, the Prophets, the book of Proverbs and the Song of Songs. To +this period, moreover, Bede's incident of the English slave-boys (if +indeed it be accepted as historical) ought to be assigned. Passing one +day through the Forum, Gregory saw some handsome slaves offered for +sale, and inquired their nation. "Angles," was the reply. "Good," said +the abbot, "they have the faces of angels, and should be coheirs with +the angels in heaven. From what province do they come?" "From Deira." +"Deira. Yea, verily, they shall be saved from God's ire (_de ira_) and +called to the mercy of Christ. How is the king of that country named?" +"Aella." "Then must Allelulia be sung in Aella's land." Gregory +determined personally to undertake the conversion of Britain, and with +the pope's consent actually set out upon the mission, but on the third +day of his journey he was overtaken by messengers recalling him to Rome. +In the year 590 Pelagius II. died of the plague that was raging in the +city; whereupon the clergy and people unanimously chose Gregory as his +successor. The abbot did his best to avoid the dignity, petitioned the +emperor Maurice not to ratify his election, and even meditated going +into hiding; but, "while he was preparing for flight and concealment, he +was seized and carried off and dragged to the basilica of St Peter," and +there consecrated bishop, on the 3rd of September 590. + +The fourteen years of Gregory's pontificate were marked by extraordinary +vigour and activity. "He never rested," writes a biographer, "he was +always engaged in providing for the interests of his people, or in +writing some composition worthy of the church, or in searching out the +secrets of heaven by the grace of contemplation." His mode of life was +simple and ascetic in the extreme. Having banished all lay attendants +from his palace, he surrounded himself with clerics and monks, with whom +he lived as though he were still in a monastery. To the spiritual needs +of his people he ministered with pastoral zeal, frequently appointing +"stations" and delivering sermons; nor was he less solicitous in +providing for their physical necessities. Deaconries (offices of alms) +and guest-houses were liberally endowed, and free distributions of food +were made to the poor in the convents and basilicas. The funds for these +and similar purposes were supplied from the Patrimony of St Peter--the +papal estates in Italy, the adjacent islands, Gaul, Dalmatia and Africa. +These extensive domains were usually administered by specially appointed +agents,--rectors and defensors,--who resided on the spot; but the +general superintendence devolved upon the pope. In this sphere Gregory +manifested rare capacity. He was one of the best of the papal landlords. +During his pontificate the estates increased in value, while at the same +time the real grievances of the tenants were redressed and their general +position was materially improved. Gregory's principal fault as a man of +business was that he was inclined to be too lavish of his revenues. It +is said that he even impoverished the treasury of the Roman Church by +his unlimited charities. + +Within the strict bounds of his patriarchate, i.e. the churches of the +suburbicarian provinces and the islands, it was Gregory's policy to +watch with particular care over the election and discipline of the +bishops. With wise toleration he was willing to recognize local +deviations from Roman usage (e.g. in the ritual of baptism and +confirmation), yet he was resolute to withstand any unauthorized +usurpation of rights and privileges. The following rules he took pains +to enforce: that clerics in holy orders should not cohabit with their +wives or permit any women, except those allowed by the canons, to live +in their houses; that clerics accused on ecclesiastical or lesser +criminal charges should be tried only in the ecclesiastical courts; that +clerics in holy orders who had lapsed should "utterly forfeit their +orders and never again approach the ministry of the altar"; that the +revenues of each church should be divided by its bishop into four equal +parts, to be assigned to the bishop, the clergy, the poor and the repair +of the fabric of the church. + +In his relations with the churches which lay outside the strict limits +of his patriarchate, in northern Italy, Spain, Gaul, Africa and +Illyricum and also in the East, Gregory consistently used his influence +to increase the prestige and authority of the Roman See. In his view +Rome, as the see of the Prince of the Apostles, was by divine right "the +head of all the churches." The decrees of councils would have no binding +force "without the authority and consent of the apostolic see": appeals +might be made to Rome against the decisions even of the patriarch of +Constantinople: all bishops, including the patriarchs, if guilty of +heresy or uncanonical proceedings, were subject to correction by the +pope. "If any fault is discovered in a bishop," Gregory wrote, "I know +of no one who is not subject to the apostolic see." It is true that +Gregory respected the rights of metropolitans and disapproved of +unnecessary interference within the sphere of their jurisdiction +canonically exercised; also that in his relations with certain churches +(e.g. those in Africa) he found it expedient to abstain from any +obtrusive assertion of Roman claims. But of his general principle there +can be no doubt. His sincere belief in the apostolic authority of the +see of St Peter, his outspoken assertion of it, the consistency and +firmness with which in practice he maintained it (e.g. in his +controversies with the bishops of Ravenna concerning the use of the +pallium, with Maximus the "usurping" bishop of Salona, and with the +patriarchs of Constantinople in respect of the title "ecumenical +bishops"), contributed greatly to build up the system of papal +absolutism. Moreover this consolidation of spiritual authority coincided +with a remarkable development of the temporal power of the papacy. In +Italy Gregory occupied an almost regal position. Taking advantage of the +opportunity which circumstances offered, he boldly stepped into the +place which the emperors had left vacant and the Lombard kings had not +the strength to seize. For the first time in history the pope appeared +as a political power, a temporal prince. He appointed governors to +cities, issued orders to generals, provided munitions of war, sent his +ambassadors to negotiate with the Lombard king and actually dared to +conclude a private peace. In this direction Gregory went farther than +any of his predecessors: he laid the foundation of a political influence +which endured for centuries. "Of the medieval papacy," says Milman, "the +real father is Gregory the Great." + +The first monk to become pope, Gregory was naturally a strong supporter +of monasticism. He laid himself out to diffuse the system, and also to +carry out a reform of its abuses by enforcing a strict observance of the +Rule of St Benedict (of whom, it may be noted, he was the earliest +biographer). Two slight innovations were introduced: the minimum age of +an abbess was fixed at sixty, and the period of novitiate was prolonged +from one year to two. Gregory sought to protect the monks from episcopal +oppression by issuing _privilegia_, or charters in restraint of abuses, +in accordance with which the jurisdiction of the bishops over the +monasteries was confined to spiritual matters, all illegal aggressions +being strictly prohibited. The documents are interesting as marking the +beginning of a revolution which eventually emancipated the monks +altogether from the control of their diocesans and brought them under +the direct authority of the Holy See. Moreover Gregory strictly forbade +monks to minister in parish churches, ordaining that any monk who was +promoted to such ecclesiastical cure should lose all rights in his +monastery and should no longer reside there. "The duties of each office +separately are so weighty that no one can rightly discharge them. It is +therefore very improper that one man should be considered fit to +discharge the duties of both, and that by this means the ecclesiastical +order should interfere with the monastic life, and the rule of the +monastic life in turn interfere with the interests of the churches." + +Once more, Gregory is remembered as a great organizer of missionary +enterprise for the conversion of heathens and heretics. Most important +was the two-fold mission to Britain--of St Augustine in 596, of +Mellitus, Paulinus and others in 601; but Gregory also made strenuous +efforts to uproot paganism in Gaul, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, +Arianism in Spain, Donatism in Africa, Manichaeism in Sicily, the heresy +of the Three Chapters in Istria and northern Italy. In respect of the +methods of conversion which he advocated he was not less intolerant than +his contemporaries. Towards the Jews, however, he acted with exceptional +lenity, protecting them from persecution and securing them the enjoyment +of their legal privileges. The so-called "simoniacal heresy," +particularly prevalent in Gaul, Illyricum and the East, be repeatedly +attacked; and against the Gallican abuse of promoting laymen to +bishoprics he protested with vigour. + +The extent and character of Gregory's works in connexion with the +liturgy and the music of the church is a subject of dispute. If we are +to credit a 9th century biographer, Gregory abbreviated and otherwise +simplified the Sacramentary of Gelasius, producing a revised edition +with which his own name has become associated, and which represents the +groundwork of the modern Roman Missal. But though it is certain that he +introduced three changes in the liturgy itself (viz. the addition of +some words in the prayer _Hanc igitur_, the recitation of the Pater +Noster at the end of the Canon immediately before the fraction of the +bread, and the chanting of the Allelulia after the Gradual at other +times besides the season of Easter) and two others in the ceremonial +connected therewith (forbidding deacons to perform any musical portion +of the service except the chanting of the gospel, and subdeacons to wear +chasubles), neither the external nor the internal evidence appears to +warrant belief that the Gregorian Sacramentary is his work. +Ecclesiastical tradition further ascribes to Gregory the compilation of +an Antiphonary, the revision and rearrangement of the system of church +music, and the foundation of the Roman _schola cantorum_. It is highly +doubtful, however, whether he had anything to do either with the +Antiphonary or with the invention or revival of the _cantus planus_; it +is certain that he was not the founder of the Roman singing-school, +though he may have interested himself in its endowment and extension. + +Finally, as Fourth Doctor of the Latin Church, Gregory claims the +attention of theologians. He is the link between two epochs. The last of +the great Latin Fathers and the first representative of medieval +Catholicism he brings the dogmatic theology of Tertullian, Ambrose and +Augustine into relation with the Scholastic speculation of later ages. +"He connects the Graeco-Roman with the Romano-Germanic type of +Christianity." His teaching, indeed, is neither philosophical, +systematic nor truly original. Its importance lies mainly in its simple, +popular summarization of the doctrine of Augustine (whose works Gregory +had studied with infinite care, but not always with insight), and in its +detailed exposition of various religious conceptions which were current +in the Western Church, but had not hitherto been defined with precision +(e.g. the views on angelology and demonology, on purgatory, the +Eucharistic Sacrifice, and the efficacy of relics). In his exposition of +such ideas Gregory made a distinct advance upon the older theology and +influenced profoundly the dogmatic development of the future. He +imparted a life and impulse to prevailing tendencies, helping on the +construction of the system hereafter to be completed in Scholasticism. +He gave to theology a tone and emphasis which could not be disregarded. +From his time to that of Anselm no teacher of equal eminence arose in +the Church. + +Gregory died on the 12th of March 604, and was buried the same day in +the portico of the basilica of St Peter, in front of the sacristy. +Translations took place in the 9th, 15th and 17th centuries, and the +remains now rest beneath the altar in the chapel of Clement VIII. In +respect of his character, while most historians agree that he was a +really great man, some deny that he was also a great saint. The worst +blot on his fair fame is his adulatory congratulation of the murderous +usurper Phocas; though his correspondence with the Frankish queen +Brunhilda, and the series of letters to and concerning the renegade monk +Venantius also present problems which his admirers find difficult of +solution. But while it may be admitted that Gregory was inclined to be +unduly subservient to the great, so that at times he was willing to shut +his eyes to the vices and even the crimes of persons of rank; yet it +cannot fairly be denied that his character as a whole was singularly +noble and unselfish. His life was entirely dominated by the religious +motive. His sole desire was to promote the glory of God and of his +church. At all times he strove honestly to live up to the light that was +in him. "His goal," says Lau, "was always that which he acknowledged as +the best." Physically, Gregory was of medium height and good figure. His +head was large and bald, surrounded with a fringe of dark hair. His face +was well-proportioned, with brown eyes, aquiline nose, thick and red +lips, high-coloured cheeks, and prominent chin sparsely covered with a +tawny beard. His hands, with tapering fingers, were remarkable for their +beauty. + + _Gregory's Works._--The following are now universally admitted to be + genuine:--_Epistolarum libri xiv._, _Moralium libri xxxv._, _Regulae + pastoralis liber_, _Dialogorum libri iv._, _Homiliarum in Ezechielem + prophetam libri ii._, _Homiliarum in Evangelia libri ii._ These are + all printed in Migne's _Patrologia Latina_. The _Epistolae_, however, + have been published separately by P. Ewald and L. M. Hartmann in the + _Monumenta Germaniae historica_ (Berlin, 1887-1899), and this splendid + edition has superseded all others. The question of the chronological + reconstruction of the _Register_ is dealt with by Ewald in his + celebrated article in the _Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft fur altere + deutsche Geschichtskunde_, iii. pp. 433-625; and briefly by T. + Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_, v. 333-343. For information about + these writings of Gregory, consult especially G. J. T. Lau, _Gregor I. + der Grosse_, pt. ii. chap. i. _Die Schriften Gregors_ and F. Homes + Dudden, _Gregory the Great_ (see Index II. B.). In addition to the + above-mentioned works there are printed under Gregory's name in + Migne's _Patrologia Latina_, vol. lxxix., the following:--_Super + Cantico Canticorum expositio_, _In librum primum Regum variarum + expositionum libri vi._, _In septem psalmos poenitentiales expositio_ + and _Concordia quorundam teslimoniorum s. scripturae_. But (with the + possible exception of the first) none of these treatises are of + Gregorian authorship. See the discussions in Migne, Lau and Dudden. + + AUTHORITIES.--(a) The principal ancient authorities for the life and + works of Gregory are given in their chronological order. They are: + Gregory of Tours, _Historia Francorum_, x. 1; _Liber pontificalis_, + "Vita Gregorii Magni"; Isidore of Seville, _De vir. illustr._ 40, and + Ildefonsus of Toledo, _De vir. illustr._ i.; an anonymous _Vita + Gregorii_ (of English authorship) belonging to the monastery of St + Gall, discovered by Ewald and published by F. A. Gasquet, _A Life of + Pope St Gregory the Great_ (1904); Bede, _Historia ecclesiastica_, ii. + c. 1; Paul the Deacon, _Vita Gregorii Magni_ (770-780); John the + Deacon, _Vita Gregorii_ (872-882). (b) Recent Literature: J. Barmby, + _Gregory the Great_ (1892); T. Bonsmann, _Gregor I. der Grosse, ein + Lebensbild_ (1890); F. Homes Dudden, _Gregory the Great: his place in + History and Thought_ (2 vols., 1905); G. J. T. Lau, _Gregor I. der + Grosse nach seinem Leben und seiner Lehre geschildert_ (1845); C. + Wolfsgruber, _Gregor der Grosse_ (1897). See also F. Gregorovius, + _Rome in the Middle Ages_ (Eng. trans.) ii. 16-103; T. Hodgkin, _Italy + and her Invaders_, v. cc. 7-10; H. K. Mann, _The Lives of the Popes_, + i. 1-250; F. W. Kellett, _Pope Gregory the Great and his Relations + with Gaul_; L. Pingaud, _La Politique de Saint Gregoire le Grand_; W. + Wisbaum, _Die wichtigsten Richtungen und Ziele der Tatigkeit des + Papstes Gregors des Grossen_; W. Hohaus, _Die Bedeutung Gregors des + Grossen als liturgischer Schriftsteller_; E. G. P. Wyatt, _St Gregory + and the Gregorian Music_; and the bibliographies of Gregory in + Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources historiques du moyen age_, and A. + Potthast, _Bibliotheca historica medii aevi_. (F. H. D.) + +GREGORY II., pope from 715 to 731, succeeded Constantine I., whom he +accompanied from Constantinople in 710. Gregory did all in his power to +promote the spread of Christianity in Germany, and gave special +encouragement to the mission of St Boniface, whom he consecrated bishop +in 722. He was a staunch adherent of the East Roman empire, which still +exercised sovereignty over Rome, Ravenna and some other parts of Italy, +and he impeded as far as possible the progress of the Lombards. About +726, however, he became involved in a conflict with the emperor Leo the +Isaurian on account of the excessive taxation of the Italians, and, +later, on the question of image worship, which had been proscribed by +the government of Constantinople. Leo endeavoured to rid himself of the +pope by violence, but Gregory, supported by the people of Rome and also +by the Lombards, succeeded in eluding the emperor's attacks, and died +peacefully on the 11th of February 731. + +GREGORY III., pope from 731 to 741. He condemned the iconoclasts at a +council convened at Rome in November 731, and, like his predecessor +Gregory II., stimulated the missionary labours of St Boniface, on whom +he conferred the pallium. Towards the Lombards he took up an imprudent +attitude, in support of which he in vain invoked the aid of the Frankish +prince Charles Martel. + +GREGORY IV., pope from 827 to 844, was chosen to succeed Valentinus in +December 827, on which occasion he recognized the supremacy of the +Frankish emperor in the most unequivocal manner. His name is chiefly +associated with the quarrels between Lothair and Louis the Pious, in +which he espoused the cause of the former, for whom, in the Campus +Mendacii (_Lugenfeld_, field of lies), as it is usually called (833), he +secured by his treachery a temporary advantage. The institution of the +feast of All Saints is usually attributed to this pope. He died on the +25th of January 844, and was succeeded by Sergius II. + +GREGORY V. (Bruno), pope from 996 to 999, a great-grandson of the +emperor Otto the Great, succeeded John XV. when only twenty-four years +of age, and until the council of Pavia (997) had a rival in the person +of the anti-pope John XVI., whom the people of Rome, in revolt against +the will of the youthful emperor Otto III., had chosen after having +expelled Gregory. The most memorable acts of his pontificate were those +arising out of the contumacy of the French king, Robert, who was +ultimately brought to submission by the rigorous infliction of a +sentence of excommunication. Gregory died suddenly, and not without +suspicion of foul play, on the 18th of February 999. His successor was +Silvester II. + +GREGORY VI., pope from 1045 to 1046. As Johannes Gratianus he had earned +a high reputation for learning and probity, and in 1045 he bought the +Roman pontificate from his godson Benedict IX. At a council held by the +emperor Henry III. at Sutri in 1046, he was accused of simony and +deposed. He was banished into Germany, where he died in 1047. He was +accompanied into exile by his young protege Hildebrand (afterwards pope +as Gregory VII.), and was succeeded by Clement II. (L. D.*) + +GREGORY VII., pope from 1073 to 1085. Hildebrand (the future pope) would +seem to have been born in Tuscany--perhaps Raovacum--early in the third +decade of the 11th century. The son of a plain citizen, Bunicus or +Bonizo, he came to Rome at an early age for his education; an uncle of +his being abbot of the convent of St Mary on the Aventine. His +instructors appear to have included the archpriest Johannes Gratianus, +who, by disbursing a considerable sum to Benedict IX., smoothed his way +to the papal throne and actually ascended it as Gregory VI. But when the +emperor Henry III., on his expedition to Rome (1046), terminated the +scandalous _impasse_ in which three popes laid claim to the chair of +Peter by deposing all three, Gregory VI. was banished to Germany, and +Hildebrand found himself obliged to accompany him. As he himself +afterwards admitted, it was with extreme reluctance that he crossed the +Alps. But his residence in Germany was of great educative value, and +full of significance for his later official activity. In Cologne he was +enabled to pursue his studies; he came into touch with the circles of +Lorraine where interest in the elevation of the Church and her life was +highest, and gained acquaintance with the political and ecclesiastical +circumstances of that country which was destined to figure so largely in +his career. Whether, on the death of Gregory VI. in the beginning of +1048, Hildebrand proceeded to Cluny is doubtful. His brief residence +there, if it actually occurred, is to be regarded as no more than a +visit; for he was never a monk of Cluny. His contemporaries indeed +describe him as a monk; but his entry into the convent must be assigned +to the period preceding or following his German travels and presumably +took place in Rome. He returned to that city with Bishop Bruno of Toul, +who was nominated pope under the title of Leo IX. (1048-1054). Under him +Hildebrand found his first employment in the ecclesiastical service, +becoming a sub-deacon and steward in the Roman Church. He acted, +moreover, as a legate in France, where he was occupied _inter alia_ with +the question of Berengarius of Tours, whose views on the Lord's Supper +had excited opposition. On the death of Leo IX. he was commissioned by +the Romans as their envoy to the German court, to conduct the +negotiations with regard to his successor. The emperor pronounced in +favour of Bishop Gebhard of Eichstadt, who, in the course of his short +reign as Victor II. (1055-1057), again employed Hildebrand as his legate +to France. When Stephen IX. (Frederick of Lorraine) was raised to the +papacy, without previous consultation with the German court, Hildebrand +and Bishop Anselm of Lucca were despatched to Germany to secure a +belated recognition, and he succeeded in gaining the consent of the +empress Agnes. Stephen, however, died before his return, and, by the +hasty elevation of Bishop Johannes of Velletri, the Roman aristocracy +made a last attempt to recover their lost influence on the appointment +to the papal throne--a proceeding which was charged with peril to the +Church as it implied a renewal of the disastrous patrician regime. That +the crisis was surmounted was essentially the work of Hildebrand. To +Benedict X., the aristocratic nominee, he opposed a rival pope in the +person of Bishop Gerhard of Florence, with whom the victory rested. The +reign of Nicholas II. (1059-1061) was distinguished by events which +exercised a potent influence on the policy of the Curia during the next +two decades--the _rapprochement_ with the Normans in the south of Italy, +and the alliance with the democratic and, subsequently, anti-German +movement of the Patarenes in the north. It was also under his +pontificate (1059) that the law was enacted which transferred the papal +election to the College of Cardinals, thus withdrawing it from the +nobility and populace of Rome and thrusting the German influence on one +side. It would be too much to maintain that these measures were due to +Hildebrand alone, but it is obvious that he was already a dominant +personality on the Curia, through he still held no more exalted office +than that of archdeacon, which was indeed only conferred on him in 1059. +Again, when Nicholas II. died and a new schism broke out, the +discomfiture of Honorius II. (Bishop Cadalus of Parma) and the success +of his rival (Anselm of Lucca) must be ascribed principally, if not +entirely, to Hildebrand's opposition to the former. Under the sway of +Alexander II. (1061-1073) this man loomed larger and larger in the eye +of his contemporaries as the soul of the Curial policy. It must be +confessed the general political conditions, especially in Germany, were +at that period exceptionally favourable to the Curia, but to utilize +them with the sagacity actually shown was nevertheless no slight +achievement, and the position of Alexander at the end of his pontificate +was a brilliant justification of the Hildebrandine statecraft. + +On the death of Alexander II. (April 21, 1073), Hildebrand became pope +and took the style of Gregory VII. The mode of his election was bitterly +assailed by his opponents. True, many of the charges preferred are +obviously the emanations of scandal and personal dislike, liable to +suspicion from the very fact that they were not raised to impugn his +promotion till several years had elapsed (_c._ 1076); still it is plain +from his own account of the circumstances of his elevation that it was +conducted in extremely irregular fashion, and that the forms prescribed +by the law of 1059 were not observed. But the sequel justified his +election--of which the worst that can be said is that there was no +general suffrage. And this sequel again owed none of its success to +chance, but was the fruit of his own exertions. In his character were +united wide experience and great energy tested in difficult situations. +It is proof of the popular faith in his qualifications that, although +the circumstances of his election invited assault in 1073, no sort of +attempt was then made to set up a rival pontiff. When, however, the +opposition which took head against him had gone so far as to produce a +pretender to the chair, his long and undisputed possession tended to +prove the original legality of his papacy; and the appeal to +irregularities at its beginning not only lost all cogency but assumed +the appearance of a mere biased attack. On the 22nd of May he received +sacerdotal ordination, and on the 30th of June episcopal consecration; +the empress Agnes and the duchess Beatrice of Tuscany being present at +the ceremony, in addition to Bishop Gregory of Vercelli, the chancellor +of the German king, to whom Gregory would thus seem to have communicated +the result of the election. + +The focus of the ecclesiastico-political projects of Gregory VII. is to +be found in his relationship with Germany. Since the death of Henry III. +the strength of the monarchy in that country had been seriously +impaired, and his son Henry IV. had to contend with great internal +difficulties. This state of affairs was of material assistance to the +pope. His advantage was still further accentuated by the fact that in +1073 Henry was but twenty-three years of age and by temperament inclined +to precipitate action. Many sharp lessons were needful before he learned +to bridle his impetuosity, and he lacked the support and advice of a +disinterested and experienced statesman. Such being the conditions, a +conflict between Gregory VII. and Henry IV. could have only one +issue--the victory of the former. + +In the two following years Henry was compelled by the Saxon rebellion to +come to amicable terms with the pope at any cost. Consequently in May +1074 he did penance at Nuremberg in presence of the legates to expiate +his continued intimacy with the members of his council banned by +Gregory, took an oath of obedience, and promised his support in the work +of reforming the Church. This attitude, however, which at first won him +the confidence of the pope, he abandoned so soon as he gained the upper +hand of the Saxons: this he achieved by his victory at Hohenburg on the +Unstrut (June 9, 1075). He now attempted to reassert his rights of +suzerain in upper Italy without delay. He sent Count Eberhard to +Lombardy to combat the Patarenes; nominated the cleric Tedaldo to the +archbishopric of Milan, thus settling a prolonged and contentious +question; and finally endeavoured to establish relations with the Norman +duke, Robert Guiscard. Gregory VII. answered with a rough letter, dated +December 8, in which--among other charges--he reproached the German king +with breach of his word and with his further countenance of the +excommunicated councillors; while at the same time he sent by word of +mouth a brusque message intimating that the enormous crimes which would +be laid to his account rendered him liable, not only to the ban of the +church, but to the deprivation of his crown. Gregory ventured on these +audacious measures at a time when he himself was confronted by a +reckless opponent in the person of Cencius, who on Christmas-night did +not scruple to surprise him in church and carry him off as a prisoner, +though on the following day he was obliged to surrender his captive. The +reprimands of the pope, couched as they were in such an unprecedented +form, infuriated Henry and his court, and their answer was the hastily +convened national council in Worms, which met on the 24th of January +1076. In the higher ranks of the German clergy Gregory had many enemies, +and a Roman cardinal, Hugo Candidus, once on intimate terms with him but +now at variance, had made a hurried expedition to Germany for the +occasion and appeared at Worms with the rest. All the gross scandals +with regard to the pontiff that this prelate could utter were greedily +received by the assembly, which committed itself to the ill-considered +and disastrous resolution that Gregory had forfeited his papal dignity. +In a document full of accusations the bishops renounced their +allegiance. In another King Henry pronounced him deposed, and the Romans +were required to choose a new occupant for the vacant chair of St Peter. +With the utmost haste two bishops were despatched to Italy in company +with Count Eberhard under commission of the council, and they succeeded +in procuring a similar act of deposition from the Lombard bishops in the +synod of Piacenza. The communication of these decisions to the pope was +undertaken by the priest Roland of Parma, and he was fortunate enough to +gain an opportunity for speech in the synod, which had barely assembled +in the Lateran church, and there to deliver his message announcing the +dethronement of the pontiff. For the moment the members were petrified +with horror, but soon such a storm of indignation was aroused that it +was only due to the moderation of Gregory himself that the envoy was not +cut down on the spot. On the following day the pope pronounced the +sentence of excommunication against the German king with all formal +solemnity, divested him of his royal dignity and absolved his subjects +from the oaths they had sworn to him. This sentence purported to eject +the king from the church and to strip him of his crown. Whether it would +produce this effect, or whether it would remain an idle threat, depended +not on the author of the verdict, but on the subjects of Henry--before +all, on the German princes. We know from contemporary evidence that the +excommunication of the king made a profound impression both in Germany +and Italy. Thirty years before, Henry III. had deposed three popes, and +thereby rendered a great and acknowledged service to the church. When +Henry IV. attempted to copy this summary procedure he came to grief, for +he lacked the support of the people. In Germany there was a speedy and +general revulsion of sentiment in favour of Gregory, and the +particularism of the princes utilized the auspicious moment for +prosecuting their anti-regal policy under the cloak of respect for the +papal decision. When at Whitsuntide the king proposed to discuss the +measures to be taken against Gregory in a council of his nobles at +Mainz, only a few made their appearance; the Saxons snatched at the +golden opportunity for renewing their insurrection and the anti-royalist +party grew in strength from month to month. The situation now became +extremely critical for Henry. As a result of the agitation, which was +zealously fostered by the papal legate Bishop Altmann of Passau, the +princes met in October at Tribur to elect a new German king, and Henry, +who was stationed at Oppenheim on the left bank of the Rhine, was only +saved from the loss of his sceptre by the failure of the assembled +princes to agree on the question of his successor. Their dissension, +however, merely induced them to postpone the verdict. Henry, they +declared, must make reparation to the pope and pledge himself to +obedience; and they settled that, if, on the anniversary of his +excommunication, he still lay under the ban, the throne should be +considered vacant. At the same time they determined to invite Gregory to +Augsburg, there to decide the conflict. These arrangements showed Henry +the course to be pursued. It was imperative, under any circumstances and +at any price, to secure his absolution from Gregory before the period +named, otherwise he could scarcely foil his opponents in their intention +to pursue their attack against himself and justify their measures by an +appeal to his excommunication. At first he attempted to attain his ends +by an embassy, but when Gregory rejected his overtures he took the +celebrated step of going to Italy in person. The pope had already left +Rome, and had intimated to the German princes that he would expect their +escort for his journey on January 8 in Mantua. But this escort had not +appeared when he received the news of the king's arrival. Henry, who +travelled through Burgundy, had been greeted with wild enthusiasm by the +Lombards, but resisted the temptation to employ force against Gregory. +He chose instead the unexpected and unusual, but, as events proved, the +safest course, and determined to compel the pope to grant him absolution +by doing penance before him at Canossa, where he had taken refuge. This +occurrence was quickly embellished and inwoven by legend, and great +uncertainty still prevails with regard to several important points. The +reconciliation was only effected after prolonged negotiations and +definite pledges on the part of the king, and it was with reluctance +that Gregory at length gave way, for, if he conferred his absolution, +the diet of princes in Augsburg, in which he might reasonably hope to +act as arbitrator, would either be rendered purposeless, or, if it met +at all, would wear an entirely different character. It was impossible, +however, to deny the penitent re-entrance into the church, and the +politician had in this case to be subordinated to the priest. Still the +removal of the ban did not imply a genuine reconciliation, and no basis +was gained for a settlement of the great questions at issue--notably +that of investiture. A new conflict was indeed inevitable from the very +fact that Henry IV. naturally considered the sentence of deposition +repealed with that of excommunication; while Gregory on the other hand, +intent on reserving his freedom of action, gave no hint on the subject +at Canossa. + +That the excommunication of Henry IV. was simply a pretext--not a +motive--for the opposition of the rebellious German nobles is manifest. +For not only did they persist in their policy after his absolution, but +they took the more decided step of setting up a rival king in the person +of Duke Rudolph of Swabia (Forchheim, March 1077). At the election the +papal legates present observed the appearance of neutrality, and Gregory +himself sought to maintain this attitude during the following years. His +task was the easier in that the two parties were of fairly equal +strength, each endeavouring to gain the upper hand by the accession of +the pope to their side. But his hopes and labours, with the object of +receiving an appeal to act as arbitrator in the dynastic strife, were +fruitless, and the result of his non-committal policy was that he +forfeited in large measure the confidence of both parties. Finally he +decided for Rudolph of Swabia in consequence of his victory at +Flarchheim (January 27, 1080). Under pressure from the Saxons, and +misinformed as to the significance of this battle, Gregory abandoned his +waiting policy and again pronounced the excommunication and deposition +of King Henry (March 7, 1080), unloosing at the same time all oaths +sworn to him in the past or the future. But the papal censure now proved +a very different thing from the papal censure four years previously. In +wide circles it was felt to be an injustice, and men began to put the +question--so dangerous to the prestige of the pope--whether an +excommunication pronounced on frivolous grounds was entitled to respect. +To make matters worse, Rudolph of Swabia died on the 16th of October of +the same year. True, a new claimant--Hermann of Luxemburg--was put +forward in August 1081, but his personality was ill adapted for a leader +of the Gregorian party in Germany, and the power of Henry IV. was in the +ascendant. The king, who had now been schooled by experience, took up +the struggle thus forced upon him with great vigour. He refused to +acknowledge the ban on the ground of illegality. A council had been +summoned at Brixen, and on the 25th of June 1080 it pronounced Gregory +deposed and nominated the archbishop Guibert of Ravenna as his +successor--a policy of anti-king, anti-pope. In 1081 Henry opened the +conflict against Gregory in Italy. The latter had now fallen on evil +days, and he lived to see thirteen cardinals desert him, Rome +surrendered by the Romans to the German king, Guibert of Ravenna +enthroned as Clement III. (March 24, 1084), and Henry crowned emperor by +his rival, while he himself was constrained to flee from Rome. + +The relations of Gregory to the remaining European states were +powerfully influenced by his German policy; for Germany, by engrossing +the bulk of his powers, not infrequently compelled him to show to other +rulers that moderation and forbearance which he withheld from the German +king. The attitude of the Normans brought him a rude awakening. The +great concessions made to them under Nicholas II. were not only +powerless to stem their advance into central Italy but failed to secure +even the expected protection for the papacy. When Gregory was hard +pressed by Henry IV., Robert Guiscard left him to his fate, and only +interfered when he himself was menaced with the German arms. Then, on +the capture of Rome, he abandoned the city to the tender mercies of his +warriors, and by the popular indignation evoked by his act brought about +the banishment of Gregory. + +In the case of several countries, Gregory attempted to establish a claim +of suzerainty on the part of the see of St Peter, and to secure the +recognition of its self-asserted rights of possession. On the ground of +"immemorial usage" Corsica and Sardinia were assumed to belong to the +Roman Church. Spain and Hungary were also claimed as her property, and +an attempt was made to induce the king of Denmark to hold his realm as a +fief from the pope. Philip I. of France, by his simony and the violence +of his proceedings against the church, provoked a threat of summary +measures; and excommunication, deposition and the interdict, appeared to +be imminent in 1074. Gregory, however, refrained from translating his +menaces into actions, although the attitude of the king showed no +change, for he wished to avoid a dispersion of his strength in the +conflict soon to break out in Germany. In England, again, William the +Conqueror derived no less benefit from this state of affairs. He felt +himself so safe that he interfered autocratically with the management of +the church, forbade the bishops to visit Rome, filled bishoprics and +abbeys, and evinced little anxiety when the pope expatiated to him on +the different principles which he entertained as to the relationship of +church and state, or when he prohibited him from commerce or commanded +him to acknowledge himself a vassal of the apostolic chair. Gregory had +no power to compel the English king to an alteration in his +ecclesiastical policy, so chose to ignore what he could not approve, and +even considered it advisable to assure him of his particular affection. + +Gregory, in fact, established relations--if no more--with every land in +Christendom; though these relations did not invariably realize the +ecclesiastico-political hopes connected with them. His correspondence +extended to Poland, Russia and Bohemia. He wrote in friendly terms to +the Saracen king of Mauretania in north Africa, and attempted, though +without success, to bring the Armenians into closer contact with Rome. +The East, especially, claimed his interest. The ecclesiastical rupture +between the bishops of Rome and Byzantium was a severe blow to him, and +he laboured hard to restore the former amicable relationship. At that +period it was impossible to suspect that the schism implied a definite +separation, for prolonged schisms had existed in past centuries, but had +always been surmounted in the end. Both sides, moreover, had an +interest in repairing the breach between the churches. Thus, +immediately on his accession to the pontificate, Gregory sought to come +into touch with the emperor Michael VII. and succeeded. When the news of +the Saracenic outrages on the Christians in the East filtered to Rome, +and the political embarrassments of the Byzantine emperor increased, he +conceived the project of a great military expedition and exhorted the +faithful to participation in the task of recovering the sepulchre of the +Lord (1074). Thus the idea of a crusade to the Holy Land already floated +before Gregory's vision, and his intention was to place himself at the +head. But the hour for such a gigantic enterprise was not yet come, and +the impending struggle with Henry IV. turned his energies into another +channel. + +In his treatment of ecclesiastical policy and ecclesiastical reform, +Gregory did not stand alone, but on the contrary found powerful support. +Since the middle of the 11th century the tendency--mainly represented by +Cluny--towards a stricter morality and a more earnest attitude to life, +especially on the part of the clergy, had converted the papacy; and, +from Leo IX. onward, the popes had taken the lead in the movement. Even +before his election, Gregory had gained the confidence of these circles, +and, when he assumed the guidance of the church, they laboured for him +with extreme devotion. From his letters we see how he fostered his +connexion with them and stimulated their zeal, how he strove to awake +the consciousness that his cause was the cause of God and that to +further it was to render service to God. By this means he created a +personal party, unconditionally attached to himself, and he had his +confidants in every country. In Italy Bishop Anselm of Lucca, to take an +example, belonged to their number. Again, the duchess Beatrice of +Tuscany and her daughter the Margravine Matilda, who put her great +wealth at his disposal, were of inestimable service. The empress Agnes +also adhered to his cause. In upper Italy the Patarenes had worked for +him in many ways, and all who stood for their objects stood for the +pope. In Germany at the beginning of his reign the higher ranks of the +clergy stood aloof from him and were confirmed in their attitude by some +of his regulations. But Bishop Altmann of Passau, who has already been +mentioned, and Archbishop Gebhard of Salzburg, were among his most +zealous followers. That the convent of Hirschau in Swabia was held by +Gregory was a fact of much significance, for its monks spread over the +land as itinerant agitators and accomplished much for him in southern +Germany. In England Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury probably stood +closest to him; in France his champion was Bishop Hugo of Die, who +afterwards ascended the archiepiscopal chair of Lyons. + +The whole life-work of Gregory VII. was based on his conviction that the +church has been founded by God and entrusted with the task of embracing +all mankind in a single society in which His will is the only law; that, +in her capacity as a divine institution, she outtops all human +structures; and that the pope, _qua_ head of the church, is the +vice-regent of God on earth, so that disobedience to him implies +disobedience to God--or, in other words, a defection from Christianity. +Elaborating an idea discoverable in St Augustine, he looked on the +worldly state--a purely human creation--as an unhallowed edifice whose +character is sufficiently manifest from the fact that it abolishes the +equality of man, and that it is built up by violence and injustice. He +developed these views in a famous series of letters to Bishop Hermann of +Metz. But it is clear from the outset that we are only dealing with +reflections of strictly theoretical importance; for any attempt to +interpret them in terms of action would have bound the church to +annihilate not merely a single definite state, but all states. Thus +Gregory, as a politician desirous of achieving some result, was driven +in practice to adopt a different standpoint. He acknowledged the +existence of the state as a dispensation of Providence, described the +coexistence of church and state as a divine ordinance, and emphasized +the necessity of union between the _sacerdotium_ and the _imperium_. But +at no period would he have dreamed of putting the two powers on an +equality; the superiority of church to state was to him a fact which +admitted of no discussion and which he had never doubted. Again, this +very superiority of the church implied in his eyes a superiority of the +papacy, and he did not shrink from drawing the extreme conclusions from +these premises. In other words, he claimed the right of excommunicating +and deposing incapable monarchs, and of confirming the choice of their +successors. This habit of thought needs to be appreciated in order to +understand his efforts to bring individual states into feudal subjection +to the chair of St Peter. It was no mere question of formality, but the +first step to the realization of his ideal theocracy comprising each and +every state. + +Since this papal conception of the state involved the exclusion of +independence and autonomy, the history of the relationship between +church and state is the history of one continued struggle. In the time +of Gregory it was the question of appointment to spiritual offices--the +so-called _investiture_--which brought the theoretical controversy to a +head. The preparatory steps had already been taken by Leo IX., and the +subsequent popes had advanced still further on the path he indicated; +but it was reserved for Gregory and his enactments to provoke the +outbreak of the great conflict which dominated the following decades. By +the first law (1075) the right of investiture for churches was in +general terms denied to the laity. In 1078 neglect of this prohibition +was made punishable by excommunication, and, by a further decree of the +same year, every investiture conferred by a layman was declared invalid +and its acceptance pronounced liable to penalty. It was, moreover, +enacted that every layman should restore, under pain of excommunication, +all lands of the church, held by him as fiefs from princes or clerics; +and that, henceforward, the assent of the pope, the archbishop, &c., was +requisite for any investiture of ecclesiastical property. Finally in +1080 the forms regulating the canonical appointment to a bishopric were +promulgated. In case of a vacancy the election was to be conducted by +the people and clergy under the auspices of a bishop nominated by the +pope or metropolitan; after which the consent of the pope or archbishop +was to be procured; if any violation of these injunctions occurred, the +election should be null and void and the right of choice pass to the +pope or metropolitan. In so legislating, Gregory had two objects: in the +first place, to withdraw the appointment to episcopal offices from the +influence of the king; in the second, to replace that influence by his +own. The intention was not to increase the power of the metropolitan: he +simply desired that the nomination of bishops by the pope should be +substituted for the prevalent nomination of bishops by the king. But in +this course of action Gregory had a still more ambitious goal before his +eyes. If he could once succeed in abolishing the lay investiture the +king would, _ipso facto_, be deprived of his control over the great +possessions assigned to the church by himself and his predecessors, and +he could have no security that the duties and services attached to those +possessions would continue to be discharged for the benefit of the +Empire. The bishops in fact were to retain their position as princes of +the Empire, with all the lands and rights of supremacy pertaining to +them in that capacity, but the bond between them and the Empire was to +be dissolved: they were to owe allegiance not to the king, but to the +pope--a non-German sovereign who, in consequence of the Italian policy +of the German monarchy, found himself in perpetual opposition to +Germany. Thus, by his ecclesiastical legislation, Gregory attempted to +shake the very foundations on which the constitution of the German +empire rested, while completely ignoring the historical development of +that constitution (see INVESTITURE). + +That energy which Gregory threw into the expansion of the papal +authority, and which brought him into collision with the secular powers, +was manifested no less in the internal government of the church. He +wished to see all important matters of dispute referred to Rome; appeals +were to be addressed to himself, and he arrogated the right of +legislation. The fact that his laws were usually promulgated by Roman +synods which he convened during Lent does not imply that these possessed +an independent position; on the contrary, they were entirely dominated +by his influence, and were no more than the instruments of his will. +The centralization of ecclesiastical government in Rome naturally +involved a curtailment of the powers of the bishops and metropolitans. +Since these in part refused to submit voluntarily and attempted to +assert their traditional independence, the pontificate of Gregory is +crowded with struggles against the higher ranks of the prelacy. Among +the methods he employed to break their power of resistance, the despatch +of legates proved peculiarly effective. The regulation, again, that the +metropolitans should apply at Rome in person for the pallium--pronounced +essential to their qualifications for office--served to school them in +humility. + +This battle for the foundation of papal omnipotence within the church is +connected with his championship of compulsory celibacy among the clergy +and his attack on simony. Gregory VII. did not introduce the celibacy of +the priesthood into the church, for even in antiquity it was enjoined by +numerous laws. He was not even the first pope to renew the injunction in +the 11th century, for legislation on the question begins as early as in +the reign of Leo IX. But he took up the struggle with greater energy and +persistence than his predecessors. In 1074 he published an encyclical, +requiring all to renounce their obedience to those bishops who showed +indulgence to their clergy in the matter of celibacy. In the following +year he commanded the laity to accept no official ministrations from +married priests and to rise against all such. He further deprived these +clerics of their revenues. Wherever these enactments were proclaimed +they encountered tenacious opposition, and violent scenes were not +infrequent, as the custom of marriage was widely diffused throughout the +contemporary priesthood. Other decrees were issued by Gregory in +subsequent years, but were now couched in milder terms, since it was no +part of his interest to increase the numbers of the German faction. As +to the objectionable nature of simony--the transference or acquisition +of a spiritual office for monetary considerations--no doubt could exist +in the mind of an earnest Christian, and no theoretical justification +was ever attempted. The practice, however, had attained great dimensions +both among the clergy and the laity, and the sharp campaign, which had +been waged since the days of Leo IX., had done little to limit its +scope. The reason was that in many cases it had assumed an extremely +subtle form, and detection was difficult when the simony took the +character of a tax or an honorarium. The fact, again, that lay +investiture was described as simony, inevitably brought with it an +element of confusion, and, in the case of a charge of simoniacal +practices, enormously accentuates the difficulty of determining the +actual state of affairs. The war against simony in its original form was +undoubtedly necessary, but it led to highly complicated and problematic +issues. Was the priest or bishop, whose ordination was due to simony, +actually in the possession of the sacerdotal or episcopal power or not? +If the answer was in the affirmative, it would seem possible to buy the +Holy Ghost; if in the negative, then obviously all the official acts of +the respective priest or bishop--which, according to the doctrine of the +church, presupposed the possession of a spiritual quality--were invalid. +And, since the number of simoniacal bishops was at that period extremely +large, incalculable consequences resulted. The difficulty of the problem +accounts for the diversity of solutions propounded. The perplexity of +the situation was aggravated by the fact that, if the stricter view was +adopted, it followed that the sacrament of ordination must be pronounced +invalid, even in the cases where it had been unconsciously sought at the +hands of a simoniac, for the dispenser was in point of fact no bishop, +although he exercised the episcopal functions and his transgressions +were unknown, and consequently it was impossible for him to ordain +others. In the time of Gregory the conflict was still swaying to and +fro, and he himself in 1078 declared consecration by a simoniac null and +void. + +The pontificate of Gregory VII. came to a melancholy close, for he died +an exile in Salerno; the Romans and a number of his most trusted +coadjutors had renounced him, and the faithful band in Germany had +shrunk to scant proportions. Too much the politician, too rough in his +methods, too exclusively the representative of the Roman see and its +interests, he had gained more enemies than friends. He was of course a +master of statecraft; he had pursued political ends with consummate +skill, causing them to masquerade as requirements of religion; but he +forgot that incitement to civil war, the preaching of rebellion, and the +release of subjects from their oaths, were methods which must infallibly +lead to moral anarchy, and tend, with justice, to stifle the confidence +once felt in him. The more he accustomed his contemporaries to the +belief that any and every measure--so long as it opened up some prospect +of success--was good in his sight, no matter how dangerous the fruits it +might mature, the fainter grew their perception of the fact that he was +not only a statesman but primarily the head of the Christian Church. +That the frail bonds of piety and religious veneration for the chair of +St Peter had given way in the struggle for power was obvious to all, +when he himself lost that power and the star of his opponent was in the +ascendant. He had given the rein to his splendid gifts as a ruler, and +in his capacity of pope he omitted to provide an equivalent +counterpoise. We are told that he was once an impressive preacher, and +he could write to his faithful countesses in terms which prove that he +was not wanting in religious feeling; but in the whirlpool of secular +politics this phase of his character was never sufficiently developed to +allow the vice-gerent of Christ to be heard instead of the hierarch in +his official acts. + +But to estimate the pontificate of Gregory by the disasters of its +closing years would be to misconceive its significance for the history +of the papacy entirely. On the contrary, his reign forms an important +chapter in the history of the popedom as an institution; it contains the +germs of far-reaching modifications of the church, and it gave new +impulses to both theory and practice, the value of which may indeed be +differently estimated, but of which the effects are indubitable. It was +he who conceived and formulated the ideal of the papacy as a structure +embracing all peoples and lands. He took the first step towards the +codification of ecclesiastical law and the definite ratification of the +claims of the apostolic chair as corner-stones in the church's +foundation. He educated the clergy and the lay world in obedience to +Rome; and, finally, it was due to his efforts that the duty of the +priest with regard to sexual abstinence was never afterwards a matter of +doubt in the Catholic Christianity of the West. + +On the 25th of May 1085 he died, unbroken by the misfortunes of his last +years, and unshaken in his self-certainty. _Dilexi justitiam et odivi +iniquitatem: propterea morior in exilio_--are said to have been his last +words. In 1584 Gregory XIII. received him into the _Martyrologium +Romanum_; in 1606 he was canonized by Paul V. The words dedicated to him +in the _Breviarium Romanum_, for May 25, contain such an apotheosis of +his pontificate that in the 18th and 19th centuries they were prohibited +by the governments of several countries with Roman Catholic populations. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A comprehensive survey of the sources and literature + for the history of Gregory VII. is given by C. Mirbt, s.v. "Gregor + VII." in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, 3rd ed. vol. vii. pp. 96 + sqq. The main source for the reign of Gregory consists of his letters + and decrees, the greater part of which are collected in the + _Registrum_ (ed. P. Jaffe, _Bibliotheca rerum Germanicarum_, ii., + Berlin, 1865). The letters preserved in addition to this official + collection are also reprinted by Jaffe under the title of _Epistolae + collectae_. The _Dictatus Papae_--a list of twenty-seven short + sentences on the rights of the pope,--which is given in the + _Registrum_, is not the work of Gregory VII., but should probably be + ascribed to Cardinal Deusdedit. Further: A. Potthast, _Bibliotheca + historica medii aevi_, i. (2nd ed., Berlin, 1896), pp. 541 sq., ii. + 1351; P. Jaffe, _Regesta pontificum_ (2nd ed., 1865), tome i. pp. + 594-649, Nr. 4771-5313, tome ii. p. 751. The most important letters + and decrees of Gregory VII. are reprinted by C. Mirbt, _Quellen zur + Geschichte des Papsttums_ (2nd ed., Tubingen, 1901), Nr. 183 sqq., pp. + 100 sqq. The oldest life of Gregory is that by Paul von Bermried, + reprinted, e.g. by Watterich, _Vitae pontificum_, i. 474-546. Among + the historians the following are of especial importance: Berthold, + Bernold, Lambert von Hersfeld, Bruno, Marianus Scotus, Leo of Ostia, + Peter of Marte Cassino, Sigebert of Gembloux, Hugo of Flavigny, + Arnulph and Landulf of Milan, Donizo--their works being reprinted in + the section "Scriptores" in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica_, vols. + v., vi., vii., viii., xii. The struggles which broke out under Gregory + VII. and were partially continued in the subsequent decades gave rise + to a pamphlet literature which is of extreme importance for their + internal history. The extant materials vary greatly in extent, and + display much diversity from the literary-historical point of view. + Most of them are printed in the _Monumenta Germaniae_, under the + title, _Libelli de lite imperatorum et pontificum saeculis XI. et XII. + conscripti_, tome i. (Hanover, 1891), tome ii. (1892), tome iii. + (1897). The scientific investigation of the Gregorian age has received + enormous benefit from the critical editions of the sources in the + _Monumenta Germaniae_, so that the old literature is for the most part + antiquated. This is true even of the great monograph on this pope--A. + F. Gfrorer, _Papst Gregorius VII. und sein Zeitalter_ (7 vols., + Schaffhausen, 1859-1861), which must be used with extreme caution. The + present state of criticism is represented by the following works: G. + Meyer von Knonau, _Jahrbucher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich IV. + und Heinrich V._, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1890), ii. (1894), iii. (1900), + iv. (1903); W. Martens, _Gregor VII., sein Leben und Werken_ (2 vols., + Leipzig, 1904); C. Mirbt, _Die Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregors VII._ + (Leipzig, 1894); A. Hauck, _Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands_ (3 vols., + Leipzig, 1894). The special literature on individual events during the + Gregorian pontificate is so extensive that no list can be given here. + On Gregory's elevation to the chair, cf. C. Mirbt, _Die Wahl Gregors + VII._ (Marburg, 1892). See also A. H. Mathew, D.D., _Life and Times of + Hildebrand, Pope Gregory VII._ (1910). (C. M.) + +GREGORY VIII. (_Mauritius Burdinus_), antipope from 1118 to 1121, was a +native of southern France, who had crossed the Pyrenees while young and +had later been made archbishop of Braga. Suspended by Paschal II. in +1114 on account of a dispute with the Spanish primate and papal legate, +the archbishop of Toledo, he went to Rome and regained favour to such an +extent that he was employed by the pope on important legations. He +opposed the extreme Hildebrandine policy, and, on the refusal of +Gelasius II. to concede the emperor's claim to investiture, he was +proclaimed pope at Rome by Henry V. on the 8th of March 1118. He was not +universally recognized, however, and never fully enjoyed the papal +office. He was excommunicated by Gelasius II. in April 1118, and by +Calixtus II. at the synod of Reims (October 1119). He was driven from +Rome by the latter in June 1121, and, having been surrendered by the +citizens of Sutri, he was forced to accompany in ridiculous guise the +triumphal procession of Calixtus through Rome. He was exiled to the +convent of La Cava, where he died. + + The life of Gregory VIII. by Baluzius in _Baluzii miscellanea_, vol. + i, ed. by J. D. Mansi (Lucca, 1761), is an excellent vindication of an + antipope. The chief sources are in _Monumenta Germaniae historica_, + _Scriptores_, vols. 5 and 20, and in J. M. Watterich, _Pontif. Roman. + vitae_, vol. 2. See C. Mirbt, _Die Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregors + VII._ (Leipzig, 1894); J. Langen, _Geschichte der romischen Kirche von + Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III._ (Bonn, 1893); Jaffe, _Regesta pontif. + Roman._, 2nd ed., (1885-1888); K. J. von Hefele, + _Conciliengeschichte_, Bd. 5, 2nd ed.; F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the + Middle Ages_, vol. 4, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, + 1900-1902); P. B. Gams, _Kirchengeschichte von Spanien_, vol. 3 + (Regensburg, 1876). + +GREGORY VIII. (_Alberto de Mora_), pope from the 21st of October to the +17th of December 1187, a native of Benevento and Praemonstratensian +monk, successively abbot of St Martin at Laon, cardinal-deacon of San' +Adriano al foro, cardinal-priest of San Lorenzo in Lucina, and +chancellor of the Roman Church, was elected to succeed Urban III. Of +amiable disposition, he hastened to make peace with Henry VI. and +promised not to oppose the latter's claim to Sicily. He addressed +general letters both to the bishops, reminding them of their duties to +the Roman Church, especially of their required visits _ad limina_, and +to the whole Christian people, urging a new crusade to recover +Jerusalem. He died at Pisa while engaged in making peace between the +Pisans and Genoese in order to secure the help of both cities in the +crusade. His successor was Clement III. + + His letters are in J. P. Migne, _Patrol. Lat._ vol. 202. Consult also + J. M. Watterich, _Pontif. Roman. vitae_, vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1862), and + Jaffe-Wattenbach, _Regesta pontif. Roman._ (1885-1888). See J. Langen, + _Geschichte der romischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III._ + (Bonn, 1893); P. Nadig, _Gregors VIII. 57 tagiges Pontifikat_ (Basel, + 1890); P. Scheffer-Boichorst, _Friedrichs I. letzter Streit mit der + Kurie_ (Berlin, 1866); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol. + 4, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1896). + +GREGORY IX. (_Ugolino Conti de Segni_), pope from the 19th of March +1227, to the 22nd of August 1241, was a nobleman of Anagni and probably +a nephew of Innocent III. He studied at Paris and Bologna, and, having +been successively archpriest of St Peter's, papal chaplain, +cardinal-deacon of Sant' Eustachio, cardinal-bishop of Ostia, the first +protector of the Franciscan order, and papal legate in Germany under +Innocent III., and Honorius III., he succeeded the latter in the papacy. +He had long been on friendly terms with the emperor Frederick II., but +now excommunicated him (29th of September 1227) for continued neglect of +his vows and refusal to undertake the crusade. When Frederick finally +set out the following June without making submission to the pope, +Gregory raised an insurrection against him in Germany, and forced him in +1230 to beg for absolution. The Romans, however, soon began a very +bitter war against the temporal power and exiled the pope (1st of June +1231). Hardly had this contest been brought to an end favourable to the +papacy (May 1235) when Gregory came into fresh conflict with Frederick +II. He again excommunicated the emperor and released his subjects from +their allegiance (24th of March 1239). Frederick, on his side, invaded +the Papal States and prevented the assembling of a general council +convoked for Easter 1241. The work of Gregory, however, was by no means +limited to his relations with emperor and Romans. He systematized the +Inquisition and entrusted it to the Dominicans; his rules against +heretics remained in force until the time of Sixtus V. He supported +Henry III. against the English barons, and protested against the +Pragmatic Sanction of Louis IX. of France. He sent monks to +Constantinople to negotiate with the Greeks for church unity, but +without result. He canonized Saints Elizabeth of Thuringia, Dominic, +Anthony of Padua and Francis of Assisi. He permitted free study of the +Aristotelian writings, and issued (1234), through his chaplain, Raymond +of Pennaforte, an important new compilation of decretals which he +prescribed in the bull _Rex pacificus_ should be the standard text-book +in canon law at the universities of Bologna and Paris. Gregory was famed +for his learning and eloquence, his blameless life, and his great +strength of character. He died on the 22nd of August 1241, while +Frederick II. was advancing against him, and was succeeded by Celestine +IV. + + For the life of Gregory IX., consult his Letters in _Monumenta + Germaniae historica, Epistolae saeculi XIII. e regestis pontif. Roman. + selectae_ (Berlin, 1883); "Les Registres de Gregoire IX," ed. L. + Auvray in _Bibliotheque des ecoles francaises d'Athenes et de Rome_ + (Paris, 1890-1905); A. Potthast, _Regesta pontif. Roman._ (Berlin, + 1875) and "Registri dei Cardinali Ugolino d' Ostia et Ottaviano degli + Ubaldini," ed. G. Levi in _Fonti per la storia d' Italia_ (1890). See + J. Felten, _Papst Gregor IX._ (Freiburg i. B., 1886); J. Marx, _Die + Vita Gregorii IX. quellenkritisch untersucht_ (1889); P. Balan, + _Storia di Gregorio IX e dei suoi tempi_ (3 vols., Modena, 1872-1873); + F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol. 5, trans. by Mrs G. W. + Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); H. H. Milman, _Latin Christianity_, vol. + 5 (London, 1899); R. Honig, _Rapporti tra Federico II e Gregorio IX + rispetto alla spedizione in Palestina_ (1896); P. T. Masetti, _I + Pontefici Onorio III, Gregorio IX ed Innocenzo IV a fronte dell' + Imperatore Federico II nel secolo XIII_ (1884); T. Frantz, _Der grosse + Kampf zwischen Kaisertum u. Papsttum zur Zeit des Hohenstaufen + Friedrich II._ (Berlin, 1903); W. Norden, _Das Papsttum u. Byzanz_ + (Berlin, 1903). An exhaustive bibliography and an excellent article on + Gregory by Carl Mirbt are to be found in Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_, + 3rd edition. + +GREGORY X. (_Tebaldo Visconti_), pope from the 1st of September 1271, to +the 10th of January 1276, was born at Piacenza in 1208, studied for the +church, and became archdeacon of Liege. The eighteen cardinals who met +to elect a successor to Clement IV. were divided into French and Italian +factions, which wrangled over the election for nearly three years in the +midst of great popular excitement, until finally, stirred by the +eloquence of St Bonaventura, the Franciscan monk, they entrusted the +choice to six electors, who hit on Visconti, at that time accompanying +Edward of England on the crusade. He returned to Rome and was ordained +priest on the 19th of March 1272, and consecrated on the 27th. He at +once summoned the fourteenth general council of the Catholic Church, +which met at Lyons in 1274, with an attendance of some 1600 prelates, +for the purpose of considering the eastern schism, the condition of the +Holy Land, and the abuses in the church. The Greeks were persuaded, +thanks to St Bonaventura, to consent to a union with Rome for the time +being, and Rudolph of Habsburg renounced at the council all imperial +rights in the States of the Church. The most celebrated among the many +reform decrees issued by Gregory was the constitution determining for +the first time the form of conclave at papal elections, which in large +measure has remained ever since the law of the church. Gregory was on +his way to Rome to crown Rudolph and send him out on a great crusade in +company with the kings of England, France, Aragon and Sicily, when he +died at Arezzo on the 10th of January 1276. He was a nobleman, fond of +peace and actuated by the consciousness of a great mission. He has been +honoured as a saint by the inhabitants of Arezzo and Piacenza. His +successor in the papacy was Innocent V. + + The registers of Gregory X. have been published by J. Guiraud in the + _Bibliotheque des ecoles francaises d'Athenes et de Rome_ (Paris, + 1892-1898). See K. J. von Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_, vol. 5, 2nd + edition (1873-1890); H. Finke, _Konzilienstudien z. Gesch. des 13ten + Jahrhunderts_ (Munster, 1891); P. Piacenza, _Compendia della storia + del b. Gregorio X, papa_ (Piacenza, 1876); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in + the Middle Ages_, vol. 5, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, + 1900-1902); H. Otto, _Die Beziehungen Rudolfs von Habsburgs zu Papst + Gregor X._ (Innsbruck, 1895); A. Zisterer, _Gregor X. u. Rudolf von + Habsburg in ihren gegenseitigen Beziehungen_ (Freiburg i. B., 1891); + F. Walter, _Die Politik der Kurie unter Gregor X._ (Berlin, 1894); A. + Potthast, _Regesta pontif. Roman._ vol. 2 (Berlin, 1875); W. Norden, + _Das Papsttum und Byzanz_ (Berlin, 1903); J. Loserth, "Akten uber die + Wahl Gregors X." in _Neues Archiv_, xxi. (1895); A. von + Hirsch-Gereuth, "Die Kreuzzugspolitik Gregors X." in _Studien z. + Gesch. d. Kreuzzugsidee nach den Kreuzzugen_ (Munich, 1896). There is + an excellent article by Carl Mirbt in Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_, 3rd + edition. + +GREGORY XI. (_Pierre Roger de Beaufort_), pope from the 30th of December +1370 to the 27th of March 1378, born in Limousin in 1330, created +cardinal-deacon of Sta Maria Nuova by his uncle, Clement VI., was the +successor of Urban V. His efforts to establish peace between France and +England and to aid the Eastern Christians against the Turks were +fruitless, but he prevented the Visconti of Milan from making further +encroachments on the States of the Church. He introduced many reforms in +the various monastic orders and took vigorous measures against the +heresies of the time. His energy was stimulated by the stirring words of +Catherine of Siena, to whom in particular the transference of the papal +see back to Italy (17th of January 1377) was almost entirely due. Whilst +at Rome he issued several bulls to the archbishop of Canterbury, the +king of England, and the university of Oxford, commanding an +investigation of Wycliffe's doctrines. Gregory was meditating a return +to Avignon when he died. He was the last of the French popes who for +some seventy years had made Avignon their see, a man learned and full of +zeal for the church, but irresolute and guilty of nepotism. The great +schism, which was to endure fifty years, broke out soon after the +election of his successor, Urban VI. + + See H. J. Tomaseth, "Die Register u. Secretare Urbans V. u. Gregors + XI." in _Mitteilungen des Instituts fur osterreichische + Geschichtsforschung_ (1898); Baluzius, _Vitae pap. Avenion._ vol. I + (Paris, 1693); L. Pastor, _History of the Popes_, vol. I, trans. by F. + I. Antrobus (London, 1899); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, + vol. 6, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); J. P. + Kirsch, _Die Ruckkehr der Papste Urban V. u. Gregor XI. von Avignon + nach Rom_ (Paderborn, 1898); J. B. Christophe, _Histoire de la papaute + pendant le XIV^e siecle_, vol. 2 (Paris, 1853). There is a good + article by J. N. Brischar in the _Kirchenlexikon_, 2nd edition. + +GREGORY XII. (_Angelo Coriaro_, or _Correr_), pope from the 30th of +November 1406, to the 4th of July 1415, was born of a noble family at +Venice about 1326. Successively bishop of Castello, Latin patriarch of +Constantinople, cardinal-priest of San Marco, and papal secretary, he +was elected to succeed Innocent VII., after an interregnum of +twenty-four days, under the express condition that, should the antipope +Benedict XIII. at Avignon renounce all claim to the papacy, he also +would renounce his, so that the long schism might be terminated. As +pope, he concluded a treaty with his rival at Marseilles, by which a +general council was to be held at Savona in September, 1408, but King +Ladislaus of Naples, who opposed the plan from policy, seized Rome and +brought the negotiations to nought. Gregory had promised not to create +any more cardinals, and when he did so, in 1408, his former cardinals +deserted him and, together with the Avignon cardinals, convoked the +council of Pisa, which, despite its irregularity, proclaimed in June +1409 the deposition of both popes and the election of Alexander V. +Gregory, still supported by Naples, Hungary, Bavaria, and by Rupert, +king of the Romans, found protection with Ladislaus, and in a synod at +Cividale del Friuli banned Benedict and Alexander as schismatical, +perjured and scandalous. John XXIII., having succeeded to the claims of +Alexander in 1410, concluded a treaty with Ladislaus, by which Gregory +was banished from Naples on the 31st of October 1411. The pope then took +refuge with Carlo Malatesta, lord of Rimini, through whom he presented +his resignation to the council of Constance on the 4th of July 1415. A +weak and easily-influenced old man, his resignation was the noblest act +of his pontificate. The rest of his life was spent in peaceful obscurity +as cardinal-bishop of Porto and legate of the mark of Ancona. He died at +Recanati on the 18th of October 1417. Some writers reckon Alexander V. +and John XXIII. as popes rather than as antipopes, and accordingly count +Gregory's pontificate from 1406 to 1409. Roman Catholic authorities, +however, incline to the other reckoning. + + See L. Pastor, _History of the Popes_, vol. i., trans. by F. I. + Antrobus (London, 1899); M. Creighton, _History of the Papacy_, vol. 1 + (London, 1899); N. Valois, _La France et le grand schisme d'occident_ + (Paris, 1896-1902); Louis Gayet, _Le Grand Schisme d'occident_ (Paris, + 1898); J. von Haller, _Papsttum u. Kirchenreform_ (Berlin, 1903); J. + Loserth, _Geschichte des spateren Mittelalters_ (1903); _Theoderici de + Nyem de schismate libri tres_, ed. by G. Erler (Leipzig, 1890). There + is an excellent article by J. N. Brischar in the _Kirchenlexikon_ 2nd + ed., vol. 5. (C. H. Ha.) + +GREGORY XIII. (_Ugo Buoncompagno_), pope from 1572 to 1585, was born on +the 7th of January 1502, in Bologna, where he received his education, +and subsequently taught, until called to Rome (1539) by Paul III., who +employed him in various offices. He bore a prominent part in the council +of Trent, 1562-1563. In 1564 he was made cardinal by Pius IV., and, in +the following year, sent to Spain as legate. On the 13th of May 1572 he +was chosen pope to succeed Pius V. His previous life had been rather +worldly, and not wholly free from spot; but as pope he gave no occasion +of offence. He submitted to the influence of the rigorists, and carried +forward the war upon heresy, though not with the savage vehemence of his +predecessor. However, he received the news of the massacre of St +Bartholomew (23rd of August 1572) with joy, and publicly celebrated the +event, having been led to believe, according to his apologists, that +France had been miraculously delivered, and that the Huguenots had +suffered justly as traitors. Having failed to rouse Spain and Venice +against the Turks, Gregory attempted to form a general coalition against +the Protestants. He subsidized Philip II. in his wars in the +Netherlands; aided the Catholic League in France; incited attacks upon +Elizabeth by way of Ireland. With the aid of the Jesuits, whose +privileges he multiplied, he conducted a vigorous propaganda. He +established or endowed above a score of colleges, among them the +Collegium Romanum (founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1550), and the +Collegium Germanicum, in Rome. Among his noteworthy achievements are the +reform of the calendar on the 24th of February 1582 (see CALENDAR); the +improved edition of the _Corpus juris canonici_, 1582; the splendid +Gregorian Chapel in St Peter's; the fountains of the Piazza Navona; the +Quirinal Palace; and many other public works. To meet the expenses +entailed by his liberality and extravagance, Gregory resorted to +confiscation, on the pretext of defective titles or long-standing +arrearages. The result was disastrous to the public peace: nobles armed +in their defence; old feuds revived; the country became infested with +bandits; not even in Rome could order be maintained. Amid these +disturbances Gregory died, on the 10th of April 1585, leaving to his +successor, Sixtus V., the task of pacifying the state. + + See the contemporary lives by Cicarella, continuator of Platina, _De + vitis pontiff. Rom._; Ciaconius, _Vitae et res gestae summorum + pontiff. Rom._ (Rome, 1601-1602); and Ciappi, _Comp. dell' attioni e + santa vita di Gregorio XIII_ (Rome, 1591). See also Bompiano, _Hist. + pontificatus Gregorii XIII._ (Rome, 1655); Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng. + trans., Austin), i. 428 seq.; v. Reumont, _Gesch. der Stadt Rom._ iii. + 2, 566 seq.; and for numerous references upon Gregory's relation to + the massacre of St Bartholomew, _Cambridge Mod. Hist._ iii. 771 seq. + +GREGORY XIV. (_Nicolo Sfondrato_), pope 1590-1591, was born in Cremona, +on the 11th of February 1535, studied in Perugia, and Padua, became +bishop of his native place in 1560, and took part in the council of +Trent, 1562-1563. Gregory XIII. made him a cardinal, 1583, but +ill-health forbade his active participation in affairs. His election to +the papacy, to succeed Urban VII., on the 5th of December 1590, was due +to Spanish influence. Gregory was upright and devout, but utterly +ignorant of politics. During his short pontificate the States of the +Church suffered dire calamities, famine, epidemic and a fresh outbreak +of brigandage. Gregory was completely subservient to Philip II.; he +aided the league, excommunicated Henry of Navarre, and threatened his +adherents with the ban; but the effect of his intervention was only to +rally the moderate Catholics to the support of Henry, and to hasten his +conversion. Gregory died on the 15th of October 1591, and was succeeded +by Innocent IX. + + See Ciaconius, _Vitae et res gestae summorum pontiff. Rom._ (Rome, + 1601-1602); Cicarella, continuator of Platina, _De vitis pontiff. + Rom._ (both contemporary); Brosch, _Gesch. des Kirchenstaates_ (1880). + i. 300; Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng. trans., Austin), ii. 228 seq. + +GREGORY XV. (_Alessandro Ludovisi_) was born on the 9th of January 1554, +in Bologna, where he also studied and taught. He was made archbishop of +his native place and cardinal by Paul V., whom he succeeded as pope on +the 9th of February 1621. Despite his age and feebleness, Gregory +displayed remarkable energy. He aided the emperor in the Thirty Years' +War, and the king of Poland against the Turks. He endorsed the claims of +Maximilian of Bavaria to the electoral dignity, and was rewarded with +the gift of the Heidelberg library, which was carried off to Rome. +Gregory founded the Congregation of the Propaganda, encouraged missions, +fixed the order to be observed in conclaves, and canonized Ignatius +Loyola, Francis Xavier, Philip Neri and Theresa de Jesus. He died on the +8th of July 1623, and was succeeded by Urban VIII. + + See the contemporary life by Vitorelli, continuator of Ciaconius, + _Vitae et res gestae summorum pontiff. Rom._; Ranke's excellent + account, _Popes_ (Eng. trans., Austin), ii. 468 seq.; v. Reumont, + _Gesch. der Stadt Rom_, iii. 2, 609 seq.; Brosch, _Gesch. des + Kirchenstaates_ (1880), i. 370 seq.; and the extended bibliography in + Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, s.v. "Gregor XV." (T. F. C.) + +GREGORY XVI. (_Bartolommeo Alberto Cappellari_), pope from 1831 to 1846, +was born at Belluno on the 18th of September 1765, and at an early age +entered the order of the Camaldoli, among whom he rapidly gained +distinction for his theological and linguistic acquirements. His first +appearance before a wider public was in 1799, when he published against +the Italian Jansenists a controversial work entitled _Il Trionfo della +Santa Sede_, which, besides passing through several editions in Italy, +has been translated into several European languages. In 1800 he became a +member of the Academy of the Catholic Religion, founded by Pius VII., to +which he contributed a number of memoirs on theological and +philosophical questions and in 1805 was made abbot of San Gregorio on +the Caelian Hill. When Pius VII. was carried off from Rome in 1809, +Cappellari withdrew to Murano, near Venice, and in 1814, with some other +members of his order, he removed to Padua; but soon after the +restoration of the pope he was recalled to Rome, where he received +successive appointments as vicar-general of the Camaldoli, councillor of +the Inquisition, prefect of the Propaganda, and examiner of bishops. In +March 1825 he was created cardinal by Leo XII., and shortly afterwards +was entrusted with an important mission to adjust a concordat regarding +the interests of the Catholics of Belgium and the Protestants of +Holland. On the 2nd of February 1831 he was, after sixty-four days' +conclave, unexpectedly chosen to succeed Pius VIII. in the papal chair. +The revolution of 1830 had just inflicted a severe blow on the +ecclesiastical party in France, and almost the first act of the new +government there was to seize Ancona, thus throwing all Italy, and +particularly the Papal States, into an excited condition which seemed to +demand strongly repressive measures. In the course of the struggle which +ensued it was more than once necessary to call in the Austrian bayonets. +The reactionaries in power put off their promised reforms so +persistently as to anger even Metternich; nor did the replacement of +Bernetti by Lambruschini in 1836 mend matters; for the new cardinal +secretary of state objected even to railways and illuminating gas, and +was liberal chiefly in his employment of spies and of prisons. The +embarrassed financial condition in which Gregory left the States of the +Church makes it doubtful how far his lavish expenditure in architectural +and engineering works, and his magnificent patronage of learning in the +hands of Mai, Mezzofanti, Gaetano, Moroni and others, were for the real +benefit of his subjects. The years of his pontificate were marked by the +steady development and diffusion of those ultramontane ideas which were +ultimately formulated, under the presidency of his successor Pius IX., +by the council of the Vatican. He died on the 1st of June 1846. + + See A. M. Bernasconi, _Acta Gregorii Papae XVI. scilicet + constitutiones, bullae, litterae apostolicae, epistolae_, vols. i-4 + (Rome, 1901 ff.); Cardinal Wiseman, _Recollections of the Last Four + Popes_ (London, 1858); Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, vol. vii. + (Leipzig, 1899), 127 ff. (gives literature); Frederik Nielsen, + _History of the Papacy in the 19th Century_, ii. (London, 1906). + (W. W. R.*) + + + + +GREGORY,[1] the name of a Scottish family, many members of which +attained high eminence in various departments of science, fourteen +having held professorships in mathematics or medicine. Of the most +distinguished of their number a notice is given below. + +I. DAVID GREGORY (1627-1720), eldest son of the Rev. John Gregory of +Drumoak, Aberdeenshire, who married Janet Anderson in 1621. He was for +some time connected with a mercantile house in Holland, but on +succeeding to the family estate of Kinardie returned to Scotland, and +occupied most of his time in scientific pursuits, freely giving his +poorer neighbours the benefit of his medical skill. He is said to have +been the first possessor of a barometer in the north of Scotland; and on +account of his success by means of it in predicting changes in the +weather, he was accused of witchcraft before the presbytery of Aberdeen, +but he succeeded in convincing that body of his innocence. + +II. JAMES GREGORY (1638-1675), Scottish mathematician, younger brother +of the preceding, was educated at the grammar school of Aberdeen and at +Marischal College of that city. At an early period he manifested a +strong inclination and capacity for mathematics and kindred sciences; +and in 1663 he published his famous treatise _Optica promota_, in which +he made known his great invention, the Gregorian reflecting telescope. +About 1665 he went to the university of Padua, where he studied for some +years, and in 1667 published _Vera circuli et hyperbolae quadratura_, in +which he discussed infinite convergent series for the areas of the +circle and hyperbola. In the following year he published also at Padua +_Geometriae pars universalis_, in which he gave a series of rules for +the rectification of curves and the mensuration of their solids of +revolution. On his return to England in this year he was elected a +fellow of the Royal Society; in 1669 he became professor of mathematics +in the university of St Andrews; and in 1674 he was transferred to the +chair of mathematics in Edinburgh. In October 1675, while showing the +satellites of the planet Jupiter to some of his students through one of +his telescopes, he was suddenly struck with blindness, and he died a few +days afterwards. + + He was also the author of _Exercitationes geometricae_ (1668), and, it + is alleged, of a satirical tract entitled _The Great and New Art of + Weighing Vanity_, intended to ridicule certain fallacies of a + contemporary writer on hydraulics, and published at Glasgow in 1672, + professedly by "Patrick Mathers, archbeadle of the university of St + Andrews." + +III. DAVID GREGORY (1661-1708), son of David Gregory (1627-1720), was +born in Aberdeen and educated partly in his native city and partly in +Edinburgh, where he became professor of mathematics in 1683. From 1691 +till his death he was Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford. His +principal works are _Exercitatio geometrica de dimensione figurarum_ +(1684), _Catoptricae et dioptricae sphaericae elementa_ (1695), and +_Astronomiae physicae et geometricae elementa_ (1702)--the last a work +highly esteemed by Sir Isaac Newton, of whose system it is an +illustration and a defence. _A Treatise on Practical Geometry_ which he +left in manuscript was translated from the Latin and published in 1745. +He was succeeded in the chair of mathematics in Edinburgh by bis brother +James; another brother, Charles, was in 1707 appointed professor of +mathematics in the university of St Andrews; and his eldest son, David +(1696-1767), became professor of modern history at Oxford, and canon and +subsequently dean of Christ Church. + +IV. JOHN GREGORY (1724-1773), Scottish physician, grandson of James +Gregory (1638-1675) and youngest son of Dr James Gregory (d. 1731), +professor of medicine in King's College, Aberdeen, was born at Aberdeen +on the 3rd of June 1724. He received his early education at the grammar +school of Aberdeen and at King's College in that city, and in 1741 he +attended the medical classes at Edinburgh university. In 1745 he went to +Leiden to complete his medical studies, and during his stay there he +received without solicitation the degree of doctor of medicine from +King's College, Aberdeen. On his return from Holland he was elected +professor of philosophy at King's College, but in 1749 he resigned his +professorship on account of its duties interfering too much with his +private practice. In 1754 he proceeded to London, where he made the +acquaintance of many persons of distinction, and the same year was +chosen fellow of the Royal Society. On the death in November 1755 of his +brother Dr James Gregory, who had succeeded his father as professor of +medicine in King's College, Aberdeen, he was appointed to that office. +In 1764 he removed to Edinburgh in the hope of obtaining a more extended +field of practice as a physician, and in 1766 he was appointed professor +of the practice of medicine in the university of Edinburgh, to whose +eminence as a medical school he largely contributed. He died of gout on +the 10th of February 1773. + + He is the author of _A Comparative View of the State and Faculties of + Man with those of the Animal World_ (1765); _Observations on the + Duties, Offices and Qualifications of a Physician_ (1772); _Elements + of the Practice of Physic_ (1772); and _A Father's Legacy to his + Daughters_ (1774). _His Whole Works_, with a life by Mr Tytler + (afterwards Lord Woodhouselee), were published at Edinburgh in 1788. + +V. JAMES GREGORY (1753-1821), Scottish physician, eldest son of the +preceding, was born at Aberdeen in January 1753. He accompanied his +father to Edinburgh in 1764, and after going through the usual course of +literary studies at that university, he was for a short time a student +at Christchurch, Oxford. It was there probably that he acquired that +taste for classical learning which afterwards distinguished him. He +studied medicine at Edinburgh, and, after graduating doctor of medicine +in 1774, spent the greater part of the next two years in Holland, France +and Italy. Shortly after his return to Scotland he was appointed in 1776 +to the chair his father had formerly held, and in the following year he +also entered on the duties of teacher of clinical medicine in the Royal +Infirmary. On the illness of Dr William Cullen in 1790 he was appointed +joint-professor of the practice of medicine, and he became the head of +the Edinburgh Medical School on the death of Dr Cullen in the same year. +He died on the 2nd of April 1821. As a medical practitioner Gregory was +for the last ten years of his life at the head of the profession in +Scotland. He was at one time president of the Edinburgh College of +Physicians, but his indiscretion in publishing certain private +proceedings of the college led to his suspension on the 13th of May 1809 +from all rights and privileges which pertained to the fellowship. + + Besides his _Conspectus medicinae theoreticae_, published in 1788 as a + text-book for his lectures on the institutes, Dr Gregory was the + author of "A Theory of the Moods of Verbs," published in the _Edin. + Phil. Trans._ (1787), and of _Literary and Philosophical Essays_, + published in two volumes in 1792. + +VI. WILLIAM GREGORY (1803-1858), son of James Gregory (1753-1821), was +born on the 25th of December 1803. In 1837 he became professor of +chemistry at the Andersonian Institution, Glasgow, in 1839 at King's +College, Aberdeen, and in 1844 at Edinburgh University. He died on the +24th of April 1858. Gregory was one of the first in England to advocate +the theories of Justus von Liebig, and translated several of his works. +He is also the author of _Outlines of Chemistry_ (1845), and an +_Elementary Treatise on Chemistry_ (1853). + +VII. DUNCAN FARQUHARSON GREGORY (1813-1844), brother of the preceding, +was born on the 13th of April 1813. After studying at the university of +Edinburgh he in 1833 entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was +for a time assistant professor of chemistry, but he devoted his +attention chiefly to mathematics. He died on the 23rd of February 1844. + + The _Cambridge Mathematical Journal_ was originated, and for some time + edited, by him; and he also published a _Collection of Examples of + Processes in the Differential and Integral Calculus_ (1841). A + _Treatise on the Application of Analysis to Solid Geometry_, which he + left unfinished, was completed by W. Walton, and published + posthumously in 1846. His _Mathematical Writings_, edited by W. + Walton, with a biographical memoir by Robert Leslie Ellis, appeared in + 1865. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See A. G. Stewart, _The Academic Gregories_. + + + + +GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-1909), British painter, born at Southampton, +began work at the age of fifteen in the engineer's drawing office of the +Peninsular and Oriental Company. Afterwards he studied at South +Kensington, and about 1871 entered on a successful career as an +illustrator and as an admirable painter in oil and water colour. He was +elected associate of the Royal Academy in 1883, academician in 1898, and +president of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours in 1898. +His work is distinguished by remarkable technical qualities, by +exceptional firmness and decision of draughtsmanship and by unusual +certainty of handling. His "Marooned," a water colour, is in the +National Gallery of British Art. Many of his pictures were shown at +Burlington House at the winter exhibition of 1909-1910 after his death +in June 1909. + + + + +GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774-1841), English mathematician, was born +on the 29th of January 1774 at Yaxley in Huntingdonshire. Having been +educated by Richard Weston, a Leicester botanist, he published in 1793 a +treatise, Lessons _Astronomical and Philosophical_. Having settled at +Cambridge in 1796, Gregory first acted as sub-editor on the _Cambridge +Intelligencer_, and then opened a bookseller's shop. In 1802 he obtained +an appointment as mathematical master at Woolwich through the influence +of Charles Hutton, to whose notice he had been brought by a manuscript +on the "Use of the Sliding Rule"; and when Hutton resigned in 1807 +Gregory succeeded him in the professorship. Failing health obliged him +to retire in 1838, and he died at Woolwich on the 2nd of February 1841. + + Gregory wrote _Hints for the Use of Teachers of Elementary + Mathematics_ (1840, new edition 1853), and _Mathematics for Practical + Men_ (1825), which was revised and enlarged by Henry Law in 1848, and + again by J. R. Young in 1862. His _Letters on the Evidences of + Christianity_ (1815) have been several times reprinted, and an + abridgment was published by the Religious Tract Society in 1853. He + will probably be longest remembered for his _Biography of Robert + Hall_, which first appeared in the collected edition of Hall's works, + was published separately in 1833, and has since passed through several + editions. The minor importance of his _Memoir of John Mason Good_ + (1828) is due to the narrower fame of the subject. Gregory was one of + the founders of the Royal Astronomical Society. In 1802 he was + appointed editor of the _Gentlemen's Diary_, and in 1818 editor of the + _Ladies' Diary_ and superintendent of the almanacs of the Stationers' + Company. + + + + +GREIFENBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Pomerania, +on the Rega, 45 m. N.E. of Stettin on the railway to Kolberg. Pop. +(1905) 7208. It has two Evangelical churches (among them that of St +Mary, dating from 13th century), two ancient gateways, a powder tower +and a gymnasium. The manufacture of machines, stoves and bricks are the +principal industries. Greifenberg possessed municipal rights as early as +1262, and in the 14th and 15th centuries had a considerable shipping +trade, but it lost much of its prosperity during the Thirty Years' War. + + See Riemann, _Geschichte der Stadt Greifenberg_ (1862). + + + + +GREIFENHAGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Pomerania, +on the Reglitz, 12 m. S.S.W. of Stettin by rail. Pop. (1905) 6473. Its +prosperity depends chiefly on agriculture and it has a considerable +trade in cattle. There are also felt manufactures and saw mills. +Greifenhagen was built in 1230, and was raised to the rank of a town and +fortified about 1250. In the Thirty Years' War it was taken both by the +imperialists and the Swedes, and in 1675 it was captured by the +Brandenburgers, into whose possession it came finally in 1679. + + + + +GREIFSWALD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Pomerania, on +the navigable Ryk, 3 m. from its mouth on the Baltic at the little port +of Wyk, and 20 m. S.E. from Stralsund by rail. Pop. (1875) 18,022, +(1905) 23,750. It has wide and regular streets, flanked by numerous +gabled houses, and is surrounded by pleasant promenades on the site of +its old ramparts. The three Gothic Protestant churches, the +Marienkirche, the Nikolaikirche and the Jakobikirche, and the town-hall +(Rathaus) are the principal edifices, and these with their lofty spires +are very picturesque. There is a statue of the emperor Frederick III. +and a war memorial in the town. The industries mainly consist in +shipbuilding, fish-curing, and the manufacture of machinery +(particularly for agriculture), and the commerce in the export of corn, +wood and fish. There is a theatre, an orphanage and a municipal library. +Greifswald is, however, best known to fame by reason of its university. +This, founded in 1456, is well endowed and is largely frequented by +students of medicine. Connected with it are a library of 150,000 volumes +and 800 MSS., a chemical laboratory, a zoological museum, a +gynaecological institute, an ophthalmological school, a botanical garden +and at Eldena (a seaside resort on the Baltic) an agricultural school. +In front of the university, which had 775 students and about 100 +teachers in 1904, stands a monument commemorating its four hundredth +anniversary. + +Greifswald was founded about 1240 by traders from the Netherlands. In +1250 it received a town constitution and Lubeck rights from Duke +Wratislaw of Pomerania. In 1270 it joined the Hanse towns, Stralsund, +Rostock, Wismar and Lubeck, and took part in the wars which they carried +on against the kings of Denmark and Norway. During the Thirty Years' War +it was formed into a fortress by the imperialists, but they vacated it +in 1631 to the Swedes, in whose possession it remained after the peace +of Westphalia. In 1678 it was captured by the elector of Brandenburg, +but was restored to the Swedes in the following year; in 1713 it was +desolated by the Russians; in 1715 it came into the possession of +Denmark; and in 1721 it was again restored to Sweden, under whose +protection it remained till 1815, when, along with the whole of Swedish +Pomerania, it came into the possession of Prussia. + + See J. G. L. Kosegarten, _Geschichte der Universitat Greifswald_ + (1856); C. Gesterding, _Beitrag zur Geschichte der Stadt Greifswald_ + (3 vols., 1827-1829); and I. Ziegler, _Geschichte der Stadt + Greifswald_ (Greifswald, 1897). + + + + +GREISEN (in French, _hyalomicte_), a modification of granite, consisting +essentially of quartz and white mica, and distinguished from granite by +the absence of felspar and biotite. In the hand specimen the rock has a +silvery glittering appearance from the abundance of lamellar crystals of +muscovite, but many greisens have much of the appearance of granite, +except that they are paler in colour. The commonest accessory minerals +are tourmaline, topaz, apatite, fluorspar and iron oxides; a little +felspar more or less altered may also be present and a brown mica which +is biotite or lithionite. The tourmaline in section is brown, green, +blue or colourless, and often the same crystal shows many different +tints. The white mica forms mostly large plates with imperfect +crystalline outlines. The quartz is rich in fluid enclosures. Apatite +and topaz are both colourless and of irregular form. Felspar if present +may be orthoclase and oligoclase. + +Greisen occurs typically in belts or veins intersecting granite. At the +centre of each vein there is usually a fissure which may be open or +filled with quartz. The greisen bands are from 1 in. up to 2 ft. or more +in thickness. At their outer edges they pass gradually into the granite, +for they contain felspar crystals more or less completely altered into +aggregates of white mica and quartz. The transition between the two +rocks is perfectly gradual, a fact which shows that the greisen has been +produced by alteration of the granite. Vapours or fluids rising through +the fissure have been the agents which effected the transmutation. They +must have contained fluorine, boron and probably also lithium, for +topaz, mica and tourmaline, the new minerals of the granite, contain +these elements. The change is a post-volcanic or pneumatolytic one +induced by the vapours set free by the granite magma when it cools. +Probably the rock was at a relatively high temperature at the time. A +similar type of alteration, the development of white mica, quartz and +tourmaline, is found sometimes in sedimentary rocks around granite +masses. Greisen is closely connected with schorl rock both in its +mineralogical composition and in its mode of origin. The latter is a +pneumatolytic product consisting of quartz and tourmaline; it often +contains white mica and thus passes by all stages into greisen. Both of +these rocks carry frequently small percentages of tin oxide +(cassiterite) and may be worked as ores of tin. They are common in +Cornwall, Saxony, Tasmania and other districts which are centres of +tin-mining. Many other greisens occur in which no tin is found. The +analyses show the composition of Cornish granite and greisen. They make +it clear that there has been an introduction of fluorine and boron and a +diminution in the alkalies during the transformation of the granitic +rock into the greisen. + + +---------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-----+ + | | SiO2. | Al2O3.|Fe2O3.| FeO. | CaO. | MgO. | K2O. | Na2O.| Fl. |B2O3.| + +---------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-----+ + | Granite | 70.17 | 15.07 | .88 | 1.79 | 1.13 | 1.11 | 5.73 | 2.69 | .15 | tr. | + | Greisen | 69.42 | 15.65 | 1.25 | 3.30 | .63 | 1.02 | 4.06 | .27 | 3.36 | .59 | + +---------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-----+ + + (J. S. F.) + + + + +GREIZ, a town of Germany, capital of the principality of Reuss-Greiz +(Reuss the Elder), in a pleasant valley on the right bank of the White +Elster, near the borders of Saxony, and 66 m. by rail S. from Leipzig. +Pop. (1875) 12,657; (1905) 23,114. It consists of two parts, the old +town on the right bank and the new town on the left bank of the river; +it is rapidly growing and is regularly laid out. The principal buildings +are the palace of the prince of Reuss-Greiz, surrounded by a fine park, +the old chateau on a rocky hill overlooking the town, the summer palace +with a fine garden, the old town church dating from 1225 and possessing +a beautiful tower, the town hall, the governmental buildings and statues +of the emperor William I. and of Bismarck. There are classical and +modern schools and a school of textile industry. The industries are +considerable, and include dyeing, tanning and the manufacture of +woollen, cotton, shawls, coverlets and paper. Greiz (formerly _Grewcz_) +is apparently a town of Slav origin. From the 12th century it was +governed by _advocati_ (_Vogte_), but in 1236 it came into the +possession of Gera, and in 1550 of the younger line of the house of +Plauen. It was wholly destroyed by fire in 1494, and almost totally in +1802. + + See Wilke, _Greiz und seine Umgebung_ (1875), and _Jahresberichte des + Vereins fur Greizer Geschichte_ (1894, seq.) + + + + +GRENADA, the southernmost of the Windward Islands, British West Indies. +It lies between 11 deg. 58' and 12 deg. 15' N. and between 61 deg. 35' +and 61 deg. 50' W., being 140 m. S.W. of Barbados and 85 m. N. by W. of +Trinidad. In shape oval, it is 21 m. long, 12 m. broad at its maximum +and has an area of 133 sq. m. It owes much of its beauty to a +well-wooded range of mountains traversing the island from N. to S. and +throwing off from the centre spurs which form picturesque and fertile +valleys. These mountains attain their highest elevation in Mount +Catharine (2750 ft.). In the S.E. and N.W. there are stretches of low or +undulating ground, devoted to fruit growing and cattle raising. The +island is of volcanic origin; the only signs of upheaval are raised +limestone beaches in the extreme N. Red and grey sandstones, hornblende +and argillaceous schist are found in the mountains, porphyry and +basaltic rocks also occur; sulphur and fuller's earth are worked. In the +centre, at the height of 1740 ft. above the sea, is the chief natural +curiosity of Grenada, the Grand Etang, a circular lake, 13 acres in +extent, occupying the site of an ancient crater. Near it is a large +sanatorium, much frequented as a health resort. In the north-east is a +larger lake, Lake Antoine, also occupying a crater, but it lies almost +at the sea level. The island is watered by several short rivers, mainly +on the east and south; there are numerous fresh water springs, as well +as hot chalybeate and sulphurous springs. The south-eastern coast is +much indented with bays. The climate is good, the temperature equable +and epidemic diseases are rare. In the low country the average yearly +temperature is 82 deg. F., but it is cooler in the heights. The rainfall +is very heavy, amounting in some parts to as much as 200 in., a year. +The rainy season lasts from May to December, but refreshing showers +frequently occur during other parts of the year. The average annual +rainfall at St Georges is 79.07 in., and at Grand Etang 164 in. The +excellent climate and good sea-bathing have made Grenada the health +resort of the neighbouring islands, especially of Trinidad. Good roads +and byeways intersect it in every direction. The soil is extraordinarily +fertile, the chief products being cocoa and spices, especially nutmegs. +The exports, sent chiefly to Great Britain, are cocoa, spices, wool, +cotton, coffee, live stock, hides, turtles, turtle shell, kola nuts, +vanilla and timber. Barbados is dependent on Grenada for the majority of +its firewood. Sugar is still grown, and rum and molasses are made, but +the consumption of these is confined to the island. + +Elementary education is chiefly in the hands of the various +denominations, whose schools are assisted by government grants-in-aid. +There are, however, a few secular schools conducted by the government, +and government-aided secondary schools for girls and a grammar school +for boys. The schools are controlled by a board of education, the +members of which are nominated by the government, and small fees are +charged in all schools. The governor of the Windward Islands resides in +Grenada and is administrator of it. The Legislative Council consists of +14 members; 7 including the governor are _ex-officio_ members and the +rest are nominated by the Crown. English is universally spoken, but the +negroes use a French _patois_, which, however, is gradually dying out. +Only 2% of the inhabitants are white, the rest being negroes and +mulattoes with a few East Indians. The capital, St George, in the +south-west, is built upon a lava peninsula jutting into the sea and +forming one side of its land-locked harbour. It is surrounded by an +amphitheatre of hills, up the sides of which climb the red-brick houses +of the town. At the extremity of the peninsula is Fort St George, with a +saluting battery. The ridge connecting Fort St George with Hospital Hill +is tunnelled to give access to the two parts of the town lying on either +side. The population in 1901 was 5198. There are four other towns--on +the west coast Gouyave, or Charlotte Town, and 4 m. N. of it Victoria; +on the north coast Sauteurs; and Grenville at the head of a wide bay on +the east. They are all in frequent communication with the capital by +steamer. The population of the entire colony in 1901 was 63,438. + +_History._--Grenada was discovered in 1498 by Columbus, who named it +Conception. Neither the Spanish nor the British, to whom it was granted +in 1627, settled on the island. The governor of Martinique, du Parquet, +purchased it in 1650, and the French were well received by the Caribs, +whom they afterwards extirpated with the greatest cruelty. In 1665 +Grenada passed into the hands of the French West India Company, and was +administered by it until its dissolution in 1674, when the island passed +to the French Crown. Cocoa, coffee and cotton were introduced in 1714. +During the wars between Great Britain and France, Grenada capitulated to +the British forces in 1762, and was formally ceded next year by the +Treaty of Paris. The French, under Count d'Estaing, re-captured the +island in 1779, but it was restored to Great Britain by the Treaty of +Versailles in 1783. A rebellion against the British rule, instigated and +assisted by the French, occurred in 1795, but was quelled by Sir Ralph +Abercromby in the following year. The emancipation of the slaves took +place in 1837, and by 1877 it was found necessary to introduce East +Indian labour. Grenada, with cocoa as its staple, has not experienced +similar depression to that which overtook the sugar-growing islands of +the West Indies. + + See _Grenada Handbook_ (London, 1905). + + + + +GRENADE (from the French word for a pomegranate, from a resemblance in +shape to that fruit), a small spherical explosive vessel thrown by hand. +Hand-grenades were used in war in the 16th century, but the word +"grenade" was also from the first used to imply an explosive shell +fired from a gun; this survives to the present day in the German +_Granate_. These weapons were employed after about 1660, by special +troops called "grenadiers" (q.v.), and in the wars of the 17th and 18th +centuries they are continually met with. They became obsolete in the +19th century, but were given a new lease of life in the 20th, owing to +their employment in the siege of Port Arthur in 1904, where +hand-grenades of a modern type, and containing powerful modern +explosives, proved very effective (see AMMUNITION, _shell_). +Hand-grenades filled with chemicals and made of glass are used as a +method of fire-extinction, and similar vessels containing a liquid with +a very strong smell are used to discover defects in a drain or sewer. + + + + +GRENADIER, originally a soldier whose special duty it was to throw +hand-grenades. The latter were in use for a considerable time before any +special organization was given to the troops who were to use them. In +1667 four men per company in the French _Regiment du Roi_ were trained +with grenades (siege of Lille), and in 1668-1670 grenadier companies +were formed in this regiment and in about thirty others of the French +line. Evelyn, in his _Diary_, tells us that on the 29th of June 1678 he +saw at Hounslow "a new sort of soldiers called granadiers, who were +dexterous in flinging hand-granades." As in the case of the fusiliers, +the French practice was therefore quickly copied in England. Eventually +each English battalion had a grenadier company (see for illustrations +_Archaeological Journal_, xxiii. 222, and xlvii. 321-324). Besides their +grenades and the firelock, grenadiers carried axes which, with the +grenades, were employed in the assault of fortresses, as we are told in +the celebrated song, "The British Grenadiers." + +The grenadier companies were formed always of the most powerful men in +the regiment and, when the grenade ceased to be used, they maintained +their existence as the "crack" companies of their battalions, taking the +right of the line on parade and wearing the distinctive grenadier +headdress. This system was almost universal, and the typical infantry +regiment of the 18th and early 19th century had a grenadier and a light +company besides its "line" companies. In the British and other armies +these _elite_ companies were frequently taken from their regiments and +combined in grenadier and light infantry battalions for special service, +and Napoleon carried this practice still further in the French army by +organizing brigades and divisions of grenadiers (and correspondingly of +_voltigeurs_). Indeed the companies thus detached from the line +practically never returned to it, and this was attended with serious +evils, for the battalion at the outbreak of war lost perhaps a quarter +of its best men, the average men only remaining with the line. This +special organization of grenadiers and light companies lasted in the +British army until about 1858. In the Prussian service the grenadiers +became permanent and independent battalions about 1740, and the gradual +adoption of the four-company battalion by Prussia and other nations +tended still further to place the grenadiers by themselves and apart +from the line. Thus at the present day in Germany, Russia and other +countries, the title of "grenadiers" is borne by line regiments, +indistinguishable, except for details of uniform and often the _esprit +de corps_ inherited from the old _elite_ companies, from the rest. In +the British service the only grenadiers remaining are the Grenadier +Guards, originally the 1st regiment of Foot Guards, which was formed in +1660 on the nucleus of a regiment of English royalists which followed +the fortunes of Charles II. in exile. In Russia a whole army corps +(headquarters Moscow), inclusive of its artillery units, bears the +title. + +The special headdress of the grenadier was a pointed cap, with peak and +flaps, of embroidered cloth, or a loose fur cap of similar shape; both +these were light field service caps. The fur cap has in the course of +time developed into the tall "bearskin" worn by British guards and +various corps of other armies; the embroidered field cap survives, +transformed, however, into a heavy brass headdress, in the uniform of +the 1st Prussian Foot Guards, the 1st Prussian Guard Grenadiers and the +Russian Paul (Pavlovsky) Grenadier Guards. + + + + +GRENADINES, a chain of islets in the Windward Islands, West Indies. They +stretch for 60 m. between St Vincent and Grenada, following a N.E. to +S.W. direction, and consist of some 600 islets and rocks. Some are a few +square miles in extent, others are merely rocky cones projecting from +the deep. For purposes of administration they are divided between St +Vincent and Grenada. Bequia, the chief island in the St Vincent group, +is long and narrow, with an area 6 sq. m. Owing to a lack of water it is +only slightly cultivated, but game is plentiful. Admiralty Bay, on the +W. side, is a safe and commodious harbour. Carriacou, belonging to +Grenada, is the largest of the group, being 7 m. long, 2 m. wide and 13 +sq. m. in extent. A ridge of hills, rising to an altitude of 700 ft., +traverses the centre from N.E. to S.W.; here admirable building stone is +found. There are two good harbours on the west coast, Hillsborough Bay +on which stands Hillsborough, the chief town, and Tyrell Bay, farther +south. The island is thickly populated, the negro peasantry occupying +small lots and working on the _metayer_ system. Excellent oysters are +found along the coast, and cotton and cattle are the chief exports. Pop. +of the group, mostly on Carriacou (1901) 6497. + + + + +GRENOBLE, the ancient capital of the Dauphine in S.E. France, and now +the chief town of the Isere department, 75 m. by rail from Lyons, 38-1/2 +m. from Chambery and 85-1/2 m. from Gap. Pop. (1906), town, 58,641; +commune, 73,022. It is one of the most beautifully situated, and also +one of the most strongly fortified, cities in Europe. Built at a height +of 702 ft. on both banks of the river Isere just above its junction with +the Drac, the town occupies a considerable plain at the south-western +end of the fertile Graisivaudan valley. To the north rise the mountains +of the Grande Chartreuse, to the east the range of Belledonne, and to +the south those of Taillefer and the Moucherotte, the higher summits of +these ranges being partly covered with snow. From the Jardin de Ville +and the quays of the banks of the Isere the summit of Mont Blanc itself +is visible. The greater part of the town rises on the left bank of the +Isere, which is bordered by broad quays. The older portion has the +tortuous and narrow streets usual in towns that have been confined +within fortifications, but in modern times these hindrances have been +demolished. The newer portion of the town has wide thoroughfares and +buildings of the modern French type, solid but not picturesque. The +original town (of but small extent) was built on the right bank of the +Isere at the southern foot of the Mont Rachais, now covered by a +succession of fortresses that rise picturesquely on the slope of that +hill to a very considerable height (885 ft. above the town). + +Grenoble is the seat of a bishopric which was founded in the 4th +century, and now comprises the department of the Isere--formerly a +suffragan of Vienne it now forms part of the ecclesiastical province of +Lyons. The most remarkable building in the town is the Palais de +Justice, erected (late 15th century to 16th century) on the site of the +old palace of the Parlement of the Dauphine. Opposite is the most +noteworthy church of the city, that of St Andre (13th century), formerly +the chapel of the dauphins of the Viennois: in it is the 17th century +monument of Bayard (1476-1524), the _chevalier sans peur et sans +reproche_, which was removed hither in 1822; but it is uncertain whose +bones are therein. The cathedral church of Notre Dame is a heavy +building, dating in part from the 11th century. The church of St +Laurent, on the right bank of the Isere, is the oldest in the city (11th +century) and has a remarkable crypt, dating from Merovingian times. The +town hall is a mainly modern building, constructed on the site of the +palace of the dauphins, while the prefecture is entirely modern. The +town library contains a considerable collection of paintings, mainly of +the modern French school, but is more remarkable for its very rich +collection of MSS. (7000) and printed books (250,000 vols.) which in +great part belonged till 1793 to the monastery of the Grande Chartreuse. +The natural history museum houses rich collections of various kinds, +which contain (_inter alia_) numerous geological specimens from the +neighbouring districts of the Dauphine and Savoy. The university, +revived in modern times after a long abeyance, occupies a modern +building, as does also the hospital, though founded as far back as the +15th century. There are numerous societies in the town, including the +Academie Delphinale (founded in 1772), and many charitable institutions. + +The staple industry of Grenoble is the manufacture of kid gloves, most +of the so-called _gants Jouvin_ being made here--they are named after +the reviver of the art, X. Jouvin (1800-1844). There are about 80 glove +factories, which employ 18,500 persons (of whom 15,000 are women), the +annual output being about 800,000 dozen pairs of gloves. Among other +articles produced at Grenoble are artificial cements, liqueurs, straw +hats and carved furniture. + +Grenoble occupies the site of Cularo, a village of the Allobroges, which +only became of importance when fortified by Diocletian and Maximian at +the end of the 3rd century. Its present name is a corruption of +Gratianopolis, a title assumed probably in honour of Gratian (4th +century), who raised it to the rank of a _civitas_. After passing under +the power of the Burgundians (c. 440) and the Franks (532) it became +part of the kingdom of Provence (879-1032). On the break-up of that +kingdom a long struggle for supremacy ensued between the bishops of the +city and the counts of Albon, the latter finally winning the day in the +12th century, and taking the title of Dauphins of the Viennois in the +13th century. In 1349 Grenoble was ceded with the rest of the Dauphine +to France, but retained various municipal privileges which had been +granted by the dauphins to the town, originally by a charter of 1242. In +1562 it was sacked by the Protestants under the baron des Adrets, but in +1572 the firmness of its governor, Bertrand de Gordes, saved it from a +repetition of the Massacre of St Bartholomew. In 1590 Lesdiguieres +(1543-1626) took the town in the name of Henry IV., then still a +Protestant, and during his long governorship (which lasted to his death) +did much for it by the construction of fortifications, quays, &c. In +1788 the attempt of the king to weaken the power of the parlement of +Grenoble (which, though strictly a judicial authority, had preserved +traditions of independence, since the suspension of the states-general +of the Dauphine in 1628) roused the people to arms, and the "day of the +tiles" (7th of June 1788) is memorable for the defeat of the royal +forces. In 1790, on the formation of the department of the Isere, +Grenoble became its capital. Grenoble was the first important town to +open its gates to Napoleon on his return from Elba (7th of March 1815), +but a few months later (July) it was obliged to surrender to the +Austrian army. Owing to its situation Grenoble was formerly much subject +to floods, particularly in the case of the wild Drac. One of the worst +took place in 1219, while that of 1778 was known as the _deluge de la +Saint Crepin_. Among the celebrities who have been born at Grenoble are +Vaucanson (1709-1782), Mably (1709-1785), Condillac (1715-1780), Beyle, +best known as Stendhal, his _nom de guerre_ (1783-1842), Barnave +(1761-1793) and Casimir Perier (1777-1832). + + See A. Prudhomme, _Histoire de Grenoble_ (1888); X. Roux, _La + Corporation des gantiers de Grenoble_ (1887); H. Duhamel, _Grenoble + considere comme centre d'excursions_ (1902); J. Marion, _Cartulaires + de l'eglise cathedrale de Grenoble_ (Paris, 1869). (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +GRENVILLE, SIR BEVIL (1596-1643), Royalist soldier in the English Civil +War (see GREAT REBELLION), was educated at Exeter College, Oxford. As +member of Parliament, first for Cornwall, then for Launceston, Grenville +supported Sir John Eliot and the opposition, and his intimacy with Eliot +was life-long. In 1639, however, he appears as a royalist going to the +Scottish War in the train of Charles I. The reasons of this change of +front are unknown, but Grenville's honour was above suspicion, and he +must have entirely convinced himself that he was doing right. At any +rate he was a very valuable recruit to the royalist cause, being "the +most generally loved man in Cornwall." At the outbreak of the Civil War +he and others of the gentry not only proclaimed the king's Commission of +Array at Launceston assizes, but also persuaded the grand jury of the +county to declare their opponents guilty of riot and unlawful assembly, +whereupon the _Posse comitatus_ was called out to expel them. Under the +command of Sir Ralph Hopton, Sir Bevil took a distinguished part in the +action of Bradock Down, and at Stratton (16 May 1643), where the +parliamentary earl of Stamford was completely routed by the Cornishmen, +led one of the storming parties which captured Chudleigh's lines +(_Clarendon_, vii. 89). A month later, the endeavour of Hopton to unite +with Maurice and Hertford from Oxford brought on the battle of Lansdown, +near Bath. Here Grenville was killed at the head of the Cornish infantry +as it reached the top of the hill. His death was a blow from which the +king's cause in the West never recovered, for he alone knew how to +handle the Cornishmen. Hopton they revered and respected, but Grenville +they loved as peculiarly their own commander, and after his death there +is little more heard of the reckless valour which had won Stratton and +Lansdown. Grenville is the type of all that was best in English +royalism. He was neither rapacious, drunken nor dissolute, but his +loyalty was unselfish, his life pure and his skill no less than his +bravery unquestionable. A monument to him has been erected on the field +of Lansdown. + + See Lloyd, _Memoirs of Excellent Personages_ (1668); S. R. Gardiner, + _History of the English Civil War_ (vol. i. _passim_). + + + + +GRENVILLE, GEORGE (1712-1770), English statesman, second son of Richard +Grenville and Hester Temple, afterwards Countess Temple, was born on the +14th of October 1712. He was educated at Eton and at Christ Church, +Oxford, and was called to the bar in 1735. He entered parliament in 1741 +as member for Buckingham, and continued to represent that borough till +his death. In parliament he was a member of the "Boy Patriot" party +which opposed Sir Robert Walpole. In December 1744 he became a lord of +the admiralty in the Pelham administration. He allied himself with his +brother Richard and with William Pitt in forcing their feeble chief to +give them promotion by rebelling against his authority and obstructing +business. In June 1747 he became a lord of the treasury, and in 1754 +treasurer of the navy and privy councillor. As treasurer of the navy in +1758 he introduced and carried a bill which established a less unfair +system of paying the wages of the seamen than had existed before. He +remained in office in 1761, when his brother Lord Temple and his +brother-in-law Pitt resigned upon the question of the war with Spain, +and in the administration of Lord Bute he was entrusted with the +leadership of the House of Commons. In May 1762 he was appointed +secretary of state, and in October first lord of the admiralty; and in +April 1763 he became first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the +exchequer. The most prominent measures of his administration were the +prosecution of Wilkes and the passing of the American Stamp Act, which +led to the first symptoms of alienation between America and the mother +country. During the latter period of his term of office he was on a very +unsatisfactory footing with the young king George III., who gradually +came to feel a kind of horror of the interminable persistency of his +conversation, and whom he endeavoured to make use of as the mere puppet +of the ministry. The king made various attempts to induce Pitt to come +to his rescue by forming a ministry, but without success, and at last +had recourse to the marquis of Rockingham, on whose agreeing to accept +office Grenville was dismissed July 1765. He never again held office, +and died on the 13th of November 1770. + +The nickname of "gentle shepherd" was given him because he bored the +House by asking over and over again, during the debate on the Cider Bill +of 1763, that somebody should tell him "where" to lay the new tax if it +was not to be put on cider. Pitt whistled the air of the popular tune +"Gentle Shepherd, tell me where," and the House laughed. Though few +excelled him in a knowledge of the forms of the House or in mastery of +administrative details, his tact in dealing with men and with affairs +was so defective that there is perhaps no one who has been at the head +of an English administration to whom a lower place can be assigned as a +statesman. + +In 1749 he married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir William Wyndham, by whom +he had a large family. His son, the second Earl Temple, was created +marquess, and his grandson duke, of Buckingham. Another son was William, +afterwards Lord Grenville. Another, Thomas Grenville (1755-1846), who +was, with one interval, a member of parliament from 1780 to 1818, and +for a few months during 1806 and 1807 president of the board of control +and first lord of the admiralty, is perhaps more famous as a +book-collector than as a statesman; he bequeathed his large and valuable +library to the British Museum. + + _The Grenville Papers, being the Correspondence of Richard Grenville, + Earl Temple, K.G., and the Right Hon. George Grenville, their Friends + and Contemporaries_, were published at London in 1852, and afford the + chief authority for his life. But see also H. Walpole's _Memoirs of + the Reign of George II._ (London, 1845); Lord Stanhope's _History of + England_ (London, 1858); Lecky's _History of England_ (1885); and E. + D. Adams, _The Influence of Grenville on Pitt's Foreign Policy_ + (Washington, 1904). + + + + +GRENVILLE (or GREYNVILE), SIR RICHARD (c. 1541-1591), British naval +commander, was born of an old Cornish family about 1541. His +grandfather, Sir Richard, had been marshal of Calais in the time of +Henry VIII., and his father commanded and was lost in the "Mary Rose" in +1545. At an early age Grenville is supposed to have served in Hungary +under the emperor Maximilian against the Turks. In the years 1571 and +1584 he sat in parliament for Cornwall, and in 1583 and 1584 he was +commissioner of the works at Dover harbour. He appears to have been a +man of much pride and ambition. Of his bravery there can be no doubt. In +1585 he commanded the fleet of seven vessels by which the colonists sent +out by his cousin, Sir Walter Raleigh, were carried to Roanoke Island in +the present North Carolina. Grenville himself soon returned with the +fleet to England, capturing a Spanish vessel on his way, but in 1586 he +carried provisions to Roanoke, and finding the colony deserted, left a +few men to maintain possession. He then held an important post in charge +of the defences of the western counties of England. When a squadron was +despatched in 1591, under Lord Thomas Howard, to intercept the +homeward-bound treasure-fleet of Spain, Grenville was appointed as +second in command on board the "Revenge," a ship of 500 tons which had +been commanded by Drake against the Armada in 1588. At the end of August +Howard with 16 ships lay at anchor to the north of Flores in the Azores. +On the last day of the month he received news from a pinnace, sent by +the earl of Cumberland, who was then off the Portugal coast, that a +Spanish fleet of 53 vessels was then bearing up to the Azores to meet +the treasure-ships. Not being in a position to fight a fleet more than +three times the size of his own, Howard gave orders to weigh anchor and +stand out to sea. But, either from some misunderstanding of the order, +or from some idea of Grenville's that the Spanish vessels rapidly +approaching were the ships for which they had been waiting, the +"Revenge" was delayed and cut off from her consorts by the Spaniards. +Grenville resolved to try to break through the middle of the Spanish +line. His ship was becalmed under the lee of a huge galleon, and after a +hand-to-hand fight lasting through fifteen hours against fifteen Spanish +ships and a force of five thousand men, the "Revenge" with her hundred +and fifty men was captured. Grenville himself was carried on board the +Spanish flag-ship "San Pablo," and died a few days later. The incident +is commemorated in Tennyson's ballad of "The Revenge." + +The spelling of Sir Richard's name has led to much controversy. Four +different families, each of which claim to be descended from him, spell +it Granville, Grenville, Grenfell and Greenfield. The spelling usually +accepted is Grenville, but his own signature, in a bold clear +handwriting, among the Tanner MSS. in the Bodleian library at Oxford, is +Greynvile. + + + + +GRENVILLE (or GRANVILLE), SIR RICHARD (1600-1658), English royalist, was +the third son of Sir Bernard Grenville (1559-1636), and a grandson of +the famous seaman, Sir Richard Grenville. Having served in France, +Germany and the Netherlands, Grenville gained the favour of the duke of +Buckingham, took part in the expeditions to Cadiz, to the island of Rhe +and to La Rochelle, was knighted, and in 1628 was chosen member of +parliament for Fowey. Having married Mary Fitz (1596-1671), widow of Sir +Charles Howard (d. 1622) and a lady of fortune, Grenville was made a +baronet in 1630; his violent temper, however, made the marriage an +unhappy one, and he was ruined and imprisoned as the result of two +lawsuits, one with his wife, and the other with her kinsman, the earl of +Suffolk. In 1633 he escaped from prison and went to Germany, returning +to England six years later to join the army which Charles I. was +collecting to march against the Scots. Early in 1641, just after the +outbreak of the Irish rebellion, Sir Richard led some troops to Ireland, +where he won some fame and became governor of Trim; then returning to +England in 1643 he was arrested at Liverpool by an officer of the +parliament, but was soon released and sent to join the parliamentary +army. Having, however, secured men and money, he hurried to Charles I. +at Oxford and was despatched to take part in the siege of Plymouth, +quickly becoming the leader of the forces engaged in this enterprise. +Compelled to raise the siege he retired into Cornwall, where he helped +to resist the advancing Parliamentarians; but he quickly showed signs of +insubordination, and, whilst sharing in the siege of Taunton, he was +wounded and obliged to resign his command. About this time loud +complaints were brought against Grenville. He had behaved, it was said, +in a very arbitrary fashion; he had hanged some men and imprisoned +others; he had extorted money and had used the contributions towards the +cost of the war for his own ends. Many of these charges were undoubtedly +true, but upon his recovery the councillors of the prince of Wales gave +him a position under Lord Goring, whom, however, he refused to obey. +Equally recalcitrant was his attitude towards Goring's successor, Sir +Ralph Hopton, and in January 1646 he was arrested. But he was soon +released; he went to France and Italy, and after visiting England in +disguise passed some time in Holland. He was excepted by parliament from +pardon in 1648, and after the king's execution he was with Charles II. +in France and elsewhere until some unfounded accusation which he brought +against Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of Clarendon, led to his removal +from court. He died in 1658, and was buried at Ghent. In 1644, when +Grenville deserted the parliamentary party, a proclamation was put out +against him; in this there were attached to his name several offensive +epithets, among them being _skellum_, a word probably derived from the +German _Schelm_, a scoundrel. Hence he is often called "skellum +Grenville." + + Grenville wrote an account of affairs in the west of England, which + was printed in T. Carte's _Original Letters_ (1739). To this partisan + account Clarendon drew up an answer, the bulk of which he afterwards + incorporated in his _History_. In 1654 Grenville wrote his _Single + defence against all aspersions of all malignant persons_. This is + printed in the _Works_ of George Granville, Lord Lansdowne (London, + 1736), where Lansdowne's _Vindication_ of his kinsman, Sir Richard, + against Clarendon's charges is also found. See also Clarendon, + _History of the Rebellion_, edited by W. D. Macray (Oxford, 1888); and + R. Granville, _The King's General in the West_ (1908). + + + + +GRENVILLE, WILLIAM WYNDHAM GRENVILLE, BARON (1759-1834), English +statesman, youngest son of George Grenville, was born on the 25th of +October 1759. He was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, gaining +the chancellor's prize for Latin verse in 1779. In February 1782 +Grenville was returned to parliament as member for the borough of +Buckingham, and in the following September he became secretary to the +lord lieutenant of Ireland, who at this time was his brother, Earl +Temple, afterwards marquess of Buckingham. He left office in June 1783, +but in the following December he became paymaster-general of the forces +under his cousin, William Pitt, and in 1786 vice-president of the +committee of trade. In 1787 he was sent on an important mission to the +Hague and Versailles with reference to the affairs of Holland. In +January 1789 he was chosen speaker of the House of Commons, but he +vacated the chair in the same year on being appointed secretary of state +for the home department; about the same time he resigned his other +offices, but he became president of the board of control, and in +November 1790 was created a peer as Baron Grenville. In the House of +Lords he was very active in directing the business of the government, +and in 1791 he was transferred to the foreign office, retaining his post +at the board of control until 1793. He was doubtless regarded by Pitt as +the man best fitted to carry out his policy with reference to France, +but in the succeeding years he and his chief were frequently at variance +on important questions of foreign policy. In spite of his multifarious +duties at the foreign office Grenville continued to take a lively +interest in domestic matters, which he showed by introducing various +bills into the House of Lords. In February 1801 he resigned office with +Pitt because George III. would not consent to the introduction of any +measure of Roman Catholic relief, and in opposition he gradually +separated himself from his former leader. When Pitt returned to power in +1804 Grenville refused to join the ministry unless his political ally, +Fox, was also admitted thereto; this was impossible and he remained out +of office until February 1806, when just after Pitt's death he became +the nominal head of a coalition government. This ministry was very +unfortunate in its conduct of foreign affairs, but it deserves to be +remembered with honour on account of the act passed in 1807 for the +abolition of the slave trade. Its influence, however, was weakened by +the death of Fox, and in consequence of a minute drawn up by Grenville +and some of his colleagues the king demanded from his ministers an +assurance that in future they would not urge upon him any measures for +the relief of Roman Catholics. They refused to give this assurance and +in March 1807 they resigned. Grenville's attitude in this matter was +somewhat aggressive; his colleagues were not unanimous in supporting +him, and Sheridan, one of them, said "he had known many men knock their +heads against a wall, but he had never before heard of any man who +collected the bricks and built the very wall with an intention to knock +out his own brains against it." + +Lord Grenville never held office again, although he was requested to do +so on several occasions. He continued, however, to take part in public +life, being one of the chief supporters of Roman Catholic emancipation, +and during the remaining years of his active political career, which +ended in 1823, he generally voted with the Whigs, although in 1815 he +separated himself from his colleague, Charles Grey, and supported the +warlike policy of Lord Liverpool. In 1819, when the marquess of +Lansdowne brought forward his motion for an inquiry into the causes of +the distress and discontent in the manufacturing districts, Grenville +delivered an alarmist speech advocating repressive measures. His +concluding years were spent at Dropmore, Buckinghamshire, where he died +on the 12th of January 1834. His wife, whom he married in 1792, was Anne +(1772-1864), daughter of Thomas Pitt, 1st Baron Camelford, but he had no +issue and his title became extinct. In 1809 he was elected chancellor of +Oxford university. + +Though Grenville's talents were not of the highest order his +straightforwardness and industry, together with his knowledge of +politics and the moderation of his opinions, secured for him +considerable political influence. He may be enrolled among the band of +English statesmen who have distinguished themselves in literature. He +edited Lord Chatham's letters to his nephew, Thomas Pitt, afterwards +Lord Camelford (London, 1804, and other editions); he wrote a small +volume, _Nugae Metricae_ (1824), being translations into Latin from +English, Greek and Italian, and an _Essay on the Supposed Advantages of +a Sinking Fund_ (1828). + + The Dropmore MSS. contain much of Grenville's correspondence, and on + this the Historical Manuscripts Commission has published a report. + + + + +GRESHAM, SIR THOMAS (1519-1579), London merchant, the founder of the +Royal Exchange and of Gresham College, London, was descended from an old +Norfolk family; he was the only son of Sir Richard Gresham, a leading +London merchant, who for some time held the office of lord mayor, and +for his services as agent of Henry VIII. in negotiating loans with +foreign merchants received the honour of knighthood. Though his father +intended him to follow his own profession, he nevertheless sent him for +some time to Caius College, Cambridge, but there is no information as to +the duration of his residence. It is uncertain also whether it was +before or after this that he was apprenticed to his uncle Sir John +Gresham, who was also a merchant, but we have his own testimony that he +served an apprenticeship of eight years. In 1543, at the age of +twenty-four, he was admitted a member of the Mercers' Company, and in +the same year he went to the Low Countries, where, either on his own +account or on that of his father or uncle, he both carried on business +as a merchant and acted in various matters as an agent for Henry VIII. +In 1544 he married the widow of William Read, a London merchant, but he +still continued to reside principally in the Low Countries, having his +headquarters at Antwerp. When in 1551 the mismanagement of Sir William +Dansell, "king's merchant" in the Low Countries, had brought the English +government into great financial embarrassment, Gresham was called in to +give his advice, and chosen to carry out his own proposals. Their +leading feature was the adoption of various methods--highly ingenious, +but quite arbitrary and unfair--for raising the value of the pound +sterling on the "bourse" of Antwerp, and it was so successful that in a +few years nearly all King Edward's debts were discharged. The advice of +Gresham was likewise sought by the government in all their money +difficulties, and he was also frequently employed in various diplomatic +missions. He had no stated salary, but in reward of his services +received from Edward various grants of lands, the annual value of which +at that time was ultimately about L400 a year. On the accession of Mary +he was for a short time in disfavour, and was displaced in his post by +Alderman William Dauntsey. But Dauntsey's financial operations were not +very successful and Gresham was soon reinstated; and as he professed his +zealous desire to serve the queen, and manifested great adroitness both +in negotiating loans and in smuggling money, arms and foreign goods, not +only were his services retained throughout her reign, but besides his +salary of twenty shillings _per diem_ he received grants of church lands +to the yearly value of L200. Under Queen Elizabeth, besides continuing +in his post as financial agent of the crown, he acted temporarily as +ambassador at the court of the duchess of Parma, being knighted in 1559 +previous to his departure. By the outbreak of the war in the Low +Countries he was compelled to leave Antwerp on the 19th of March 1567; +but, though he spent the remainder of his life in London, he continued +his business as merchant and financial agent of the government in much +the same way as formerly. Elizabeth also found him useful in a great +variety of other ways, among which was that of acting as jailer, to Lady +Mary Grey, who, as a punishment for marrying Thomas Keys the sergeant +porter, remained a prisoner in his house from June 1569 to the end of +1572. In 1565 Gresham made a proposal to the court of aldermen of London +to build at his own expense a bourse or exchange, on condition that they +purchased for this purpose a piece of suitable ground. In this proposal +he seems to have had an eye to his own interest as well as to the +general good of the merchants, for by a yearly rental of L700 obtained +for the shops in the upper part of the building he received a sufficient +return for his trouble and expense. Gresham died suddenly, apparently of +apoplexy, on the 21st of November 1579. His only son predeceased him, +and his illegitimate daughter Anne he married to Sir Nathaniel Bacon, +brother of the great Lord Bacon. With the exception of a number of small +sums bequeathed to the support of various charities, the bulk of his +property, consisting of estates in various parts of England of the +annual value of more than L2300, was bequeathed to his widow and her +heirs with the stipulation that after her decease his residence in +Bishopsgate Street, as well as the rents arising from the Royal +Exchange, should be vested in the hands of the corporation of London and +the Mercers' Company, for the purpose of instituting a college in which +seven professors should read lectures--one each day of the week--on +astronomy, geometry, physic, law, divinity, rhetoric and music. The +lectures were begun in 1597, and were delivered in the original building +until 1768, when, on the ground that the trustees were losers by the +gift, it was made over to the crown for a yearly rent of L500, and +converted into an excise office. From that time a room in the Royal +Exchange was used for the lectures until in 1843 the present building +was erected at a cost of L7000. + + A notice of Gresham is contained in Fuller's _Worthies_ and Ward's + _Gresham Professors_; but the fullest account of him, as well as of + the history of the Exchange and Gresham College is that by J. M. + Burgon in his _Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham_ (2 vols., 1839). + See also a _Brief Memoir of Sir Thomas Gresham_ (1833); and _The Life + of Sir Thomas Gresham, Founder of the Royal Exchange_ (1845). + + + + +GRESHAM, WALTER QUINTON (1832-1895), American statesman and jurist, was +born near Lanesville, Harrison county, Indiana, on the 17th of March +1832. He spent two years in an academy at Corydon, Indiana, and one year +at the Indiana State University at Bloomington, then studied law, and in +1854 was admitted to the bar. He was active as a campaign speaker for +the Republican ticket in 1856, and in 1860 was elected to the State +House of Representatives as a Republican in a strong Democratic +district. In the House, as chairman of the committee on military +affairs, he did much to prepare the Indiana troops for service in the +Federal army; in 1861 he became colonel of the 53rd Indiana Volunteer +Infantry, and subsequently took part in Grant's Tennessee campaign of +1862, and in the operations against Corinth and Vicksburg, where he +commanded a brigade. In August 1863 he was appointed brigadier-general +of volunteers, and was placed in command of the Federal forces at +Natchez. In 1864 he commanded a division of the 17th Army Corps in +Sherman's Atlanta campaign, and before Atlanta, on the 20th of July, he +received a wound which forced him to retire from active service, and +left him lame for life. In 1865 he was brevetted major-general of +volunteers. After the war he practised law at New Albany, Indiana, and +in 1869 was appointed by President Grant United States District Judge +for Indiana. In April 1883 he succeeded Timothy O. Howe (1816-1883) as +postmaster-general in President Arthur's cabinet, taking an active part +in the suppression of the Louisiana Lottery, and in September 1884 +succeeded Charles J. Folger as secretary of the treasury. In the +following month he resigned to accept an appointment as United States +Judge for the Seventh Judicial Circuit. Gresham was a candidate for the +Republican presidential nomination in 1884 and 1888, in the latter year +leading for some time in the balloting. Gradually, however, he grew out +of sympathy with the Republican leaders and policy, and in 1892 +advocated the election of the Democratic candidate, Grover Cleveland, +for the presidency. From the 7th of March 1893 until his death at +Washington on the 28th of May 1895, he was secretary of state in +President Cleveland's cabinet. + + + + +GRESHAM'S LAW, in economics, the name suggested in 1857 by H. D. Macleod +for the principle of currency which may be briefly summarized--"bad +money drives out good." Macleod gave it this name, which has been +universally adopted, under the impression that the principle was first +explained by Sir Thomas Gresham in 1558. In reality it had been well set +forth by earlier economic writers, notably Oresme and Copernicus. +Macleod states the law in these terms: the worst form of currency in +circulation regulates the value of the whole currency and drives all +other forms of currency out of circulation. Gresham's law applies where +there is under-weight or debased coin in circulation with full-weight +coin of the same metal; where there are two metals in circulation, and +one is undervalued as compared with the other, and where inconvertible +paper money is put into circulation side by side with a metallic +currency. See further BIMETALLISM; MONEY. + + + + +GRESSET, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS (1709-1777), French poet and dramatist, was +born at Amiens on the 29th of August 1709. His poem _Vert Vert_ is his +main title to fame. He spent, however, the last twenty-five years of his +life in regretting the frivolity which enabled him to produce this most +charming of poems. He was brought up by the Jesuits of Amiens. He was +accepted as a novice at the age of sixteen, and sent to pursue his +studies at the College Louis le Grand in Paris. After completing his +course he was appointed, being then under twenty years of age, to a post +as assistant master in a college at Rouen. He published _Vert Vert_ at +Rouen in 1734. It is a story, in itself exceedingly humorous, showing +how a parrot, the delight of a convent, whose talk was all of prayers +and pious ejaculations, was conveyed to another convent as a visitor to +please the nuns. On the way he falls among bad companions, forgets his +convent language, and shocks the sisters on arrival by profane swearing. +He is sent back in disgrace, punished by solitude and plain bread, +presently repents, reforms and is killed by kindness. The story, +however, is nothing. The treatment of the subject, the atmosphere which +surrounds it, the delicacy in which the little prattling ways of the +nuns, their jealousies, their tiny trifles, are presented, takes the +reader entirely by surprise. The poem stands absolutely unrivalled, even +among French _contes en vers_. + +Gresset found himself famous. He left Rouen, went up to Paris, where he +found refuge in the same garret which had sheltered him when a boy at +the College Louis le Grand, and there wrote his second poem, _La +Chartreuse_. It was followed by the _Careme impromptu_, the _Lutrin +vivant_ and _Les Ombres_. Then trouble came upon him; complaints were +made to the fathers of the alleged licentiousness of his verses, the +real cause of complaint being the ridicule which _Vert Vert_ seemed to +throw upon the whole race of nuns and the anti-clerical tendency of the +other poems. An example, it was urged, must be made; Gresset was +expelled the order. Men of robust mind would have been glad to get rid +of such a yoke. Gresset, who had never been taught to stand alone, went +forth weeping. He went to Paris in 1740 and there produced _Edouard +III_, a tragedy (1740) and _Sidnei_ (1745), a comedy. These were +followed by _Le Mechant_ which still keeps the stage, and is qualified +by Brunetiere as the best verse comedy of the French 18th century +theatre, not excepting even the _Metromanie_ of Alexis Piron. Gresset +was admitted to the Academy in 1748. And then, still young, he retired +to Amiens, where his relapse from the discipline of the church became +the subject of the deepest remorse. He died at Amiens on the 16th of +June 1777. + + The best edition of his poems is A. A. Renouard's (1811). See Jules + Wogue, _J. B. L. Gresset_ (1894). + + + + +GRETNA GREEN, or GRAITNEY GREEN, a village in the south-east of +Dumfriesshire, Scotland, about 8 m. E. of Annan, 9 m. N.N.W. of +Carlisle, and 3/4 m. from the river Sark, here the dividing-line between +England and Scotland, with a station on the Glasgow & South-Western +railway. The Caledonian and North British railways have a station at +Gretna on the English side of the Border. As the nearest village on the +Scottish side, Gretna Green was notorious as the resort of eloping +couples, who had failed to obtain the consent of parents or guardians to +their union. Up till 1754, when Lord Hardwicke's act abolishing +clandestine marriages came into force, the ceremony had commonly been +performed in the Fleet prison in London. After that date runaway couples +were compelled to seek the hospitality of a country where it sufficed +for them to declare their wish to marry in the presence of witnesses. At +Gretna Green the ceremony was usually performed by the blacksmith, but +the toll-keeper, ferryman or in fact any person might officiate, and the +toll-house, the inn, or, after 1826, Gretna Hall was the scene of many +such weddings, the fees varying from half a guinea to a sum as large as +impudence could extort or extravagance bestow. As many as two hundred +couples were married at the toll-house in a year. The romantic traffic +was practically, though not necessarily, put an end to in 1856, when the +law required one of the contracting parties to reside in Scotland three +weeks previous to the event. + + + + +GRETRY, ANDRE ERNEST MODESTE (1741-1813), French composer, was born at +Liege on the 8th of February 1741, his father being a poor musician. He +was a choir boy at the church of St Denis. In 1753 he became a pupil of +Leclerc and later of Renekin and Moreau. But of greater importance was +the practical tuition he received by attending the performance of an +Italian opera company. Here he heard the operas of Galuppi, Pergolesi +and other masters; and the desire of completing his own studies in Italy +was the immediate result. To find the necessary means he composed in +1759 a mass which he dedicated to the canons of the Liege cathedral, and +it was at the cost of Canon Hurley that he went to Italy in the March of +1759. In Rome he went to the College de Liege. Here Gretry resided for +five years, studiously employed in completing his musical education +under Casali. His proficiency in harmony and counterpoint was, however, +according to his own confession, at all times very moderate. His first +great success was achieved by _La Vendemmiatrice_, an Italian intermezzo +or operetta, composed for the Aliberti theatre in Rome and received with +universal applause. It is said that the study of the score of one of +Monsigny's operas, lent to him by a secretary of the French embassy in +Rome, decided Gretry to devote himself to French comic opera. On New +Year's day 1767 he accordingly left Rome, and after a short stay at +Geneva (where he made the acquaintance of Voltaire, and produced another +operetta) went to Paris. There for two years he had to contend with the +difficulties incident to poverty and obscurity. He was, however, not +without friends, and by the intercession of Count Creutz, the Swedish +ambassador, Gretry obtained a libretto from Marmontel, which he set to +music in less than six weeks, and which, on its performance in August +1768, met with unparalleled success. The name of the opera was _Le +Huron_. Two others, _Lucile_ and _Le Tableau parlant_, soon followed, +and thenceforth Gretry's position as the leading composer of comic opera +was safely established. Altogether he composed some fifty operas. His +masterpieces are _Zemire et Azor_ and _Richard Coeur de Lion_,--the +first produced in 1771, the second in 1784. The latter in an indirect +way became connected with a great historic event. In it occurs the +celebrated romance, _O Richard, o mon roi, l'univers t'abandonne_, which +was sung at the banquet--"fatal as that of Thyestes," remarks +Carlyle--given by the bodyguard to the officers of the Versailles +garrison on October 3, 1789. The _Marseillaise_ not long afterwards +became the reply of the people to the expression of loyalty borrowed +from Gretry's opera. The composer himself was not uninfluenced by the +great events he witnessed, and the titles of some of his operas, such as +_La Rosiere republicaine_ and _La Fete de la raison_, sufficiently +indicate the epoch to which they belong; but they are mere _pieces de +circonstance_, and the republican enthusiasm displayed is not genuine. +Little more successful was Gretry in his dealings with classical +subjects. His genuine power lay in the delineation of character and in +the expression of tender and typically French sentiment. The structure +of his concerted pieces on the other hand is frequently flimsy, and his +instrumentation so feeble that the orchestral parts of some of his works +had to be rewritten by other composers, in order to make them acceptable +to modern audiences. During the revolution Gretry lost much of his +property, but the successive governments of France vied in favouring the +composer, regardless of political differences. From the old court he +received distinctions and rewards of all kinds; the republic made him an +inspector of the conservatoire; Napoleon granted him the cross of the +legion of honour and a pension. Gretry died on the 24th of September +1813, at the Hermitage in Montmorency, formerly the house of Rousseau. +Fifteen years after his death Gretry's heart was transferred to his +birthplace, permission having been obtained after a tedious lawsuit. In +1842 a colossal bronze statue of the composer was set up at Liege. + + See Michael Brenet, _Vie de Gretry_ (Paris, 1884); Joach. le Breton, + _Notice historique sur la vie et les ouvrages de Gretry_ (Paris, + 1814); A. Gretry (his nephew), _Gretry en famille_ (Paris, 1814); + Felix van Hulst, _Gretry_ (Liege, 1842); L. D. S. _Notice biographique + sur Gretry_ (Bruxelles, 1859). + + + + +GREUZE, JEAN BAPTISTE (1725-1805), French painter, was born at Tournus, +in Burgundy, on the 21st of August 1725, and is generally said to have +formed his own talent; this is, however, true only in the most limited +sense, for at an early age his inclinations, though thwarted by his +father, were encouraged by a Lyonnese artist named Grandon, or Grondom, +who enjoyed during his lifetime considerable reputation as a +portrait-painter. Grandon not only persuaded the father of Greuze to +give way to his son's wishes, and permit the lad to accompany him as his +pupil to Lyons, but, when at a later date he himself left Lyons for +Paris--where his son-in-law Gretry the celebrated composer enjoyed the +height of favour--Grandon carried young Greuze with him. Settled in +Paris, Greuze worked from the living model in the school of the Royal +Academy, but did not attract the attention of his teachers; and when he +produced his first picture, "Le Pere de famille expliquant la Bible a +ses enfants," considerable doubt was felt and shown as to his share in +its production. By other and more remarkable works of the same class +Greuze soon established his claims beyond contest, and won for himself +the notice and support of the well-known connoisseur La Live de Jully, +the brother-in-law of Madame d'Epinay. In 1755 Greuze exhibited his +"Aveugle trompe," upon which, presented by Pigalle the sculptor, he was +immediately _agree_ by the Academy. Towards the close of the same year +he left France for Italy, in company with the Abbe Louis Gougenot, who +had deserted from the magistrature--although he had obtained the post of +"conseillier au Chatelet"--in order to take the "petit collet." Gougenot +had some acquaintance with the arts, and was highly valued by the +Academicians, who, during his journey with Greuze, elected him an +honorary member of their body on account of his studies in mythology and +allegory; his acquirements in these respects are said to have been +largely utilized by them, but to Greuze they were of doubtful advantage, +and he lost rather than gained by this visit to Italy in Gougenot's +company. He had undertaken it probably in order to silence those who +taxed him with ignorance of "great models of style," but the Italian +subjects which formed the entirety of his contributions to the Salon of +1757 showed that he had been put on a false track, and he speedily +returned to the source of his first inspiration. In 1759, 1761 +("L'Accordee de village"--Louvre), and 1763 Greuze exhibited with +ever-increasing success; in 1765 he reached the zenith of his powers and +reputation. In that year he was represented with no less than thirteen +works, amongst which may be cited "La Jeune Fille qui pleure son oiseau +mort," "La Bonne Mere," "Le Mauvais fils puni" (Louvre) and "La +Malediction paternelle" (Louvre). The Academy took occasion to press +Greuze for his diploma picture, the execution of which had been long +delayed, and forbade him to exhibit on their walls until he had complied +with their regulations. "J'ai vu la lettre," says Diderot, "qui est un +modele d'honnetete et d'estime; j'ai vu la reponse de Greuze, qui est un +modele de vanite et d'impertinence: il fallait appuyer cela d'un +chef-d'oeuvre, et c'est ce que Greuze n'a pas fait." Greuze wished to be +received as a historical painter, and produced a work which he intended +to vindicate his right to despise his qualifications as a _peintre de +genre_. This unfortunate canvas--"Severe et Caracalla" (Louvre)--was +exhibited in 1769 side by side with Greuze's portrait of Jeaurat +(Louvre) and his admirable "Petite Fille au chien noir." The +Academicians received their new member with all due honours, but at the +close of the ceremonies the Director addressed Greuze in these +words--"Monsieur, l'Academie vous a recu, mais c'est comme peintre de +genre; elle a eu egard a vos anciennes productions, qui sont +excellentes, et elle a ferme les yeux sur celle-ci, qui n'est digne ni +d'elle ni de vous." Greuze, greatly incensed, quarrelled with his +_confreres_, and ceased to exhibit until, in 1804, the Revolution had +thrown open the doors of the Academy to all the world. In the following +year, on the 4th of March 1805, he died in the Louvre in great poverty. +He had been in receipt of considerable wealth, which he had dissipated +by extravagance and bad management, so that during his closing years he +was forced even to solicit commissions which his enfeebled powers no +longer enabled him to carry out with success. The brilliant reputation +which Greuze acquired seems to have been due, not to his acquirements as +a painter--for his practice is evidently that current in his own +day--but to the character of the subjects which he treated. That return +to nature which inspired Rousseau's attacks upon an artificial +civilization demanded expression in art. Diderot, in _Le Fils naturel et +le pere de famille_, tried to turn the vein of domestic drama to account +on the stage; that which he tried and failed to do Greuze, in painting, +achieved with extraordinary success, although his works, like the plays +of Diderot, were affected by that very artificiality against which they +protested. The touch of melodramatic exaggeration, however, which runs +through them finds an apology in the firm and brilliant play of line, in +the freshness and vigour of the flesh tints, in the enticing softness of +expression (often obtained by almost an abuse of _meplats_), by the +alluring air of health and youth, by the sensuous attractions, in short, +with which Greuze invests his lessons of bourgeois morality. As Diderot +said of "La Bonne Mere," "ca preche la population;" and a certain +piquancy of contrast is the result which never fails to obtain +admirers. "La Jeune Fille a l'agneau" fetched, indeed, at the Pourtales +sale in 1865, no less than 1,000,200 francs. One of Greuze's pupils, +Madame Le Doux, imitated with success the manner of her master; his +daughter and granddaughter, Madame de Valory, also inherited some +traditions of his talent. Madame de Valory published in 1813 a +comedie-vaudeville, _Greuze, ou l'accordee de village_, to which she +prefixed a notice of her grandfather's life and works, and the _Salons_ +of Diderot also contain, besides many other particulars, the story at +full length of Greuze's quarrel with the Academy. Four of the most +distinguished engravers of that date, Massard pere, Flipart, Gaillard +and Levasseur, were specially entrusted by Greuze with the reproduction +of his subjects, but there are also excellent prints by other engravers, +notably by Cars and Le Bas. + + See also Normand, _J. B. Greuze_ (1892). (E. F. S. D.) + + + + +GREVILLE, CHARLES CAVENDISH FULKE (1794-1865), English diarist, a +great-grandson by his father of the 5th earl of Warwick, and son of Lady +Charlotte Bentinck, daughter of the duke of Portland, formerly a leader +of the Whig party, and first minister of the crown, was born on the 2nd +of April 1794. Much of his childhood was spent at his grandfather's +house at Bulstrode. He was one of the pages of George III., and was +educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford; but he left the university +early, having been appointed private secretary to Earl Bathurst before +he was twenty. The interest of the duke of Portland had secured for him +the secretaryship of the island of Jamaica, which was a sinecure office, +the duties being performed by a deputy, and the reversion of the +clerkship of the council. Greville entered upon the discharge of the +duties of clerk of the council in ordinary in 1821, and continued to +perform them for nearly forty years. He therefore served under three +successive sovereigns,--George IV., William IV. and Victoria,--and +although no political or confidential functions are attached to that +office, it is one which brings a man into habitual intercourse with the +chiefs of all the parties in the state. Well-born, well-bred, handsome +and accomplished, Greville led the easy life of a man of fashion, taking +an occasional part in the transactions of his day and much consulted in +the affairs of private life. Until 1855 when he sold his stud he was an +active member of the turf, and he trained successively with Lord George +Bentinck, and with the duke of Portland. But the celebrity which now +attaches to his name is entirely due to the posthumous publication of a +portion of a Journal or Diary which it was his practice to keep during +the greater part of his life. These papers were given by him to his +friend Mr Henry Reeve a short time before his death (which took place on +the 18th of January 1865), with an injunction that they should be +published, as far as was feasible, at not too remote a period after the +writer's death. The journals of the reigns of George IV. and William IV. +(extending from 1820 to 1837) were accordingly so published in obedience +to his directions about ten years after that event. Few publications +have been received with greater interest by the public; five large +editions were sold in little more than a year, and the demand in America +was as great as in England. These journals were regarded as a faithful +record of the impressions made on the mind of a competent observer, at +the time, by the events he witnessed and the persons with whom he +associated. Greville did not stoop to collect or record private scandal. +His object appears to have been to leave behind him some of the +materials of history, by which the men and actions of his own time would +be judged. He records not so much public events as the private causes +which led to them; and perhaps no English memoir-writer has left behind +him a more valuable contribution to the history of the 19th century. +Greville published anonymously, in 1845, a volume on the _Past and +Present Policy of England to Ireland_, in which he advocated the payment +of the Roman Catholic clergy; and he was also the author of several +pamphlets on the events of his day. + +His brother, HENRY GREVILLE (1801-1872), attache to the British embassy +in Paris from 1834 to 1844, also kept a diary, of which part was +published by Viscountess Enfield, _Leaves from the Diary of Henry +Greville_ (London, 1883-1884). + + See the preface and notes to the _Greville Memoirs_ by Henry Reeve. + The memoirs appeared in three sets--one from 1817 to 1837 (London, + 1875, 3 vols.), and two for the period from 1837 to 1860, three + volumes in 1885 and two in 1887. When the first series appeared in + 1875 some passages caused extreme offence. The copies issued were as + far as possible recalled and passages suppressed. + + + + +GREVIN, JACQUES (c. 1539-1570), French dramatist, was born at Clermont +about 1539. He studied medicine at the university of Paris. He became a +disciple of Ronsard, and was one of the band of dramatists who sought to +introduce the classical drama in France. As Sainte-Beuve points out, the +comedies of Grevin show considerable affinity with the farces and +_soties_ that preceded them. His first play, _La Maubertine_, was lost, +and formed the basis of a new comedy, _La Tresoriere_, first performed +at the college of Beauvais in 1558, though it had been originally +composed at the desire of Henry II. to celebrate the marriage of Claude, +duchess of Lorraine. In 1560 followed the tragedy of _Jules Cesar_, +imitated from the Latin of Muret, and a comedy, _Les Ebahis_, the most +important but also the most indecent of his works. Grevin was also the +author of some medical works and of miscellaneous poems, which were +praised by Ronsard until the friends were separated by religious +differences. Grevin became in 1561 physician and counsellor to Margaret +of Savoy, and died at her court in Turin in 1570. + + The _Theatre_ of Jacques Grevin was printed in 1562, and in the + _Ancien Theatre francais_, vol. iv. (1855-1856). See L. Pinvert, + _Jacques Grevin_ (1899). + + + + +GREVY, FRANCOIS PAUL JULES (1813-1891). President of the French +Republic, was born at Mont-sous-Vaudrey in the Jura, on the 15th of +August 1813. He became an advocate in 1837, and, having steadily +maintained republican principles under the Orleans monarchy, was elected +by his native department to the Constituent Assembly of 1848. Foreseeing +that Louis Bonaparte would be elected president by the people, he +proposed to vest the chief authority in a president of the Council +elected and removable by the Assembly, or in other words, to suppress +the Presidency of the Republic. After the _coup d'etat_ this proposition +gained Grevy a reputation for sagacity, and upon his return to public +life in 1868 he took a prominent place in the republican party. After +the fall of the Empire he was chosen president of the Assembly on the +16th of February 1871, and occupied this position till the 2nd of April +1876, when he resigned on account of the opposition of the Right, which +blamed him for having called one of its members to order in the session +of the previous day. On the 8th of March 1876 he was elected president +of the Chamber of Deputies, a post which he filled with such efficiency +that upon the resignation of Marshal MacMahon he seemed to step +naturally into the Presidency of the Republic (30th January 1879), and +was elected without opposition by the republican parties (see FRANCE: +_History_). Quiet, shrewd, attentive to the public interest and his own, +but without any particular distinction, he would have left an +unblemished reputation if he had not unfortunately accepted a second +term (18th December 1885). Shortly afterwards the traffic of his +son-in-law (Daniel Wilson) in the decorations of the Legion of Honour +came to light. Grevy was not accused of personal participation in these +scandals, but he was somewhat obstinate in refusing to realize that he +was responsible indirectly for the use which his relative had made of +the Elysee, and it had to be unpleasantly impressed upon him that his +resignation was inevitable (2nd December 1887). He died at +Mont-sous-Vaudrey on the 9th of September 1891. He owed both his success +and his failure to the completeness with which he represented the +particular type of the thrifty, generally sensible and patriotic, but +narrow-minded and frequently egoistic _bourgeois_. + + See his _Discours politiques et judiciaires, rapports et messages ... + accompagnes de notices historiques et precedes d'une introduction par + L. Delabrousse_ (2 vols., 1888). + + + + +GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712), English vegetable anatomist and +physiologist, was the only son of Obadiah Grew (1607-1688), +Nonconformist divine and vicar of St Michael's, Coventry, and was born +in Warwickshire in 1641. He graduated at Cambridge in 1661, and ten +years later took the degree of M.D. at Leiden, his thesis being +_Disputatio medico-physica ... de liquore nervoso_. He began +observations on the anatomy of plants in 1664, and in 1670 his essay, +_The Anatomy of Vegetables begun_, was communicated to the Royal Society +by Bishop Wilkins, on whose recommendation he was in the following year +elected a fellow. In 1672, when the essay was published, he settled in +London, and soon acquired an extensive practice as a physician. In 1673 +he published his _Idea of a Phytological History_, which consisted of +papers he had communicated to the Royal Society in the preceding year, +and in 1677 he succeeded Henry Oldenburg as secretary of the society. He +edited the _Philosophical Transactions_ in 1678-1679, and in 1681 he +published "by request" a descriptive catalogue of the rarities preserved +at Gresham College, with which were printed some papers he had read to +the Royal Society on the _Comparative Anatomy of Stomachs and Guts_. In +1682 appeared his great work on the _Anatomy of Plants_, which also was +largely a collection of previous publications. It was divided into four +books, _Anatomy of Vegetables begun_, _Anatomy of Roots_, _Anatomy of +Trunks_ and _Anatomy of Leaves, Flowers, Fruits and Seeds_, and was +illustrated with eighty-two plates, while appended to it were seven +papers mostly of a chemical character. Among his other publications were +_Sea-water made Fresh_ (1684), the _Nature and Use of the Salt contained +in Epsom and such other Waters_ (1697), which was a rendering of his +_Tractatus de salis ... usu_ (1695), and _Cosmologia sacra_ (1701). He +died suddenly on the 25th of March 1712. Linnaeus named a genus of trees +_Grewia_ (nat. ord. Tiliaceae) in his honour. + + + + +GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845), English statesman, was the +eldest surviving son of General Sir Charles Grey, afterwards 1st Earl +Grey. He was born at his father's residence, Fallodon, near Alnwick, on +the 13th of March 1764. General Grey (1729-1807), who was a younger son +of the house of Grey of Howick, one of the most considerable territorial +families in Northumberland, had already begun a career of active service +which, like the political career of his son, covered nearly half a +century. Before the latter was born, General Grey had served on the +staff of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick in the Seven Years' War and had +been wounded at Minden. While the son was making verses at Eton, the +father was serving against the revolted colonists in Pennsylvania and +New Jersey, and while the young member for Northumberland was denouncing +Pitt's war against the Convention, the veteran soldier was destroying +the remnant of the French colonial empire by the capture of Martinique +and Guadeloupe. When Napoleon threatened an invasion, General Grey took +the command of the southern district, and at the peace of Amiens he was +rewarded with a peerage, as Baron Grey of Alnwick, being created in 1806 +Earl Grey and Viscount Howick. His elder brother, Sir Henry Grey of +Howick, the head of the family, had supported the government in +parliament. But the political career of young Grey, who was +heir-presumptive to the family estates, took a different complexion. + +Young Grey expected to reoccupy the seat which had been his uncle's; and +his early years were spent in preparation for a parliamentary career. He +was sent to Eton, and proceeded thence to Cambridge. William Pitt, a +youth five years older, was then in residence as a master of arts, +studiously paying court to the Whigs of the university; and at the +general election of 1780 he came forward as a candidate for the +academical seat. His name stood last on the poll, but he was brought in +elsewhere, and his first speech proved him a man of the first mark. The +unparalleled successes which followed portended grave changes. Pitt's +elevation to the premiership, his brilliant and hard-fought battle in +the house, and his complete rout of the Whig party at the general +election of 1784, when he came in for Cambridge at the head of the poll, +threatened the great territorial interest with nothing less than +extinction. It was to this interest that Grey belonged; and hence, when +at length returned for Northumberland in 1786, he at once came forward +as a vigorous assailant of the government of Pitt. He was hailed by the +opposition, and associated with Fox, Burke and Sheridan as a manager in +the Hastings impeachment. During the nineteen years which remained of +the career of Fox, he followed the great Whig statesman with absolute +fidelity, and succeeded him as leader of the party. The shortcomings of +Fox's statesmanship were inherited by Grey. Both were equally devoid of +political originality, shunned the severer labours of the politician, +and instinctively feared any deviation from the traditions of their +party. Such men cannot save a party in its decadence, and the history of +Fox and Grey has been aptly termed the history of the decline and fall +of Whiggism. + +The stunning blow of 1784 was the first incident in this history. Its +full significance was not at once perceived. An opposition, however weak +in the beginning, generally has a tendency to revive, and Grey's early +successes in the house helped to revive the Foxites. The European +situation became favourable to this revival. The struggle in France for +popular rights, culminating in the great Revolution, was watched by Fox +with interested sympathy. He affected to regard the domination of Pitt +as the domination of the crown, and as leading logically to absolutism, +and saw in that popular sympathy for the French Revolution which +naturally arose in England an instrument which might be employed to +overthrow this domination. + +But Pitt gathered the fruits of the windfall. The spread of +"Jacobinism," or "French principles," became the pretext on which the +stronger half of the opposition went over to the government. Burke led +the movement in the Commons, the duke of Portland and Lord Fitzwilliam +in the Lords, and with this second incident in the Whig decline began +the difficulties of Grey's career. The domination of the premier had +already stirred the keenest resentment in the younger and more ambitious +members of the Whig party. Freed from the restraint of the steadier +politicians under Burke and Portland, the residuum under Fox fell into a +series of grave mistakes. Of this residuum Grey became the moving +spirit, for though Fox did not check their activity, he disclaimed the +responsibility of their policy. Fox had refused to condemn "French +principles," and denounced the war with France; but he would take no +part in exciting agitation in England. It was otherwise with the +restless spirits among whom Grey was found. Enraged by the attitude of +Pitt, which was grounded on the support of the constituencies as they +then stood, the residuum plotted an ill-timed agitation for +parliamentary reform. + +The demand for parliamentary reform was as yet in a rudimentary stage. +Forty years later it had become the demand of an unenfranchised nation, +disabused by a sudden spread of political and economical knowledge. It +was as yet but the occasional instrument of the scheming politician. +Chatham had employed the cry in this sense. The Middlesex agitators had +done the same; even the premier of the time, after his accession to +power, had sought to strengthen his hands in the same way. But Pitt's +hands were now strengthened abundantly; whereas the opposition had +nothing to lose and much to gain by such a measure. The cry for reform +thus became their natural expedient. Powerless to carry reform in the +House, they sought to overawe parliament by external agitation, and +formed the Society of the Friends of the People, destined to unite the +forces of all the "patriotic" societies which already existed in the +country, and to pour their violence irresistibly on a terrified +parliament. Grey and his friends were enrolled in this portentous +association, and presented in parliament its menacing petitions. Such +petitions, which were in fact violent impeachments of parliament itself, +proceeding from voluntary associations having no corporate existence, +had been hitherto unknown in the English parliament. They had been well +known in the French assembly. They had heralded and furthered the +victory of the Jacobins, the dissolution of the constitution, the +calling of the Convention and the fall of the monarchy. + +The Society of the Friends of the People was originally an after-dinner +folly, extemporized at the house of a man who afterwards gained an +earldom by denouncing it as seditious. Fox discountenanced it, though he +did not directly condemn it; but Grey was overborne by the fierce +Jacobinism of Lauderdale, and avowed himself the parliamentary +mouthpiece of this dangerous agitation. But Pitt, strong in his +position, cut the ground from under Grey's feet by suppressing the +agitation with a strong hand. The suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act, +the Gagging Acts and the state prosecutions form a painful historical +episode. But the discredit belongs as much to Grey and Lauderdale as to +Pitt. Grey always spoke regretfully of his share in the movement. "One +word from Fox," he said, "would have kept me out of all the mess of the +Friends of the People. But he never spoke it." + +It was Grey who moved the impeachment of Pitt, and he next promoted the +equally foolish "Secession." Since the parliament did not properly +represent the nation, and refused to reform itself or to impeach the +minister, nothing remained but to disown it; and the opposition +announced their intention of "seceding," or systematically absenting +themselves from their places in parliament. This futile movement was +originated by Grey, Lauderdale and the duke of Bedford. It obtained a +somewhat wider support. It suited the languor of some dispirited +politicians like Fox, and the avarice of some lawyers in large practice +like Erskine; but sensible politicians at once condemned it. It directly +ignored parliamentary government, and amounted to nothing but a pettish +threat of revolution. "Secession," said Lord Lansdowne, with +characteristic shrewdness, "either means rebellion, or it is nonsense." +Pitt easily dashed this feeble weapon from the hands of his opponents. +He roused jealousy in the absent by praising the parts and the +patriotism of the rest, and thus gradually brought them back. Grey +himself reappeared to protest against the union with Ireland. + +When Pitt died in 1806 nothing could prevent the reunited opposition +from coming into power, and thus the Broad-bottom ministry was formed +under Fox. On his death Grenville became premier, and Grey, now Lord +Howick, foreign secretary, and leader of the House of Commons. Disunion, +always the bane of English Liberalism, lurked in the coalition, and the +Foxites and Grenvillites were only ostensibly at one. Grey opposed the +war policy of Grenville; and this policy was not more successful than it +had been in the hands of Pitt. And the change from the leadership of Fox +to that of Grenville was only too perceptible. Both in court and country +Grenville affected the role of Pitt, and assumed a stiff and peremptory +attitude which ill became him. An ill-advised dissolution weakened their +majority; they lost ground by the "delicate investigation" into the +conduct of the princess of Wales; Lord Henry Petty's budget was too +specious to command confidence; and the king, fully aware of their weak +situation, resolved to get rid of them. When they proposed to concede a +portion of the Catholic claims, George refused and demanded of them an +undertaking never to propose such a measure again. This was refused, and +the Grenville-Grey cabinet retired in March 1807. In the same year +Grey's father died, and Grey went to the Upper House. Opposition united +Grey and Grenville for a time, but the parties finally split on the old +war question. When Napoleon returned from Elba in 1815, and once more +seized the government of France, the same question arose which had +arisen in 1792, Was England to go to war for the restoration of the +Bourbons? Grenville followed the traditions of Pitt, and supported the +ministry in at once renewing hostilities. Grey followed those of Fox, +and maintained the right of France to choose her own governors, and the +impossibility of checking the reaction in the emperor's favour. The +victory of Waterloo put an end to the dispute, but the disruption became +permanent. The termination of the war, and the cessation of all action +in common, reduced the power of the opposition to nothing. Grenville +retired from public life, and his adherents reinforced the ministry. +Little remained for the Whigs to do. But the persecution of the queen +afforded an opportunity of showing that the ministry were not +omnipotent; and the part taken on that occasion by Grey won him at once +the increased respect of the nation and the undying aversion of George +IV. It sealed the exclusion of himself and his few friends from office +during the king's life; and when in 1827 Grey came forth to denounce the +ministry of Canning, he declared that he stood alone in the political +world. His words were soon justified, for when Lord Goderich resigned, +the remnant which had hitherto supported Grey, hastened to support the +ministry of the duke of Wellington. + +We now reach the principal episode in Grey's career. In 1827 he seemed +to stand forth the solitary and powerless relic of an extinct party. In +1832 we find that party restored to its old numbers and activity, +supreme in parliament, popular in the nation, and Lord Grey at its head. +The duke of Wellington's foolish declaration against parliamentary +reform, made in a season of great popular excitement, suddenly deprived +him of the confidence of the country, and a coalition of the Whigs and +Canningites became inevitable. The Whigs had in 1827 supported the +Canningites; the latter now supported the Whigs, of whom Grey remained +the traditional head. George IV. was dead, and no obstacle existed to +Grey's elevation. Grey was sent for by William IV. in November 1830, and +formed a coalition cabinet, pledged to carry on the work in which the +duke of Wellington had faltered. But Grey himself was the mere +instrument of the times. An old-fashioned Whig, he had little personal +sympathy with the popular cause, though he had sometimes indicated a +certain measure of reform as necessary. When he took office, he guessed +neither the extent to which the Reform Act would go, nor the means by +which it would be carried. That he procured for the country a measure of +constitutional reform for which he had agitated in his youth was little +more than a coincidence. In his youth he had put himself at the head of +a frantic agitation against parliament, because he there found himself +powerless. In his old age the case was reversed. Suddenly raised to a +position of authority in the country, he boldly stood between +parliament, as then constituted, and the formidable agitation which now +threatened it and by a forced reform saved it from revolution. In his +youth he had assailed Pitt's administration because Pitt's +administration threatened with extinction the political monopoly of that +landed interest to which he belonged. In his old age, on the contrary, +unable to check the progress of the wave, he swam with it, and headed +the movement which compelled that landed interest to surrender its +monopoly. + +The second reading of the first Reform Bill was carried in the Commons +by a majority of one. This was equivalent to a defeat, and further +failures precipitated a dissolution. The confidence which the bold +action of the ministry had won was soon plainly proved, for the second +reading was carried in the new parliament by a majority of 136. When the +bill had at length passed the Commons after months of debate, it was +Grey's task to introduce it to the Lords. It was rejected by a majority +of 41. The safety of the country now depended on the prudence and +courage of the ministry. The resignation of Grey and his colleagues was +dreaded even by the opposition, and they remained in office with the +intention of introducing a third Reform Bill in the next session. The +last months of 1831 were the beginning of a political crisis such as +England had not seen since 1688. The two extreme parties, the +Ultra-Radicals and the Ultra-Tories, were ready for civil war. Between +them stood the ministry and the majority of intelligent peace-loving +Englishmen; and their course of action was soon decided. The bill must +be passed, and there were but two ways of passing it. One was to declare +the consent of the House of Lords unnecessary to the measure, the other +to create, if necessary, new peers in sufficient number to outvote the +opposition. These two expedients did not in reality differ. To swamp the +house in the way proposed would have been to destroy it. The question +whether the ministry should demand the king's consent to such a +creation, if necessary, was debated in the cabinet in September. +Brougham proposed it, and gradually a majority of the cabinet were won +over. Grey had at first refused to employ even the threat of so +unconstitutional a device as a means to the proposed end. But his +continued refusal would have broken up the ministry, and the breaking up +of the ministry must now have been the signal for revolution. The second +reading in the Commons was passed in December by a majority of 162, and +on New-Year's day 1832 the majority of the cabinet resolved on demanding +power to carry it in the Lords by a creation of peers. Grey carried the +resolution to the king. Some time still remained before the bill could +be committed and read a third time. It was not until the 9th of April +that Grey moved the second reading in the Lords. A sufficient number of +the opposition temporized; and the second reading was allowed to pass by +a majority of nine. Their intention was to mutilate the bill in +committee. The Ultra-Tories, headed by the duke of Wellington, had +entered a protest against the second reading, but they were now +politically powerless. The struggle had become a struggle on the one +hand for the whole bill, to be carried by a creation of peers, and on +the other for some mutilated measure. Grey's instinct divined that the +crisis was approaching. Either the king must consent to swamp the House, +or the ministry must cease to stand in the breach between the peers and +the country. The king, a weak and inexperienced politician, had in the +meantime been wrought upon by the temporizing leaders in the Lords. He +was induced to believe that if the Commons should reject the mutilated +bill when it was returned to them, and the ministry should consequently +retire, the mutilated bill might be reintroduced and passed by a Tory +ministry. He was deaf to all representations of the state of public +opinion; and to the surprise of the ministry, and the terror and +indignation of every man of sense in the country, he rejected their +proposal and accepted their resignation, May 9, 1832. The duke of +Wellington undertook the hopeless task of constructing a ministry which +should pass a restricted or sham Reform Bill. The only man who could +have made the success of such a ministry even probable was Peel, and +Peel's conscience and good sense forbade the attempt. He refused, and +after a week of the profoundest agitation throughout the country, the +king, beaten and mortified, was forced to send for Grey and Brougham. On +being told that his consent to the creation of peers was the only +condition on which they could undertake the government, he angrily and +reluctantly yielded. The chancellor, with cool forethought, demanded +this consent in writing. Grey thought such a demand harsh and +unnecessary. "I wonder," he said to Brougham, when the interview was +over, "you could have had the heart to press it." But Brougham was +inexorable, and the king signed the following paper: "The king grants +permission to Earl Grey, and to his chancellor, Lord Brougham, to create +such a number of peers as will be sufficient to ensure the passing of +the Reform Bill, first calling up peers' eldest sons.--WILLIAM R., +Windsor, May 17, 1832." + +Grey had now won the game. There was no danger that he would have to +resort to the expedient which he was authorized to employ. The +introduction of sixty new peers would have destroyed the opposition, but +it would have been equivalent to the abolition of the House. The king's +consent made known, a sufficient number of peers were sure to withdraw +to enable the bill to pass, and thus the dignity of both king and +peerage would be saved. The duke of Wellington headed this movement on +the part of the opposition; and the third reading of the bill was +carried in the Lords by a majority of 84. + +It is well known that in after years both Grey and Brougham disclaimed +any intention of executing their threat. If this were so, they must have +merely pretended to brave a danger which they secretly feared to face, +and intended to avoid; and the credit of rescuing the country would +belong to the duke of Wellington and the peers who seceded with him. To +argue such cowardice in them from statements made when the crisis was +long past, and when they were naturally willing to palliate the rough +policy which they were forced to adopt, would be to set up a needless +and unjustifiable paradox. Nothing else in the career of either Grey or +Brougham leads us to suppose them capable of the moral baseness of +yielding up the helm of state, in an hour of darkness and peril, to +reckless and unskilled hands. Such would have been the result if they +had lacked the determination to carry out their programme to the end. +The influence of every statesman in the country would then have been +extinguished, and the United Kingdom would have been absolutely in the +hands of O'Connell and Orator Hunt. + +Grey took but little part in directing the legislation of the reformed +parliament. Never anxious for power, he had executed the arduous task +of 1831-1832 rather as a matter of duty than of inclination, and wished +for an opportunity of retiring. Such an opportunity very shortly +presented itself. The Irish policy of the ministry had not conciliated +the Irish people, and O'Connell denounced them with the greatest +bitterness. On the renewal of the customary Coercion Bill, the ministry +was divided on the question whether to continue to the lord-lieutenant +the power of suppressing public meetings. Littleton, the Irish +secretary, was for abolishing it; and with the view of conciliating +O'Connell, he informed him that the ministry intended to abandon it. But +the result proved him to have been mistaken, and O'Connell, with some +reason supposing himself to have been duped, called on Littleton to +resign his secretaryship. It had also transpired in the discussion that +Lord Althorp, the leader of the House of Commons, was privately opposed +to retaining those clauses which it was his duty to push through the +house. Lord Althorp therefore resigned, and Grey, who had lately passed +his seventieth year, took the opportunity of resigning also. It was his +opinion, it appeared, which had overborne the cabinet in favour of the +public meeting clauses; and his voluntary withdrawal enabled Lord +Althorp to return to his post and to proceed with the bill in its milder +form. Grey was succeeded by Lord Melbourne; but no other change was made +in the cabinet. Grey took no further part in politics. During most of +his remaining years he continued to live in retirement at Howick, where +he died on the 17th of July 1845, in his eighty-second year. By his wife +Mary Elizabeth, only daughter of the first Lord Ponsonby, whom he +married on the 18th of November 1794, he became the father of ten sons +and five daughters. Grey's eldest son Henry (q.v.) became the 3rd earl, +and among his other sons were General Charles Grey (1804-1870) and +Admiral Frederick Grey (1805-1878). + +In public life, Grey could always be upon occasion bold, strenuous and +self-sacrificing; but he was little disposed for the active work of the +politician. He was not one of those who took the statesman's duty "as a +pleasure he was to enjoy." A certain stiffness and reserve ever seemed +in the popular eye to hedge him in; nor was his oratory of the kind +which stirs enthusiasm and delight. A tall, stately figure, fine voice +and calm aristocratic bearing reminded the listener of Pitt rather than +of Fox, and his speeches were constructed on the Attic rather than the +Asiatic model. Though simple and straightforward, they never lacked +either point or dignity; and they were admirably adapted to the audience +to which they were addressed. The scrupulous uprightness of Grey's +political and private character completed the ascendancy which he +gained; and no politician could be named who, without being a statesman +of the highest class, has left a name more enviably placed in English +history. (E. J. P.) + + + + +GREY, SIR EDWARD, 3rd Bart. (1862- ), English statesman, was educated +at Winchester and at Balliol College, Oxford, and succeeded his +grandfather, the 2nd baronet, at the age of twenty. He entered the House +of Commons as Liberal member for Berwick-on-Tweed in 1885, but he was +best known as a country gentleman with a taste for sport, and as amateur +champion tennis-player. His interest in politics was rather languid, but +he was a disciple of Lord Rosebery, and in the 1892-1895 Liberal +ministry he was under-secretary for foreign affairs. In this position he +earned a reputation as a politician of thorough straightforwardness and +grit, and as one who would maintain British interests independently of +party; and he shared with Mr Asquith the reputation of being the ablest +of the Imperialists who followed Lord Rosebery. Though outside foreign +affairs he played but a small part in the period of Liberal opposition +between 1895 and 1905, he retained public confidence as one who was +indispensable to a Liberal administration. When Sir Henry +Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet was formed in December 1905 he became +foreign minister, and he retained this office when in April 1908 Mr +Asquith became prime minister. + + + + +GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812-1898), British colonial governor and statesman, +only son of Lieutenant-Colonel Grey of the 30th Foot, was born in Lisbon +on the 14th of April 1812, eight days after the death of his father at +the storming of Badajoz. He passed through Sandhurst with credit, and +received his commission in 1829. His lieutenancy was dated 1833, and his +captaincy 1839, in which year he sold out and left the army. In the +early 'thirties he was quartered in Ireland, where the wretchedness of +the poorer classes left a deep impression on his mind. In 1836 the Royal +Geographical Society accepted his offer to explore the north-west region +of West Australia, and accordingly he landed at Hanover Bay at the end +of 1837. The surrounding country he found broken and difficult, and his +hardships were aggravated by the tropical heat and his ignorance of the +continent. In a skirmish with the natives, in which he was speared near +the hip, he showed great courage, and put the assailants to flight, +shooting the chief, who had wounded him. After a brave endeavour to +continue his journey his wound forced him to retreat to the coast, +whence he sailed to Mauritius to recruit. Next year he again essayed +exploration, this time on the coast to the north and south of Shark's +Bay. He had three whale-boats and an ample supply of provisions, but by +a series of disasters his stores were spoilt by storms, his boats +wrecked in the surf, and the party had to tramp on foot from Gantheaume +Bay to Perth, where Grey, in the end, walked in alone, so changed by +suffering that friends did not know him. In 1839 he was appointed +governor-resident at Albany, and during his stay there married Harriett, +daughter of Admiral Spencer, and also prepared for publication an +account, in two volumes, of his expeditions. In 1840 he returned to +England, to be immediately appointed by Lord John Russell to succeed +Colonel Gawler as governor of South Australia. Reaching the colony in +May 1841, he found it in the depths of a depression caused by +mismanagement and insane land speculation. By rigorously reducing public +expenditure, and forcing the settlers to quit the town and betake +themselves to tilling their lands, and with the opportune help of +valuable copper discoveries, Grey was able to aid the infant colony to +emerge from the slough. So striking were his energy and determination +that when, in 1845, the little settlements in New Zealand were found to +be involved in a native war, and on the verge of ruin, he was sent to +save them. The Maori chiefs in open rebellion were defeated, and made +their submission. Another powerful leader suspected of fomenting +discontent was arrested, and friendly chieftains were subsidized and +honoured. Bands of the natives were employed in making government roads, +and were paid good wages. The governor gained the veneration of the +Maori tribes, in whose welfare he took a close personal interest, and of +whose legends and myths he made a valuable and scholarly collection, +published in New Zealand in 1855 and reprinted thirty years afterwards. +With peace prosperity came to New Zealand, and the colonial office +desired to give the growing settlements full self-government. Grey, +arguing that this would renew war with the Maori, returned the +constitution to Downing Street. But though the colonial office sustained +him, he became involved in harassing disputes with the colonists, who +organized an active agitation for autonomy. In the end a second +constitution, partly framed by Grey himself, was granted them, and Grey, +after eight years of despotic but successful rule, was transferred to +Cape Colony. He had been knighted for his services, and had undoubtedly +shown strength, dexterity and humanity in dealing with the whites and +natives. In South Africa his success continued. He thwarted a formidable +Kaffir rebellion in the Eastern Provinces, and pushed on the work of +settlement by bringing out men from the German Legion and providing them +with homes. He gained the respect of the British, the confidence of the +Boers, the admiration and the trust of the natives. The Dutch of the +Free State and the Basuto chose him as arbitrator of their quarrels. +When the news of the Indian Mutiny reached Cape Town he strained every +nerve to help Lord Canning, despatching men, horses, stores and L60,000 +in specie to Bombay. He persuaded a detachment, then on its way round +the Cape as a reinforcement for Lord Elgin in China, to divert its +voyage to Calcutta. Finally, in 1859, Grey almost reached what would +have been the culminating point of his career by federating South +Africa. Persuaded by him, the Orange Free State passed resolutions in +favour of this great step, and their action was welcomed by Cape Town. +But the colonial office disapproved of the change, and when Grey +attempted to persevere with it Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton recalled him. A +change of ministry during his voyage to England displaced Sir Edward +Bulwer Lytton. But though the duke of Newcastle reinstated Grey, it was +with instructions to let federation drop. In 1861 the colonial office +sent him, for the fourth time in succession, to take up a post of +exceptional difficulty by again entrusting him with the governorship of +New Zealand, where an inglorious native war in Taranaki had just been +succeeded by an armed truce. Grey did his best to make terms with the +rebels and to re-establish friendship with the Maori king and the land +league of tribes formed to stop further sales of land to the whites. But +the Maori had got guns and powder, and were suspicious and truculent. In +vain Grey, supported by Bishop Selwyn and by Fox and the peace party +among the settlers, strove to avert war. It came in 1863, and spread +from province to province. Ten thousand regulars and as many colonial +riflemen were employed to put it down. The imperial troops were badly +handled, and Grey, losing patience, became involved in bitter disputes +with their commanders. As an example to the former he himself attacked +and captured Weraroa, the strongest of the Maori stockades, with a +handful of militia, a feat which delighted the colonists, but made him +as much disliked at the war office as he now was at Downing Street. +Moreover, Grey had no longer real control over the islands. New Zealand +had become a self-governing colony, and though he vindicated the +colonists generally when libellous imputations of cruelty and +land-grabbing were freely made against them in London, he crossed swords +with his ministers when the latter confiscated three million acres of +tribal land belonging to the insurgent Maori. Yet through all these +troubles progress was made; many successes were gained in 1866, chiefly +by the colonial militia, and a condition of something like tranquillity +had been reached in 1867, when he received a curt intimation from the +duke of Buckingham that he was about to be superseded. The colonists, +who believed he was sacrificed for upholding their interests and good +name, bade farewell to him in 1868 in an outburst of gratitude and +sympathy; but his career as a colonial governor was at an end. Returning +to England, he tried to enter public life, delivered many able speeches +advocating what later came to be termed Imperialism, and stood for +Newark. Discouraged, however, by the official Liberals, he withdrew and +turned again to New Zealand. In 1872 he was given a pension of L1000 a +year, and settled down on the island of Kawau, not far from Auckland, +which he bought, and where he passed his leisure in planting, gardening +and collecting books. In 1875, on the invitation of the Auckland +settlers, he became superintendent of their province, and entered the +New Zealand House of Representatives to resist the abolition of the +provincial councils of the colony, a change then being urged on by Sir +Julius Vogel in alliance with the Centralist Party. In this he failed, +but his eloquence and courage drew round him a strong Radical following, +and gave him the premiership in 1877. Manhood suffrage, triennial +parliaments, a land-tax, the purchase of large estates and the popular +election of the governor, were leading points of his policy. All these +reforms, except the last, he lived to see carried; none of them were +passed by him. A commercial depression in 1879 shook his popularity, and +on the fall of his ministry in 1879 he was deposed, and for the next +fifteen years remained a solitary and pathetic figure in the New Zealand +parliament, respectfully treated, courteously listened to, but never +again invited to lead. In 1891 he came before Australia as one of the +New Zealand delegates to the federal convention at Sydney, and +characteristically made his mark by standing out almost alone for "one +man one vote" as the federal franchise. This point he carried, and the +Australians thronged to hear him, so that his visits to Victoria and +South Australia were personal triumphs. When, too, in 1894, he quitted +New Zealand for London, some reparation was at last made him by the +imperial government; he was called to the privy council, and graciously +received by Queen Victoria on his visit to Windsor. Thereafter he lived +in London, and died on the 20th of September 1898. He was given a public +funeral at St Paul's. Grey was all his life a collector of books and +manuscripts. After leaving Cape Colony, he gave his library to Cape Town +in 1862; his subsequent collection, which numbered 12,000 volumes, he +presented to the citizens of Auckland in 1887. In gratitude the people +of Cape Town erected a statue of him opposite their library building. + + _Lives_ of Sir George Grey have been written by W. L. and L. Rees + (1892), Professor G. C. Henderson (1907) and J. Collier (1909). + (W. P. R.) + + + + +GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894), English statesman, was born on +the 28th of December 1802, the son of the 2nd Earl Grey, prime minister +at the time of the Reform Bill of 1832. He entered parliament in 1826, +under the title of Viscount Howick, as member for Winchelsea, which +constituency he left in 1831 for Northumberland. On the accession of the +Whigs to power in 1830 he was made under-secretary for the colonies, and +laid the foundation of his intimate acquaintance with colonial +questions. He belonged at the time to the more advanced party of +colonial reformers, sharing the views of Edward Gibbon Wakefield on +questions of land and emigration, and resigned in 1834 from +dissatisfaction that slave emancipation was made gradual instead of +immediate. In 1835 he entered Lord Melbourne's cabinet as secretary at +war, and effected some valuable administrative reforms, especially by +suppressing malpractices detrimental to the troops in India. After the +partial reconstruction of the ministry in 1839 he again resigned, +disapproving of the more advanced views of some of his colleagues. These +repeated resignations gave him a reputation for crotchetiness, which he +did not decrease by his disposition to embarrass his old colleagues by +his action on free trade questions in the session of 1841. During the +exile of the Liberals from power he went still farther on the path of +free trade, and anticipated Lord John Russell's declaration against the +corn laws. When, on Sir Robert Peel's resignation in December 1845, Lord +John Russell was called upon to form a ministry, Howick, who had become +Earl Grey by the death of his father in the preceding July, refused to +enter the new cabinet if Lord Palmerston were foreign secretary (see J. +R. Thursfield in vol. i. and Hon. F. H. Baring in vol. xxiii. of the +_English Historical Review_). He was greatly censured for perverseness, +and particularly when in the following July he accepted Lord Palmerston +as a colleague without remonstrance. His conduct, nevertheless, afforded +Lord John Russell an escape from an embarrassing situation. Becoming +colonial secretary in 1846, he found himself everywhere confronted with +arduous problems, which in the main he encountered with success. His +administration formed an epoch. He was the first minister to proclaim +that the colonies were to be governed for their own benefit and not for +the mother-country's; the first systematically to accord them +self-government so far as then seemed possible; the first to introduce +free trade into their relations with Great Britain and Ireland. The +concession by which colonies were allowed to tax imports from the +mother-country _ad libitum_ was not his; he protested against it, but +was overruled. In the West Indies he suppressed, if he could not +overcome, discontent; in Ceylon he put down rebellion; in New Zealand he +suspended the constitution he had himself accorded, and yielded +everything into the masterful hands of Sir George Grey. The least +successful part of his administration was his treatment of the convict +question at the Cape of Good Hope, which seemed an exception to his rule +that the colonies were to be governed for their own benefit and in +accordance with their own wishes, and subjected him to a humiliating +defeat. After his retirement he wrote a history and defence of his +colonial policy in the form of letters to Lord John Russell, a dry but +instructive book (_Colonial Policy of Lord John Russell's +Administration_, 1853). He resigned with his colleagues in 1852. No room +was found for him in the Coalition Cabinet of 1853, and although during +the Crimean struggle public opinion pointed to him as the fittest man as +minister for war, he never again held office. During the remainder of +his long life he exercised a vigilant criticism on public affairs. In +1858 he wrote a work (republished in 1864) on parliamentary reform; in +1888 he wrote another on the state of Ireland; and in 1892 one on the +United States tariff. In his latter years he was a frequent contributor +of weighty letters to _The Times_ on land, tithes, currency and other +public questions. His principal parliamentary appearances were when he +moved for a committee on Irish affairs in 1866, and when in 1878 he +passionately opposed the policy of the Beaconsfield cabinet in India. He +nevertheless supported Lord Beaconsfield at the dissolution, regarding +Mr Gladstone's accession to power with much greater alarm. He was a +determined opponent of Mr Gladstone's Home Rule policy. He died on the +9th of October 1894. None ever doubted his capacity or his +conscientiousness, but he was generally deemed impracticable and +disagreeable. Prince Albert, however, who expressed himself as ready to +subscribe to all Grey's principles, and applauded him for having +principles, told Stockmar that, although dogmatic, he was amenable to +argument; and Sir Henry Taylor credits him with "more freedom from +littlenesses of feeling than I have met before in any public man." His +chief defect was perceived and expressed by his original tutor and +subsequent adversary in colonial affairs, Edward Gibbon Wakefield, who +wrote, "With more than a common talent for understanding principles, he +has no originality of thought, which compels him to take all his ideas +from somebody; and no power of working out theory in practice, which +compels him to be always in somebody's hands as respects decision and +action." + +The earl had no sons, and he was followed as 4th earl by his nephew +Albert Henry George (b. 1851), who in 1904 became governor-general of +Canada. + + + + +GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554), a lady remarkable no less for her +accomplishments than for her misfortunes, was the great-granddaughter of +Henry VII. of England. Her descent from that king was traced through a +line of females. His second daughter Mary, after being left a widow by +Louis XII. of France, married Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, who was +a favourite with her brother King Henry VIII. Of this marriage came two +daughters, the elder of whom, Lady Frances Brandon, was married to Henry +Grey, marquess of Dorset; and their issue, again, consisted of daughters +only. Lady Jane, the subject of this article, was the eldest of three +whom the marquess had by Lady Frances. Thus it will appear that even if +the crown of England had ever fallen into the female line of descent +from Henry VII., she could not have put in a rightful claim unless the +issue of his elder daughter, Margaret, had become extinct. But Margaret +had married James IV. of Scotland; and, though her descendant, James +VI., was ultimately called to the English throne, Henry VIII. had placed +her family after that of his second sister in the succession; so that, +failing the lawful issue of Henry himself, Lady Jane would, according to +this arrangement, have succeeded. It was to these circumstances that she +owed her exceptional position in history, and became the victim of an +ambition which was not her own. + +She was born at her father's seat named Bradgate in Leicestershire about +the year 1537. Her parents, though severe disciplinarians, bestowed more +than ordinary care upon her education, and she herself was so teachable +and delighted so much in study that she became the marvel of the age for +her acquirements. She not only excelled in needlework and in music, both +vocal and instrumental, but while still very young she had thoroughly +mastered Latin, Greek, French and Italian. She was able to speak and +write both Greek and Latin with an accuracy that satisfied even such +critics as Ascham and her tutor Dr Aylmer, afterwards bishop of London. +She also acquired some knowledge of at least three Oriental tongues, +Hebrew, Chaldee and Arabic. In Ascham's _Schoolmaster_ is given a +touching account of the devotion with which she pursued her studies and +the harshness she experienced from her parents. The love of learning was +her solace; in reading Demosthenes and Plato she found a refuge from +domestic unhappiness. When about ten years old she was placed for a time +in the household of Thomas, Lord Seymour, who, having obtained her +wardship, induced her parents to let her stay with him, even after the +death of his wife, Queen Catherine Parr, by promising to marry her to +his nephew, King Edward VI. Lord Seymour, however, was attainted of high +treason and beheaded in 1549, and his brother, the duke of Somerset, +made some overtures to the marquess of Dorset to marry her to his son +the earl of Hertford. These projects, however, came to nothing. The duke +of Somerset in his turn fell a victim to the ambition of Dudley, duke of +Northumberland, and was beheaded three years after his brother. +Meanwhile, the dukedom of Suffolk having become extinct by the deaths of +Charles Brandon and his two sons, the title was conferred upon the +marquess of Dorset, Lady Jane's father. Northumberland, who was now +all-powerful, fearing a great reverse of fortune in case of the king's +death, as his health began visibly to decline, endeavoured to strengthen +himself by marriages between his family and those of other powerful +noblemen, especially of the new-made duke of Suffolk. His three eldest +sons being already married, the fourth, who was named Lord Guilford +Dudley, was accordingly wedded to Lady Jane Grey about the end of May +1553. The match received the full approval of the king, who furnished +the wedding apparel of the parties by royal warrant. But Edward's state +of health warned Northumberland that he must lose no time in putting the +rest of his project into execution. He persuaded the king that if the +crown should descend to his sister Mary the work of the Reformation +would be undone and the liberties of the kingdom would be in danger. +Besides, both Mary and her sister Elizabeth had been declared +illegitimate by separate acts of parliament, and the objections to Mary +queen of Scots did not require to be pointed out. Edward was easily +persuaded to break through his father's will and make a new settlement +of the crown by deed. The document was witnessed by the signatures of +all the council and of all but one of the judges; but those of the +latter body were obtained only with difficulty by threats and +intimidation. + +Edward VI. died on the 6th July 1553, and it was announced to Lady Jane +that she was queen. She was then but sixteen years of age. The news came +upon her as a most unwelcome surprise, and for some time she resisted +all persuasions to accept the fatal dignity; but at length she yielded +to the entreaties of her father, her father-in-law and her husband. The +better to mature their plans the cabal had kept the king's death secret +for some days, but they proclaimed Queen Jane in the city on the 10th. +The people received the announcement with manifest coldness, and a +vintner's boy was even so bold as to raise a cry for Queen Mary, for +which he next day had his ears nailed to the pillory and afterwards cut +off. Mary, however, had received early intimation of her brother's +death, and, retiring from Hunsdon into Norfolk, gathered round her the +nobility and commons of those parts. Northumberland was despatched +thither with an army to oppose her; but after reaching Newmarket he +complained that the council had not sent him forces in sufficient +numbers and his followers began to desert. News also came that the earl +of Oxford had declared for Queen Mary; and as most of the council +themselves were only seeking an opportunity to wash their hands of +rebellion, they procured a meeting at Baynard's Castle, revoked their +former acts as done under coercion, and caused the lord mayor to +proclaim Queen Mary, which he did amid the shouts of the citizens. The +duke of Suffolk was obliged to tell his daughter that she must lay aside +her royal dignity and become a private person once more. She replied +that she relinquished most willingly a crown that she had only accepted +out of obedience to him and her mother, and her nine days' reign was +over. + +The leading actors in the conspiracy were now called to answer for their +deeds. Northumberland was brought up to London a prisoner, tried and +sent to the block, along with some of his partisans. The duke of Suffolk +and Lady Jane were also committed to the Tower; but the former, by the +influence of his duchess, procured a pardon. Lady Jane and her husband +Lord Guilford Dudley were also tried, and received sentence of death for +treason. This, however, was not immediately carried out; on the +contrary, the queen seems to have wished to spare their lives and +mitigated the rigour of their confinement. Unfortunately, owing to the +general dislike of the queen's marriage with Philip of Spain, Sir Thomas +Wyat soon after raised a rebellion in which the duke of Suffolk and his +brothers took part, and on its suppression the queen was persuaded that +it was unsafe to spare the lives of Lady Jane and her husband any +longer. On hearing that they were to die, Lady Jane declined a parting +interview with her husband lest it should increase their pain, and +prepared to meet her fate with Christian fortitude. She and her husband +were executed on the same day, on the 12th of February 1554, her husband +on Tower Hill, and herself within the Tower an hour afterwards, amidst +universal sympathy and compassion. + + See Ascham's _Schoolmaster_; Burnet's _History of the Reformation_; + Howard's _Lady Jane Grey_; Nicolas's Literary _Remains of Lady Jane + Grey_; Tytler's _England under Edward VI. and Mary_; _The Chronicles + of Queen Jane_, ed. J. G. Nichols; _The Accession of Queen Mary_ + (Guaras's narrative), ed. R. Garnett (1892); Foxe's _Acts and + Monuments_. + + + + +GREY DE WILTON and GREY DE RUTHYN. The first Baron Grey de Wilton was +Reginald de Grey, who was summoned to parliament as a baron in 1295 and +who died in 1308. Reginald's son John, the 2nd baron (1268-1323), was +one of the lords ordainers in 1310 and was a prominent figure in English +politics during the reign of Edward II. The later barons Grey de Wilton +were descended from John's eldest son Henry (d. 1342), while a younger +son Roger (d. 1353) was the ancestor of the barons Grey de Ruthyn. + +WILLIAM, 13TH LORD GREY DE WILTON (d. 1562), who succeeded to the title +on the death of his brother Richard, about 1520, won great fame as a +soldier by his conduct in France during the concluding years of Henry +VIII.'s reign, and was one of the leaders of the victorious English army +at the battle of Pinkie in 1547. He was then employed on the Scottish +marches and in Scotland, and in 1549 he rendered good service in +suppressing the rebellion in Oxfordshire and in the west of England; in +1551 he was imprisoned as a friend of the fallen protector, the duke of +Somerset, and he was concerned in the attempt made by John Dudley, duke +of Northumberland, to place Lady Jane Grey on the English throne In +1553. However, he was pardoned by Queen Mary and was entrusted with the +defence of Guines. Although indifferently supported he defended the town +with great gallantry, but in January 1558 he was forced to surrender and +for some time he remained a prisoner in France. Under Elizabeth, Grey +was again employed on the Scottish border, and he was responsible for +the pertinacious but unavailing attempt to capture Leith in May 1560. He +died at Cheshunt in Hertfordshire on the 14th/25th of December 1562. + + He was described by William Cecil as "a noble, valiant, painful and + careful gentleman," and his son and successor, Arthur, wrote _A + Commentary of the Services and Charges of William, Lord Grey of + Wilton, K.G._ This has been edited by Sir P. de M. Grey Egerton for + the Camden Society (1847). + +Grey's elder son ARTHUR, 14TH LORD GREY DE WILTON (1536-1593), was +during early life with his father in France and in Scotland; he fought +at the battle of St Quentin and helped to defend Guines and to assault +Leith. In July 1580 he was appointed lord deputy of Ireland, and after +an initial defeat in Wicklow was successful in reducing many of the +rebels to a temporary submission. Perhaps the most noteworthy event +during his tenure of this office was the massacre of 600 Italians and +Spaniards at Smerwick in November 1580, an action for which he was +responsible. Having incurred a heavy burden of debt Grey frequently +implored the queen to recall him, and in August 1582 he was allowed to +return to England (see E. Spenser, _View of the State of Ireland_, +edited by H. Morley, 1890, and R. Bagwell, _Ireland under the Tudors_, +vol. iii., 1890). While in Ireland Grey was served as secretary by +Edmund Spenser, and in book v. of the _Faerie Queene_ the poet +represents his patron as a knight of very noble qualities named +Artegall. As one of the commissioners who tried Mary queen of Scots, +Grey defended the action of Elizabeth's secretary, William Davison, with +regard to this matter, and he took part in the preparations for the +defence of England against the Spaniards in 1588. His account of the +defence of Guines was used by Holinshed in his _Chronicles_. + +When he died on the 14th of October 1593 he was succeeded as 15th baron +by his son THOMAS (d. 1614), who while serving in Ireland incurred the +enmity of Robert Devereux, earl of Essex, and of Henry Wriothesley, earl +of Southampton; and after fighting against Spain in the Netherlands he +was a member of the court which sentenced these two noblemen to death in +1601. On the accession of James I. he was arrested for his share in the +"Bye" plot, an attempt made by William Watson and others to seize the +king. He was tried and sentenced to death, but the sentence was not +carried out and he remained in prison until his death on the 9th of July +1614. He displayed both ability and courage at his trial, remarking +after sentence had been passed, "the house of Wilton hath spent many +lives in their prince's service and Grey cannot beg his." Like his +father Grey was a strong Puritan. He left no children and his barony +became extinct. + + In 1784 Sir Thomas Egerton, Bart., a descendant in the female line of + the 14th baron, was created Baron Grey de Wilton. He died without sons + in September 1814, when his barony became extinct; but the titles of + Viscount Grey de Wilton and earl of Wilton, which had been conferred + upon him in 1801, passed to Thomas Grosvenor (1799-1882), the second + son of his daughter Eleanor (d. 1846); and her husband Robert + Grosvenor, 1st marquess of Westminster. Thomas took the name of + Egerton and his descendants still hold the titles. + +ROGER GREY, 1ST BARON GREY DE RUTHYN, who was summoned to parliament as +a baron in 1324, saw much service as a soldier before his death on the +6th of March 1353. The second baron was his son Reginald, whose son +REGINALD (c. 1362-1440) succeeded to the title on his father's death in +July 1388. In 1410 after a long dispute the younger Reginald won the +right to bear the arms of the Hastings family. He enjoyed the favour +both of Richard II. and Henry IV., and his chief military exploits were +against the Welsh, who took him prisoner in 1402 and only released him +upon payment of a heavy ransom. Grey was a member of the council which +governed England during the absence of Henry V. in France in 1415; he +fought in the French wars in 1420 and 1421 and died on the 30th of +September 1440. His eldest son, Sir John Grey, K.G. (d. 1439), who +predeceased his father, fought at Agincourt and was deputy of Ireland in +1427. He was the father of EDMUND GREY (d. 1489), who succeeded his +grandfather as Lord Grey de Ruthyn in 1440 and was created earl of Kent +in 1465. + + One of Reginald Grey's younger sons, Edward (1415-1457), succeeded his + maternal grandfather as Baron Ferrers of Groby in 1445. He was the + ancestor of the earls of Stamford and also of the Greys, marquesses of + Dorset and dukes of Suffolk. + + The barony of Grey de Ruthyn was merged in the earldom of Kent until + the death of Henry, the 8th earl, in November 1639. It then devolved + upon Kent's nephew Charles Longueville (1612-1643), through whose + daughter Susan (d. 1676) it came to the family of Yelverton, who were + earls of Sussex from 1717 to 1799. The next holder was Henry Edward + Gould (1780-1810), a grandson of Henry Yelverton, earl of Sussex; and + through Gould's daughter Barbara, marchioness of Hastings (d. 1858), + it passed to the last marquess of Hastings, on whose death in 1868 the + barony fell into abeyance, this being terminated in 1885 in favour of + Hastings's sister Bertha (d. 1887), the wife of Augustus Wykeham + Clifton. Their son, Rawdon George Grey Clifton (b. 1858), succeeded + his mother as 24th holder of the barony. + + + + +GREYMOUTH, a seaport of New Zealand, the principal port on the west +coast of South Island, in Grey county. Pop. (1906) 4569. It stands on +the small estuary of the Grey or Mawhera river, has a good harbour, and +railway communication with Hokitika, Reefton, &c., while the +construction of a line to connect with Christchurch and Nelson was begun +in 1887. The district is both auriferous and coal-bearing. Gold-dredging +is a rich industry, and the coal-mines have attendant industries in +coke, bricks and fire-clay. The timber trade is also well developed. The +neighbouring scenery is picturesque, especially among the hills +surrounding Lake Brunner (15 m. S.E.). + + + + +GREYTOWN (SAN JUAN DEL NORTE), the principal seaport on the Caribbean +coast of Nicaragua, in the extreme south-eastern corner of the republic, +and at the mouth of the northern channel of the San Juan river delta. +Pop. (1905) about 2500. The town occupies the seaward side of a narrow +peninsula, formed by the windings of the river. Most of its houses are +raised on piles 2 or 3 ft. above the ground. The neighbourhood is +unhealthy and unsuited for agriculture, so that almost all food-stuffs +must be imported, and the cost of living is high. Greytown has suffered +severely from the accumulation of sand in its once fine harbour. Between +1832 and 1848 Point Arenas, the seaward end of the peninsula, was +enlarged by a sandbank more than 1 m. long; between 1850 and 1875 the +depth of water over the bar decreased from about 25 ft. to 5 ft., and +the entrance channel, which had been nearly 1/2 m. wide, was almost +closed. Subsequent attempts to improve the harbour by dredging and +building jetties have only had partial success; but Greytown remains the +headquarters of Nicaraguan commerce with Europe and eastern America. The +village called America, 1 m. N., was built as the eastern terminus of a +proposed interoceanic canal. + +The harbour of San Juan, discovered by Columbus, was brought into +further notice by Captain Diego Machuca, who in 1529 sailed down the +river from Lake Nicaragua. The date of the first Spanish settlement on +the spot is not known, but in the 17th century there were fortifications +at the mouth of the river. In 1796 San Juan was made a port of entry by +royal charter, and new defences were erected in 1821. In virtue of the +protectorate claimed by Great Britain over the Mosquito Coast (q.v.), +the Mosquito Indians, aided by a British force, seized the town in 1848 +and occupied it until 1860, when Great Britain ceded its protectorate to +Nicaragua by the treaty of Managua. This treaty secured religious +liberty and trial by jury for all civil and criminal charges in +Greytown; its seventh article declared the port free, but was never +enforced. + + + + +GREYWACKE, or GRAUWACKE (a German word signifying a grey earthy rock), +the designation, formerly more generally used by English geologists than +at the present day, for impure, highly composite, gritty rocks belonging +to the Palaeozoic systems. They correspond to the sandstones, grits and +fine conglomerates of the later periods. Greywackes are mostly grey, +brown, yellow or black, dull-coloured, sandy rocks which may occur in +thick or thin beds along with slates, limestones, &c., and are abundant +in Wales, the south of Scotland and the Lake district of England. They +contain a very great variety of minerals, of which the principal are +quartz, orthoclase and plagioclase, calcite, iron oxides and graphitic +carbonaceous matters, together with (in the coarser kinds) fragments of +such rocks as felsite, chert, slate, gneiss, various schists, quartzite. +Among other minerals found in them are biotite and chlorite, tourmaline, +epidote, apatite, garnet, hornblende and augite, sphene, pyrites. The +cementing material may be siliceous or argillaceous, and is sometimes +calcareous. As a rule greywackes are not fossiliferous, but organic +remains may be common in the finer beds associated with them. Their +component particles are usually not much rounded by attrition, and the +rocks have often been considerably indurated by pressure and mineral +changes, such as the introduction of interstitial silica. In some +districts the greywackes are cleaved, but they show phenomena of this +kind much less perfectly than the slates. Although the group is so +diverse that it is difficult to characterize mineralogically, it has a +well-established place in petrographical classifications, because these +peculiar composite arenaceous deposits are very frequent among Silurian +and Cambrian rocks, and rarely occur in Secondary or Tertiary systems. +Their essential features are their gritty character and their complex +composition. By increasing metamorphism greywackes frequently pass into +mica-schists, chloride schists and sedimentary gneisses. (J. S. F.) + + + + +GRIBEAUVAL, JEAN BAPTISTE DE (1715-1789), French artillery general, was +the son of a magistrate of Amiens and was born there on the 15th of +September 1715. He entered the French royal artillery in 1732 as a +volunteer, and became an officer in 1735. For nearly twenty years +regimental duty and scientific work occupied him, and in 1752 he became +captain of a company of miners. A few years later he was employed in a +military mission in Prussia. In 1757, being then a lieutenant-colonel, +he was lent to the Austrian army on the outbreak of the Seven Years' +War, and served as a general officer of artillery. The siege of Glatz +and the defence of Schweidnitz were his principal exploits. The empress +Maria Theresa rewarded him for his work with the rank of lieutenant +field-marshal and the cross of the Maria Theresa order. On his return to +France he was made _marechal de camp_, in 1764 inspector of artillery, +and in 1765 lieutenant-general and commander of the order of St Louis. +For some years after this he was in disfavour at court, and he became +first inspector of artillery only in 1776, in which year also he +received the grand cross of the St Louis order. He was now able to carry +out the reforms in the artillery arm which are his chief title to fame. +See ARTILLERY; and for full details Gribeauval's own _Table des +constructions des principaux attirails de l'artillerie ... de M. de +Gribeauval_, and the _reglement_ for the French artillery issued in +1776. He died in 1789. + + See Puysegur in _Journal de Paris_, supplement of the 8th of July + 1789; Chevalier de Passac, _Precis sur M. de Gribeauval_ (Paris, + 1816); Veyrines, _Gribeauval_ (Paris, 1889), and Hennebert, + _Gribeauval, lieutenant-general des armees du roy_ (Paris, 1896). + + + + +GRIBOYEDOV, ALEXANDER SERGUEEVICH (1795-1829), Russian dramatic author, +was born in 1795 at Moscow, where he studied at the university from 1810 +to 1812. He then obtained a commission in a hussar regiment, but +resigned it in 1816. Next year he entered the civil service, and in 1818 +was appointed secretary of the Russian legation in Persia, whence he was +transferred to Georgia. He had commenced writing early, and had produced +on the stage at St Petersburg in 1816 a comedy in verse, translated from +the French, called _The Young Spouses_, which was followed by other +pieces of the same kind. But neither these nor the essays and verses +which he wrote would have been long remembered but for the immense +success gained by his comedy in verse, _Gore ot uma_, or "Misfortune +from Intelligence" (Eng. trans. by N. Benardaky, 1857). A satire upon +Russian society, or, as a high official styled it, "A pasquinade on +Moscow," its plot is slight, its merits consisting in its accurate +representation of certain social and official types--such as Famousoff, +the lover of old abuses, the hater of reforms; his secretary, Molchanin, +servile fawner upon all in office; the aristocratic young liberal and +Anglomaniac, Repetiloff; contrasted with whom is the hero of the piece, +Tchatsky, the ironical satirist, just returned from the west of Europe, +who exposes and ridicules the weaknesses of the rest, his words echoing +that outcry of the young generation of 1820 which reached its climax in +the military insurrection of 1825, and was then sternly silenced by +Nicholas. Griboyedov spent the summer of 1823 in Russia, completed his +play and took it to St Petersburg. There it was rejected by the +censorship. Many copies were made and privately circulated, but +Griboyedov never saw it published. The first edition was printed in +1833, four years after his death. Only once did he see it on the stage, +when it was acted by the officers of the garrison at Erivan. Soured by +disappointment he returned to Georgia, made himself useful by his +linguistic knowledge to his relative Count Paskievitch-Erivansky during +a campaign against Persia, and was sent to St Petersburg with the treaty +of 1828. Brilliantly received there, he thought of devoting himself to +literature, and commenced a romantic drama, _A Georgian Night_. But he +was suddenly sent to Persia as minister-plenipotentiary. Soon after his +arrival at Teheran a tumult arose, caused by the anger of the populace +against some Georgian and Armenian captives--Russian subjects--who had +taken refuge in the Russian embassy. It was stormed, Griboyedov was +killed (February 11, 1829), and his body was for three days so +ill-treated by the mob that it was at last recognized only by an old +scar on the hand, due to a wound received in a duel. It was taken to +Tiflis, and buried in the monastery of St David. There a monument was +erected to his memory by his widow, to whom he had been but a few months +married. + + + + +GRIEG, EDVARD HAGERUP (1843-1907), Norwegian musical composer, was born +on the 15th of June 1843 in Bergen, where his father, Alexander Grieg +(_sic_), was English consul. The Grieg family were of Scottish origin, +but the composer's grandfather, a supporter of the Pretender, left his +home at Aberdeen after Charles Edward's defeat at Culloden, and went to +Bergen, where he carried on business. The composer's mother, Gesine +Hagerup, belonged to a pure Norwegian peasant family; and it is from the +mother rather than from the father that Edvard Grieg derived his musical +talent. She had been educated as a pianist and began to give her son +lessons on the pianoforte when he was six years of age. His first +composition, "Variations on a German melody," was written at the age of +nine. A summer holiday in Norway with his father in 1858 seems to have +exercised a powerful influence on the child's musical imagination, which +was easily kindled at the sight of mountain and fjord. In the autumn of +the same year, at the recommendation of Ole Bull, young Grieg entered +the Leipzig Conservatorium, where he passed, like all his +contemporaries, under the influence of the Mendelssohn and Schumann +school of romantics. But the curriculum of academic study was too narrow +for him. He dreamed half his time away and overworked during the other +half. In 1862 he completed his Leipzig studies, and appeared as pianist +and composer before his fellow-citizens of Bergen. In 1863 he studied in +Copenhagen for a short time with Gade and Emil Hartmann, both composers +representing a sentimental strain of Scandinavian temperament, from +which Grieg emancipated himself in favour of the harder inspiration of +Richard Nordraak. "The scales fell from my eyes," says Grieg of his +acquaintance with Nordraak. "For the first time I learned through him to +know the northern folk tunes and my own nature. We made a pact to combat +the effeminate Gade-Mendelssohn mixture of Scandinavism, and boldly +entered upon the new path along which the northern school at present +pursues its course." Grieg now made a kind of crusade in favour of +national music. In the winter of 1864-1865 he founded the Copenhagen +concert-society Euterpe, which was intended to produce the works of +young Norwegian composers. During the winters of 1865-1866 and 1869-1870 +Grieg was in Rome. In the autumn of 1866 he settled in Christiania, +where from 1867 till 1880 he conducted a musical union. From 1880 to +1882 he directed the concerts of the Harmonic Society in Bergen. In 1872 +the Royal Musical Academy of Sweden made Grieg a member; in 1874 the +Norwegian Storthing granted him an annual stipend of 1600 kronen. He had +already been decorated with the Olaf order in 1873. In 1888 he played +his pianoforte concerto and conducted his "two melodies for strings" at +a Philharmonic concert in London, and visited England again in 1891, +1894 and 1896, receiving the degree of Mus.D. from the university of +Cambridge in 1894. He died at Bergen on the 4th of September 1907. + +As a composer Grieg's distinguishing quality is lyrical. Whether his +orchestral works or his songs or his best pianoforte works are submitted +to examination, it is almost always the note of song that tells. +Sometimes, as in the music to Ibsen's _Peer Gynt_, or in the suite for +stringed orchestra, _Aus Holbergs Zeit_, this characteristic is combined +with a strong power for raising pictures in the listener's mind, and the +romantic "programme" tendency in Grieg's music becomes clearer the +farther writers like Richard Strauss carry this movement. Grieg's songs +may be said to be generally the more spontaneous the more closely they +conform to the simple model of the _Volkslied_; yet the much sung "Ich +liebe dich" is a song of a different kind, which has hardly ever been +surpassed for the perfection with which it depicts a strong momentary +emotion, and it is difficult to ascribe greater merits to songs of Grieg +even so characteristic as "Solvejg's Lied" and "Ein Schwan." The +pianoforte concerto is brilliant and spontaneous; it has been performed +by most pianists of the first rank, but its essential qualities and the +pure nationality of its themes have been brought out to their perfection +by one player only--the Norwegian pianist Knudsen. The first and second +of Grieg's violin sonatas are agreeable, so free and artless is the flow +of their melody. In his numerous piano pieces and in those of his songs +which are devoid of a definitely national inspiration the impression +made is less permanent. Bulow called Grieg the "Chopin of the North." +The phrase is an exaggeration rather than an expression of the truth, +for the range of the appeal in Chopin is far wider, nor has the +national movement inaugurated by Grieg shown promise of great +development. He is rather to be regarded as the pioneer of a musical +mission which has been perfectly carried out by himself alone. + + See La Mara, _Edvard Grieg_ (Leipzig, 1898). + + + + +GRIESBACH, JOHANN JAKOB (1745-1812), German biblical critic, was born at +Butzbach, a small town of Hesse-Darmstadt, where his father, Konrad +Kaspar (1705-1777), was pastor, on the 4th of January 1745. He was +educated at Frankfort-on-the-Main, and at the universities of Tubingen, +Leipzig and Halle, where he became one of J. S. Semler's most ardent +disciples. It was Semler who induced him to turn his attention to the +textual criticism of the New Testament. At the close of his +undergraduate career he undertook a literary tour through Germany, +Holland, France and England. On his return to Halle, he acted for some +time as _Privatdozent_, but in 1773 was appointed to a professorial +chair; in 1775 he was translated to Jena, where the rest of his life was +spent (though he received calls to other universities). He died on the +24th of March 1812. Griesbach's fame rests upon his work in New +Testament criticism, in which he inaugurated a new epoch. + + His critical edition of the New Testament first appeared at Halle, in + three volumes, in 1774-1775. The first volume contained the first + three Gospels, synoptically arranged; the second, the Epistles and the + book of Revelation. All the historical books were reprinted in one + volume in 1777, the synoptical arrangement of the Gospels having been + abandoned as inconvenient. Of the second edition, considerably + enlarged and improved, the first volume appeared in 1796 and the + second in 1806 (Halle and London). Of a third edition, edited by David + Schulz, only the first volume, containing the four Gospels, appeared + (1827). + + For the construction of his critical text Griesbach took as his basis + the Elzevir edition. Where he differed from it he placed the Elzevir + reading on the inner margin along with other readings he thought + worthy of special consideration (these last, however, being printed in + smaller type). To all the readings on this margin he attached special + marks indicating the precise degree of probability in his opinion + attaching to each. In weighing these probabilities he proceeded upon a + particular theory which in its leading features he had derived from J. + A. Bengel and J. S. Semler, dividing all the MSS. into three main + groups--the Alexandrian, the Western and the Byzantine (see BIBLE: + _New Testament_, "Textual Criticism"). A reading supported by only one + recension he considered as having only one witness in its favour; + those readings which were supported by all the three recensions, or + even by two of them, especially if these two were the Alexandrian and + the Western, he unhesitatingly accepted as genuine. Only when each of + the three recensions gives a different reading does he proceed to + discuss the question on other grounds. See his _Symbolae criticae ad + supplendas et corrigendas variarum N.T. lectionum collectiones_ + (Halle, 1785, 1793), and his _Commentarius criticus in textum Graecum + N.T._, which extends to the end of Mark, and discusses the more + important various readings with great care and thoroughness (Jena, + 1794 ff.). Among the other works of Griesbach (which are comparatively + unimportant) may be mentioned his university thesis _De codicibus + quatuor evangelistarum Origenianis_ (Halle, 1771) and a work upon + systematic theology (_Anleitung zur Kenntniss der popularen Dogmatik_, + Jena, 1779). His _Opuscula_, consisting chiefly of university + "Programs" and addresses, were edited by Gabler (2 vols., Jena, 1824). + + See the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, and the + _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_. + + + + +GRIESBACH, a watering-place in the grand duchy of Baden, in the valley +of the Rench, 1550 ft. above the sea, 6 m. W. from Freudenstadt in +Wurttemberg. It is celebrated for its saline chalybeate waters (twelve +springs), which are specific in cases of anaemia, feminine disorders and +diseases of the nervous system, and were used in the 16th century. The +annual number of visitors is nearly 2000. Pop. (1900) 800. From 1665 to +1805 Griesbach was part of the bishopric of Strassburg. + + See Haberer, _Die Renchbader Petersthal und Griesbach_ (Wurzburg, + 1866). + + + + +GRIFFE (French for "claw"), an architectural term for the spur, an +ornament carved at the angle of the square base of columns. + + + + +GRIFFENFELDT, PEDER, COUNT (_Peder Schumacher_) (1635-1699), Danish +statesman, was born at Copenhagen on the 24th of August 1635, of a +wealthy trading family connected with the leading civic, clerical and +learned circles in the Danish capital. His tutor, Jens Vorde, who +prepared him in his eleventh year for the university, praises his +extraordinary gifts, his mastery of the classical languages and his +almost disquieting diligence. The brilliant way in which he sustained +his preliminary examination won him the friendship of the examiner, +Bishop Jasper Brokman, at whose palace he first met Frederick III. The +king was struck with the lad's bright grey eyes and pleasant humorous +face; and Brokman, proud of his pupil, made him translate a chapter from +a Hebrew Bible first into Latin and then into Danish, for the +entertainment of the scholarly monarch. In 1654 young Schumacher went +abroad for eight years, to complete his education. From Germany he +proceeded to the Netherlands, staying at Leiden, Utrecht and Amsterdam, +and passing in 1657 to Queen's College, Oxford, where he lived three +years. The epoch-making events which occurred in England, while he was +at Oxford, profoundly interested him, and coinciding with the Revolution +in Denmark, which threw open a career to the middle classes, convinced +him that his proper sphere was politics. In the autumn of 1660 +Schumacher visited Paris, shortly after Mazarin's death, when the young +Louis XIV. first seized the reins of power. Schumacher seems to have +been profoundly impressed by the administrative superiority of a strong +centralised monarchy in the hands of an energetic monarch who knew his +own mind; and, in politics, as in manners, France ever afterwards was +his model. The last year of his travels was spent in Spain, where he +obtained a thorough knowledge of the Castilian language and literature. +His travels, however, if they enriched his mind, relaxed his character, +and he brought home easy morals as well as exquisite manners. + +On his return to Copenhagen, in 1662, Schumacher found the monarchy +established on the ruins of the aristocracy, and eager to buy the +services of every man of the middle classes who had superior talents to +offer. Determined to make his way in this "new Promised Land," the young +adventurer contrived to secure the protection of Kristoffer Gabel, the +king's confidant, and in 1663 was appointed the royal librarian. A +romantic friendship with the king's bastard, Count Ulric Frederick +Gyldenlove, consolidated his position. In 1665 Schumacher obtained his +first political post as the king's secretary, and the same year composed +the memorable _Kongelov_ (see DENMARK: _History_). He was now a +personage at court, where he won all hearts by his amiability and +gaiety; and in political matters also his influence was beginning to be +felt. + +On the death of Frederick III. (February 9th, 1670) Schumacher was the +most trusted of all the royal counsellors. He alone was aware of the +existence of the new throne of walrus ivory embellished with three +silver life-size lions, and of the new regalia, both of which treasures +he had, by the king's command, concealed in a vault beneath the royal +castle. Frederick III. had also confided to him a sealed packet +containing the _Kongelov_, which was to be delivered to his successor +alone. Schumacher had been recommended to his son by Frederick III. on +his death-bed. "Make him a great man, but do it slowly!" said Frederick, +who thoroughly understood the characters of his son and of his minister. +Christian V. was, moreover, deeply impressed by the confidence which his +father had ever shown to Schumacher. When, on the 9th of February 1670, +Schumacher delivered the _Kongelov_ to Christian V., the king bade all +those about him withdraw, and after being closeted a good hour with +Schumacher, appointed him his "Obergeheimesekreter." His promotion was +now almost disquietingly rapid. In May 1670 he received the titles of +excellency and privy councillor; in July of the same year he was +ennobled under the name of Griffenfeldt, deriving his title from the +gold griffin with outspread wings which surmounted his escutcheon; in +November 1673 he was created a count, a knight of the Elephant and, +finally, imperial chancellor. In the course of the next few months he +gathered into his hands every branch of the government: he had reached +the apogee of his short-lived greatness. + +But if his offices were manifold, so also were his talents. Seldom has +any man united so many and such various gifts in his own person and +carried them so easily--a playful wit, a vivid imagination, oratorical +and literary eloquence and, above all, a profound knowledge of human +nature both male and female, of every class and rank, from the king to +the meanest citizen. He had captivated the accomplished Frederick III. +by his literary graces and ingenious speculations; he won the obtuse and +ignorant Christian V. by saving him trouble, by acting and thinking for +him, and at the same time making him believe that he was thinking and +acting for himself. Moreover, his commanding qualities were coupled with +an organizing talent which made itself felt in every department of the +state, and with a marvellous adaptability which made him an ideal +diplomatist. + +On the 25th of May 1671 the dignities of count and baron were introduced +into Denmark "to give lustre to the court"; a few months later the order +of the Danebrog was instituted as a fresh means of winning adherents by +marks of favour. Griffenfeldt was the originator of these new +institutions. To him monarchy was the ideal form of government. But he +had also a political object. The aristocracy of birth, despite its +reverses, still remained the elite of society; and Griffenfeldt, the son +of a burgess as well as the protagonist of monarchy, was its most +determined enemy. The new baronies and countships, owing their existence +entirely to the crown, introduced a strong solvent into aristocratic +circles. Griffenfeldt saw that, in future, the first at court would be +the first everywhere. Much was also done to promote trade and industry, +notably by the revival of the _Kammer Kollegium_, or board of trade, and +the abolition of some of the most harmful monopolies. Both the higher +and the provincial administrations were thoroughly reformed with the +view of making them more centralized and efficient; and the positions +and duties of the various magistrates, who now also received fixed +salaries, were for the first time exactly defined. But what Griffenfeldt +could create, Griffenfeldt could dispense with, and it was not long +before he began to encroach upon the jurisdiction of the new departments +of state by private conferences with their chiefs. Nevertheless it is +indisputable that, under the single direction of this master-mind, the +Danish state was now able, for a time, to utilize all its resources as +it had never done before. + +In the last three years of his administration, Griffenfeldt gave himself +entirely to the conduct of the foreign policy of Denmark. It is +difficult to form a clear idea of this, first, because his influence was +perpetually traversed by opposite tendencies; in the second place, +because the force of circumstances compelled him, again and again, to +shift his standpoint; and finally because personal considerations +largely intermingled with his foreign policy, and made it more elusive +and ambiguous than it need have been. Briefly, Griffenfeldt aimed at +restoring Denmark to the rank of a great power. He proposed to +accomplish this by carefully nursing her resources, and in the meantime +securing and enriching her by alliances, which would bring in large +subsidies while imposing a minimum of obligations. Such a conditional +and tentative policy, on the part of a second-rate power, in a period of +universal tension and turmoil, was most difficult; but Griffenfeldt did +not regard it as impossible. The first postulate of such a policy was +peace, especially peace with Denmark's most dangerous neighbour, Sweden. +The second postulate was a sound financial basis, which he expected the +wealth of France to supply in the shape of subsidies to be spent on +armaments. Above all things Denmark was to beware of making enemies of +France and Sweden at the same time. An alliance, on fairly equal terms, +between the three powers, would, in these circumstances, be the +consummation of Griffenfeldt's "system"; an alliance with France to the +exclusion of Sweden would be the next best policy; but an alliance +between France and Sweden, without the admission of Denmark, was to be +avoided at all hazards. Had Griffenfeldt's policy succeeded, Denmark +might have recovered her ancient possessions to the south and east +comparatively cheaply. But again and again he was overruled. Despite his +open protests and subterraneous counter-mining, war was actually +declared against Sweden in 1675, and his subsequent policy seemed so +obscure and hazardous to those who did not possess the clue to the +perhaps purposely tangled skein, that the numerous enemies whom his +arrogance and superciliousness had raised up against him, resolved to +destroy him. + +On the 11th of March 1676, while on his way to the royal apartments, +Griffenfeldt was arrested in the king's name and conducted to the +citadel, a prisoner of state. A minute scrutiny of his papers, lasting +nearly six weeks, revealed nothing treasonable; but it provided the +enemies of the fallen statesman with a deadly weapon against him in the +shape of an entry in his private diary, in which he had imprudently +noted that on one occasion Christian V. in a conversation with a foreign +ambassador had "spoken like a child." On the 3rd of May Griffenfeldt was +tried not by the usual tribunal, in such cases the _Hojesteret_, or +supreme court, but by an extraordinary tribunal of 10 dignitaries, none +of whom was particularly well disposed towards the accused. +Griffenfeldt, who was charged with simony, bribery, oath-breaking, +malversation and _lese-majeste_, conducted his own defence under every +imaginable difficulty. For forty-six days before his trial he had been +closely confined in a dungeon without lights, books or writing +materials. Every legal assistance was illegally denied him. Nevertheless +he proved more than a match for the forensic ability arrayed against +him, and his first plea in defence is in a high degree dignified and +manly. Finally, he was condemned to degradation and decapitation; though +one of the ten judges not only refused to sign the sentence, but +remonstrated in private with the king against its injustice. And indeed +its injustice was flagrant. The primary offence of the ex-chancellor was +the taking of bribes, which no twisting of the law could convert into a +capital offence, while the charge of treason had not been substantiated. +Griffenfeldt was pardoned on the scaffold, at the very moment when the +axe was about to descend. On hearing that the sentence was commuted to +life-long imprisonment, he declared that the pardon was harder than the +punishment, and vainly petitioned for leave to serve his king for the +rest of his life as a common soldier. For the next two and twenty years +Denmark's greatest statesman lingered out his life in a lonely +state-prison, first in the fortress of Copenhagen, and finally at +Munkholm on Trondhjem fiord. He died at Trondhjem on the 12th of March +1699. Griffenfeldt married Kitty Nansen, the granddaughter of the great +Burgomaster Hans Nansen, who brought him half a million rix-dollars. She +died in 1672, after bearing him a daughter. + + See _Danmark's Riges Histoire_, vol. v. (Copenhagen, 1897-1905); + Jorgenson, _Peter Schumacher-Griffenfeldt_ (Copenhagen, 1893-1894); O. + Vaupell, _Rigskansler Grev Griffenfeldt_ (Copenhagen, 1880-1882); + Bain, _Scandinavia_, cap. x. (Cambridge, 1905). (R. N. B.) + + + + +GRIFFIN [O'GRIOBTA, O'GREEVA], GERALD (1803-1840), Irish novelist and +dramatic writer, was born at Limerick of good family, on the 12th of +December 1803. His parents emigrated in 1820 to America, but he was left +with an elder brother, who was a medical practitioner at Adare. As early +as his eighteenth year he undertook for a short time the editorship of a +newspaper in Limerick. Having written a tragedy, _Aguire_, which was +highly praised by his friends, he set out in 1823 for London with the +purpose of "revolutionizing the dramatic taste of the time by writing +for the stage." In spite of the recommendations of John Banim, he had a +hard struggle with poverty. It was only by degrees that his literary +work obtained any favour. _The Noyades_, an opera entirely in +recitative, was produced at the English Opera House in 1826; and the +success of _Holland Tide Tales_ (1827) led to _Tales of the Munster +Festivals_ (3 vols., 1827), which were still more popular. In 1829 +appeared his fine novel, _The Collegians_, afterwards successfully +adapted for the stage by Dion Boucicault under the title of _The Colleen +Bawn_. He followed up this success with _The Invasion_ (1832), _Tales of +my Neighbourhood_ (1835), _The Duke of Monmouth_ (1836), and _Talis +Qualis, or Tales of the Jury-room_ (1842). He also wrote a number of +lyrics touched with his native melancholy. But he became doubtful as to +the moral influence of his writings, and ultimately he came to the +conclusion that his true sphere of duty was to be found within the +Church. He was admitted into a society of the Christian Brothers at +Dublin, in September 1838, under the name of Brother Joseph, and in the +following summer he removed to Cork, where he died of typhus fever on +the 12th of June 1840. Before adopting the monastic habit he burned all +his manuscripts; but _Gisippus_, a tragedy which he had composed before +he was twenty, accidentally escaped destruction, and in 1842 was put on +the Drury Lane stage by Macready with great success. + + The collected works of Gerald Griffin were published in 1842-1843 in + eight volumes, with a _Life_ by his brother William Griffin, M.D.; an + edition of his _Poetical and Dramatic Works_ (Dublin, 1895) by C. G. + Duffy; and a selection of his lyrics, with a notice by George + Sigerson, is included in the _Treasury of Irish Poetry_, edited by + Stopford A. Brooke and T. W. Rolleston (London, 1900). + + + + +GRIFFIN, a city and the county-seat of Spalding county, Georgia, U.S.A., +43 m. S. of Atlanta, and about 970 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1890) 4503; +(1900) 6857 (3258 negroes); (1910) 7478. It is served by the Southern +and the Central of Georgia railways, and is the southern terminus of the +Griffin & Chattanooga Division of the latter. The city is situated in a +rich agricultural region, and just outside the corporate limits is an +agricultural experiment station, established by the state but maintained +by the Federal government. Griffin has a large trade in cotton and +fruit. The principal industry is the manufacture of cotton and +cotton-seed oil. Buggies, wagons, chairs and harness are among the other +manufactures. The municipality owns and operates the water and +electric-lighting systems. Griffin was founded in 1840 and was chartered +as a city in 1846. + + + + +GRIFFIN, GRIFFON or GRYPHON (from Fr. _griffon_, Lat. _gryphus_, Gr. +[Greek: gryps]), in the natural history of the ancients, the name of an +imaginary rapacious creature of the eagle species, represented with four +legs, wings and a beak,--the fore part resembling an eagle and the +hinder a lion. In addition, some writers describe the tail as a serpent. +This animal, which was supposed to watch over gold mines and hidden +treasures, and to be the enemy of the horse, was consecrated to the Sun; +and the ancient painters represented the chariot of the Sun as drawn by +griffins. According to Spanheim, those of Jupiter and Nemesis were +similarly provided. The griffin of Scripture is probably the osprey, and +the name is now given to a species of vulture. The griffin was said to +inhabit Asiatic Scythia, where gold and precious stones were abundant; +and when strangers approached to gather these the creatures leapt upon +them and tore them in pieces, thus chastising human avarice and greed. +The one-eyed Arimaspi waged constant war with them, according to +Herodotus (iii. 16). Sir John de Mandeville, in his _Travels_, described +a griffin as eight times larger than a lion. + +The griffin is frequently seen as a charge in heraldry (see HERALDRY, +fig. 163); and in architectural decoration is usually represented as a +four-footed beast with wings and the head of a leopard or tiger with +horns, or with the head and beak of an eagle; in the latter case, but +very rarely, with two legs. To what extent it owes its origin to Persian +sculpture is not known, the capitals at Persepolis have sometimes +leopard or lion heads with horns, and four-footed beasts with the beaks +of eagles are represented in bas-reliefs. In the temple of Apollo +Branchidae near Miletus in Asia Minor, the winged griffin of the +capitals has leopards' heads with horns. In the capitals of the +so-called lesser propylaea at Eleusis conventional eagles with two feet +support the angles of the abacus. The greater number of those in Rome +have eagles' beaks, as in the frieze of the temple of Antoninus and +Faustina, and their tails develop into conventional foliage. A similar +device was found in the Forum of Trajan. The best decorative employment +of the griffin is found in the vertical supports of tables, of which +there are two or three examples in Pompeii and others in the Vatican and +the museums in Rome. In some of these cases the head is that of a lion +at one end of the support and an eagle at the other end, and there is +only one strongly developed paw; the wings circling round at the top +form conspicuous features on the sides of these supports, the surfaces +below being filled with conventional Greek foliage. + + + + +GRIFFITH, SIR RICHARD JOHN (1784-1878), Irish geologist, was born in +Dublin on the 20th of September 1784. He obtained in 1799 a commission +in the Royal Irish Artillery, but a year later, when the corps was +incorporated with that of England, he retired, and devoted his attention +to civil engineering and mining. He studied chemistry, mineralogy and +mining for two years in London under William Nicholson (editor of the +_Journal of Nat. Phil._), and afterwards examined the mining districts +in various parts of England, Wales and Scotland. While in Cornwall he +discovered ores of nickel and cobalt in material that had been rejected +as worthless. He completed his studies under Robert Jameson and others +at Edinburgh, was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in +1807, a member of the newly established Geological Society of London in +1808, and in the same year he returned to Ireland. In 1809 he was +appointed by the commissioners to inquire into the nature and extent of +the bogs in Ireland, and the means of improving them. In 1812 he was +elected professor of geology and mining engineer to the Royal Dublin +Society. During subsequent years he made many surveys and issued many +reports on mineral districts in Ireland, and these formed the foundation +of his first geological map of the country (1815). In 1822 Griffith +became engineer of public works in Cork, Kerry and Limerick, and was +occupied until 1830 in repairing old roads and in laying out many miles +of new roads. Meanwhile in 1825 he was appointed to carry out the +perambulation or boundary survey of Ireland, the object of which was to +ascertain and mark the boundaries of every county, barony, parish and +townland in preparation for the ordnance survey. This work was finished +in 1844. He was also called upon to assist in preparing a bill for the +general valuation of Ireland; the act was passed in 1826, and he was +appointed commissioner of valuation, in which capacity he continued to +act until 1868. On "Griffith's valuation" the various local and public +assessments were made. His extensive investigations furnished him with +ample material for improving his geological map, and the second edition +was published in 1835. A third edition on a larger scale (1 in. to 4 m.) +was issued under the Board of Ordnance in 1839, and it was further +revised in 1855. For this great work and his other services to science +he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society in 1854. In +1850 he was made chairman of the Irish Board of Works, and in 1858 he +was created a baronet. He died in Dublin on the 22nd of September 1878. + + Among his many geological works the following may be mentioned: + _Outline of the Geology of Ireland_ (1838); _Notice respecting the + Fossils of the Mountain Limestone of Ireland, as compared with those + of Great Britain, and also with the Devonian System_ (1842); _A + Synopsis of the Characters of the Carboniferous Limestone Fossils of + Ireland_ (1844) (with F. McCoy); _A Synopsis of the Silurian Fossils + of Ireland_ (1846) (with F. McCoy). See memoirs in _Quart. Journ. + Geol. Soc._ xxxv. 39; and _Geol. Mag._, 1878, p. 524, with + bibliography. + + + + +GRILLE, a French term for an enclosure in either iron or bronze; there +is no equivalent in English, "grating" applying more to a horizontal +frame of bars over a sunk area, and "grate" to the iron bars of an open +fireplace. The finest examples of the grille are those known as the +_rejas_, which in Spanish churches form the enclosures of the chapels, +such as the _reja_ in the Capilla Real at Granada in wrought iron partly +gilt (1522). Similar grilles are employed to protect the ground-floor +windows of mansions not only in Spain but in Italy and Germany. In +England the most beautiful example is that in front of Queen Eleanor's +tomb in Westminster Abbey, in wrought iron. The finest grilles in Italy +are the enclosures of the tombs of the Della Scalas at Verona (end of +13th century), in Germany the grille of the cenotaph of Maximilian at +Innsbruck (early 16th century) and in France those which enclose the +Place Stanislaus, the Place de la Carriere and the churches of Nancy, +which were wrought by Jean Lamour in the middle of the 18th century. +Generally, however, throughout Germany the wrought iron grilles are fine +examples of forging, and they are employed for the enclosures of the +numerous fountains, in the tympana of gateways, and for the protection +of windows. At Danzig in the Marienkirche are some fine examples in +brass. + + + + +GRILLPARZER, FRANZ (1791-1872), the greatest dramatic poet of Austria, +was born in Vienna, on the 15th of January 1791. His father, severe, +pedantic, a staunch upholder of the liberal traditions of the reign of +Joseph II., was an advocate of some standing; his mother, a nervous, +finely-strung woman, belonged to the well-known musical family of +Sonnleithner. After a desultory education, Grillparzer entered in 1807 +the university of Vienna as a student of jurisprudence; but two years +later his father died, leaving the family in straitened circumstances, +and Franz, the eldest son, was obliged to turn to private tutoring. In +1813 he received an appointment in the court library, but as this was +unpaid, he accepted after some months a clerkship that offered more +solid prospects, in the Lower Austrian revenue administration. Through +the influence of Graf Stadion, the minister of finance, he was in 1818 +appointed poet to the Hofburgtheater, and promoted to the _Hofkammer_ +(exchequer); in 1832 he became director of the archives of that +department, and in 1856 retired from the civil service with the title of +_Hofrat_. Grillparzer had little capacity for an official career and +regarded his office merely as a means of independence. + +In 1817 the first representation of his tragedy _Die Ahnfrau_ made him +famous, but before this he had written a long tragedy in iambics, +_Bianca von Castilien_ (1807-1809), which was obviously modelled on +Schiller's _Don Carlos_; and even more promising were the dramatic +fragments _Spartacus_ and _Alfred der Grosse_ (1809). _Die Ahnfrau_ is a +gruesome "fate-tragedy" in the trochaic measure of the Spanish drama, +already made popular by Adolf Mullner in his _Schuld_; but Grillparzer's +work is a play of real poetic beauties, and reveals an instinct for +dramatic as opposed to merely theatrical effect, which distinguishes it +from other "fate-dramas" of the day. Unfortunately its success led to +the poet's being classed for the best part of his life with playwrights +like Mullner and Houwald. _Die Ahnfrau_ was followed by _Sappho_ (1818), +a drama of a very different type; in the classic spirit of Goethe's +_Tasso_, Grillparzer unrolled the tragedy of poetic genius, the +renunciation of earthly happiness imposed upon the poet by his higher +mission. In 1821 appeared _Das goldene Vliess_, a trilogy which had been +interrupted in 1819 by the death of the poet's mother--in a fit of +depression she had taken her own life--and a subsequent visit to Italy. +Opening with a powerful dramatic prelude in one act, _Der Gastfreund_, +Grillparzer depicts in _Die Argonauten_ Jason's adventures in his quest +for the Fleece; while _Medea_, a tragedy of noble classic proportions, +contains the culminating events of the story which had been so often +dramatized before. The theme is similar to that of _Sappho_, but the +scale on which it is represented is larger; it is again the tragedy of +the heart's desire, the conflict of the simple happy life with that +sinister power--be it genius, or ambition--which upsets the equilibrium +of life. The end is bitter disillusionment, the only consolation +renunciation. Medea, her revenge stilled, her children dead, bears the +fatal Fleece back to Delphi, while Jason is left to realize the +nothingness of human striving and earthly happiness. + +For his historical tragedy _Konig Ottokars Gluck und Ende_ (1823, but +owing to difficulties with the censor, not performed until 1825), +Grillparzer chose one of the most picturesque events in Austrian +domestic history, the conflict of Ottokar of Bohemia with Rudolph von +Habsburg. With an almost modern realism he reproduced the motley world +of the old chronicler, at the same time not losing sight of the needs of +the theatre; the fall of Ottokar is but another text from which the poet +preached the futility of endeavour and the vanity of worldly greatness. +A second historical tragedy, _Ein treuer Diener seines Herrn_ (1826, +performed 1828), attempts to embody a more heroic gospel; but the +subject--the superhuman self-effacement of Bankbanus before Duke Otto of +Meran--proved too uncompromising an illustration of Kant's categorical +imperative of duty to be palatable in the theatre. With these historical +tragedies began the darkest ten years in the poet's life. They brought +him into conflict with the Austrian censor--a conflict which grated on +Grillparzer's sensitive soul, and was aggravated by his own position as +a servant of the state; in 1826 he paid a visit to Goethe in Weimar, and +was able to compare the enlightened conditions which prevailed in the +little Saxon duchy with the intellectual thraldom of Vienna. To these +troubles were added more serious personal worries. In the winter of +1820-1821 he had met for the first time Katharina Frohlich (1801-1879), +and the acquaintance rapidly ripened into love on both sides; but +whether owing to a presentiment of mutual incompatibility, or merely +owing to Grillparzer's conviction that life had no happiness in store +for him, he shrank from marriage. Whatever the cause may have been, the +poet was plunged into an abyss of misery and despair to which his diary +bears heart-rending witness; his sufferings found poetic expression in +the fine cycle of poems bearing the significant title _Tristia ex Ponto_ +(1835). + +Yet to these years we owe the completion of two of Grillparzer's +greatest dramas, _Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen_ (1831) and _Der +Traum, ein Leben_ (1834). In the former tragedy, a dramatization of the +story of Hero and Leander, he returned to the Hellenic world of +_Sappho_, and produced what is perhaps the finest of all German +love-tragedies. His mastery of dramatic technique is here combined with +a ripeness of poetic expression and with an insight into motive which +suggests the modern psychological drama of Hebbel and Ibsen; the old +Greek love-story of Musaeus is, moreover, endowed with something of that +ineffable poetic grace which the poet had borrowed from the great +Spanish poets, Lope de Vega and Calderon. _Der Traum, ein Leben_, +Grillparzer's technical masterpiece, is in form perhaps even more +Spanish; it is also more of what Goethe called a "confession." The +aspirations of Rustan, an ambitious young peasant, are shadowed forth in +the hero's dream, which takes up nearly three acts of the play; +ultimately Rustan awakens from his nightmare to realize the truth of +Grillparzer's own pessimistic doctrine that all earthly ambitions and +aspirations are vanity; the only true happiness is contentment with +one's lot, "des Innern stiller Frieden und die schuldbefreite Brust." +_Der Traum, ein Leben_ was the first of Grillparzer's dramas which did +not end tragically, and in 1838 he produced his only comedy, _Weh' dem, +der lugt_. But _Weh' dem, der lugt_, in spite of its humour of +situation, its sparkling dialogue and the originality of its +idea--namely, that the hero gains his end by invariably telling the +truth, where his enemies as invariably expect him to be lying--was too +strange to meet with approval in its day. Its failure was a blow to the +poet, who turned his back for ever on the German theatre. In 1836 +Grillparzer paid a visit to Paris and London, in 1843 to Athens and +Constantinople. Then came the Revolution which struck off the +intellectual fetters under which Grillparzer and his contemporaries had +groaned in Austria, but the liberation came too late for him. Honours +were heaped upon him; he was made a member of the Academy of Sciences; +Heinrich Laube, as director of the Burgtheater, reinstated his plays on +the repertory; he was in 1861 elected to the Austrian _Herrenhaus_; his +eightieth birthday was a national festival, and when he died in Vienna, +on the 21st of January 1872, the mourning of the Austrian people was +universal. With the exception of a beautiful fragment, _Esther_ (1861), +Grillparzer published no more dramatic poetry after the fiasco of _Weh' +dem, der lugt_, but at his death three completed tragedies were found +among his papers. Of these, _Die Judin von Toledo_, an admirable +adaptation from the Spanish, has won a permanent place in the German +classical repertory; _Ein Bruderzwist im Hause Habsburg_ is a powerful +historical tragedy and _Libussa_ is perhaps the ripest, as it is +certainly the deepest, of all Grillparzer's dramas; the latter two plays +prove how much was lost by the poet's divorce from the theatre. + +Although Grillparzer was essentially a dramatist, his lyric poetry is in +the intensity of its personal note hardly inferior to Lenau's; and the +bitterness of his later years found vent in biting and stinging epigrams +that spared few of his greater contemporaries. As a prose writer, he has +left one powerful short story, _Der arme Spielmann_ (1848), and a volume +of critical studies on the Spanish drama, which shows how completely he +had succeeded in identifying himself with the Spanish point of view. + +Grillparzer's brooding, unbalanced temperament, his lack of will-power, +his pessimistic renunciation and the bitterness which his self-imposed +martyrdom produced in him, made him peculiarly adapted to express the +mood of Austria in the epoch of intellectual thraldom that lay between +the Napoleonic wars and the Revolution of 1848; his poetry reflects +exactly the spirit of his people under the Metternich regime, and there +is a deep truth behind the description of _Der Traum, ein Leben_ as the +Austrian _Faust_. His fame was in accordance with the general tenor of +his life; even in Austria a true understanding for his genius was late +in coming, and not until the centenary of 1891 did the German-speaking +world realize that it possessed in him a dramatic poet of the first +rank; in other words, that Grillparzer was no mere "Epigone" of the +classic period, but a poet who, by a rare assimilation of the strength +of the Greeks, the imaginative depth of German classicism and the +delicacy and grace of the Spaniards, had opened up new paths for the +higher dramatic poetry of Europe. + + Grillparzer's _Samtliche Werke_ are edited by A. Sauer, in 20 vols., + 5th edition (Stuttgart, 1892-1894); also, since the expiry of the + copyright in 1901, innumerable cheap reprints. _Briefe und + Tagebucher_, edited by C. Glossy and A. Sauer (2 vols., Stuttgart, + 1903). _Jahrbuch der Grillparzer-Gesellschaft_, edited by K. Glossy + (the publication of the Grillparzer Society) (Vienna, 1891 ff.). See + also H. Laube, _Franz Grillparzers Lebensgeschichte_ (Stuttgart, + 1884); J. Volkelt, _Franz Grillparzer als Dichter des Tragischen_ + (Nordlingen, 1888); E. Reich, _Franz Grillparzers Dramen_ (Dresden, + 1894); A. Ehrhard, _Franz Grillparzer_ (Paris, 1900) (German + translation by M. Necker, Munich, 1902); H. Sittenberger, + _Grillparzer, sein Leben und Wirken_ (Berlin, 1904); Gustav Pollak, + _F. Grillparzer and the Austrian Drama_ (New York, 1907). Of + Grillparzer's works, translations have appeared in English of _Sappho_ + (1820, by J. Bramsen; 1846, by E. B. Lee; 1855, by L. C. Cumming; + 1876, by E. Frothingham); and of _Medea_ (1879, by F. W. Thurstan and + J. A. Wittmann). Byron's warm admiration of _Sappho_ (_Letters and + Journals_, v. 171) is well known, while Carlyle's criticism, in his + essay on _German Playwrights_ (1829), is interesting as expressing the + generally accepted estimate of Grillparzer in the first half of the + 19th century. See the bibliography in K. Goedeke's _Grundriss zur + Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung_, 2nd ed., vol. viii. (1905). + (J. G. R.) + + + + +GRIMALD (or GRIMOALD), NICHOLAS (1519-1562), English poet, was born in +Huntingdonshire, the son probably of Giovanni Baptista Grimaldi, who had +been a clerk in the service of Empson and Dudley in the reign of Henry +VII. He was educated at Christ's College, Cambridge, where he took his +B.A. degree in 1540. He then removed to Oxford, becoming a +probationer-fellow of Merton College in 1541. In 1547 he was lecturing +on rhetoric at Christ Church, and shortly afterwards became chaplain to +Bishop Ridley, who, when he was in prison, desired Grimald to translate +Laurentius Valla's book against the alleged _Donation of Constantine_, +and the _De gestis Basiliensis Concilii_ of Aeneas Sylvius (Pius II.). +His connexion with Ridley brought him under suspicion, and he was +imprisoned in the Marshalsea. It is said that he escaped the penalties +of heresy by recanting his errors, and was despised accordingly by his +Protestant contemporaries. Grimald contributed to the original edition +(June 1557) of _Songes and Sonettes_ (commonly known as _Tottel's +Miscellany_), forty poems, only ten of which are retained in the second +edition published in the next month. He translated (1553) Cicero's _De +officiis as Marcus Tullius Ciceroes thre bokes of duties_ (2nd ed., +1556); a Latin paraphrase of Virgil's _Georgics_ (printed 1591) is +attributed to him, but most of the works assigned to him by Bale are +lost. Two Latin tragedies are extant; _Archipropheta sive Johannes +Baptista_, printed at Cologne in 1548, probably performed at Oxford the +year before, and _Christus redivivus_ (Cologne, 1543), edited by Prof. +J. M. Hart (for the Modern Language Association of America, 1886, +separately issued 1899). It cannot be determined whether Grimald was +familiar with Buchanan's _Baptistes_ (1543), or with J. Schoeppe's +_Johannes decollatus vel Ectrachelistes_ (1546). Grimald provides a +purely romantic motive for the catastrophe in the passionate attachment +of Herodias to Herod, and constantly resorts to lyrical methods. As a +poet Grimald is memorable as the earliest follower of Surrey in the +production of blank verse. He writes sometimes simply enough, as in the +lines on his own childhood addressed to his mother, but in general his +style is more artificial, and his metaphors more studied than is the +case with the other contributors to the _Miscellany_. His classical +reading shows itself in the comparative terseness and smartness of his +verses. His epitaph was written by Barnabe Googe in May 1562. + + See C. H. Herford, _Studies in the Literary Relations of England and + Germany_ (pp. 113-119, 1886). _A Catalogue of printed books ... by + writers bearing the name of Grimaldi_ (ed. A. B. Grimaldi), printed + 1883; and Arber's reprint oi _Tottel's Miscellany_. + + + + +GRIMALDI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO (1606-1680), Italian architect and painter, +named Il Bolognese from the place of his birth, was a relative of the +Caracci family, under whom it is presumed he studied first. He was +afterwards a pupil of Albani. He went to Rome, and was appointed +architect to Pope Paul V., and was also patronized by succeeding popes. +Towards 1648 he was invited to France by Cardinal Mazarin, and for about +two years was employed in buildings for that minister and for Louis +XIV., and in fresco-painting in the Louvre. His colour was strong, +somewhat excessive in the use of green; his touch light. He painted +history, portraits and landscapes--the last with predilection, +especially in his advanced years--and executed engravings and etchings +from his own landscapes and from those of Titian and the Caracci. +Returning to Rome, he was made president of the Academy of St Luke; and +in that city he died on the 28th of November 1680, in high repute not +only for his artistic skill but for his upright and charitable deeds. +His son Alessandro assisted him both in painting and in engraving. +Paintings by Grimaldi are preserved in the Quirinal and Vatican palaces, +and in the church of S. Martino a'Monti; there is also a series of his +landscapes in the Colonna Gallery. + + + + +GRIMALDI, JOSEPH (1779-1837), the most celebrated of English clowns, was +born in London on the 18th of December 1779, the son of an Italian +actor. When less than two years old he was brought upon the stage at +Drury Lane; at the age of three he began to appear at Sadler's Wells; +and he did not finally retire until 1828. As the clown of pantomime he +was considered without an equal, his greatest success being in _Mother +Goose_, at Covent Garden (1806 and often revived). Grimaldi died on the +31st of May 1837. + + His _Memoirs_ in two volumes (1838) were edited by Charles Dickens. + + + + +GRIMKE, SARAH MOORE (1792-1873) and ANGELINA EMILY (1805-1879), American +reformers, born in Charleston, South Carolina--Sarah on the 6th of +November 1792, and Angelina on the 20th of February 1805--were daughters +of John Fachereau Grimke (1752-1819), an artillery officer in the +Continental army, a jurist of some distinction, a man of wealth and +culture and a slave-holder. + +Their older brother, THOMAS SMITH GRIMKE (1786-1834), was born in +Charleston; graduated at Yale in 1807; was a successful lawyer, and in +1826-1830 was a member of the state Senate, in which he, almost alone of +the prominent lawyers of the state, opposed nullification; he strongly +advocated spelling-reform, temperance and absolute non-resistance, and +published _Addresses on Science, Education and Literature_ (1831). His +early intellectual influence on Sarah was strong. + +In her thirteenth year Sarah was godmother to her sister Angelina. Sarah +in 1821 revisited Philadelphia, whither she had accompanied her father +on his last illness, and there, having been already dissatisfied with +the Episcopal Church and with the Presbyterian, she became a Quaker; so, +too, did Angelina, who joined her in 1829. Both sisters (Angelina first) +soon grew into a belief in immediate abolition, strongly censured by +many Quakers, who were even more shocked by a sympathetic letter dated +"8th Month, 30th, 1835" written by Angelina to W. L. Garrison, followed +in 1836 by her _Appeal to the Christian Women of the South_, and at the +end of that year, by an _Epistle to the Clergy of the Southern States_, +written by Sarah, who now thoroughly agreed with her younger sister. In +the same year, at the invitation of Elizur Wright (1804-1885), +corresponding secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society, Angelina, +accompanied by Sarah, began giving talks on slavery, first in private +and then in public, so that in 1837, when they set to work in +Massachusetts, they had to secure the use of large halls. Their speaking +from public platforms resulted in a letter issued by some members of the +General Association of Congregational Ministers of Massachusetts, +calling on the clergy to close their churches to women exhorters; +Garrison denounced the attack on the Grimke sisters and Whittier +ridiculed it in his poem "The Pastoral Letter." Angelina pointedly +answered _Miss Beecher on the Slave Question_ (1837) in letters in the +_Liberator_. Sarah, who had never forgotten that her studies had been +curtailed because she was a girl, contributed to the Boston _Spectator_ +papers on "The Province of Woman" and published _Letters on the +Condition of Women and the Equality of the Sexes_ (1838)--the real +beginning of the "woman's rights" movement in America, and at the time a +cause of anxiety to Whittier and others, who urged upon the sisters the +prior importance of the anti-slavery cause. In 1838 Angelina married +Theodore Dwight Weld (1803-1895), a reformer and abolition orator and +pamphleteer, who had taken part in the famous Lane Seminary debates in +1834, had left the Seminary for the lecture platform when the +anti-slavery society was broken up by the Lane trustees, but had lost +his voice in 1836 and had become editor of the publications of the +American Anti-Slavery Society.[1] They lived, with Sarah, at Fort Lee, +New Jersey, in 1838-1840, then on a farm at Belleville, New Jersey, and +then conducted a school for black and white alike at Eagleswood, near +Perth Amboy, New Jersey, from 1854 to 1864. Removing to Hyde Park, +Massachusetts, the three were employed in Dr Lewis's school. There Sarah +died on the 23rd of December 1873, and Angelina on the 26th of October +1879. Both sisters indulged in various "fads"--Graham's diet, +bloomer-wearing, absolute non-resistance. Angelina did no public +speaking after her marriage, save at Pennsylvania Hall (Philadelphia), +destroyed by a mob immediately after her address there; but besides her +domestic and school duties she was full of tender charity. Sarah at the +age of 62 was still eager to study law or medicine, or to do something +to aid her sex; at 75 she translated and abridged Lamartine's life of +Joan of Arc. + + See Catherine H. Birney, _The Grimke Sisters_ (Boston, 1885). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Weld was the author of several anti-slavery books which had + considerable influence at the time. Among them are _The Bible against + Slavery_ (1837), _American Slavery as It Is_ (1839), a collection of + extracts from Southern papers, and _Slavery and the Internal Slave + Trade in the U.S._ (1841). + + + + +GRIMM, FRIEDRICH MELCHIOR, BARON VON (1723-1807), French author, the son +of a German pastor, was born at Ratisbon on the 26th of December 1723. +He studied at the University of Leipzig, where he came under the +influence of Gottsched and of J. A. Ernesti, to whom he was largely +indebted for his critical appreciation of classical literature. When +nineteen he produced a tragedy, _Banise_, which met with some success. +After two years of study he returned to Ratisbon, where he was attached +to the household of Count Schonberg. In 1748 he accompanied August +Heinrich, Count Friesen, to Paris as secretary, and he is said by +Rousseau to have acted for some time as reader to Frederick, the young +hereditary prince of Saxe-Gotha. His acquaintance with Rousseau, through +a mutual sympathy in regard to musical matters, soon ripened into +intimate friendship, and led to a close association with the +encyclopaedists. He rapidly obtained a thorough knowledge of the French +language, and acquired so perfectly the tone and sentiments of the +society in which he moved that all marks of his foreign origin and +training seemed effaced. A witty pamphlet entitled _Le Petit Prophete de +Boehmischbroda_ (1753), written by him in defence of Italian as against +French opera, established his literary reputation. It is possible that +the origin of the pamphlet is partly to be accounted for by his vehement +passion[1] for Mlle Fel, the _prima donna_ of the Italian company. In +1753 Grimm, following the example of the abbe Raynal, began a literary +correspondence with various German sovereigns. Raynal's letters, +_Nouvelles litteraires_, ceased early in 1755. With the aid of friends, +especially of Diderot and Mme d'Epinay, during his temporary absences +from France, Grimm himself carried on the correspondence, which +consisted of two letters a month, until 1773, and eventually counted +among his subscribers Catherine II. of Russia, Stanislas Poniatowski, +king of Poland, and many princes of the smaller German States. It was +probably in 1754 that Grimm was introduced by Rousseau to Madame +d'Epinay, with whom he soon formed a _liaison_ which led to an +irreconcilable rupture between him and Rousseau. Rousseau was induced by +his resentment to give in his _Confessions_ a wholly mendacious portrait +of Grimm's character. In 1755, after the death of Count Friesen, who was +a nephew of Marshal Saxe and an officer in the French army, Grimm became +_secretaire des commandements_ to the duke of Orleans, and in this +capacity he accompanied Marshal d'Estrees on the campaign of Westphalia +in 1756-57. He was named envoy of the town of Frankfort at the court of +France in 1759, but was deprived of his office for criticizing the comte +de Broglie in a despatch intercepted by Louis XV. He was made a baron of +the Holy Roman Empire in 1775. His introduction to Catherine II. of +Russia took place at St Petersburg in 1773, when he was in the suite of +Wilhelmine of Hesse-Darmstadt on the occasion of her marriage to the +czarevitch Paul. He became minister of Saxe-Gotha at the court of France +in 1776, but in 1777 he again left Paris on a visit to St Petersburg, +where he remained for nearly a year in daily intercourse with Catherine. +He acted as Paris agent for the empress in the purchase of works of art, +and executed many confidential commissions for her. In 1783 and the +following years he lost his two most intimate friends, Mme d'Epinay and +Diderot. In 1792 he emigrated, and in the next year settled in Gotha, +where his poverty was relieved by Catherine, who in 1796 appointed him +minister of Russia at Hamburg. On the death of the empress Catherine he +took refuge with Mme d'Epinay's granddaughter, Emilie de Belsunce, +comtesse de Bueil. Grimm had always interested himself in her, and had +procured her dowry from the empress Catherine. She now received him with +the utmost kindness. He died at Gotha on the 19th of December 1807. + +The correspondence of Grimm was strictly confidential, and was not +divulged during his lifetime. It embraces nearly the whole period from +1750 to 1790, but the later volumes, 1773 to 1790, were chiefly the work +of his secretary, Jakob Heinrich Meister. At first he contented himself +with enumerating the chief current views in literature and art and +indicating very slightly the contents of the principal new books, but +gradually his criticisms became more extended and trenchant, and he +touched on nearly every subject--political, literary, artistic, social +and religious--which interested the Parisian society of the time. His +notices of contemporaries are somewhat severe, and he exhibits the +foibles and selfishness of the society in which he moved; but he was +unbiassed in his literary judgments, and time has only served to confirm +his criticisms. In style and manner of expression he is thoroughly +French. He is generally somewhat cold in his appreciation, but his +literary taste is delicate and subtle; and it was the opinion of +Sainte-Beuve that the quality of his thought in his best moments will +compare not unfavourably even with that of Voltaire. His religious and +philosophical opinions were entirely negative. + + Grimm's _Correspondance litteraire, philosophique et critique ..., + depuis 1753 jusqu'en 1769_, was edited, with many excisions, by J. B. + A. Suard and published at Paris in 1812, in 6 vols. 8vo; _deuxieme + partie, de 1771 a 1782_, in 1812 in 5 vols. 8vo; and _troisieme + partie, pendant une partie des annees 1775 et 1776, et pendant les + annees 1782 a 1790 inclusivement_, in 1813 in 5 vols. 8vo. A + supplementary volume appeared in 1814; the whole correspondence was + collected and published by M. Jules Taschereau, with the assistance of + A. Chaude, in a _Nouvelle Edition, revue et mise dans un meilleur + ordre, avec des notes et des eclaircissements, et ou se trouvent + retablies pour la premiere fois les phrases supprimees par la censure + imperiale_ (Paris, 1829, 15 vols. 8vo); and the _Correspondance + inedite, et recueil de lettres, poesies, morceaux, et fragments + retranches par la censure imperiale en 1812 et 1813_ was published in + 1829. The standard edition is that of M. Tourneux (16 vols., + 1877-1882). Grimm's _Memoire historique sur l'origine et les suites de + mon attachement pour l'imperatrice Catherine II jusqu'au deces de sa + majeste imperiale_, and Catherine's correspondence with Grimm + (1774-1796) were published by J. Grot in 1880, in the _Collection_ of + the Russian Imperial Historical Society. She treats him very + familiarly, and calls him Heraclite, Georges Dandin, &c. At the time + of the Revolution she begged him to destroy her letters, but he + refused, and after his death they were returned to St Petersburg. + Grimm's side of the correspondence, however, is only partially + preserved. He signs himself "Pleureur." Some of Grimm's letters, + besides the official correspondence, are included in the edition of M. + Tourneux; others are contained in the _Erinnerungen einer + Urgrossmutter_ of K. von Bechtolsheim, edited (Berlin, 1902) by Count + C. Oberndorff. See also Mme d'Epinay's _Memoires_; Rousseau's + _Confessions_; the notices contained in the editions quoted; E. + Scherer, _Melchior Grimm_ (1887); Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, + vol. vii. For further works bearing on the subject, see K. A. Georges, + _Friedrich Melchior Grimm_ (Hanover and Leipzig, 1904). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Rousseau's account of this affair (_Confessions_, 2nd part, 8th + book) must be received with caution. + + + + +GRIMM, JACOB LUDWIG CARL (1785-1863), German philologist and +mythologist, was born on the 4th of January 1785 at Hanau, in +Hesse-Cassel. His father, who was a lawyer, died while he was a child, +and the mother was left with very small means; but her sister, who was +lady of the chamber to the landgravine of Hesse, helped to support and +educate her numerous family. Jacob, with his younger brother Wilhelm +(born on the 24th of February 1786), was sent in 1798 to the public +school at Cassel. In 1802 he proceeded to the university of Marburg, +where he studied law, a profession for which he had been destined by his +father. His brother joined him at Marburg a year later, having just +recovered from a long and severe illness, and likewise began the study +of law. Up to this time Jacob Grimm had been actuated only by a general +thirst for knowledge and his energies had not found any aim beyond the +practical one of making himself a position in life. The first definite +impulse came from the lectures of Savigny, the celebrated investigator +of Roman law, who, as Grimm himself says (in the preface to the +_Deutsche Grammatik_), first taught him to realize what it meant to +study any science. Savigny's lectures also awakened in him that love for +historical and antiquarian investigation which forms the basis of all +his work. Then followed personal acquaintance, and it was in Savigny's +well-provided library that Grimm first turned over the leaves of +Bodmer's edition of the Old German minnesingers and other early texts, +and felt an eager desire to penetrate further into the obscurities and +half-revealed mysteries of their language. In the beginning of 1805 he +received an invitation from Savigny, who had removed to Paris, to help +him in his literary work. Grimm passed a very happy time in Paris, +strengthening his taste for the literatures of the middle ages by his +studies in the Paris libraries. Towards the close of the year he +returned to Cassel, where his mother and Wilhelm had settled, the latter +having finished his studies. The next year he obtained a situation in +the war office with the very small salary of 100 thalers. One of his +grievances was that he had to exchange his stylish Paris suit for a +stiff uniform and pigtail. But he had full leisure for the prosecution +of his studies. In 1808, soon after the death of his mother, he was +appointed superintendent of the private library of Jerome Buonaparte, +king of Westphalia, into which Hesse-Cassel had been incorporated by +Napoleon. Jerome appointed him an auditor to the state council, while he +retained his other post. His salary was increased in a short interval +from 2000 to 4000 francs, and his official duties were hardly more than +nominal. After the expulsion of Jerome and the reinstalment of an +elector, Grimm was appointed in 1813 secretary of legation, to accompany +the Hessian minister to the headquarters of the allied army. In 1814 he +was sent to Paris to demand restitution of the books carried off by the +French, and in 1814-1815 he attended the congress of Vienna as secretary +of legation. On his return he was again sent to Paris on the same errand +as before. Meanwhile Wilhelm had received an appointment in the Cassel +library, and in 1816 Jacob was made second librarian under Volkel. On +the death of Volkel in 1828 the brothers expected to be advanced to the +first and second librarianships respectively, and were much dissatisfied +when the first place was given to Rommel, keeper of the archives. So +they removed next year to Gottingen, where Jacob received the +appointment of professor and librarian, Wilhelm that of under-librarian. +Jacob Grimm lectured on legal antiquities, historical grammar, literary +history, and diplomatics, explained Old German poems, and commented on +the _Germania_ of Tacitus. At this period he is described as small and +lively in figure, with a harsh voice, speaking a broad Hessian dialect. +His powerful memory enabled him to dispense with the manuscript which +most German professors rely on, and he spoke extempore, referring only +occasionally to a few names and dates written on a slip of paper. He +himself regretted that he had begun the work of teaching so late in +life; and as a lecturer he was not successful: he had no idea of +digesting his facts and suiting them to the comprehension of his +hearers; and even the brilliant, terse and eloquent passages which +abound in his writings lost much of their effect when jerked out in the +midst of a long array of dry facts. In 1837, being one of the seven +professors who signed a protest against the king of Hanover's abrogation +of the constitution established some years before, he was dismissed from +his professorship, and banished from the kingdom of Hanover. He returned +to Cassel together with his brother, who had also signed the protest, +and remained there till, in 1840, they accepted an invitation from the +king of Prussia to remove to Berlin, where they both received +professorships, and were elected members of the Academy of Sciences. Not +being under any obligation to lecture, Jacob seldom did so, but together +with his brother worked at the great dictionary. During their stay at +Cassel Jacob regularly attended the meetings of the academy, where he +read papers on the most varied subjects. The best known of these are +those on Lachmann, Schiller, and his brother Wilhelm (who died in 1859), +on old age, and on the origin of language. He also described his +impressions of Italian and Scandinavian travel, interspersing his more +general observations with linguistic details, as is the case in all his +works. + +Grimm died in 1863, working up to the last. He was never ill, and worked +on all day, without haste and without pause. He was not at all impatient +of interruption, but seemed rather to be refreshed by it, returning to +his work without effort. He wrote for the press with great rapidity, and +hardly ever made corrections. He never revised what he had written, +remarking with a certain wonder of his brother, "Wilhelm reads his +manuscripts over again before sending them to press!" His temperament +was uniformly cheerful, and he was easily amused. Outside his own +special work he had a marked taste for botany. The spirit which animated +his work is best described by himself at the end of his autobiography. +"Nearly all my labours have been devoted, either directly or indirectly, +to the investigation of our earlier language, poetry and laws. These +studies may have appeared to many, and may still appear, useless; to me +they have always seemed a noble and earnest task, definitely and +inseparably connected with our common fatherland, and calculated to +foster the love of it. My principle has always been in these +investigations to under-value nothing, but to utilize the small for the +illustration of the great, the popular tradition for the elucidation of +the written monuments." + +The purely scientific side of Grimm's character developed slowly. He +seems to have felt the want of definite principles of etymology without +being able to discover them, and indeed even in the first edition of his +grammar (1819) he seems to be often groping in the dark. As early as +1815 we find A. W. Schlegel reviewing the _Altdeutsche Walder_ (a +periodical published by the two brothers) very severely, condemning the +lawless etymological combinations it contained, and insisting on the +necessity of strict philological method and a fundamental investigation +of the laws of language, especially in the correspondence of sounds. +This criticism is said to have had a considerable influence on the +direction of Grimm's studies. + +The first work he published, _Uber den altdeutschen Meistergesang_ +(1811), was of a purely literary character. Yet even in this essay Grimm +showed that _Minnesang_ and _Meistersang_ were really one form of +poetry, of which they merely represented different stages of +development, and also announced his important discovery of the +invariable division of the _Lied_ into three strophic parts. + +His text-editions were mostly prepared in common with his brother. In +1812 they published the two ancient fragments of the _Hildebrandslied_ +and the _Weissenbrunner Gebet_, Jacob having discovered what till then +had never been suspected--the alliteration in these poems. However, +Jacob had little taste for text-editing, and, as he himself confessed, +the evolving of a critical text gave him little pleasure. He therefore +left this department to others, especially Lachmann, who soon turned his +brilliant critical genius, trained in the severe school of classical +philology, to Old and Middle High German poetry and metre. Both brothers +were attracted from the beginning by all national poetry, whether in the +form of epics, ballads or popular tales. They published in 1816-1818 an +analysis and critical sifting of the oldest epic traditions of the +Germanic races under the title of _Deutsche Sagen_. At the same time +they collected all the popular tales they could find, partly from the +mouths of the people, partly from manuscripts and books, and published +in 1812-1815 the first edition of those _Kinder- und Hausmarchen_ which +have carried the name of the brothers Grimm into every household of the +civilized world, and founded the science of folk-lore. The closely +allied subject of the satirical beast epic of the middle ages also had a +great charm for Jacob Grimm, and he published an edition of the +_Reinhart Fuchs_ in 1834. His first contribution to mythology was the +first volume of an edition of the Eddaic songs, undertaken conjointly +with his brother, published in 1815, which, however, was not followed by +any more. The first edition of his _Deutsche Mythologie_ appeared in +1835. This great work covers the whole range of the subject, tracing the +mythology and superstitions of the old Teutons back to the very dawn of +direct evidence, and following their decay and loss down to the popular +traditions, tales and expressions in which they still linger. + +Although by the introduction of the Code Napoleon into Westphalia +Grimm's legal studies were made practically barren, he never lost his +interest in the scientific study of law and national institutions, as +the truest exponents of the life and character of a people. By the +publication (in 1828) of his _Rechtsalterthumer_ he laid the foundations +of that historical study of the old Teutonic laws and constitutions +which was continued with brilliant success by Georg L. Maurer and +others. In this work Grimm showed the importance of a linguistic study +of the old laws, and the light that can be thrown on many a dark passage +in them by a comparison of the corresponding words and expressions in +the other old cognate dialects. He also knew how--and this is perhaps +the most original and valuable part of his work--to trace the spirit of +the laws in countless allusions and sayings which occur in the old poems +and sagas, or even survive in modern colloquialisms. + +Of all his more general works the boldest and most far-reaching is his +_Geschichte der deutschen Sprache_, where at the same time the +linguistic element is most distinctly brought forward. The subject of +the work is, indeed, nothing less than the history which lies hidden in +the words of the German language--the oldest national history of the +Teutonic tribes determined by means of language. For this purpose he +laboriously collects the scattered words and allusions to be found in +classical writers, and endeavours to determine the relations in which +the German language stood to those of the Getae, Thracians, Scythians, +and many other nations whose languages are known only by doubtfully +identified, often extremely corrupted remains preserved by Greek and +Latin authors. Grimm's results have been greatly modified by the wider +range of comparison and improved methods of investigation which now +characterize linguistic science, and many of the questions raised by him +will probably for ever remain obscure; but his book will always be one +of the most fruitful and suggestive that have ever been written. + +Grimm's famous _Deutsche Grammatik_ was the outcome of his purely +philological work. The labours of past generations--from the humanists +onwards--had collected an enormous mass of materials in the shape of +text-editions, dictionaries and grammars, although most of it was +uncritical and often untrustworthy. Something had even been done in the +way of comparison and the determination of general laws, and the +conception of a comparative Teutonic grammar had been clearly grasped by +the illustrious Englishman George Hickes, at the beginning of the 18th +century, and partly carried out by him in his _Thesaurus_. Ten Kate in +Holland had afterwards made valuable contributions to the history and +comparison of the Teutonic languages. Even Grimm himself did not at +first intend to include all the languages in his grammar; but he soon +found that Old High German postulated Gothic, that the later stages of +German could not be understood without the help of the Low German +dialects, including English, and that the rich literature of Scandinavia +could as little be ignored. The first edition of the first part of the +_Grammar_, which appeared in 1819, and is now extremely rare, treated of +the inflections of all these languages, together with a general +introduction, in which he vindicated the importance of an historical +study of the German language against the a priori, quasi-philosophical +methods then in vogue. + +In 1822 this volume appeared in a second edition--really a new work, +for, as Grimm himself says in the preface, it cost him little reflection +to mow down the first crop to the ground. The wide distance between the +two stages of Grimm's development in these two editions is significantly +shown by the fact that while the first edition gives only the +inflections, in the second volume phonology takes up no fewer than 600 +pages, more than half of the whole volume. Grimm had, at last, awakened +to the full conviction that all sound philology must be based on +rigorous adhesion to the laws of sound-change, and he never afterwards +swerved from this principle, which gave to all his investigations, even +in their boldest flights, that iron-bound consistency, and that force of +conviction which distinguish science from dilettanteism; up to Grimm's +time philology was nothing but a more or less laborious and +conscientious dilettanteism, with occasional flashes of scientific +inspiration; he made it into a science. His advance must be attributed +mainly to the influence of his contemporary R. Rask. Rask was born two +years later than Grimm, but his remarkable precocity gave him somewhat +the start. Even in Grimm's first editions his Icelandic paradigms are +based entirely on Rask's grammar, and in his second edition he relied +almost entirely on Rask for Old English. His debt to Rask can only be +estimated at its true value by comparing his treatment of Old English in +the two editions; the difference is very great. Thus in the first +edition he declines _daeg_, _daeges_, plural _daegas_, not having +observed the law of vowel-change pointed out by Rask. There can be +little doubt that the appearance of Rask's Old English grammar was a +main inducement for him to recast his work from the beginning. To Rask +also belongs the merit of having first distinctly formulated the laws of +sound-correspondence in the different languages, especially in the +vowels, those more fleeting elements of speech which had hitherto been +ignored by etymologists. + +This leads to a question which has been the subject of much +controversy,--Who discovered what is known as _Grimm's law_? This law of +the correspondence of consonants in the older Indo-germanic, Low and +High German languages respectively was first fully stated by Grimm in +the second edition of the first part of his grammar. The correspondence +of single consonants had been more or less clearly recognized by several +of his predecessors; but the one who came nearest to the discovery of +the complete law was the Swede J. Ihre, who established a considerable +number of "literarum permutationes," such as _b_ for _f_, with the +examples _baera = ferre_, _befwer = fiber_. Rask, in his essay on the +origin of the Icelandic language, gives the same comparisons, with a few +additions and corrections, and even the very same examples in most +cases. As Grimm in the preface to his first edition expressly mentions +this essay of Rask, there is every probability that it gave the first +impulse to his own investigations. But there is a wide difference +between the isolated permutations of his predecessors and the +comprehensive generalizations under which he himself ranged them. The +extension of the law to High German is also entirely his own. The only +fact that can be adduced in support of the assertion that Grimm wished +to deprive Rask of his claims to priority is that he does not expressly +mention Rask's results in his second edition. But this is part of the +plan of his work, viz. to refrain from all controversy or reference to +the works of others. In his first edition he expressly calls attention +to Rask's essay, and praises it most ungrudgingly. Rask himself refers +as little to Ihre, merely alluding in a general way to Ihre's +permutations, although his own debt to Ihre is infinitely greater than +that of Grimm to Rask or any one else. It is true that a certain +bitterness of feeling afterwards sprang up between Grimm and Rask, but +this was the fault of the latter, who, impatient of contradiction and +irritable in controversy, refused to acknowledge the value of Grimm's +views when they involved modification of his own. The importance of +Grimm's generalization in the history of philology cannot be +overestimated, and even the mystic completeness and symmetry of its +formulation, although it has proved a hindrance to the correct +explanation of the causes of the changes, was well calculated to strike +the popular mind, and give it a vivid idea of the paramount importance +of law, and the necessity of disregarding mere superficial resemblance. +The most lawless etymologist bows down to the authority of Grimm's law, +even if he honours it almost as much in the breach as in the observance. + +The grammar was continued in three volumes, treating principally of +derivation, composition and syntax, which last was left unfinished. +Grimm then began a third edition, of which only one part, comprising the +vowels, appeared in 1840, his time being afterwards taken up mainly by +the dictionary. The grammar stands alone in the annals of science for +comprehensiveness, method and fullness of detail. Every law, every +letter, every syllable of inflection in the different languages is +illustrated by an almost exhaustive mass of material. It has served as a +model for all succeeding investigators. Diez's grammar of the Romance +languages is founded entirely on its methods, which have also exerted a +profound influence on the wider study of the Indo-Germanic languages in +general. + +In the great German dictionary Grimm undertook a task for which he was +hardly suited. His exclusively historical tendencies made it impossible +for him to do justice to the individuality of a living language; and the +disconnected statement of the facts of language in an ordinary +alphabetical dictionary fatally mars its scientific character. It was +also undertaken on so large a scale as to make it impossible for him and +his brother to complete it themselves. The dictionary, as far as it was +worked out by Grimm himself, may be described as a collection of +disconnected antiquarian essays of high value. + +Grimm's scientific character is notable for its combination of breadth +and unity. He was as far removed from the narrowness of the specialist +who has no ideas, no sympathies beyond some one author, period or corner +of science, as from the shallow dabbler who feverishly attempts to +master the details of half-a-dozen discordant pursuits. Even within his +own special studies there is the same wise concentration; no +Mezzofanti-like parrot display of useless polyglottism. The very +foundations of his nature were harmonious; his patriotism and love of +historical investigation received their fullest satisfaction in the +study of the language, traditions, mythology, laws and literature of his +own countrymen and their nearest kindred. But from this centre his +investigations were pursued in every direction as far as his unerring +instinct of healthy limitation would allow. He was equally fortunate in +the harmony that subsisted between his intellectual and moral nature. He +made cheerfully the heavy sacrifices that science demands from its +disciples, without feeling any of that envy and bitterness which often +torment weaker natures; and although he lived apart from his fellow men, +he was full of human sympathies, and no man has ever exercised a +profounder influence on the destinies of mankind. His was the very ideal +of the noblest type of German character. + + The following is a complete list of his separately published works, + those which he published in common with his brother being marked with + a star. For a list of his essays in periodicals, &c., see vol. v. of + his _Kleinere Schriften_, from which the present list is taken. His + life is best studied in his own "Selbstbiographie," in vol. i. of the + _Kleinere Schriften_. There is also a brief memoir by K. Godeke in + _Gottinger Professoren_ (Gotha (Perthes), 1872): _Uber den + altdeutschen Meistergesang_ (Gottingen, 1811); *_Kinder- und + Hausmarchen_ (Berlin, 1812-1815) (many editions); *_Das Lied von + Hildebrand und das Weissenbrunner Gebet_ (Cassel, 1812); _Altdeutsche + Walder_ (Cassel, Frankfort, 1813-1816, 3 vols.); *_Der arme Heinrich + von Hartmann von der Aue_ (Berlin, 1815); *_Irmenstrasse und + Irmensaule_ (Vienna, 1815); *_Die Lieder der allen Edda_ (Berlin, + 1815), _Silva de romances viejos_ (Vienna, 1815); *_Deutsche Sagen_ + (Berlin, 1816-1818, 2nd ed., Berlin, 1865-1866); _Deutsche Grammatik_ + (Gottingen, 1819, 2nd ed., Gottingen, 1822-1840) (reprinted 1870 by W. + Scherer, Berlin); _Wuk Stephanovitsch's kleine serbische Grammatik, + verdeutscht mit einer Vorrede_ (Leipzig and Berlin, 1824); _Zur + Recension der deutschen Grammatik_ (Cassel, 1826); *_Irische + Elfenmarchen, aus dem Englischen_ (Leipzig, 1826); _Deutsche + Rechtsaltertumer_ (Gottingen, 1828, 2nd ed., 1854); _Hymnorum veteris + ecclesiae XXVI. interpretatio theodisca_ (Gottingen, 1830); _Reinhart + Fuchs_ (Berlin, 1834); _Deutsche Mythologie_ (Gottingen, 1835, 3rd + ed., 1854, 2 vols.); _Taciti Germania edidit_ (Gottingen, 1835); _Uber + meine Entlassung_ (Basel, 1838); (together with Schmeller) + _Lateinische Gedichte des X. und XI. Jahrhunderts_ (Gottingen, 1838); + _Sendschreiben an Karl Lachmann uber Reinhart Fuchs_ (Berlin, 1840); + _Weistumer_, Th. i. (Gottingen, 1840) (continued, partly by others, in + 5 parts, 1840-1869); _Andreas und Elene_ (Cassel, 1840); _Frau + Aventure_ (Berlin, 1842); _Geschichte der deutschen Sprache_ (Leipzig, + 1848, 3rd ed., 1868, 2 vols.); _Das Wort des Besitzes_ (Berlin, 1850); + *_Deutsches Worterbuch_, Bd. i. (Leipzig, 1854); _Rede auf Wilhelm + Grimm und Rede uber das Alter_ (Berlin, 1868, 3rd ed., 1865); + _Kleinere Schriften_ (Berlin, 1864-1870, 5 vols.). (H. Sw.) + + + + +GRIMM, WILHELM CARL (1786-1859). For the chief events in the life of +Wilhelm Grimm see article on Jacob Grimm above. As Jacob himself said in +his celebrated address to the Berlin Academy on the death of his +brother, the whole of their lives were passed together. In their +schooldays they had one bed and one table in common, as students they +had two beds and two tables in the same room, and they always lived +under one roof, and had their books and property in common. Nor did +Wilhelm's marriage in any way disturb their harmony. As Cleasby said +("Life of Cleasby," prefixed to his _Icelandic Dictionary_, p. lxix.), +"they both live in the same house, and in such harmony and community +that one might almost imagine the children were common property." +Wilhelm's character was a complete contrast to that of his brother. As a +boy he was strong and healthy, but as he grew up he was attacked by a +long and severe illness, which left him weak all his life. His was a +less comprehensive and energetic mind than that of his brother, and he +had less of the spirit of investigation, preferring to confine himself +to some limited and definitely bounded field of work; he utilized +everything that bore directly on his own studies, and ignored the rest. +These studies were almost always of a literary nature. It is +characteristic of his more aesthetic nature that he took great delight +in music, for which his brother had but a moderate liking, and had a +remarkable gift of story-telling. Cleasby, in the account of his visit +to the brothers, quoted above, tells that "Wilhelm read a sort of farce +written in the Frankfort dialect, depicting the 'malheurs' of a rich +Frankfort tradesman on a holiday jaunt on Sunday. It was very droll, and +he read it admirably." Cleasby describes him as "an uncommonly animated, +jovial fellow." He was, accordingly, much sought in society, which he +frequented much more than his brother. + + His first work was a spirited translation of the Danish _Kaempeviser, + Altdanische Heldenlieder_, published in 1811-1813, which made his name + at first more widely known than that of his brother. The most + important of his text editions are--_Ruolandslied_ (Gottingen, 1838); + _Konrad von Wurzburg's Goldene Schmiede_ (Berlin, 1840); _Grave + Ruodolf_ (Gottingen, 1844, 2nd ed.); _Athis und Prophilias_ (Berlin, + 1846); _Altdeutsche Gesprache_ (Berlin, 1851); _Freidank_ (Gottingen, + 1860, 2nd ed.). Of his other works the most important is _Deutsche + Heldensage_ (Berlin, 1868, 2nd ed.). His _Deutsche Runen_ (Gottingen, + 1821) has now only an historical interest. (H. Sw.) + + + + +GRIMMA, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, on the left bank of the Mulde, +19 m. S.E. of Leipzig on the railway Dobeln-Dresden. Pop. (1905) 11,182. +It has a Roman Catholic and three Evangelical churches, and among other +principal buildings are the Schloss built in the 12th century, and long +a residence of the margraves of Meissen and the electors of Saxony; the +town-hall, dating from 1442, and the famous school Furstenschule +(_Illustre Moldanum_), erected by the elector Maurice on the site of the +former Augustinian monastery in 1550, having provision for 104 free +scholars and a library numbering 10,000 volumes. There are also a modern +school, a teachers' seminary, a commercial school and a school of +brewing. Among the industries of the town are ironfounding, machine +building and dyeworks, while paper and gloves are manufactured there. +Gardening and agriculture generally are also important branches of +industry. In the immediate neighbourhood are the ruins of the Cistercian +nunnery from which Catherine von Bora fled in 1523, and the village of +Doben, with an old castle. Grimma is of Sorbian origin, and is first +mentioned in 1203. It passed then into possession of Saxony and has +remained since part of that country. + + See Lorenz, _Die Stadt Grimma, historisch beschrieben_ (Leipzig, + 1871); Rossler, _Geschichte der koniglich sachsischen Fursten- und + Landesschule Grimma_ (Leipzig, 1891); L. Schmidt, _Urkundenbuch der + Stadt Grimma_ (Leipzig, 1895); and Fraustadt, _Grimmenser Stammbuch_ + (Grimma, 1900). + + + + +GRIMMELSHAUSEN, HANS JAKOB CHRISTOFFEL VON (c. 1625-1676), German +author, was born at Gelnhausen in or about 1625. At the age of ten he +was kidnapped by Hessian soldiery, and in their midst tasted the +adventures of military life in the Thirty Years' War. At its close, +Grimmelshausen entered the service of Franz Egon von Furstenberg, bishop +of Strassburg and in 1665 was made _Schultheiss_ (magistrate) at Renchen +in Baden. On obtaining this appointment, he devoted himself to literary +pursuits, and in 1669 published _Der abenteuerliche Simplicissimus, +Teutsch, d.h. die Beschreibung des Lebens eines seltsamen Vaganten, +genannt Melchior Sternfels von Fuchsheim_, the greatest German novel of +the 17th century. For this work he took as his model the picaresque +romances of Spain, already to some extent known in Germany. +_Simplicissimus_ is in great measure its author's autobiography; he +begins with the childhood of his hero, and describes the latter's +adventures amid the stirring scenes of the Thirty Years' War. The +realistic detail with which these pictures are presented makes the book +one of the most valuable documents of its time. In the later parts +Grimmelshausen, however, over-indulges in allegory, and finally loses +himself in a Robinson Crusoe story. Among his other works the most +important are the so-called _Simplicianische Schriften: Die +Erzbetrugerin und Landstortzerin Courasche_ (c. 1669); _Der seltsame +Springinsfeld_ (1670) and _Das wunderbarliche Vogelnest_ (1672). His +satires, such as _Der teutsche Michel_ (1670), and "gallant" novels, +like _Dietwald und Amelinde_ (1670) are of inferior interest. He died at +Renchen on the 17th of August 1676, where a monument was erected to him +in 1879. + + Editions of _Simplicissimus_ and the _Simplicianische Schriften_ have + been published by A. von Keller (1854), H. Kurz (1863-1864), J. + Tittmann (1877) and F. Bobertag (1882). A reprint of the first edition + of the novel was edited by R. Kogel for the series of _Neudrucke des + 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts_ (1880). See the introductions to these + editions; also F. Antoine, _Etude sur le Simplicissimus de + Grimmelshausen_ (1882) and E. Schmidt in his _Charakteristiken_, vol. + i. (1886). + + + + +GRIMOARD, PHILIPPE HENRI, COMTE DE (1753-1815), French soldier and +military writer, entered the royal army at the age of sixteen, and in +1775 published his _Essai theorique et practique sur les batailles_. +Shortly afterwards Louis XVI. placed him in his own military cabinet and +employed him especially in connexion with schemes of army reform. By the +year of the Revolution he had become one of Louis's most valued +counsellors, in political as well as military matters, and was marked +out, though only a colonel, as the next Minister of War. In 1791 +Grimoard was entrusted with the preparation of the scheme of defence for +France, which proved two years later of great assistance to the +Committee of Public Safety. The events of 1792 put an end to his +military career, and the remainder of his life was spent in writing +military books. + + The following works by him, besides his first essay, have retained + some importance: _Histoire des dernieres campagnes de Turenne_ (Paris, + 1780), _Lettres et memoires de Turenne_ (Paris, 1780), _Troupes + legeres et leur emploi_ (Paris, 1782), _Conquetes de Gustave-Adolphe_ + (Stockholm and Neufchatel, 1782-1791); _Memoires de Gustave Adolphe_ + (Paris, 1790), Correspondence of Marshal Richelieu (Paris, 1789), St + Germain (1789), and Bernis (1790), _Vie et regne de Frederic le Grand_ + (London, 1788), _Lettres et memoires du marechal de Saxe_ (Paris, + 1794), _L'Expedition de Minorque en 1756_ (Paris, 1798), _Recherches + sur la force de l'armee francaise depuis Henri IV jusqu'en 1805_ + (Paris, 1806), _Memoires du marechal de Tesse_ (Paris, 1806), _Lettres + de Bolingbroke_ (Paris, 1808), _Traite, sur le service d'etat-major_ + (Paris, 1809), and (with Servan) _Tableau historique de la guerre de + la Revolution 1792-1794_ (Paris, 1808). + + + + +GRIMSBY, or GREAT GRIMSBY, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough +of Lincolnshire, England; an important seaport near the mouth of the +Humber on the south shore. Pop. (1901) 63,138. It is 155 m. N. by E. +from London by the Great Northern railway, and is also served by the +Great Central railway. The church of St James, situated in the older +part of the town, is a cruciform Early English building, retaining, in +spite of injudicious restoration, many beautiful details. The chief +buildings are that containing the town hall and the grammar school (a +foundation of 1547), the exchange, a theatre, and the customs house and +dock offices. A sailors' and fishermen's Harbour of Refuge, free +library, constitutional club and technical school are maintained. The +duke of York public gardens were opened in 1894. Adjacent to Grimsby on +the east is the coastal watering-place of Cleethorpes. + +The dock railway station lies a mile from the town station. In 1849 the +Great Central (then the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire) railway +initiated a scheme of reclamation and dock-construction. This was +completed in 1854, and subsequent extensions were made. There are two +large fish-docks, and, for general traffic, the Royal dock, +communicating with the Humber through a tidal basin, the small Union +dock, and the extensive Alexandra dock, together with graving docks, +timber yards, a patent slip, &c. These docks have an area of about 104 +acres, but were found insufficient for the growing traffic of the port, +and in 1906 the construction of a large new dock, of about 40 acres' +area and 30 to 35 ft. depth, was undertaken by the Great Central Company +at Immingham, 5 m. above Grimsby on the Humber. The principal imports +are butter, woollens, timber, cereals, eggs, glass, cottons, preserved +meat, wool, sugar and bacon. The exports consist chiefly of woollen +yarn, woollens, cotton goods, cotton yarn, machinery, &c. and coal. It +is as a fishing port, however, that Grimsby is chiefly famous. Two of +the docks are for the accommodation of the fishing fleet, which, +consisting principally of steam trawlers, numbers upwards of 500 +vessels. Regular passenger steamers run from Grimsby to Dutch and south +Swedish ports, and to Esbjerg (Denmark), chiefly those of the Wilson +line and the Great Central railway. The chief industries of Grimsby are +shipbuilding, brewing, tanning, manufactures of ship tackle, ropes, ice +for preserving fish, turnery, flour, linseed cake, artificial manure; +and there are saw mills, bone and corn mills, and creosote works. The +municipal borough is under a mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 councillors. +Area, 2852 acres. + +Grimsby (_Grimesbi_) is supposed to have been the landing-place of the +Danes on their first invasion of Britain towards the close of the 8th +century. It was a borough by prescription as early as 1201, in which +year King John granted the burgesses a charter of liberties according to +the custom of the burgesses of Northampton. Henry III. in 1227 granted +to "the mayor and good men" of Grimsby, that they should hold the town +for a yearly rent of L111, and confirmed the same in 1271. These +charters were confirmed by later sovereigns. A governing charter, under +the title of mayor and burgesses, was given by James II. in 1688, and +under this the appointment of officers and other of the corporation, +arrangements are to a great extent regulated. In 1201 King John granted +the burgesses an annual fair for fifteen days, beginning on the 25th of +May. Two annual fairs are now held, namely on the first Monday in April +and the second Monday in October. No early grant of a market can be +found, but in 1792 the market-day was Wednesday. In 1888 it had ceased +to exist. Grimsby returned two members to the parliament of 1298, but in +1833 the number was reduced to one. + +In the time of Edward III. Grimsby was an important seaport, but the +haven became obstructed by sand and mud deposited by the Humber, and so +the access of large vessels was prevented. At the beginning of the 19th +century a subscription was raised by the proprietors of land in the +neighbourhood for improving the harbour, and an act was obtained by +which they were incorporated under the title "The Grimsby Haven Co." The +fishing trade had become so important by 1800 that it was necessary to +construct a new dock. + + + + +GRIMSTON, SIR HARBOTTLE (1603-1685), English politician, second son of +Sir Harbottle Grimston, Bart. (d. 1648), was born at Bradfield Hall, +near Manningtree, on the 27th of January 1603. Educated at Emmanuel +College, Cambridge, he became a barrister of Lincoln's Inn, then +recorder of Harwich and recorder of Colchester. As member for +Colchester, Grimston sat in the Short Parliament of 1640, and he +represented the same borough during the Long Parliament, speedily +becoming a leading member of the popular party. He attacked Archbishop +Laud with great vigour; was a member of the important committees of the +parliament, including the one appointed in consequence of the attempted +seizure of the five members; and became deputy-lieutenant of Essex after +the passing of the militia ordinance in January 1642. He disliked taking +up arms against the king, but remained nominally an adherent of the +parliamentary party during the Civil War. In the words of Clarendon, he +"continued rather than concurred with them." Grimston does not appear to +have taken the Solemn League and Covenant, but after the conclusion of +the first period of the war he again became more active. He was +president of the committee which investigated the escape of the king +from Hampton Court in 1647, and was one of those who negotiated with +Charles at Newport in 1648, when, according to Burnet, he fell upon his +knees and urged the king to come to terms. From this time Grimston's +sympathies appear to have been with the Royalists. Turned out of the +House of Commons when the assembly was "purged" by colonel Pride, he was +imprisoned; but was released after promising to do nothing detrimental +to the parliament or the army, and spent the next few years in +retirement. Before this time, his elder brother having already died, he +had succeeded his father as 2nd baronet. In 1656 Sir Harbottle was +returned to Cromwell's second parliament as member for Essex; but he was +not allowed to take his seat; and with 97 others who were similarly +treated he issued a remonstrance to the public. He was among the +secluded members who re-entered the Long Parliament in February 1660, +was then a member of the council of state, and was chosen Speaker of the +House of Commons in the Convention Parliament of 1660. As Speaker he +visited Charles II. at Breda, and addressed him in very flattering terms +on his return to London; but he refused to accede to the king's demand +that he should dismiss Burnet from his position as chaplain to the +Master of the Rolls, and in parliament he strongly denounced any +relaxation of the laws against papists. Grimston did not retain the +office of Speaker after the dissolution of the Convention Parliament, +but he was a member of the commission which tried the regicides, and in +November 1660 he was appointed Master of the Rolls. Report says he paid +Clarendon L8000 for the office, while Burnet declares he obtained it +"without any application of his own." He died on the 2nd of January +1685. His friend and chaplain, Burnet, speaks very highly of his piety +and impartiality, while not omitting the undoubted fact that he was +"much sharpened against popery." He translated the law reports of his +father-in-law, the judge, Sir George Croke (1560-1642), which were +written in Norman-French, and five editions of this work have appeared. +Seven of his parliamentary speeches were published, and he also wrote +_Strena Christiana_ (London, 1644, and other editions). Grimston's first +wife, Croke's daughter Mary, bore him six sons and two daughters; and by +his second wife, Anne, daughter and heiress of Sir Nathaniel Bacon, +K.B., a grandson of Sir Nicholas Bacon, he had one daughter. + +Of his sons one only, Samuel (1643-1700), survived his father, and when +he died in October 1700 the baronetcy became extinct. Sir Harbottle's +eldest daughter, Mary, married Sir Capel Luckyn, Bart., and their +grandson, William Luckyn, succeeded to the estates of his great-uncle, +Sir Samuel Grimston, and took the name of Grimston in 1700. This William +Luckyn Grimston (1683-1756) was created Baron Dunboyne and Viscount +Grimston in the peerage of Ireland in 1719. He was succeeded as 2nd +viscount by his son James (1711-1773), whose son James Bucknall +(1747-1808) was made an English peer as baron Verulam of Gorhambury in +1790. Then in 1815 his son James Walter (1775-1845), 2nd baron Verulam, +was created earl of Verulam, and the present peer is his direct +descendant. Sir Harbottle Grimston bought Sir Nicholas Bacon's estate +at Gorhambury, which is still the residence of his descendants. + + See G. Burnet, _History of My Own Time_, edited by O. Airy (Oxford, + 1900). + + + + +GRIMTHORPE, EDMUND BECKETT, 1ST BARON (1816-1905), son of Sir Edmund +Beckett Denison, was born on the 12th of May 1816. He was educated at +Doncaster and Eton, whence he proceeded to Trinity College, Cambridge, +and graduated thirtieth wrangler in 1838. He was called to the bar at +Lincoln's Inn in 1841. Upon succeeding to the baronetcy in 1874 he +dropped the name of Denison, which his father had assumed in 1816. From +1877 to 1900 he was chancellor and vicar-general of York, and he was +raised to the peerage in 1886. He was made a Q.C. in 1854, and was for +many years a leader of the Parliamentary Bar. He devoted himself to the +study of astronomy, horology and architecture, more especially Gothic +ecclesiastical architecture. As early as 1850 he had become a recognized +authority on clocks, watches and bells, and in particular on the +construction of turret clocks, for he had designed Dent's Great +Exhibition clock, and his _Rudimentary Treatise_ had gone through many +editions. In 1851 he was called upon, in conjunction with the astronomer +royal (Mr, afterwards Sir, G. B. Airy) and Mr Dent, to design a suitable +clock for the new Houses of Parliament. The present tower clock, +popularly known as "Big Ben," was constructed after Lord Grimthorpe's +designs. In a number of burning questions during his time Lord +Grimthorpe took a prominent part. It is, however, in connexion with the +restoration of St Albans Abbey that he is most widely known. The St +Albans Abbey Reparation Committee, which had been in existence since +1871, and for which Sir Gilbert Scott had carried out some admirable +repairs, obtained a faculty from the Diocesan Court in 1877 to repair +and restore the church and fit it for cathedral and parochial services. +Very soon, however, the committee found itself unable to raise the +necessary funds, and it was at this juncture that a new faculty was +granted to Lord Grimthorpe (then Sir Edmund Beckett) to "restore, repair +and refit" the abbey at his own expense. Lord Grimthorpe made it an +express stipulation that the work should be done according to his own +designs and under his own supervision. His public spirit in undertaking +the task was undeniable, but his treatment of the roof, the new west +front, and the windows inserted in the terminations of the transepts, +excited a storm of adverse criticism, and was the subject of vigorous +protests from the professional world of architecture. He died on the +29th of April 1905, being succeeded as 2nd baron by his nephew, E. W. +Beckett (b. 1856), who had sat in parliament as conservative member for +the Whitby division of Yorkshire from 1885. + + + + +GRINDAL, EDMUND (c. 1519-1583), successively bishop of London, +archbishop of York and archbishop of Canterbury, born about 1519, was +son of William Grindal, a farmer of Hensingham, in the parish of St +Bees, Cumberland. He was educated at Magdalene and Christ's Colleges and +then at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. and was +elected fellow in 1538. He proceeded M.A. in 1541, was ordained deacon +in 1544 and was proctor and Lady Margaret preacher in 1548-1549. +Probably through the influence of Ridley, who had been master of +Pembroke Hall, Grindal was selected as one of the Protestant disputants +during the visitation of 1549. He had a considerable talent for this +work and was often employed on similar occasions. When Ridley became +bishop of London, he made Grindal one of his chaplains and gave him the +precentorship of St Paul's. He was soon promoted to be one of Edward +VI.'s chaplains and prebendary of Westminster, and in October 1552 was +one of the six divines to whom the Forty-two articles were submitted for +examination before being sanctioned by the Privy Council. According to +Knox, Grindal distinguished himself from most of the court preachers in +1553 by denouncing the worldliness of the courtiers and foretelling the +evils to follow on the king's death. + +That event frustrated Grindal's proposed elevation to the episcopal +bench and he did not consider himself bound to await the evils which he +had foretold. He abandoned his preferments on Mary's accession and made +his way to Strassburg. Thence, like so many of the Marian exiles, he +proceeded to Frankfurt, where he endeavoured to compose the disputes +between the "Coxians" (see COX, RICHARD), who regarded the 1552 Prayer +Book as the perfection of reform, and the Knoxians, who wanted further +simplification. He returned to England in January 1559, was appointed +one of the committee to revise the liturgy, and one of the Protestant +representatives at the Westminster conference. In July he was also +elected Master of Pembroke Hall in succession to the recusant Dr Thomas +Young (1514-1580) and Bishop of London in succession to Bonner. + +Grindal himself was, however, inclined to be recalcitrant from different +motives. He had qualms about vestments and other traces of "popery" as +well as about the Erastianism of Elizabeth's ecclesiastical government. +His Protestantism was robust enough; he did not mind recommending that a +priest "might be put to some torment" (_Hatfield MSS._ i. 269); and in +October 1562 he wrote to Cecil begging to know "if that second Julian, +the king of Navarre, is killed; as he intended to preach at St Paul's +Cross, and might take occasion to mention God's judgements on him" +(_Domestic Cal._, 1547-1580, p. 209). But he was loth to execute +judgments upon English Puritans, and modern high churchmen complain of +his infirmity of purpose, his opportunism and his failure to give Parker +adequate assistance in rebuilding the shattered fabric of the English +Church. Grindal lacked that firm faith in the supreme importance of +uniformity and autocracy which enabled Whitgift to persecute with a +clear conscience nonconformists whose theology was indistinguishable +from his own. Perhaps he was as wise as his critics; at any rate the +rigour which he repudiated hardly brought peace or strength to the +Church when practised by his successors, and London, which was always a +difficult see, involved Bishop Sandys in similar troubles when Grindal +had gone to York. As it was, although Parker said that Grindal "was not +resolute and severe enough for the government of London," his attempts +to enforce the use of the surplice evoked angry protests, especially in +1565, when considerable numbers of the nonconformists were suspended; +and Grindal of his own motion denounced Cartwright to the Council in +1570. Other anxieties were brought upon him by the burning of his +cathedral in 1561, for although Grindal himself is said to have +contributed L1200 towards its rebuilding, the laity of his diocese were +niggardly with their subscriptions and even his clergy were not liberal. + +In 1570 Grindal was translated to the archbishopric of York, where +Puritans were few and coercion would be required mainly for Roman +Catholics. His first letter from Cawood to Cecil told that he had not +been well received, that the gentry were not "well-affected to godly +religion and among the common people many superstitious practices +remained." It is admitted by his Anglican critics that he did the work +of enforcing uniformity against the Roman Catholics with good-will and +considerable tact. He must have given general satisfaction, for even +before Parker's death two persons so different as Burghley and Dean +Nowell independently recommended Grindal's appointment as his successor, +and Spenser speaks warmly of him in the _Shepherd's Calendar_ as the +"gentle shepherd Algrind." Burghley wished to conciliate the moderate +Puritans and advised Grindal to mitigate the severity which had +characterized Parker's treatment of the nonconformists. Grindal indeed +attempted a reform of the ecclesiastical courts, but his metropolitical +activity was cut short by a conflict with the arbitrary temper of the +queen. Elizabeth required Grindal to suppress the "prophesyings" or +meetings for discussion which had come into vogue among the Puritan +clergy, and she even wanted him to discourage preaching; she would have +no doctrine that was not inspired by her authority. Grindal +remonstrated, claiming some voice for the Church, and in June 1577 was +suspended from his jurisdictional, though not his spiritual, functions +for disobedience. He stood firm, and in January 1578 Secretary Wilson +informed Burghley that the queen wished to have the archbishop deprived. +She was dissuaded from this extreme course, but Grindal's sequestration +was continued in spite of a petition from Convocation in 1581 for his +reinstatement. Elizabeth then suggested that he should resign; this he +declined to do, and after making an apology to the queen he was +reinstated towards the end of 1582. But his infirmities were increasing, +and while making preparations for his resignation, he died on the 6th of +July 1583 and was buried in Croydon parish church. He left considerable +benefactions to Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, Queen's College, Oxford, and +Christ's College, Cambridge; he also endowed a free school at St Bees, +and left money for the poor of St Bees, Canterbury, Lambeth and Croydon. + + Strype's _Life of Grindal_ is the principal authority; see also _Dict. + Nat. Biogr._ and, besides the authorities there cited, Gough's General + Index to Parker Soc. Publ.; Acts of the Privy Council; Cal. of + Hatfield MSS.; Dixon's _Hist. of the Church of England_; Frere's + volume in Stephens' and Hunt's series; _Cambridge Mod. Hist._ vol. + iii.; Gee's _Elizabethan Clergy_; Birt's _Elizabethan Religious + Settlement_; and Pierce's _Introduction to the Marprelate Tracts_ + (1909). (A. F. P.) + + + + +GRINDELWALD, a valley in the Bernese Oberland, and one of the chief +resorts of tourists in Switzerland. It is shut in on the south by the +precipices of the Wetterhorn, Mettenberg and Eiger, between which two +famous glaciers flow down. On the north it is sheltered by the Faulhorn +range, while on the east the Great Scheidegg Pass leads over to +Meiringen; and on the south-west the Little Scheidegg or Wengern Alp +(railway 11-1/2 m. across) divides it from Lauterbrunnen. The main +village is connected with Interlaken by a rack railway (13 m.). The +valley is very green, and possesses excellent pastures, as well as fruit +trees, though little corn is grown. It is watered by the Black +Lutschine, a tributary of the Aar. The height of the parish church above +the sea-level is 3468 ft. The population in 1900 was 3346, practically +all Protestant and German-speaking, and living in 558 houses. The +glacier guides are among the best in the Alps. The valley was originally +inhabited by the serfs of various great lords in summer for the sake of +pasturage. A chapel in a cave was superseded about 1146 by a wooden +church, replaced about 1180 by a stone church, which was pulled down in +1793 to erect the present building. Gradually the Austin canons of +Interlaken bought out all the other owners in the valley, but when that +house was suppressed in 1528 by the town of Bern the inhabitants gained +their freedom. The houses near the hotel Adler bear the name of +Gydisdorf, but there is no village of Grindelwald properly speaking, +though that name is usually given to the assemblage of hotels and shops +between Gydisdorf and the railway station. Grindelwald is now very much +frequented by visitors in winter. + + See W. A. B. Coolidge, _Walks and Excursions in the Valley of + Grindelwald_ (also in French and German) (Grindelwald, 1900); Emmanuel + Friedli, _Barndutsch als Spiegel bernischen Volkstums_, vol. ii. + (Grindelwald, Bern, 1908); E. F. von Mulinen, _Beitrage zur + Heimatkunde des Kantons Bern, deutschen Teils_, vol. i. (Bern, 1879), + pp. 24-26; G. Strasser, _Der Gletschermann_ (Grindelwald, 1888-1890). + Scattered notices may be found in the edition (London, 1899) of the + "General Introduction" (entitled "Hints and Notes for Travellers in + the Alps") to John Ball's _Alpine Guide_. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +GRINGOIRE (or GRINGORE), PIERRE (c. 1480-1539), French poet and +dramatist, was born about the year 1480, probably at Caen. In his first +work, _Le Chasteau de labour_ (1499), a didactic poem in praise of +diligence, he narrates the troubles following on marriage. A young +couple are visited by Care, Need, Discomfort, &c.; and other personages +common to medieval allegories take part in the action. In November 1501 +Gringoire was in Paris directing the production of a mystery play in +honour of the archduke Philip of Austria, and in subsequent years he +received many similar commissions. The fraternity of the _Enfans sans +Souci_ advanced him to the dignity of _Mere Sotte_ and afterwards to the +highest honour of the gild, that of _Prince des Sots_. For twenty years +Gringoire seems to have been at the head of this illustrious confrerie. +As _Prince des Sots_ he exercised an extraordinary influence. At no time +was the stage, rude and coarse as it was, more popular as a true +exponent of the popular mind. Gringoire's success lay in the fact that +he followed, but did not attempt to lead; on his stage the people saw +exhibited their passions, their judgments of the moment, their +jealousies, their hatreds and their ambitions. Brotherhoods of the kind +existed all over France. In Paris there were the _Enfans sans Souci_, +the _Basochiens_, the _Confrerie de la Passion_ and the _Souverain +Empire de Galilee_; at Dijon there were the _Mere Folle_ and her family; +in Flanders the _Societe des Arbaletriers_ played comedies; at Rouen the +_Cornards_ or _Conards_ yielded to none in vigour and fearlessness of +satire. On Shrove Tuesday 1512 Gringoire, who was the accredited +defender of the policy of Louis XII., and had already written many +political poems, represented the _Jeu du Prince des Sots et Mere Sotte_. +It was at the moment when the French dispute with Julius II. was at its +height. _Mere Sotte_ was disguised as the Church, and disputed the +question of the temporal power with the prince. The political meaning +was even more thinly veiled in the second part of the entertainment, a +morality named _L'Homme obstine_, the principal personage representing +the pope. The performance concluded with a farce. Gringoire adopted for +his device on the frontispiece of this trilogy, _Tout par Raison_, +_Raison par Tout_, _Par tout Raison_. He has been called the +_Aristophane des Halles_. In one respect at least he resembles +Aristophanes. He is serious in his merriment; there is purpose behind +his extravagances. The Church was further attacked in a poem printed +about 1510, _La Chasse du cerf des cerfs_ (_serf des serfs_, i.e. +_servus servorum_), under which title that of the pope is thinly veiled. +About 1514 he wrote his mystery of the _Vie de Monseigneur Saint-Louis +par personnages_ in nine books for the _confrerie_ of the masons and +carpenters. He became in 1518 herald at the court of Lorraine, with the +title of Vaudemont, and married Catherine Roger, a lady of gentle birth. +During the last twenty years of a long life he became orthodox, and +dedicated a _Blason des heretiques_ to the duke of Lorraine. There is no +record of the payment of his salary as a herald after Christmas 1538, so +that he died probably in 1539. + + His works were edited by C. d'Hericault and A. de Montaiglon for the + _Bibliotheque elzevirienne_ in 1858. This edition was incomplete, and + was supplemented by a second volume in 1877 by Montaiglon and M. James + de Rothschild. These volumes include the works already mentioned, + except _Le Chasteau de labour_, and in addition, _Les Folles + Entreprises_ (1505), a collection of didactic and satirical poems, + chiefly ballades and rondeaux, one section of which is devoted to the + exposition of the tyranny of the nobles, and another to the vices of + the clergy; _L'Entreprise de Venise_ (c. 1509), a poem in seven-lined + stanzas, giving a list of the Venetian fortresses which belonged, + according to Gringoire, to other powers; _L'Espoir de paix_ (1st ed. + not dated; another, 1510), a verse treatise on the deeds of "certain + popes of Rome," dedicated to Louis XII.; and _La Coqueluche_ (1510), a + verse description of an epidemic, apparently influenza. For details of + his other satires, _Les Abus du monde_ (1509), _Complainte de trop + tard marie, Les Fantasies du monde qui regne_; of his religious verse, + _Chants royaux_ (on the Passion, 1527), _Heures de Notre Dame_ (1525); + and a collection of tales in prose and verse, taken from the _Gesta + Romanorum_, entitled _Les Fantasies de Mere Sotte_ (1516), see G. + Brunet, _Manuel du libraire_ (_s.v._ Gringore). Most of Gringoire's + works conclude with an acrostic giving the name of the author. The + _Chasteau de labour_ was translated into English by Alexander Barclay + and printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1506. Barclay's translation was + edited (1905) with his original for the Roxburghe Club by Mr A. W. + Pollard, who provided an account of Gringoire, and a bibliography of + the book. See also, for the _Jeu du Prince des Sots_, Petit de + Julleville, _La Comedie et les moeurs en France au moyen age_, pp. + 151-168 (Paris, 1886); for _Saint Louis_, the same author's _Les + Mysteres_, i. 331 et seq., ii. 583-597 (1880), with further + bibliographical references; and E. Picot, _Gringore et les comediens + italiens_ (1877). The real Gringoire cannot be said to have many + points of resemblance with the poet described in Victor Hugo's + _Notre-Dame de Paris_, nor is there more foundation in fact for the + one-act prose comedy of Theodore de Banville. + + + + +GRINNELL, a city in Poweshiek county, Iowa, U.S.A., 55 m. E. by N. of +Des Moines. Pop. (1900) 3860, of whom 274 were foreign-born; (1905) +4634; (1910) 5036. Grinnell is served by the Chicago, Rock Island & +Pacific, and the Iowa Central railways. It is the seat of Iowa College +(co-educational), founded in 1847 by the Iowa Band (Congregationalists +and graduates of New England colleges and Andover Theological Seminary, +who had devoted themselves to home missionary educational work in Iowa, +and who came to Iowa in 1843), and by a few earlier pioneers from New +England. The college opened in 1848 at Davenport, and in 1859 removed to +Grinnell, where there was a school called Grinnell University, which it +absorbed. Closely affiliated with the college are the Grinnell Academy +and the Grinnell School of Music. In 1907-1908 the College had 463 +students, the Academy had 129 students, and the School of Music had 141 +students. Among the manufactures are carriages and gloves. The city was +named in honour of one of its founders, Josiah Bushnell Grinnell +(1821-1891), a Congregational clergyman, friend of and sympathizer with +John Brown, and from 1863 to 1867 a member of the National House of +Representatives. Grinnell was settled in 1854, was incorporated as a +town in 1865, and in 1882 was chartered as a city of the second class. +In 1882 it suffered severely from a cyclone. + + + + +GRIQUALAND EAST and GRIQUALAND WEST, territorial divisions of the Cape +Province of the Union of South Africa. Griqualand East, which lies south +of Basutoland and west of Natal, is so named from the settlement there +in 1862 of Griquas under Adam Kok. It forms part of the Transkeian +Territories of the Cape, and is described under KAFFRARIA. Griqualand +West, formerly Griqualand simply, also named after its Griqua +inhabitants, is part of the great tableland of South Africa. It is +bounded S. by the Orange river, W. and N. by Bechuanaland, E. by the +Transvaal and Orange Free State Province, and has an area of 15,197 sq. +m. It has a general elevation of 3000 to 4000 ft. above the sea, low +ranges of rocky hills, the Kaap, Asbestos, Vansittart and Langeberg +mountains, traversing its western portion in a general N.E.-S.W. +direction. The only perennial rivers are in the eastern district, +through which the Vaal flows from a point a little above Fourteen +Streams to its junction with the Orange (160 m.). In this part of its +course the Vaal receives the Harts river from the north and the Riet +from the east. The Riet, 4 m. within the Griqualand frontier, is joined +by the Modder. The banks of the rivers are shaded by willows; elsewhere +the only tree is the mimosa. The greater part of the country is barren, +merging N.W. into absolute desert. The soil is, however, wherever +irrigated, extremely fertile. The day climate is hot and dry, but the +nights are frequently cold. Rain rarely falls, though thunderstorms of +great severity occasionally sweep over the land, and sandstorms are +prevalent in the summer. A portion of the country is adapted for +sheep-farming and the growing of crops, horse-breeding is carried on at +Kimberley, and asbestos is worked in the south-western districts, but +the wealth of Griqualand West lies in its diamonds, which are found +along the banks of the Vaal and in the district between that river and +the Riet. From the first discovery of diamonds in 1867 up to the end of +1905 the total yield of diamonds was estimated at 13-1/2 tons, worth +L95,000,000. + +The chief town is Kimberley (q.v.), the centre of the diamond mining +industry. It is situated on the railway from Cape Town to the Zambezi, +which crosses the country near its eastern border. Three miles south of +Kimberley is Beaconsfield (q.v.). On the banks of the Vaal are Barkly +West (q.v.), Windsorton (pop. 800) and Warrenton (pop. 1500); at all +these places are river diggings, diamonds being found along the river +from Fourteen Streams to the Harts confluence. Warrenton is 44 m. N. by +rail from Kimberley. Douglas (pop. 300), on the south bank of the Vaal, +12 m. above its confluence with the Orange, is the centre of an +agricultural district, a canal 9-1/2 m. long serving to irrigate a +considerable area. Thirty-five miles N.W. of Douglas is Griquatown (pop. +401), the headquarters of the first Griqua settlers. Campbell (pop. 250) +is 30 m. E. of Griquatown, and Postmasburg 42 m. N. by W. A census taken +in 1877 showed the population of Griqualand West to be 45,277, of whom +12,347 were whites. At the census of 1891 the population was 83,215, of +whom 29,602 were whites, and in 1904 the population was 108,498, of whom +32,570 were whites. + +_History._--Before the settlement in it of Griqua clans the district was +thinly inhabited by Bushmen and Hottentots. At the end of the 18th +century a horde known as Bastaards, descendants of Dutch farmers and +Hottentot women, led a nomadic life on the plains south of the Orange +river. In 1803 a missionary named Anderson induced a number of the +Bastaards with their chief Barend Barends to settle north of the river, +and a mission station was formed at a place where there was a strong +flowing fountain, which has now disappeared, which gave the name of +Klaarwater to what is now known as Griquatown or Griquastad. Klaarwater +became a retreat for other Bastaards, Hottentot refugees, Kaffirs and +Bechuanas. From Little Namaqualand came a few half-breeds and others +under the leadership of Adam Kok, son of Cornelius Kok and grandson of +Adam Kok (c. 1710-1795), a man of mixed white and Hottentot blood who is +regarded as the founder of the modern Griquas. The settlement prospered, +and in 1813, at the instance of the Rev. John Campbell, who had been +sent by the London Missionary Society to inspect the country, the +tribesmen abandoned the name of Bastaards in favour of that of +Griquas,[1] some of them professing descent from a Hottentot tribe, +originally settled near Saldanha Bay, called by the early Dutch settlers +at the Cape Chariguriqua or Grigriqua. Under the guidance of +missionaries the Griquas made some progress in civilization, and many +professed Christianity. Adam Kok and Barends having moved eastward in +1820, those who remained behind elected as their head man a teacher in +the mission school named Andries Waterboer, who successfully +administered the settlement, and by defeating the Makololo raiders +greatly increased the prestige of the tribe. Meanwhile Adam Kok and his +companions had occupied part of the country between the Modder and +Orange rivers. In 1825 Kok settled at the mission station of Philippolis +(founded two years previously), and in a short time had exterminated the +Bushmen inhabiting that region. He died about 1835, and after a period +of civil strife was succeeded by his younger son, Adam Kok III. This +chief in November 1843 signed a treaty placing himself under British +protection. Many Dutch farmers were settled on the land he claimed. In +1845 he received British military aid in a contest with the white +settlers, and in 1848 helped the British under Sir Harry Smith against +the Boers (see ORANGE FREE STATE: _History_). Eventually finding himself +straitened by the Boers of the newly established Orange Free State, he +removed in 1861-1863 with his people, some 3000 in number, to the region +(then depopulated by Kaffir wars) now known as Griqualand East. His +sovereign rights to all territory north of the Orange he sold to the +Free State for L4000. He founded Kokstad (q.v.) and died in 1876. +Waterboer, the principal Griqua chief, had entered into treaty relations +with the British government as early as 1834, and he received a subsidy +of L150 a year. He proved a stanch ally of the British, and kept the +peace on the Cape frontier to the day of his death in 1852. He was +succeeded by his son Nicholas Waterboer, under whom the condition of the +Griquas declined--a decline induced by the indolence of the people and +intensified by the drying up of the water supplies, cattle plague and +brandy drinking. During this period white settlers acquired farms in the +country, and the loss of their independence by the Griquas became +inevitable. The discovery of diamonds along the banks of the Vaal in +1867 entirely altered the fortunes of the country, and by the end of +1869 the rush to the alluvial diggings had begun. At the diggers' camps +the Griquas exercised no authority, but over part of the district the +South African Republic and the Orange Free State claimed sovereignty. At +Klip Drift (now Barkly West) the diggers formed a regular government and +elected Theodore Parker as their president. Most of the diggers being +British subjects, the high commissioner of South Africa interfered, and +a Cape official was appointed magistrate at Klip Drift, President Parker +resigning office in February 1871. At this time the "dry diggings," of +which Kimberley is the centre, had been discovered,[2] and over the +miners there the Orange Free State asserted jurisdiction. The land was, +however, claimed by Nicholas Waterboer, who, on the advice of his agent, +David Arnot, petitioned the British to take over his country. This Great +Britain consented to do, and on the 27th of October 1871 proclamations +were issued by the high commissioner receiving Waterboer and his +Griquas as British subjects and defining the limits of his territory. In +addition to the Kimberley district this territory included that part of +the diamondiferous area which had been claimed by the Transvaal, but +which had been declared, as the result of the arbitration of R. W. +Keate, lieutenant-governor of Natal, part of Waterboer's land. On the +4th of November a small party of Cape Mounted Police took possession of +the dry diggings and hoisted the British flag. Shortly afterwards the +representative of the Orange Free State withdrew. The Free State was +greatly incensed by the action of the British government, but the +dispute as to the sovereignty was settled in 1876 by the payment of +L90,000 by the British to the Free State as compensation for any injury +inflicted on the state. + +The diggers, who under the nominal rule of the Transvaal and Free State +had enjoyed practical independence, found the new government did little +for their benefit, and a period of disorder ensued, which was not put an +end to by the appointment in January 1873 of Mr (afterwards Sir) Richard +Southey[3] as sole administrator, in place of the three commissioners +who had previously exercised authority. In the July following the +territory was made a crown colony and Southey's title changed to that of +lieutenant-governor. The government remained unpopular, the diggers +complaining of its unrepresentative character, the heavy taxation +exacted, and the inadequate protection of property. They formed a +society for mutual protection, and the discontent was so great that an +armed force was sent (early in 1875) from the Cape to overawe the +agitators. At the same time measures were taken to render the government +more popular. The settlement of the dispute with the Free State paved +the way for the annexation of Griqualand to the Cape Colony on the 15th +of October 1880. + + See KIMBERLEY, CAPE COLONY, TRANSVAAL and ORANGE FREE STATE. For the + early history of the country and an account of life at the diggings, + 1871-1875, consult G. M'Call Theal's _Compendium of the History and + Geography of South Africa_ (London, 1878), chapters xl. and xli.; + Gardner F. Williams, _The Diamond Mines of South Africa_ (New York and + London, 1902); and the works bearing on the subject quoted in that + book. See also Theal's _History of South Africa ... 1834-1854_ + (London, 1893); J. Campbell, _Travels in South Africa_ (London, 1815), + _Travels ... A Second journey ..._ (2 vols., London, 1822); the Blue + Books C. 459 of 1871 and C. 508 of 1872 (the last-named containing the + Keate award, &c.); the Griqualand West report in _Papers relating to + Her Majesty's Colonial Possessions_, part ii. (1875), and the Life of + _Sir Richard Southey, K.C.M.G._, by A. Wilmot (London, 1904). For the + Griqua people consult G. W. Stow, _The Native Races of South Africa_, + chapters xvii.-xx. (London, 1905). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The Griquas, as a distinct tribe, numbered at the Cape census of + 1904 but 6289. They have largely intermarried with Kaffir and + Bechuana tribes. + + [2] The order of discovery of the chief mines was:--Dutoitspan, Sept. + 1870; Bultfontein, Nov. 1870; De Beers, May 1871; Colesberg Kop + (Kimberley), July 1871. + + [3] Sir Richard Southey (1809-1901) was the son of one of the + emigrants from the west of England to Cape Colony (1820). He + organized and commanded a corps of Guides in the Kaffir war of + 1834-35, and was with Sir Harry Smith at Boomplaats (1848). From 1864 + to 1872 he was colonial secretary at the Cape. He gave up his + appointment in Griqualand West in 1875, and lived thereafter in + retirement. In 1891 he was created a K.C.M.G. + + + + +GRISAILLE, a French term, derived from _gris_, grey, for painting in +monochrome in various shades of grey, particularly used in decoration to +represent objects in relief. The frescoes of the roof of the Sistine +chapel have portions of the design in _grisaille_. At Hampton Court the +lower part of the decoration of the great staircase by Verrio is in +_grisaille_. The term is also applied to monochrome painting in enamels, +and also to stained glass; a fine example of _grisaille_ glass is in the +window known as the Five Sisters, at the end of the north transept in +York cathedral. + + + + +GRISELDA, a heroine of romance. She is said to have been the wife of +Walter, marquis of Saluces or Saluzzo, in the 11th century, and her +misfortunes were considered to belong to history when they were handled +by Boccaccio and Petrarch, although the probability is that Boccaccio +borrowed his narrative from a Provencal _fabliau_. He included it in the +recitations of the tenth day (_Decamerone_), and must have written it +about 1350. Petrarch related it in a Latin letter in 1373, and his +translation formed the basis of much of the later literature. The letter +was printed by Ulrich Zel about 1470, and often subsequently. It was +translated into French as _La Patience de Griselidis_ and printed at +Brehan-Loudeac in 1484, and its popularity is shown by the number of +early editions quoted by Brunet (_Manuel du libraire, s.v._ Petrarca). +The story was dramatized in 1395, and a _Mystere de Griselidis, marquise +de Saluses par personnaiges_ was printed by Jehan Bonfons (no date). +Chaucer followed Petrarch's version in the _Canterbury Tales_. Ralph +Radcliffe, who flourished under Henry VIII., is said to have written a +play on the subject, and the story was dramatized by Thomas Dekker, +Henry Chettle and W. Haughton in 1603. + + An example of the many ballads of Griselda is given in T. Deloney's + _Garland of Good Will_ (1685), and the 17th-century chap-book, _The + History of Patient Grisel_ (1619), was edited by H. B. Wheatley (1885) + for the Villon Society with a bibliographical and literary + introduction. + + + + +GRISI, GIULIA (1811-1869), Italian opera-singer, daughter of one of +Napoleon's Italian officers, was born in Milan. She came of a family of +musical gifts, her maternal aunt Josephina Grassini (1773-1850) being a +favourite opera-singer both on the continent and in London; her mother +had also been a singer, and her elder sister Giudetta and her cousin +Carlotta were both exceedingly talented. Giulia was trained to a musical +career, and made her stage debut in 1828. Rossini and Bellini both took +an interest in her, and at Milan she was the first Adalgisa in Bellini's +_Norma_, in which Pasta took the title-part. Grisi appeared in Paris in +1832, as Semiramide in Rossini's opera, and had a great success; and in +1834 she appeared in London. Her voice was a brilliant dramatic soprano, +and her established position as a prima donna continued for thirty +years. She was a particularly fine actress, and in London opera her +association with such singers as Lablache, Rubini, Tamburini and Mario +was long remembered as the palmy days of Italian opera. In 1854 she +toured with Mario In America. She had married Count de Melcy in 1836, +but this ended in a divorce; and in 1856 she married Mario (q.v.). She +died in Berlin on the 29th of November 1869. + + + + +GRISON (_Galictis vittata_), a carnivorous mammal, of the family +_Mustelidae_, common in Central and South America and Mexico. It is +about the size of a marten, and has the upper surface of a bluish-grey +tint, and the under surface is dark brown. The grison lives on small +mammals and birds, and in settled districts is destructive to poultry. +Allamand's grison (_G. allamandi_), with the same range, is somewhat +larger. Another member of the genus is the tayra or taira (_G. +barbara_), about as large as an otter, with a range from Mexico to +Argentina. This species hunts in companies (see CARNIVORA). + + + + +GRISONS (Ger. _Graubunden_), the most easterly of the Swiss cantons and +also the largest in extent, though relatively the most sparsely +populated. Its total area is 2753.2 sq. m., of which 1634.4 sq. m. are +classed as "productive" (forests covering 503.1 sq. m. and vineyards 1.3 +sq. m.), but it has also 138.6 sq. m. of glaciers, ranking in this +respect next after the Valais and before Bern. The whole canton is +mountainous, the principal glacier groups being those of the Todi, N. +(11,887 ft.), of Medels, S.W. (Piz Medel, 10,509 ft.), of the Rheinwald +or the Adula Alps, S.W. (Rheinwaldhorn, 11,149 ft.), with the chief +source of the Rhine, of the Bernina, S.E. (Piz Bernina, 13,304 ft.), the +most extensive, of the Albula, E. (Piz Kesch, 11,228 ft.), and of the +Silvretta, N.E. (Piz Linard, 11,201 ft.). The principal valleys are +those of the upper Rhine and of the upper Inn (or Engadine, q.v.). The +three main sources of the Rhine are in the canton. The valley of the +Vorder Rhine is called the Bundner Oberland, that of the Mittel Rhine +the Val Medels, and that of the Hinter Rhine (the principal), in +different parts of its course, the Rheinwald, the Schams valley and the +Domleschg valley, while the upper valley of the Julia is named the +Oberhalbstein. The chief affluents of the Rhine in the canton are the +Glenner (flowing through the Lugnetz valley), the Avers Rhine, the +Albula (swollen by the Julia and the Landwasser), the Plessur (Schanfigg +valley) and the Landquart (coming from the Prattigau). The Rhine and the +Inn flow respectively into the North and the Black Seas. Of other +streams that of Val Mesocco joins the Ticino and so the Po, while the +Maira or Mera (Val Bregaglia) and the Poschiavino join the Adda, and the +Rambach (Munster valley) the Adige, all four thus ultimately reaching +the Adriatic Sea. The inner valleys are the highest in Central Europe, +and among the loftiest villages are Juf, 6998 ft. (the highest +permanently inhabited village in the Alps), at the head of the Avers +glen, and St Moritz, 6037 ft., in the Upper Engadine. The lower courses +of the various streams are rent by remarkable gorges, such as the Via +Mala, the Rofna, the Schyn, and those in the Avers, Medels and Lugnetz +glens, as well as that of the Zuge in the Landwasser glen. Below Coire, +near Malans, good wine is produced, while in the Val Mesocco, &c., maize +and chestnuts flourish. But the forests and the mountain pasturages are +the chief source of wealth. The lower pastures maintain a fine breed of +cows, while the upper are let out in summer to Bergamasque shepherds. +There are many mineral springs, such as those of St Moritz, Schuls, +Alvaneu, Fideris, Le Prese and San Bernardino. The climate and +vegetation, save on the southern slope of the Alps, are alpine and +severe. But yearly vast numbers of strangers visit different spots in +the canton, especially Davos (q.v.), Arosa and the Engadine. As yet +there are comparatively few railways. There is one from Maienfeld +(continued north to Constance and north-west to Zurich) to Coire (11 +m.), which sends off a branch line from Landquart, E., past Klosters to +Davos (31 m.). From Coire the line bears west to Reichenau (6 m.), +whence one branch runs S.S.E. beneath the Albula Pass to St Moritz (50 +m.), and another S.W. up the Hinter Rhine valley to Ilanz (20-1/2 m.). +There are, however, a number of fine carriage roads across the passes +leading to or towards Italy. Besides those leading to the Engadine may +be noted the roads from Ilanz past Disentis over the Oberalp Pass (6719 +ft.) to Andermatt, from Disentis over the Lukmanier Pass (6289 ft.) to +Biasca, on the St Gotthard railway, from Reichenau past Thusis and +Splugen over the San Bernardino Pass (6769 ft.) to Bellinzona on the +same railway line, and from Splugen over the Splugen Pass (6946 ft.) to +Chiavenna. The Septimer Pass (7582 ft.) from the Julier route to the +Maloja route has now only a mule path, but was probably known in Roman +times (as was possibly the Splugen), and was much frequented in the +middle ages. + +The population of the canton in 1900 was 104,520. Of this number 55,155 +(mainly near Coire and Davos, in the Prattigau and in the Schanfigg +valley) were Protestants, while 49,142 (mainly in the Bundner Oberland, +the Val Mesocco and the Oberhalbstein) were Romanists, while there were +also 114 Jews (81 of whom lived in Davos). In point of language 48,762 +(mainly near Coire and Davos, in the Prattigau and in the Schanfigg +valley) were German-speaking, while 17,539 (mostly in the Val Mesocco, +the Val Bregaglia and the valley of Poschiavo, but including a number of +Italian labourers engaged on the construction of the Albula railway) +were Italian-speaking. But the characteristic tongue of the Grisons is a +survival of an ancient Romance language (the _lingua rustica_ of the +Roman Empire), which has lagged behind its sisters. It has a scanty +printed literature, but is still widely spoken, so that, of the 38,651 +persons in the Swiss Confederation who speak it, no fewer than 36,472 +are in the Grisons. It is distinguished into two dialects: the Romonsch +(sometimes wrongly called Romansch), which prevails in the Bundner +Oberland and in the Hinter Rhine valley (Schams and Domleschg), and the +Ladin (closely related to the tongue spoken in parts of the South +Tyrol), that survives in the Engadine and in the neighbouring valleys of +Bergun, Oberhalbstein and Munster. (See F. Rausch's _Geschichte der +Literatur des rhaeto-romanischen Volkes_, Frankfort, 1870, and Mr +Coolidge's bibliography of this language, given on pp. 22-23 of Lorria +and Martel's _Le Massif de la Bernina_, Zurich, 1894.) Yet in the midst +of this Romance-speaking population are islets (mostly, if not entirely, +due to immigration in the 13th century from the German-speaking Upper +Valais) of German-speaking inhabitants, so in the Vals and Safien glens, +and at Obersaxen (all in the Bundner Oberland), in the Rheinwald (the +highest part of the Hinter Rhine valley), and in the Avers glen (middle +reach of the Hinter Rhine valley), as well as in and around Davos +itself. + +There is not much industrial activity in the Grisons. A considerable +portion of the population is engaged in attending to the wants of the +foreign visitors, but there is a considerable trade with Italy, +particularly in the wines of the Valtellina, while many young men seek +their fortunes abroad (returning home after having accumulated a small +stock of money) as confectioners, pastry-cooks and coffee-house keepers. +A certain number of lead and silver mines were formerly worked, but are +now abandoned. The capital of the canton is Coire (q.v.). + +The canton is divided into 14 administrative districts, and includes 224 +communes. It sends 2 members (elected by a popular vote) to the Federal +_Standerath_, and 5 members (also elected by a popular vote) to the +Federal _Nationalrath_. The existing cantonal constitution was accepted +by the people in 1892, and came into force on 1st January 1894. The +legislature (_Grossrath_--no numbers fixed by the constitution) is +elected for 2 years by a popular vote, as are the 5 members of the +executive (_Kleinrath_) for 3 years. The "obligatory referendum" obtains +in the case of all laws and important matters of expenditure, while 3000 +citizens can demand ("facultative referendum") a popular vote as to +resolutions and ordinances made by the legislature. Three thousand +citizens also have the right of "initiative" as to legislative projects, +but 5000 signatures are required for a proposed revision of the cantonal +constitution. In the revenue and expenditure of the canton the taxes are +never counted. This causes an apparent deficit which is carried to the +capital account, and is met by the land tax (art. 19 of the +constitution), so that there is never a real deficit, as the amount of +the land tax varies annually according to the amount that _must_ be +provided. In the pre-1799 constitution of the three Raetian Leagues the +system of the "referendum" was in working as early as the 16th century, +not merely as between the three Leagues themselves, but as between the +bailiwicks (_Hochgerichte_), the sovereign units within each League, and +sometimes (as in the Upper Engadine) between the villages composing each +bailiwick. + +The greater part (excluding the three valleys where the inhabitants +speak Italian) of the modern canton of the Grisons formed the southern +part of the province of Raetia (probably the aboriginal inhabitants, the +Raeti, were Celts rather than, as was formerly believed, Etruscans), set +up by the Romans after their conquest of the region in 15 B.C. The +Romanized inhabitants were to a certain extent (The Romonsch or Ladin +tongue is a survival of the Roman dominion) Teutonized under the +Ostrogoths (A.D. 493-537) and under the Franks (from 537 onwards). +Governors called _Praesides_ are mentioned in the 7th and 8th centuries, +while members of the same family occupied the episcopal see of Coire +(founded 4th-5th centuries). About 806 Charles the Great made this +region into a county, but in 831 the bishop procured for his dominions +exemption ("immunity") from the jurisdiction of the counts, while before +847 his see was transferred from the Italian province of Milan to the +German province of Mainz (Mayence) and was thus cut off from Italy to be +joined to Germany. In 916 the region was united with the duchy of +Alamannia, but the bishop still retained practical independence, and his +wide-spread dominions placed him even above the abbots of Disentis and +Pfafers, who likewise enjoyed "immunity." In the 10th century the bishop +obtained fresh privileges from the emperors (besides the Val Bregaglia +in 960), and so became the chief of the many feudal nobles who struggled +for power in the region. He became a prince of the empire in 1170 and +later allied himself with the rising power (in the region) of the +Habsburgers. This led in 1367 to the foundation of the League of God's +House or the _Gotteshausbund_ (composed of the city and chapter of +Coire, and of the bishop's subjects, especially in the Engadine, Val +Bregaglia, Domleschg and Oberhalbstein) in order to stem his rising +power, the bishop entering it in 1392. In 1395 the abbot of Disentis, +the men of the Lugnetz valley, and the great feudal lords of Razuns and +Sax (in 1399 the counts of Werdenberg came in) formed another League, +called the _Ober Bund_ (as comprising the highlands in the Vorder Rhine +valley) and also wrongly the "Grey League" (as the word interpreted +"grey" is simply a misreading of _graven_ or counts, though the false +view has given rise to the name of Grisons or Graubunden for the whole +canton), their alliance being strengthened in 1424 when, too, the free +men of the Rheinwald and Schams came in, and in 1480 the Val Mesocco +also. Finally, in 1436, the third Raetian League was founded, that of +the _Zehngerichtenbund_ or League of the Ten Jurisdictions, by the +former subjects of the count of Toggenburg, whose dynasty then became +extinct; they include the inhabitants of the Prattigau, Davos, +Maienfeld, the Schanfigg valley, Churwalden, and the lordship of Belfort +(i.e. the region round Alvaneu), and formed ten bailiwicks, whence the +name of the League. In 1450 the _Zehngerichtenbund_ concluded an +alliance with the _Gotteshausbund_ and in 1471 with the _Ober Bund_; but +of the so-called perpetual alliance at Vazerol, near Tiefenkastels, +there exists no authentic evidence in the oldest chronicles, though +diets were held there. By a succession of purchases (1477-1496) nearly +all the possessions of the extinct dynasty of the counts of Toggenburg +in the Prattigau had come to the junior or Tyrolese line of the +Habsburgers. On its extinction (1496) in turn they passed to the elder +line, the head of which, Maximilian, was already emperor-elect and +desired to maintain the rights of his family there and in the Lower +Engadine. Hence in 1497 the Ober Bund and in 1498 the _Gotteshausbund_ +became allies of the Swiss Confederation. War broke out in 1499, but was +ended by the great Swiss victory (22nd May 1499) at the battle of the +Calven gorge (above Mals) which, added to another Swiss victory at +Dornach (near Basel), compelled the emperor to recognize the _practical_ +independence of the Swiss and their allies of the Empire. The religious +Reformation brought disunion into the three Leagues, as the _Ober Bund_ +clung in the main to the old faith, and for this reason their connexion +with the Swiss Confederation was much weakened. In 1526, by the Articles +of Ilanz, the last remaining traces of the temporal jurisdiction of the +bishop of Coire was abolished. In 1486 Poschiavo had at last been +secured from Milan, and Maienfeld with Malans was bought in 1509, while +in 1549 the Val Mesocco (included in the _Ober Bund_ since 1480) +purchased its freedom of its lords, the Trivulzio family of Milan. In +1512 the three Leagues conquered from Milan the rich and fertile +Valtellina, with Bormio and Chiavenna, and held these districts as +subject lands till in 1797 they were annexed to the Cisalpine Republic. +The struggle for lucrative offices in these lands further sharpened the +long rivalry between the families of Planta (Engadine) and Salis (Val +Bregaglia), while in the 17th century this rivalry was complicated by +political enmities, as the Plantas favoured the Spanish side and the +Salis that of France during the long struggle (1620-1639) for the +Valtellina (see JENATSCH and VALTELLINA). Troubles arose (1622) also in +the Prattigau through the attempts of the Habsburgers to force the +inhabitants to give up Protestantism. Finally, after the emperor had +_formally_ recognized, by the treaty of Westphalia (1648), the +independence of the Swiss Confederation, the rights of the Habsburgers +in the Prattigau and the Lower Engadine were bought up (1649 and 1652). +But the Austrian _enclaves_ of Tarasp (Lower Engadine) and of Razuns +(near Reichenau) were only annexed to the Grisons in 1809 and 1815 +respectively, in each case France holding the lordship for a short time +after its cession by Austria. In 1748 (finally in 1762) the three +Leagues secured the upper portion of the valley of Munster. In 1799 the +French invaded the canton, which became the scene of a fierce conflict +(1799-1800) between them and the united Russian and Austrian army, in +the course of which the French burnt (May 1799) the ancient convent of +Disentis with all its literary treasures. In April 1799 the provisional +government agreed to the incorporation of the three Leagues in the +Helvetic Republic, though it was not till June 1801 that the canton of +Raetia became formally part of the Helvetic Republic. In 1803, by +Napoleon's Act of Mediation, it entered, under the name of Canton of the +Grisons or Graubunden, the reconstituted Swiss Confederation, of which +it then first became a full member. + + AUTHORITIES.--A. Andrea, Das Bergell (Frauenfeld, 1901); + _Bundnergeschichte in 11 Vortragen_, by various writers (Coire, 1902); + _Codex diplomaticus Raetiae_ (5 vols., Coire, 1848-1886); W. Coxe, + _Travels in Switzerland_, vol. ii. of the 1789 London edition; E. + Dunant, _La Reunion des Grisons a la Suisse_ (1798-1799) (Basel, + 1899); G. Fient, _Das Prattigau_ (2nd ed., Davos, 1897); P. Foffa, + _Das bundnerische Munsterthal_ (Coire, 1864); F. Fossati, _Codice + diplomatico della Rezia_ (originally published in the _Periodico_ of + the _Societa storica a Comense_ at Como; separate reprint, Como, + 1901); R. A. Ganzoni, _Beitrage zur Kenntnis d. bundnerischen + Referendums_ (Zurich, 1890); Mrs Henry Freshfield, _A Summer Tour in + the Grisons_ (London, 1862); C. and F. Jecklin, _Der Anteil + Graubundens am Schwabenkrieg_ (1499) (Davos, 1899); C. von Moor, + _Geschichte von Curraetien_ (2 vols., Coire, 1870-1874), and + _Wegweiser_ (Coire, 1873); E. Lechner, _Das Thal Bergell_ (2nd ed., + Leipzig, 1874); G. Leonhardi, _Das Poschiavinothal_ (Leipzig, 1859); + A. Lorria and E. A. Martel, _Le Massif de la Bernina_ (Upper Engadine + and Val Bregaglia) (Zurich, 1894); P. C. von Planta, _Das alte + Raetien_ (Berlin, 1872); _Die curraetischen Herrschaften in d. + Feudalzeit_ (Bern, 1881); _Geschichte von Graubunden_ (Bern, 1892); + and _Chronik d. Familie von Planta_ (Zurich, 1892); W. Plattner, _Die + Entstehung d. Freistaates der 3 Bunde_ (Davos, 1895), R. von + Reding-Biberegg, _Der Zug Suworoffs durch die Schweiz in 1799_ (Stans, + 1895); N. Salis-Soglio, _Die Familie von Salis_ (Lindau, 1891); G. + Theobald, _Das Bundner Oberland_ (Coire, 1861), and _Naturbilder aus + den rhatischen Alpen_ (3rd ed., Coire, 1893); N. Valaer, _Johannes von + Planta_ (d. 1572) (Zurich, 1888); R. Wagner and L. R. von Salis, + _Rechtsquellen d. Cant. Graubunden_ (Basel, 1877-1892); F. Jecklin, + _Materialen zur Standes- und Landesgeschichte Gem. iii. Bunde_ + (Graubunden), _1464-1803_ (pt. i., _Regesten_, was published at Basel + in 1907). See also COIRE, ENGADINE, JENATSCH and VALTELLINA. + (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +GRISWOLD, RUFUS WILMOT (1815-1857), American editor and compiler, was +born in Benson, Vermont, on the 15th of February 1815. He travelled +extensively, worked in newspaper offices, was a Baptist clergyman for a +time, and finally became a journalist in New York City, where he was +successively a member of the staffs of _The Brother Jonathan_, _The New +World_ (1839-1840) and _The New Yorker_ (1840). From 1841 to 1843 he +edited _Graham's Magazine_ (Philadelphia), and added to its list of +contributors many leading American writers. From 1850 to 1852 he edited +the _International Magazine_ (New York), which in 1852 was merged into +_Harper's Magazine_. He died in New York City on the 27th of August +1857. He is best known as the compiler and editor of various anthologies +(with brief biographies and critiques), such as _Poets and Poetry of +America_ (1842), his most popular and valuable book; _Prose Writers of +America_ (1846); _Female Poets of America_ (1848); and _Sacred Poets of +England and America_ (1849). Of his own writings his _Republican Court: +or American Society in the Days of Washington_ (1854) is the only one of +permanent value. He edited the first American edition of Milton's prose +works (1845), and, as literary executor, edited, with James R. Lowell +and N. P. Willis, the works (1850) of Edgar Allan Poe. Griswold's great +contemporary reputation as a critic has not stood the test of time; but +he rendered a valuable service in making Americans better acquainted +with the poetry and prose of their own countrymen. + + See _Passages from the Correspondence and Other Papers of Rufus W. + Griswold_ (Cambridge, Mass., 1898), edited by his son William + McCrillis Griswold (1853-1899). + + + + +GRIVET, a monkey, _Cercopithecus sabaeus_, of the guenon group, nearly +allied to the green monkey. It is common throughout equatorial Africa. +The chin, whiskers and a broad band across the forehead, as well as the +under-parts, are white, and the head and back olive-green. These monkeys +are very commonly seen in menageries. + + + + +GROAT (adapted from the Dutch _groot_, great, thick; cf. Ger. +_Groschen_; the Med. Lat. _grossus_ gives Ital. _grosso_, Fr. _gros_, as +names for the coin), a name applied as early as the 13th century on the +continent of Europe to any large or thick coin. The groat was almost +universally a silver coin, but its value varied considerably, as well at +different times as in different countries. The English groat was first +coined in 1351, of a value somewhat higher than a penny. The continuous +debasement of both the penny and the groat left the latter finally worth +four pennies. The issue of the groat was discontinued after 1662, but a +coin worth fourpence was again struck in 1836. Although frequently +referred to as a groat, it had no other official designation than a +"fourpenny piece." Its issue was again discontinued in 1856. The groat +was imitated in Scotland by a coin struck by David II. in 1358. In +Ireland it was first struck by Edward IV. in 1460. + + + + +GROCER, literally one who sells by the gross, a wholesale dealer; the +word is derived through the O. Fr. form, _grossia_, from the Med. Lat. +_grossarius_, defined by du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v. _Grossares_, as +_solidae mercis propola_. The name, as a general one for dealers by +wholesale, "engrossers" as opposed to "regrators," the retail dealers, +is found with the commodity attached; thus in the _Munimenta Gildhallae_ +("Rolls" series) ii. 1.304 (quoted in the _New English Dictionary_) is +found an allusion to _grossours de vin_, cf. _groser of fysshe_, +_Surtees Misc._ (1888) 63, for the customs of Malton (quoted _ib._). The +specific application of the word to one who deals either by wholesale or +retail in tea, coffee, cocoa, dried fruits, spices, sugar and all kinds +of articles of use or consumption in a household is connected with the +history of the Grocers' Company of London, one of the twelve "great" +livery companies. In 1345 the pepperers and the spicers amalgamated and +were known as the Fraternity of St Anthony. The name "grocers" first +appears in 1373 in the records of the company. In 1386 the association +was granted a right of search over all "spicers" in London, and in 1394 +they obtained the right to inspect or "garble" spices and other "subtil +wares." Their first charter was obtained in 1428; letters patent in 1447 +granted an extension of the right of search over the whole county, but +removed the "liberties" of the city of London. They sold all kinds of +drugs, medicines, ointments, plasters, and medicated and other waters. +For the separation of the apothecaries from the grocers in 1617 see +APOTHECARY. (See further LIVERY COMPANIES.) + + See _The Grocery Trade_, by J. Aubrey Rees (1910). + + + + +GROCYN, WILLIAM (1446?-1519), English scholar, was born at Colerne, +Wiltshire, about 1446. Intended by his parents for the church, he was +sent to Winchester College, and in 1465 was elected to a scholarship at +New College, Oxford. In 1467 he became a fellow, and had among his +pupils William Warham, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury. In 1479 he +accepted the rectory of Newton Longville, in Buckinghamshire, but +continued to reside at Oxford. As reader in divinity in Magdalen College +in 1481, he held a disputation with John Taylor, professor of divinity, +in presence of King Richard III., and the king acknowledged his skill as +a debater by the present of a buck and five marks. In 1485 he became +prebendary of Lincoln cathedral. About 1488 Grocyn left England for +Italy, and before his return in 1491 he had visited Florence, Rome and +Padua, and studied Greek and Latin under Demetrius Chalchondyles and +Politian. As lecturer in Exeter College he found an opportunity of +indoctrinating his countrymen in the new Greek learning. + +Erasmus says in one of his letters that Grocyn taught Greek at Oxford +before his visit to Italy. The Warden of New College, Thomas Chaundler, +invited Cornelius Vitelli, then on a visit to Oxford, to act as +praelector. This was about 1475, and as Vitelli was certainly familiar +with Greek literature, Grocyn may have learnt Greek from him. He seems +to have lived in Oxford until 1499, but when his friend Colet became +dean of St Paul's in 1504 he was settled in London. He was chosen by his +friend to deliver lectures in St Paul's; and in this connexion he gave a +singular proof of his honesty. He had at first denounced all who +impugned the authenticity of the _Hierarchia ecclesiastica_ ascribed to +Dionysius the Areopagite, but, being led to modify his views by further +investigation, he openly declared that he had been completely mistaken. +He also counted Linacre, William Lily, William Latimer and More among +his friends, and Erasmus writing in 1514 says that he was supported by +Grocyn in London, and calls him "the friend and preceptor of us all." He +held several preferments, but his generosity to his friends involved him +in continual difficulties, and though in 1506 he was appointed on +Archbishop Warham's recommendation master or warden of All Hallows +College at Maidstone in Kent, he was still obliged to borrow from his +friends, and even to pledge his plate as a security. He died in 1519, +and was buried in the collegiate church at Maidstone. Linacre acted as +his executor, and expended the money he received in gifts to the poor +and the purchase of books for poor scholars. With the exception of a few +lines of Latin verse on a lady who snowballed him, and a letter to Aldus +Manutius at the head of Linacre's translation of Proclus's _Sphaera_ +(Venice, 1499), Grocyn has left no literary proof of his scholarship or +abilities. His proposal to execute a translation of Aristotle in company +with Linacre and Latimer was never carried out. Wood assigns some Latin +works to Grocyn, but on insufficient authority. By Erasmus he has been +described as "vir severissimae castissimae vitae, ecclesiasticarum +constitutionum observantissimus pene usque ad superstitionem, +scholasticae theologiae ad unguem doctus ac natura etiam acerrimi +judicii, demum in omni disciplinarum genere exacte versatus" +(_Declarationes ad censuras facultatis theologiae Parisianae_, 1522). + + An account of Grocyn by Professor Burrows appeared in the Oxford + Historical Society's _Collectanea_ (1890). + + + + +GRODNO, one of the Lithuanian governments of western Russia, lying +between 51 deg. 40' and 52 deg. N. and between 22 deg. 12' and 26 deg. +E., and bounded N. by the government of Vilna, E. by Minsk, S. by +Volhynia, and W. by the Polish governments of Lomza and Siedlce. Area, +14,926 sq. m. Except for some hills (not exceeding 925 ft.) in the N., +it is a uniform plain, and is drained chiefly by the Bug, Niemen, Narev +and Bobr, all navigable. There are also several canals, the most +important being the Augustowo and Oginsky. Granites and gneisses crop +out along the Bug, Cretaceous, and especially Tertiary, deposits +elsewhere. The soil is mostly sandy, and in the district of Grodno and +along the rivers is often drift-sand. Forests, principally of +_Coniferae_, cover more than one-fourth of the area. Amongst them are +some of vast extent, e.g. those of Grodno (410 sq. m.) and Byelovitsa +(Bialowice) (376 sq. m.), embracing wide areas of marshy ground. In the +last mentioned forest the wild ox survives, having been jealously +preserved since 1803. Peat bogs, sometimes as much as 4 to 7 ft. thick, +cover extensive districts. The climate is wet and cold; the annual mean +temperature being 44.5 deg. F., the January mean 22.5 deg. and the July +mean 64.5 deg. The rainfall amounts to 21-1/2 in.; hail is frequent. +Agriculture is the predominant industry. The peasants own 42-1/2% of the +land, that is, about 4,000,000 acres, and of these over 2-1/4 million +acres are arable. The crops principally grown are potatoes, rye, oats, +wheat, flax, hemp and some tobacco. Horses, cattle and sheep are bred in +fairly large numbers. There is, however, a certain amount of +manufacturing industry, especially in woollens, distilling and tobacco. +In woollens this government ranks second (after Moscow) in the empire, +the centre of the industry being Byelostok. Other factories produce +silk, shoddy and leather. The government is crossed by the main lines of +railway from Warsaw to St Petersburg and from Warsaw to Moscow. The +population numbered 1,008,521 in 1870 and 1,616,630 in 1897; of these +last 789,801 were women and 255,946 were urban. In 1906 it was estimated +at 1,826,600. White Russians predominate (54%), then follow Jews +(17.4%), Poles (10%), Lithuanians and Germans. The government is divided +into nine districts, the chief towns, with their populations in 1897, +being Grodno (q.v.), Brest-Litovsk (pop. 42,812 in 1901), Byelsk (7461), +Byelostok or Bialystok (65,781 in 1901), Kobrin (10,365), Pruzhany +(7634), Slonim (15,893), Sokolsk (7595) and Volkovysk (10,584). In 1795 +Grodno, which had been Polish for ages, was annexed by Russia. + + + + +GRODNO, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name in +53 deg. 40' N. and 23 deg. 50' E., on the right bank of the Niemen, 160 +m. by rail N.E. of Warsaw and 98 m. S.W. of Vilna on the main line to St +Petersburg. Pop. (1901) 41,736, nearly two-thirds Jews. It is an +episcopal see of the Orthodox Greek church and the headquarters of the +II. Army Corps. It has two old castles, now converted to other uses, and +two churches (16th and 17th centuries). Tobacco factories and +distilleries are important; machinery, soap, candles, vehicles and +firearms are also made. Built in the 12th century, Grodno was almost +entirely destroyed by the Mongols (1241) and Teutonic knights (1284 and +1391). Stephen Bathory, king of Poland, made it his capital, and died +there in 1586. The Polish Estates frequently met at Grodno after 1673, +and there in 1793 they signed the second partition of Poland. It was at +Grodno that Stanislaus Poniatowski resigned the Polish crown in 1795. + + + + +GROEN VAN PRINSTERER, GUILLAUME (1801-1876), Dutch politician and +historian, was born at Voorburg, near the Hague, on the 21st of August +1801. He studied at Leiden university, and graduated in 1823 both as +doctor of literature and LL.D. From 1829 to 1833 he acted as secretary +to King William I. of Holland, afterwards took a prominent part in Dutch +home politics, and gradually became the leader of the so-called +anti-revolutionary party, both in the Second Chamber, of which he was +for many years a member, and outside. In Groen the doctrines of Guizot +and Stahl found an eloquent exponent. They permeate his controversial +and political writings and historical studies, of which his _Handbook of +Dutch History_ (in Dutch) and _Maurice et Barnevelt_ (in French, 1875, a +criticism of Motley's _Life of Van Olden-Barnevelt_) are the principal. +Groen was violently opposed to Thorbecke, whose principles he denounced +as ungodly and revolutionary. Although he lived to see these principles +triumph, he never ceased to oppose them until his death, which occurred +at the Hague on the 19th of May 1876. He is best known as the editor of +the _Archives et correspondance de la maison d'Orange_ (12 vols., +1835-1845), a great work of patient erudition, which procured for him +the title of the "Dutch _Gachard_." J. L. Motley acknowledges his +indebtedness to Groen's Archives in the preface to his _Rise of the +Dutch Republic_, at a time when the American historian had not yet made +the acquaintance of King William's archivist, and also bore emphatic +testimony to Groen's worth as a writer of history in the correspondence +published after his death. At the first reception, in 1858, of Motley at +the royal palace at the Hague, the king presented him with a copy of +Groen's _Archives_ as a token of appreciation and admiration of the work +done by the "worthy vindicator of William I., prince of Orange." This +copy, bearing the king's autograph inscription, afterwards came into the +possession of Sir William Vernon Harcourt, Motley's son-in-law. + + + + +GROIN. (1) An obsolete word for the grunting of swine, from Lat. +_grunnire_, and so applied to the snout of a pig; it is probably the +origin of the word, more commonly spelled "groyne," for a small timber +framework or wall of masonry used on sea coasts as a breakwater to +prevent the encroachment of sand and shingle. (2) (Of uncertain origin; +from an older form _grynde_ or _grinde_; the derivation from "grain," an +obsolete word meaning "fork," cannot, according to the _New English +Dictionary_, be accepted), in anatomy the folds or grooves formed +between the lower part of the abdomen and the thighs, covering the +inguinal glands, and so applied in architecture to the angle or "arris" +formed by the intersection of two vaults crossing one another, +occasionally called by workmen "groin point." If the vaults are both of +the same radius and height, their intersections lie in a vertical plane, +in other cases they form winding curves for which it is difficult to +provide centering. In early medieval vaulting this was sometimes +arranged by a slight alteration in the geometrical curve of the vault, +but the problem was not satisfactorily solved until the introduction of +the rib which henceforth ruled the vaulting surface of the web or cell +(see VAULT). The name "Welsh groin" or "underpitch" is generally given +to the vaulting surface or web where the main longitudinal vault is +higher than the cross or transverse vaults; as the transverse rib (of +much greater radius than that of the wall rib), projected diagonally in +front of the latter, the filling-in or web has to be carried back from +the transverse to the wall rib. The term "groin centering" is used +where, in groining without ribs, the whole surface is supported by +centering during the erection of the vaulting. In ribbed work the stone +ribs only are supported by timber ribs during the progress of the work, +any light stuff being used while filling in the spandrils. (See VAULT.) + + + + +GROLMANN, KARL WILHELM GEORG VON (1777-1843), Prussian soldier, was born +in Berlin on the 30th of July 1777. He entered an infantry regiment when +scarcely thirteen, became an ensign in 1795, second lieutenant 1797, +first lieutenant 1804 and staff-captain in 1805. As a subaltern he had +become one of Scharnhorst's intimates, and he was distinguished for his +energetic and fearless character before the war of 1806, in which he +served throughout, from Jena to the peace of Tilsit, as a staff officer, +and won the rank of major for distinguished service in action. After the +peace, and the downfall of Prussia, he was one of the most active of +Scharnhorst's assistants in the work of reorganization (1809), joined the +_Tugendbund_ and endeavoured to take part in Schill's abortive +expedition, after which he entered the Austrian service as a major on the +general staff. Thereafter he journeyed to Cadiz to assist the Spaniards +against Napoleon, and he led a corps of volunteers in the defence of that +port against Marshal Victor in 1810. He was present at the battle of +Albuera, at Saguntum, and at Valencia, becoming a prisoner of war at the +surrender of the last-named place. Soon, however, he escaped to +Switzerland, whence early in 1813 he returned to Prussia as a major on +the general staff. He served successively under Colonel von Dolffs and +General von Kleist, and as commissioner at the headquarters of the +Russian general Barclay de Tolly. He took part with Kleist in the victory +of Kulm, and recovered from a severe wound received at that action in +time to be present at the battle of Leipzig. He played a conspicuous part +in the campaign of 1814 in France, after which he was made a +major-general. In this rank he was appointed quartermaster-general to +Field Marshal Prince Blucher, and, after his chief and Gneisenau, +Grolmann had the greatest share in directing the Prussian operations of +1815. In the decision, on the 18th of June 1815, to press forward to +Wellington's assistance (see WATERLOO CAMPAIGN), Grolmann actively +concurred, and as the troops approached the battle-field, he is said to +have overcome the momentary hesitation of the commander-in-chief and the +chief of staff by himself giving the order to advance. After the peace of +1815, Grolmann occupied important positions in the ministry of war and +the general staff. His last public services were rendered in Poland as +commander-in-chief, and practically as civil administrator of the +province of Posen. He was promoted general of infantry in 1837 and died +on the 1st of June 1843, at Posen. His two sons became generals in the +Prussian army. The Prussian 18th infantry regiment bears his name. + +General von Grolmann supervised and provided much of the material for +von Damitz's _Gesch. des Feldzugs 1815_ (Berlin, 1837-1838), and _Gesch. +des Feldzugs 1814 in Frankreich_ (Berlin, 1842-1843). + + See v. Conrady, _Leben und Wirken des Generals Karl von Grolmann_ + (Berlin, 1894-1896). + + + + +GROMATICI (from _groma_ or _gruma_, a surveyor's pole), or +_Agrimensores_, the name for land-surveyors amongst the Romans. The art +of surveying was probably at first in the hands of the augurs, by whom +it was exercised in all cases where the demarcation of a _templum_ (any +consecrated space) was necessary. Thus, the boundaries of Rome itself, +of colonies and camps, were all marked out in accordance with the rules +of augural procedure. The first professional surveyor mentioned is L. +Decidius Saxa, who was employed by Antony in the measurement of camps +(Cicero, _Philippics_, xi. 12, xiv. 10). During the empire their number +and reputation increased. The distribution of land amongst the veterans, +the increase in the number of military colonies, the settlement of +Italian peasants in the provinces, the general survey of the empire +under Augustus, the separation of private and state domains, led to the +establishment of a recognized professional corporation of surveyors. +During later times they were in receipt of large salaries, and in some +cases were even honoured with the title _clarissimus_. Their duties were +not merely geometrical or mathematical, but required legal knowledge for +consultations or the settlement of disputes. This led to the institution +of special schools for the training of surveyors and a special +literature, which lasted from the 1st to the 6th century A.D. The +earliest of the gromatic writers was Frontinus (q.v.), whose _De agrorum +qualitate_, dealing with the legal aspect of the art, was the subject of +a commentary by Aggenus Urbicus, a Christian schoolmaster. Under Trajan +a certain Balbus, who had accompanied the emperor on his Dacian +campaign, wrote a still extant manual of geometry for land surveyors +(_Expositio et ratio omnium formarum_ or _mensurarum_, probably after a +Greek original by Hero), dedicated to a certain Celsus who had invented +an improvement in a gromatic instrument (perhaps the dioptra, resembling +the modern theodolite); for the treatises of Hyginus see that name. +Somewhat later than Trajan was Siculus Flaccus (_De condicionibus +agrorum_, extant), while the most curious treatise on the subject, +written in barbarous Latin and entitled _Casae litterarum_ (long a +school text-book) is the work of a certain Innocentius (4th-5th +century). It is doubtful whether Boetius is the author of the treatises +attributed to him. The _Gromatici veteres_ also contains extracts from +official registers (probably belonging to the 5th century) of colonial +and other land surveys, lists and descriptions of boundary stones, and +extracts from the Theodosian Codex. According to Mommsen, the collection +had its origin during the 5th century in the office of a vicarius +(diocesan governor) of Rome, who had a number of surveyors under him. +The surveyors were known by various names: _decempedator_ (with +reference to the instrument used); _finitor_, _metator_ or _mensor +castrorum_ in republican times; _togati Augustorum_ as imperial civil +officials; _professor_, _auctor_ as professional instructors. + + The best edition of the Gromatici is by C. Lachmann and others (1848) + with supplementary volume, _Die Schriften der romischen Feldmesser_ + (1852); see also B. G. Niebuhr, _Roman History_, ii., appendix (Eng. + trans.), who first revived interest in the subject; M. Cantor, _Die + romischen Agrimensoren_ (Leipzig, 1875); P. de Tissot, _La Condition + des Agrimensores dans l'ancienne Rome_ (1879); G. Rossi, _Groma e + squadro_ (Turin, 1877); articles by F. Hultsch in Ersch and Gruber's + _Allgem. Encyklopadie_, and by G. Humbert in Daremberg and Saglio's + _Dictionnaire des antiquites_; Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman + Literature_, 58. + + + + +GRONINGEN, the most northerly province of Holland, bounded S. by Drente, +W. by Friesland and the Lauwers Zee, N. and N.E. by the North Sea and +the mouth of the Ems with the Dollart, and on the S.E. by the Prussian +province of Hanover. It includes the islands of Boschplaat and +Rottumeroog, belonging to the group of Frisian islands (q.v.). Area, 887 +sq. m.; pop. (1900) 299,602. Groningen is connected with the Drente +plateau by the sandy tongue of the Hondsrug which extends almost up to +the capital. West, north and north-east of this the province is flat and +consists of sea-clay or sand and clay mixed, except where patches of low +and high fen occur on the Frisian borders. Low fen predominates to the +east of the capital, between the Zuidlardermeer and the Schildmeer or +lakes. The south-eastern portion of the province consists of high fen +resting on diluvial sand. A large part of this has been reclaimed and +the sandy soil laid bare, but on the Drente and Prussian borders areas +of fen still remain. The so-called Boertanger Morass on the Prussian +border was long considered as the natural protection of the eastern +frontier, and with the view of preserving its impassable condition +neither agriculture nor cattle-rearing might be practised here until +1824, and it was only in 1868 that the building of houses was sanctioned +and the work of reclamation begun. The gradual extension of the seaward +boundaries of the province owing to the process of littoral deposits may +be easily traced, a triple line of sea-dikes in places marking the +successive stages in this advance. The rivers of Groningen descending +from the Drente plateau meet at the capital, whence they are continued +by the Reitdiep to the Lauwers Zee (being discharged through a lock), +and by the Ems canal (1876) to Delfzyl. The south-eastern corner of the +province is traversed by the Westerwolde Aa, which discharges into the +Dollart. The railway system belongs to the northern section of the State +railways, and affords communication with Germany via Winschoten. +Steam-tramways also serve many parts of the province. Agriculture is the +main industry. The proportion of landowners is a very large one, and the +prosperous condition of the Groningen farmer is attested by the style of +his home, his dress and his gig. As a result, however, partly of the +usual want of work on the grasslands in certain seasons, there has been +a considerable emigration to America. The ancient custom called the +_beklem-recht_, or lease-right, doubtless accounts for the extended +ownership of the land. By this law a tenant-farmer is able to bequeath +his farm, that is to say, he holds his lease in perpetuity. + +The chief agricultural products are barley, oats, wheat, and in the +north-east flax is also grown, and exported to South Holland and +Belgium. On the higher clay grounds cattle-rearing and horse-breeding +are also practised, together with butter and cheese making. The +cultivation of potatoes on the sandgrounds in the south and the fen +colonies along the Stads-Canal invite general comparison with the +industries of Drente (q.v.). Hoogezand and Sappemeer, Veendam and +Wildervank, New and Old Pekela, New and Old Stads-Canal are instances of +villages which have extended until they overlap one another and are +similar in this respect to the industrial villages of the Zaan Streek in +North Holland. The coast fisheries are considerable. Groningen (q.v.) is +the chief and only large town of the province. Delfzyl, which was +formerly an important fortress for the protection of the ancient sluices +on the little river Delf (hence its name), has greatly benefited by the +construction of the Ems (Eems) ship-canal connecting it with Groningen, +and has a good harbour with a considerable import trade in wood. +Appingedam and Winschoten are very old towns, having important cattle +and horse markets. The pretty wood at Winschoten was laid out by the +Society for Public Welfare (_Tot Nut van het Algemeen_) in 1826. + + + + +GRONINGEN, a town of Holland, capital of the province of the same name, +at the confluence of the two canalized rivers the Drentsche Aa and the +Hunse (which are continued to the Lauwers Zee as the Reit Diep), 16 m. +N. of Assen and 33 m. E. of Leeuwarden by rail. Pop. (1900) 67,563. +Groningen is the centre from which several important canals radiate. +Besides the Reit Diep, there are the Ems Canal and the Damster Diep, +connecting it with Delfzyl and the Dollart, the Kolonel's Diep with +Leeuwarden, the Nord Willem's Canal with Assen and the south and the +Stads-Canal south-east with the Ems. Hence steamers ply in all +directions, and there is a regular service to Emden and the island of +Borkum via Delfzyl, and via the Lauwers Zee to the island of +Schiermonnikoog. Groningen is the most important town in the north of +Holland, with its fine shops and houses and wide clean streets, while +brick houses of the 16th and 17th centuries help it to retain a certain +old-world air. The ancient part of the town is still surrounded by the +former moat, and in the centre lies a group of open places, of which the +Groote Markt is one of the largest market-squares in Holland. Pleasant +gardens and promenades extend on the north side of the town, together +with a botanical garden. The chief church is the Martini-kerk, with a +high tower (432 ft.) dating from 1477, and an organ constructed by the +famous scholar and musician Rudolph Agricolo, who was born near +Groningen in 1443. The Aa church dates from 1465, but was founded in +1253. The Roman Catholic Broederkerk (rebuilt at the end of the 19th +century) contains some remarkable pictures of the Passion by L. Hendricx +(1865). There is also a Jewish synagogue. The large town hall (in +classical style), one of the finest public buildings, was built at the +beginning of the 19th century and enlarged in 1873. The provincial +government offices also occupy a fine building which received a splendid +front in 1871. Other noteworthy buildings are the provincial museum of +antiquities, containing interesting Germanic antiquities, as well as +medieval and modern collections of porcelain, pictures, &c.; the courts +of justice (transformed in the middle of the 18th century); the old +Ommelanderhuis, formerly devoted to the administration of the +surrounding district, built in 1509 and restored in 1899; the +weigh-house (1874); the civil and military prison; the arsenal; the +military hospital; and the concert hall. + +The university of Groningen, founded in 1614, received its present fine +buildings in classical style in 1850. Among its auxiliary establishments +are a good natural history museum, an observatory, a laboratory, and a +library which contains a copy of Erasmus' New Testament with marginal +annotations by Luther. Other educational institutions are the deaf and +dumb institution founded by Henri Daniel Guyot (d. 1828) in 1790, a +gymnasium, and schools of navigation, art and music. There are learned +societies for the study of law (1761) and natural science (1830); an +academy of fine arts (1830); an archaeological society; and a central +bureau for collecting information concerning the province. + +As capital of the province, and on account of the advantages of its +natural position, Groningen maintains a very considerable trade, chiefly +in oil-seed, grain, wood, turf and cattle, with Great Britain, Germany, +Scandinavia and Russia. The chief industries are flax-spinning, +rope-making, sugar refining, book printing, wool combing and dyeing, and +it also manufactures beer, tobacco and cigars, cotton and woollen +stuffs, furniture, organs and pianos; besides which there are saw, oil +and grain mills, machine works, and numerous goldsmiths and +silversmiths. + +_History._--The town of Groningen belonged originally to the _pagus_, or +_gouw_, of Triantha (Drente), the countship of which was bestowed by the +emperor Henry II. on the bishop and chapter of Utrecht in 1024. In 1040 +Henry III. gave the church of Utrecht the royal domain of Groningen, and +in the deed of gift the "villa Cruoninga" is mentioned. Upon this +charter the bishops of Utrecht based their claim to the overlordship of +the town, a claim which the citizens hotly disputed. At the time of the +donation, indeed, the town can hardly be said to have existed, but the +royal "villa" rapidly developed into a community which strove to assert +the rights of a free imperial city. At first the bishops were too strong +for the townsmen; the defences built in 1110 were pulled down by the +bishop's order two years later; and during the 12th and 13th centuries +the see of Utrecht, in spite of frequent revolts, succeeded in +maintaining its authority. Down to the 15th century an episcopal +prefect, or burgrave, had his seat in the city, his authority extending +over the neighbouring districts known as the Gorecht. In 1143 Heribert +of Bierum, bishop of Utrecht, converted the office into an hereditary +fief in favour of his brother Liffert, on the extinction of whose male +line it was partitioned between the families of Koevorden (or Coevorden) +and van den Hove. Gradually, however, the burghers, aided by the +neighbouring Frisians, succeeded in freeing themselves from the +episcopal yoke. The city was again walled in 1255; before 1284 it had +become a member of the Hanseatic league; and by the end of the 14th +century it was practically a powerful independent republic, which +exercised an effective control over the Frisian Ommelande between the +Ems and the Lauwers Zee. At the close of the 14th century the heirs of +the Koevorden and van den Hove families sold their rights, first to the +town, and then to the bishop. A struggle followed, in which the city was +temporarily worsted; but in 1440 Bishop Dirk II. finally sold to the +city the rights of the see of Utrecht over the Gorecht. + +The medieval constitution of Groningen, unlike that of Utrecht, was +aristocratic. Merchant gild there was none; and the craft gilds were +without direct influence on the city government, which held them in +subjection. Membership of the governing council, which selected from its +own body the four _rationales_ or burgomasters, was confined to men of +approved "wisdom," and wisdom was measured in terms of money. This +_Raad_ of wealthy burghers gradually monopolized all power. The bishop's +bailiff (_schout_), with his nominated assessors (_scabini_), continued +to exercise jurisdiction, but members of the Raad sat on the bench with +him, and an appeal lay from his court to the Raad itself. The council +was, in fact, supreme in the city, and not in the city only. In 1439 it +decreed that no one might trade in all the district between the Ems and +the Lauwers Zee except burghers, and those who had purchased the +_burwal_ (right of residence in the city) and the freedom of the gilds. +Maximilian I. assigned Groningen to Albert of Saxony, hereditary +podestat of Friesland, but the citizens preferred to accept the +protection of the bishop of Utrecht; and when Albert's son George +attempted in 1505 to seize the town, they recognized the lordship of +Edzart of East Frisia. On George's renewal of hostilities they +transferred their allegiance to Duke Charles of Gelderland, in 1515. In +1536 the city passed into the hands of Charles V., and in the great +wars of the 16th century suffered all the miseries of siege and military +occupation. From 1581 onwards, Groningen still held by the Spaniards, +was constantly at war with the "Ommelanden" which had declared against +the king of Spain. This feud continued, in spite of the capture of the +city in 1594 by Maurice of Nassau, and of a decree of the States in 1597 +which was intended to set them at rest. In 1672 the town was besieged by +the bishop of Munster, but it was successfully defended, and in 1698 its +fortifications were improved under Coehoorn's direction. The French +Republicans planted their tree of liberty in the Great Market on the +14th of February 1795, and they continued in authority till the 16th of +November 1814. The fortifications of the city were doomed to destruction +by the law of the 18th of April 1874. + + See C. Hegel, _Stadte und Gilden_ (Leipzig, 1891); Stokvis, _Manuel + d'histoire_, iii. 496 (Leiden, 1890-1893); also s.v. in Chevalier, + _Repertoire des sources hist. du moyen age_ (_Topo-bibliographie_). + + + + +GRONLUND, LAURENCE (1846-1899), American socialist, was born in +Copenhagen, Denmark, on the 13th of July 1846. He graduated from the +university of Copenhagen in 1865, began the study of law, removed to the +United States in 1867, taught German in Milwaukee, was admitted to the +bar in 1869, and practised in Chicago. He became a writer and lecturer +on socialism and was closely connected with the work of the Socialist +Labor party from 1874 to 1884, then devoted himself almost exclusively +to lecturing until his appointment to a post in the bureau of labour +statistics. He again returned to the lecture field, and was an editorial +writer for the New York and Chicago _American_ from 1898 until his death +in New York City on the 15th of October 1899. His principal works are: +_The Coming Revolution_ (1880); _The Co-operative Commonwealth in its +Outlines, An Exposition of Modern Socialism_ (1884); _Ca Ira, or Danton +in the French Revolution_ (1888), a rehabilitation of Danton; _Our +Destiny, The Influence of Socialism on Morals and Religion_ (1890); and +_The New Economy_ (1898). + + + + +GRONOVIUS (the latinized form of GRONOV), JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1611-1671), +German classical scholar and critic, was born at Hamburg on the 8th of +September 1611. Having studied at several universities, he travelled in +England, France and Italy. In 1643 he was appointed professor of +rhetoric and history at Deventer, and in 1658 to the Greek chair at +Leiden, where he died on the 28th of December 1671. (See also FABRETTI, +RAPHAEL.) Besides editing, with notes, Statius, Plautus, Livy, Tacitus, +Aulus Gellius and Seneca's tragedies, Gronovius was the author, amongst +numerous other works, of _Commentarius de sestertiis_ (1643) and of an +edition of Hugo Grotius' De jure belli et pacis (1660). His +_Observationes_ contain a number of brilliant emendations. His son, +JAKOB GRONOVIUS (1645-1716), is chiefly known as the editor of the +_Thesaurus antiquitatum Graecarum_ (1697-1702, in 13 volumes). + + See J. E. Sandys, _Hist. of Class. Schol._ ii. (1908); F. A. Eckstein + in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyklopadie_. + + + + +GROOM, in modern usage a male servant attached to the stables, whose +duties are to attend to the cleaning, feeding, currying and care +generally of horses. The earliest meaning of the word appears to be that +of a boy, and in 16th and 17th century literature it frequently occurs, +in pastorals, for a shepherd lover. Later it is used for any male +attendant, and thus survives in the name for several officials in the +royal household, such as the grooms-in-waiting, and the grooms of the +great chamber. The groom-porter, whose office was abolished by George +III., saw to the preparation of the sovereign's apartment, and, during +the 16th and 17th centuries, provided cards and dice for playing, and +was the authority to whom were submitted all questions of gaming within +the court. The origin of the word is obscure. The O. Fr. _gromet_, shop +boy, is taken by French etymologists to be derived from the English. +From the application of this word to a wine-taster in a wine merchant's +shop, is derived _gourmet_, an epicure. According to the _New English +Dictionary_, though there are no instances of groom in other Teutonic +languages, the word may be ultimately connected with the root of "to +grow." In "bridegroom," a newly married man, "grom" in the 16th century +took the place of an older _gome_, a common old Teutonic word meaning +"man," and connected with the Latin _homo_. The Old English word was +_brydguma_, later _bridegome_. The word survives in the German +_Brautigam_. + + + + +GROOT, GERHARD (1340-1384), otherwise Gerrit or Geert Groet, in Latin +Gerardus Magnus, a preacher and founder of the society of Brothers of +Common Life (q.v.), was born in 1340 at Deventer in the diocese of +Utrecht, where his father held a good civic position. He went to the +university of Paris when only fifteen. Here he studied scholastic +philosophy and theology under a pupil of Occam's, from whom he imbibed +the nominalist conception of philosophy; in addition he studied canon +law, medicine, astronomy and even magic, and apparently some Hebrew. +After a brilliant course he graduated in 1358, and possibly became +master in 1363. He pursued his studies still further in Cologne, and +perhaps in Prague. In 1366 he visited the papal court at Avignon. About +this time he was appointed to a canonry in Utrecht and to another in +Aix-la-Chapelle, and the life of the brilliant young scholar was rapidly +becoming luxurious, secular and selfish, when a great spiritual change +passed over him which resulted in a final renunciation of every worldly +enjoyment. This conversion, which took place In 1374, appears to have +been due partly to the effects of a dangerous illness and partly to the +influence of Henry de Calcar, the learned and pious prior of the +Carthusian monastery at Munnikhuizen near Arnhem, who had remonstrated +with him on the vanity of his life. About 1376 Gerhard retired to this +monastery and there spent three years in meditation, prayer and study, +without, however, becoming a Carthusian. In 1379, having received +ordination as a deacon, he became missionary preacher throughout the +diocese of Utrecht. The success which followed his labours not only in +the town of Utrecht, but also in Zwolle, Deventer, Kampen, Amsterdam, +Haarlem, Gouda, Leiden, Delft, Zutphen and elsewhere, was immense; +according to Thomas a Kempis the people left their business and their +meals to hear his sermons, so that the churches could not hold the +crowds that flocked together wherever he came. The bishop of Utrecht +supported him warmly, and got him to preach against concubinage in the +presence of the clergy assembled in synod. The impartiality of his +censures, which he directed not only against the prevailing sins of the +laity, but also against heresy, simony, avarice, and impurity among the +secular and regular clergy, provoked the hostility of the clergy, and +accusations of heterodoxy were brought against him. It was in vain that +Groot emitted a _Publica Protestatio_, in which he declared that Jesus +Christ was the great subject of his discourses, that in all of them he +believed himself to be in harmony with Catholic doctrine, and that he +willingly subjected them to the candid judgment of the Roman Church. The +bishop was induced to issue an edict which prohibited from preaching all +who were not in priest's orders, and an appeal to Urban VI. was without +effect. There is a difficulty as to the date of this prohibition; either +it was only a few months before Groot's death, or else it must have been +removed by the bishop, for Groot seems to have preached in public in the +last year of his life. At some period (perhaps 1381, perhaps earlier) he +paid a visit of some days' duration to the famous mystic Johann +Ruysbroeck, prior of the Augustinian canons at Groenendael near +Brussels; at this visit was formed Groot's attraction for the rule and +life of the Augustinian canons which was destined to bear such notable +fruit. At the close of his life he was asked by some of the clerics who +attached themselves to him to form them into a religious order, and +Groot resolved that they should be canons regular of St Augustine. No +time was lost in the effort to carry out the project, but Groot died +before a foundation could be made. In 1387, however, a site was secured +at Windesheim, some 20 m. north of Deventer, and here was established +the monastery that became the cradle of the Windesheim congregation of +canons regular, embracing in course of time nearly one hundred houses, +and leading the way in the series of reforms undertaken during the 15th +century by all the religious orders in Germany. The initiation of this +movement was the great achievement of Groot's life; he lived to preside +over the birth and first days of his other creation, the society of +Brothers of Common Life. He died of the plague at Deventer in 1384, at +the age of 44. + + The chief authority for Groot's life is Thomas a Kempis, _Vita Gerardi + Magni_ (translated into English by J. P. Arthur, _The Founders of the + New Devotion_, 1905); also the _Chronicon Windeshemense_ of Johann + Busch (ed. K. Grube, 1886). An account, based on these sources, will + be found in S. Kettlewell, _Thomas a Kempis and the Brothers of Common + Life_ (1882). i. c. 5; and a shorter account in F. R. Cruise, _Thomas + a Kempis_, 1887, pt. ii. An excellent sketch, with an account of + Groot's writings, is given by L. Schulze in Herzog-Hauck, + _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 3); he insists on the fact that Groot's + theological and ecclesiastical ideas were those commonly current in + his day, and that the attempts to make him "a reformer before the + Reformation" are unhistorical. (E. C. B.) + + + + +GROOVE-TOOTHED SQUIRREL, a large and brilliantly coloured Bornean +squirrel, _Rhithrosciurus macrotis_, representing a genus by itself +distinguished from all other members of the family _Sciuridae_ by having +numerous longitudinal grooves on the front surface of the incisor teeth; +the molars being of a simpler type than in other members of the family. +The tail is large and fox-like, and the ears are tufted and the flanks +marked by black and white bands. + + + + +GROS, ANTOINE JEAN, BARON (1771-1835), French painter, was born at Paris +in 1771. His father, who was a miniature painter, began to teach him to +draw at the age of six, and showed himself from the first an exacting +master. Towards the close of 1785 Gros, by his own choice, entered the +studio of David, which he frequented assiduously, continuing at the same +time to follow the classes of the College Mazarin. The death of his +father, whose circumstances had been embarrassed by the Revolution, +threw Gros, in 1791, upon his own resources. He now devoted himself +wholly to his profession, and competed in 1792 for the _grand prix_, but +unsuccessfully. About this time, however, on the recommendation of the +Ecole des Beaux Arts, he was employed on the execution of portraits of +the members of the Convention, and when--disturbed by the development of +the Revolution--Gros in 1793 left France for Italy, he supported himself +at Genoa by the same means, producing a great quantity of miniatures and +_fixes_. He visited Florence, but returning to Genoa made the +acquaintance of Josephine, and followed her to Milan, where he was well +received by her husband. On November 15, 1796, Gros was present with the +army near Arcola when Bonaparte planted the tricolor on the bridge. Gros +seized on this incident, and showed by his treatment of it that he had +found his vocation. Bonaparte at once gave him the post of "inspecteur +aux revues," which enabled him to follow the army, and in 1797 nominated +him on the commission charged to select the spoils which should enrich +the Louvre. In 1799, having escaped from the besieged city of Genoa, +Gros made his way to Paris, and in the beginning of 1801 took up his +quarters in the Capucins. His "esquisse" (Musee de Nantes) of the +"Battle of Nazareth" gained the prize offered in 1802 by the consuls, +but was not carried out, owing it is said to the jealousy of Junot felt +by Napoleon; but he indemnified Gros by commissioning him to paint his +own visit to the pest-house of Jaffa. "Les Pestiferes de Jaffa" (Louvre) +was followed by the "Battle of Aboukir" 1806 (Versailles), and the +"Battle of Eylau," 1808 (Louvre). These three subjects--the popular +leader facing the pestilence unmoved, challenging the splendid instant +of victory, heart-sick with the bitter cost of a hard-won field--gave to +Gros his chief title to fame. As long as the military element remained +bound up with French national life, Gros received from it a fresh and +energetic inspiration which carried him to the very heart of the events +which he depicted; but as the army and its general separated from the +people, Gros, called on to illustrate episodes representative only of +the fulfilment of personal ambition, ceased to find the nourishment +necessary to his genius, and the defect of his artistic position became +evident. Trained in the sect of the Classicists, he was shackled by +their rules, even when--by his naturalistic treatment of types, and +appeal to picturesque effect in colour and tone--he seemed to run +counter to them. In 1810 his "Madrid" and "Napoleon at the Pyramids" +(Versailles) show that his star had deserted him. His "Francis I." and +"Charles V.," 1812 (Louvre), had considerable success; but the +decoration of the dome of St Genevieve (begun in 1811 and completed in +1824) is the only work of Gros's later years which shows his early force +and vigour, as well as his skill. The "Departure of Louis XVIII." +(Versailles), the "Embarkation of Madame d'Angouleme" (Bordeaux), the +plafond of the Egyptian room in the Louvre, and finally his "Hercules +and Diomedes," exhibited in 1835, testify only that Gros's efforts--in +accordance with the frequent counsels of his old master David--to stem +the rising tide of Romanticism, served but to damage his once brilliant +reputation. Exasperated by criticism and the consciousness of failure, +Gros sought refuge in the grosser pleasures of life. On the 25th of June +1835 he was found drowned on the shores of the Seine near Sevres. From a +paper which he had placed in his hat it became known that "las de la +vie, et trahi par les dernieres facultes qui la lui rendaient +supportable, il avait resolu de s'en defaire." The number of Gros's +pupils was very great, and was considerably augmented when, in 1815, +David quitted Paris and made over his own classes to him. Gros was +decorated and named baron of the empire by Napoleon, after the Salon of +1808, at which he had exhibited the "Battle of Eylau." Under the +Restoration he became a member of the Institute, professor at the Ecole +des Beaux Arts, and was named chevalier of the order of St Michel. + + M. Delecluze gives a brief notice of his life in _Louis David et son + temps_, and Julius Meyer's _Geschichte der modernen franzosischen + Malerei_ contains an excellent criticism on his works. + + + + +GROSART, ALEXANDER BALLOCH (1827-1899), Scottish divine and literary +editor, the son of a building contractor, was born at Stirling on the +18th of June 1827. He was educated at Edinburgh University, and in 1856 +became a Presbyterian minister at Kinross. In 1865 he went to Liverpool, +and three years later to Blackburn. He resigned from the ministry in +1892, and died at Dublin on the 16th of March 1899. Dr Grosart is +chiefly remembered for his exertions in reprinting much rare Elizabethan +literature, a work which he undertook in the first instance from his +strong interest in Puritan theology. Among the first writers whose works +he edited were the Puritan divines, Richard Sibbes, Thomas Brooks and +Herbert Palmer. Editions of Michael Bruce's _Poems_ (1865) and Richard +Gilpin's _Demonologia sacra_ (1867) followed. In 1868 he brought out a +bibliography of the writings of Richard Baxter, and from that year until +1876 he was occupied in reproducing for private subscribers the "Fuller +Worthies Library," a series of thirty-nine volumes which included the +works of Thomas Fuller, Sir John Davies, Fulke Greville, Henry Vaughan, +Andrew Marvell, George Herbert, Richard Crashaw, John Donne and Sir +Philip Sidney. The last four volumes of the series were devoted to the +works of many little known and otherwise inaccessible authors. His +_Occasional Issues of Unique and Very Rare Books_ (1875-1881) is of the +utmost interest to the book-lover. It included among other things the +_Annalia Dubrensia_ of Robert Dover. In 1876 still another series, known +as the "Chertsey Worthies Library," was begun. It included editions of +the works of Nicholas Breton, Francis Quarles, Dr Joseph Beaumont, +Abraham Cowley, Henry More and John Davies of Hereford. Grosart was +untiring in his enthusiasm and energy for this kind of work. The two +last-named series were being produced simultaneously until 1881, and no +sooner had they been completed than Grosart began the "Huth Library," so +called from the bibliophile Henry Huth, who possessed the originals of +many of the reprints. It included the works of Robert Greene, Thomas +Nash, Gabriel Harvey, and the prose tracts of Thomas Dekker. He also +edited the complete works of Edmund Spenser and Samuel Daniel. From the +Townley Hall collection he reprinted several MSS. and edited Sir John +Eliot's works, Sir Richard Boyle's _Lismore Papers_, and various +publications for the Chetham Society, the Camden Society and the +Roxburghe Club. Dr Grosart's faults of style and occasional inaccuracy +do not seriously detract from the immense value of his work. He was +unwearied in searching for rare books, and he brought to light much +interesting literature, formerly almost inaccessible. + + + + +GROSBEAK (Fr. _Grosbec_), a name very indefinitely applied to many birds +belonging to the families _Fringillidae_ and _Ploceidae_ of modern +ornithologists, and perhaps to some members of the _Emberizidae_ and +_Tanagridae_, but always to birds distinguished by the great size of +their bill. Taken alone it is commonly a synonym of hawfinch (q.v.), but +a prefix is usually added to indicate the species, as pine-grosbeak, +cardinal-grosbeak and the like. By early writers the word was generally +given as an equivalent of the Linnaean _Loxia_, but that genus has been +found to include many forms not now placed in the same family. + +The Pine-grosbeak (_Pinicola enucleator_) inhabits the conifer-zone of +both the Old and the New Worlds, seeking, in Europe and probably +elsewhere, a lower latitude as winter approaches--often journeying in +large flocks; stragglers have occasionally reached the British Islands +(Yarrell, _Br. Birds_, ed. 4, ii. 177-179). In structure and some of its +habits much resembling a bullfinch, but much exceeding that bird in +size, it has the plumage of a crossbill and appears to undergo the same +changes as do the members of the restricted genus _Loxia_--the young +being of a dull greenish-grey streaked with brownish-black, the adult +hens tinged with golden-green, and the cocks glowing with crimson-red on +nearly all the body-feathers, this last colour being replaced after +moulting in confinement by bright yellow. Nests of this species were +found in 1821 by Johana Wilhelm Zetterstedt near Juckasjarwi in Swedish +Lapland, but little was known concerning its nidification until 1855, +when John Wolley, after two years' ineffectual search, succeeded in +obtaining near the Finnish village Muonioniska, on the Swedish frontier, +well-authenticated specimens with the eggs, both of which are like +exaggerated bullfinches'. The food of this species seems to consist of +the seeds and buds of many sorts of trees, though the staple may very +possibly be those of some kind of pine. + +Allied to the pine-grosbeak are a number of species of smaller size, but +its equals in beauty of plumage.[1] They have been referred to several +genera, such as _Carpodacus_, _Propasser_, _Bycanetes_, _Uragus_ and +others; but possibly _Carpodacus_ is sufficient to contain all. Most of +them are natives of the Old World, and chiefly of its eastern division, +but several inhabit the western portion of North America, and one, _C. +githagineus_ (of which there seem to be at least two local races), is an +especial native of the deserts, or their borders, of Arabia and North +Africa, extending even to some of the Canary Islands--a singular +modification in the _habitat_ of a form which one would be apt to +associate exclusively with forest trees, and especially conifers. + +The cardinal grosbeak, or Virginian nightingale, _Cardinalis +virginianus_, claims notice here, though doubts may be entertained as to +the family to which it really belongs. It is no less remarkable for its +bright carmine attire, and an elongated crest of the same colour, than +for its fine song. Its ready adaptation to confinement has made it a +popular cage-bird on both sides of the Atlantic. The hen is not so good +a songster as the cock bird. Her plumage, with exception of the wings +and tail, which are of a dull red, is light-olive above and +brownish-yellow beneath. This species inhabits the eastern parts of the +United States southward of 40 deg. N. lat., and also occurs in the +Bermudas. It is represented in the south-west of North America by other +forms that by some writers are deemed species, and in the northern parts +of South America by the _C. phoeniceus_, which would really seem +entitled to distinction. Another kindred bird placed from its short and +broad bill in a different genus, and known as _Pyrrhuloxia sinuata_ or +the Texan cardinal, is found on the southern borders of the United +States and in Mexico; while among North American "grosbeaks" must also +be named the birds belonging to the genera _Guiraca_ and +_Hedymeles_--the former especially exemplified by the beautiful blue _G. +caerulea_, and the latter by the brilliant rose-breasted _H. +ludovicianus_, which last extends its range into Canada. + +The species of the Old World which, though commonly called "grosbeaks," +certainly belong to the family _Ploceidae_, are treated under +WEAVER-BIRD. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Many of them are described and illustrated in the _Monographie + des loxiens_ of Prince C. L. Bonaparte and Professor Schlegel (1850), + though it excludes many birds which an English writer would call + "grosbeaks." + + + + +GROSE, FRANCIS (c. 1730-1791), English antiquary, was born at Greenford +in Middlesex, about the year 1730. His father was a wealthy Swiss +jeweller, settled at Richmond, Surrey. Grose early showed an interest in +heraldry and antiquities, and his father procured him a position in the +Heralds' College. In 1763, being then Richmond Herald, he sold his +tabard, and shortly afterwards became adjutant and paymaster of the +Hampshire militia, where, as he himself humorously observed, the only +account-books he kept were his right and left pockets, into the one of +which he received, and from the other of which he paid. This +carelessness exposed him to serious financial difficulties; and after a +vain attempt to repair them by accepting a captaincy in the Surrey +militia, the fortune left him by his father being squandered, he began +to turn to account his excellent education and his powers as a +draughtsman. In 1757 he had been elected fellow of the Society of +Antiquaries. In 1773 he began to publish his _Antiquities of England and +Wales_, a work which brought him money as well as fame. This, with its +supplementary parts relating to the Channel Islands, was not completed +till 1787. In 1789 he set out on an antiquarian tour through Scotland, +and in the course of this journey met Burns, who composed in his honour +the famous song beginning "Ken ye aught o' Captain Grose," and in that +other poem, still more famous, "Hear, land o' cakes, and brither Scots," +warned all Scotsmen of this "chield amang them taking notes." In 1790 he +began to publish the results of what Burns called "his peregrinations +through Scotland;" but he had not finished the work when he bethought +himself of going over to Ireland and doing for that country what he had +already done for Great Britain. About a month after his arrival, while +in Dublin, he died in an apoplectic fit at the dinner-table of a friend, +on the 12th of June 1791. + +Grose was a sort of antiquarian Falstaff--at least he possessed in a +striking degree the knight's physical peculiarities; but he was a man of +true honour and charity, a valuable friend, "overlooking little faults +and seeking out greater virtues," and an inimitable boon companion. His +humour, his varied knowledge and his good nature were all eminently +calculated to make him a favourite in society. As Burns says of him-- + + "But wad ye see him in his glee, + For meikle glee and fun has he, + Then set him down, and twa or three + Gude fellows wi' him; + And _port, O port!_ shine thou a wee, + And THEN ye'll see him!" + + Grose's works include _The Antiquities of England and Wales_ (6 vols., + 1773-1787); _Advice to the Officers of the British Army_ (1782), a + satire in the manner of Swift's _Directions to Servants; A Guide to + Health, Beauty, Riches and Honour_ (1783), a collection of + advertisements of the period, with characteristic satiric preface; _A + Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue_ (1785); _A Treatise on + Ancient Armour and Weapons_ (1785-1789); Darrell's _History of Dover_ + (1786); _Military Antiquities_ (2 vols., 1786-1788); _A Provincial + Glossary_ (1787); _Rules for Drawing Caricatures_ (1788); _The + Antiquities of Scotland_ (2 vols., 1789-1791); _Antiquities of + Ireland_ (2 vols., 1791), edited and partly written by Ledwich. _The + Grumbler_, sixteen humerous essays, appeared in 1791 after his death; + and in 1793 _The Olio_, a collection of essays, jests and small pieces + of poetry, highly characteristic of Grose, though certainly not all by + him, was put together from his papers by his publisher, who was also + his executor. + + A capital full-length portrait of Grose by N. Dance is in the first + volume of the _Antiquities of England and Wales_, and another is among + Kay's _Portraits_. A versified sketch of him appeared in the + _Gentleman's Magazine_, lxi. 660. See _Gentleman's Magazine_, lxi. + 498, 582; Noble's _Hist. of the College of Arms_, p. 434; _Notes and + Queries_, 1st ser., ix. 350; 3rd ser., i. 64, x. 280-281; 5th ser., + xii. 148; 6th ser., ii. 47, 257, 291; Hone, _Every-day Book_, i. 655. + + + + +GROSS, properly thick, bulky, the meaning of the Late Lat. _grossus_. +The Latin word has usually been taken as cognate with _crassus_, thick, +but this is now doubted. It also appears not to be connected with the +Ger. _gross_, a Teutonic word represented in English by "great." Apart +from its direct meaning, and such figurative senses as coarse, vulgar +or flagrant, the chief uses are whole, entire, without deduction, as +opposed to "net," or as applied to that which is sold in bulk as opposed +to "retail" (cf. "grocer" and "engrossing"). As a unit of tale, "gross" +equals 12 dozen, 144, sometimes known as "small gross," in contrast with +"great gross," i.e. 12 gross, 144 dozen. As a technical expression in +English common law, "in gross" is applied to an incorporeal hereditament +attached to the person of an owner, in contradistinction to one which is +appendant or appurtenant, that is, attached to the ownership of land +(see COMMONS). + + + + +GROSSE, JULIUS WALDEMAR (1828-1902), German poet, the son of a military +chaplain, was born at Erfurt on the 25th of April 1828. He received his +early education at the gymnasium in Magdeburg, and on leaving school and +showing disinclination for the ministry, entered an architect's office. +But his mind was bent upon literature, and in 1849 he entered the +university of Halle, where, although inscribed as a student of law, he +devoted himself almost exclusively to letters. His first poetical essay +was with the tragedy _Cola di Rienzi_ (1851), followed in the same year +by a comedy, _Eine Nachtpartie Shakespeares_, which was at once produced +on the stage. The success of these first two pieces encouraged him to +follow literature as a profession, and proceeding in 1852 to Munich, he +joined the circle of young poets of whom Paul Heyse (q.v.) and Hermann +Lingg (1820-1905) were the chief. For six years (1855-1861) he was +dramatic critic of the _Neue Munchener Zeitung_, and was then for a +while on the staff of the _Leipziger Illustrierte Zeitung_, but in 1862 +he returned to Munich as editor of the _Bayrische Zeitung_, a post he +retained until the paper ceased to exist in 1867. In 1869 Grosse was +appointed secretary of the _Schiller-Stiftung_, and lived for the next +few years alternately in Weimar, Dresden and Munich, until, in 1890, he +took up his permanent residence in Weimar. He was made grand-ducal +_Hofrat_ and had the title of "professor." He died at Torbole on the +Lago di Garda on the 9th of May 1902. + +Grosse was a most prolific writer of novels, dramas and poems. As a +lyric poet, especially in _Gedichte_ (1857) and _Aus bewegten Tagen_, a +volume of poems (1869), he showed himself more to advantage than in his +novels, of which latter, however, _Untreu aus Mitleid_ (2 vols., 1868); +_Vox populi, vox dei_ (1869); _Maria Mancini_ (1871); _Neue Erzahlungen_ +(1875); _Sophie Monnier_ (1876), and _Ein Frauenlos_ (1888) are +remarkable for a certain elegance of style. His tragedies, _Die +Ynglinger_ (1858); _Tiberius_ (1876); _Johann von Schwaben_; and the +comedy _Die steinerne Braut_, had considerable success on the stage. + + Grosse's _Gesammelte dramatische Werke_ appeared in 7 vols. in Leipzig + (1870), while his _Erzahlende Dichtungen_ were published at Berlin (6 + vols., 1871-1873). An edition of his selected works by A. Bartels is + in preparation. See also his autobiography, _Literarische Ursachen und + Wirkungen_ (1896); R. Prutz, _Die Literatur der Gegenwart_ (1859); J. + Ethe, _J. Grosse als epischer Dichter_ (1872). + + + + +GROSSENHAIN, a town In the kingdom of Saxony, 20 m. N. from Dresden, on +the main line of railway (via Elsterwerda) to Berlin and at the junction +of lines to Priestewitz and Frankfort-on-Oder. Pop. (1905) 12,015. It +has an Evangelical church, a modern and a commercial school, a library +and an extensive public park. The industries are very important, and +embrace manufactures of woollen and cotton stuffs, buckskin, leather, +glass and machinery. Grossenhain was originally a Sorb settlement. It +was for a time occupied by the Bohemians, by whom it was strongly +fortified. It afterwards came into the possession of the margraves of +Meissen, from whom it was taken in 1312 by the margraves of Brandenburg. +It suffered considerably in all the great German wars, and in 1744 was +nearly destroyed by fire. On the 16th of May 1813, a battle took place +here between the French and the Russians. + + See G. W. Schuberth, _Chronik der Stadt Grossenhain_ (Grossenhain, + 1887-1892). + + + + +GROSSETESTE, ROBERT (c. 1175-1253), English statesman, theologian and +bishop of Lincoln, was born of humble parents at Stradbrook in Suffolk. +He received his education at Oxford where he became proficient in law, +medicine and the natural sciences. Giraldus Cambrensis, whose +acquaintance he had made, introduced him, before 1199, to William de +Vere, bishop of Hereford. Grosseteste aspired to a post in the bishop's +household, but being deprived by death of this patron betook himself to +the study of theology. It is possible that he visited Paris for this +purpose, but he finally settled in Oxford as a teacher. His first +preferment of importance was the chancellorship of the university. He +gained considerable distinction as a lecturer, and was the first rector +of the school which the Franciscans established in Oxford about 1224. +Grosseteste's learning is highly praised by Roger Bacon, who was a +severe critic. According to Bacon, Grosseteste knew little Greek or +Hebrew and paid slight attention to the works of Aristotle, but was +pre-eminent among his contemporaries for his knowledge of the natural +sciences. Between 1214 and 1231 Grosseteste held in succession the +archdeaconries of Chester, Northampton and Leicester. In 1232, after a +severe illness, he resigned all his benefices and preferments except one +prebend which he held at Lincoln. His intention was to spend the rest of +his life in contemplative piety. But he retained the office of +chancellor, and in 1235 accepted the bishopric of Lincoln. He undertook +without delay the reformation of morals and clerical discipline +throughout his vast diocese. This scheme brought him into conflict with +more than one privileged corporation, but in particular with his own +chapter, who vigorously disputed his claim to exercise the right of +visitation over their community. The dispute raged hotly from 1239 to +1245. It was conducted on both sides with unseemly violence, and those +who most approved of Grosseteste's main purpose thought it needful to +warn him against the mistake of over-zeal. But in 1245, by a personal +visit to the papal court at Lyons, he secured a favourable verdict. In +ecclesiastical politics the bishop belonged to the school of Becket. His +zeal for reform led him to advance, on behalf of the courts-Christian, +pretensions which it was impossible that the secular power should admit. +He twice incurred a well-merited rebuke from Henry III. upon this +subject; although it was left for Edward I. to settle the question of +principle in favour of the state. The devotion of Grosseteste to the +hierarchical theories of his age is attested by his correspondence with +his chapter and the king. Against the former he upheld the prerogative +of the bishops; against the latter he asserted that it was impossible +for a bishop to disregard the commands of the Holy See. Where the +liberties of the national church came into conflict with the pretensions +of Rome he stood by his own countrymen. Thus in 1238 he demanded that +the king should release certain Oxford scholars who had assaulted the +legate Otho. But at least up to the year 1247 he submitted patiently to +papal encroachments, contenting himself with the protection (by a +special papal privilege) of his own diocese from alien clerks. Of royal +exactions he was more impatient; and after the retirement of Archbishop +Saint Edmund (q.v.) constituted himself the spokesman of the clerical +estate in the Great Council. In 1244 he sat on a committee which was +empanelled to consider a demand for a subsidy. The committee rejected +the demand, and Grosseteste foiled an attempt on the king's part to +separate the clergy from the baronage. "It is written," the bishop said, +"that united we stand and divided we fall." + +It was, however, soon made clear that the king and pope were in alliance +to crush the independence of the English clergy; and from 1250 onwards +Grosseteste openly criticized the new financial expedients to which +Innocent IV. had been driven by his desperate conflict with the Empire. +In the course of a visit which he made to Innocent in this year, the +bishop laid before the pope and cardinals a written memorial in which he +ascribed all the evils of the Church to the malignant influence of the +Curia. It produced no effect, although the cardinals felt that +Grosseteste was too influential to be punished for his audacity. Much +discouraged by his failure the bishop thought of resigning. In the end, +however, he decided to continue the unequal struggle. In 1251 he +protested against a papal mandate enjoining the English clergy to pay +Henry III. one-tenth of their revenues for a crusade; and called +attention to the fact that, under the system of provisions, a sum of +70,000 marks was annually drawn from England by the alien nominees of +Rome. In 1253, upon being commanded to provide in his own diocese for a +papal nephew, he wrote a letter of expostulation and refusal, not to the +pope himself but to the commissioner, Master Innocent, through whom he +received the mandate. The text of the remonstrance, as given in the +_Burton Annals_ and in Matthew Paris, has possibly been altered by a +forger who had less respect than Grosseteste for the papacy. The +language is more violent than that which the bishop elsewhere employs. +But the general argument, that the papacy may command obedience only so +far as its commands are consonant with the teaching of Christ and the +apostles, is only what should be expected from an ecclesiastical +reformer of Grosseteste's time. There is much more reason for suspecting +the letter addressed "to the nobles of England, the citizens of London, +and the community of the whole realm," in which Grosseteste is +represented as denouncing in unmeasured terms papal finance in all its +branches. But even in this case allowance must be made for the +difference between modern and medieval standards of decorum. + +Grosseteste numbered among his most intimate friends the Franciscan +teacher, Adam Marsh (q.v.). Through Adam he came into close relations +with Simon de Montfort. From the Franciscan's letters it appears that +the earl had studied a political tract by Grosseteste on the difference +between a monarchy and a tyranny; and that he embraced with enthusiasm +the bishop's projects of ecclesiastical reform. Their alliance began as +early as 1239, when Grosseteste exerted himself to bring about a +reconciliation between the king and the earl. But there is no reason to +suppose that the political ideas of Montfort had matured before the +death of Grosseteste; nor did Grosseteste busy himself overmuch with +secular politics, except in so far as they touched the interest of the +Church. Grosseteste realized that the misrule of Henry III. and his +unprincipled compact with the papacy largely accounted for the +degeneracy of the English hierarchy and the laxity of ecclesiastical +discipline. But he can hardly be termed a constitutionalist. + +Grosseteste died on the 9th of October 1253. He must then have been +between seventy and eighty years of age. He was already an elderly man, +with a firmly established reputation, when he became a bishop. As an +ecclesiastical statesman he showed the same fiery zeal and versatility +of which he had given proof in his academical career; but the general +tendency of modern writers has been to exaggerate his political and +ecclesiastical services, and to neglect his performances as a scientist +and scholar. The opinion of his own age, as expressed by Matthew Paris +and Roger Bacon, was very different. His contemporaries, while admitting +the excellence of his intentions as a statesman, lay stress upon his +defects of temper and discretion. But they see in him the pioneer of a +literary and scientific movement; not merely a great ecclesiastic who +patronized learning in his leisure hours, but the first mathematician +and physicist of his age. It is certainly true that he anticipated, in +these fields of thought, some of the most striking ideas to which Roger +Bacon subsequently gave a wider currency. + + See the _Epistolae Roberti Grosseteste_ (Rolls Series, 1861) edited + with a valuable introduction by H. R. Luard. Grosseteste's famous + memorial to the pope is printed in the appendix to E. Brown's + _Fasciculus rerum expetendarum et fugiendarum_ (1690). A tract _De + phisicis, lineis, angulis et figuris_ was printed at Nuremberg in + 1503, A French poem, _Le Chastel d'amour_, sometimes attributed to + him, has been printed by the Caxton Society. Two curious tracts, the + "De moribus pueri ad mensam" (printed by Wynkyn de Worde) and the + "Statuta familiae Roberti Grosseteste" (printed by J. S. Brewer in + _Monumenta Franciscana_, i. 582), may be from his pen; but the editor + of the latter work ascribes it to Adam de Marsh. There is less doubt + respecting the _Reules Seynt Robert_, a tract giving advice for the + management of the household of the countess of Lincoln. For + Grosseteste's life and work see Roger Bacon's _Opus majus_ (ed. J. H. + Bridges, 1897, 2 vols.) and _Opera quaedam inedita_ (ed. J. S. Brewer, + Rolls Series, 1859); M. Paris's _Chronica majora_ (ed. H. R. Luard, + Rolls Series, 1872-1883, 5 vols.); and the _Lives_ by S. Pegge (1793) + and F. S. Stevenson (1899). (H. W. C. D.) + + + + +GROSSETO, a town and episcopal see of Tuscany, capital of the province +of Grosseto, 90 m. S.S.E. of Pisa by rail. Pop. (1901) 5856 (town), 8843 +(commune). It is 38 ft. above sea-level, and is almost circular in +shape; it is surrounded by fortifications, constructed by Francis I. +(1574-1587) and Ferdinand I. (1587-1609), which form a hexagonal +enceinte with projecting bastions, with two gates only. The small +cathedral, begun in 1294, is built of red and white marble alternating, +in the Italian Gothic style; it was restored in 1855. The citadel was +built in 1311 by the Sienese. Grosseto is on the main line from Pisa to +Rome, and is also the starting-point (Montepescali, 8 m. to the N., is +the exact point of divergence) of a branch line to Asciano and Siena. + +The town dates from the middle ages. In 1138 the episcopal see was +transferred thither from Rusellae. In 1230 it, with the rest of the +Maremma, of which it is the capital, came under the dominion of Siena. +By the peace of 1559, however, it passed to Cosimo I. of Tuscany. In +1745 the malaria had grown to such an extent, owing to the neglect of +the drainage works, that Grosseto had only 648 inhabitants, though in +1224 it had 3000 men who bore arms. Leopold I. renewed drainage +operations, and by 1836 the population had risen to 2392. The malaria is +not yet entirely conquered, however, and the official headquarters of +the province are in summer transferred to Scansano (1837 ft.), 20 m. to +the S.E. by road. + + + + +GROSSI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO (?-1699), one of the greatest Italian singers +of the age of _bel canto_, better known as Siface, was born at Pescia in +Tuscany about the middle of the 17th century. He entered the papal +chapel in 1675, and later sang at Venice. He derived his nickname of +Siface from his impersonation of that character in an opera of Cavalli. +It has generally been said that he appeared as Siface in Alessandro +Scarlatti's _Mitridate_, but the confusion is due to his having sung the +part of Mitridate in Scarlatti's _Pompeo_ at Naples in 1683. In 1687 he +was sent to London by the duke of Modena, to become a member of the +chapel of James II. He probably did much for the introduction of Italian +music into England, but soon left the country on account of the climate. +Among Purcell's harpsichord music is an air entitled "Sefauchi's +Farewell." He was murdered in 1699 on the road between Bologna and +Ferrara, probably by the agents of a nobleman with whose wife he had a +_liaison_. + + See Corrado Ricci's _Vita Barocca_ (Milan, 1904). + + + + +GROSSI, TOMMASO (1791-1853), Lombard poet and novelist, was born at +Bellano, on the Lake of Como, on the 20th of January 1791. He took his +degree in law at Pavia in 1810, and proceeded thence to Milan to +exercise his profession; but the Austrian government, suspecting his +loyalty, interfered with his prospects, and in consequence Grossi was a +simple notary all his life. That the suspicion was well grounded he soon +showed by writing in the Milanese dialect the battle poem _La Prineide_, +in which he described with vivid colours the tragical death of Prina, +chief treasurer during the empire, whom the people of Milan, instigated +by Austrian agitators, had torn to pieces and dragged through the +streets of the town (1814). The poem, being anonymous, was first +attributed to the celebrated Porta, but Grossi of his own accord +acknowledged himself the author. In 1816 he published other two poems, +written likewise in Milanese--_The Golden Rain_ (La Pioggia d'oro) and +_The Fugitive_ (La Fuggitiva). These compositions secured him the +friendship of Porta and Manzoni, and the three poets came to form a sort +of romantic literary triumvirate. Grossi took advantage of the +popularity of his Milanese poems to try Italian verse, into which he +sought to introduce the moving realism which had given such satisfaction +in his earliest compositions; and in this he was entirely successful +with his poem _Ildegonda_ (1814). He next wrote an epic poem, entitled +_The Lombards in the First Crusade_, a work of which Manzoni makes +honourable mention in _I Promessi Sposi_. This composition, which was +published by subscription (1826), attained a success unequalled by that +of any other Italian poem within the century. The example of Manzoni +induced Grossi to write an historical novel entitled _Marco Visconti_ +(1834)--a work which contains passages of fine description and deep +pathos. A little later Grossi published a tale in verse, _Ulrico and +Lida_, but with this publication his poetical activity ceased. After +his marriage in 1838 he continued to employ himself as a notary in Milan +till his death on the 10th of December 1853. + + His _Life_ by Cantu appeared at Milan in 1854. + + + + +GROSSMITH, GEORGE (1847- ), English comedian, was born on the 9th of +December 1847, the son of a law reporter and entertainer of the same +name. After some years of journalistic work he started about 1870 as a +public entertainer, with songs and recitations; but in 1877 he began a +long connexion with the Gilbert and Sullivan operas at the Savoy +Theatre, London, in _The Sorcerer_. For twelve years he had the leading +part, his capacity for "patter-songs," and his humorous acting, dancing +and singing marking his creations of the chief characters in the Gilbert +and Sullivan operas as the expression of a highly original +individuality. In 1889 he left the Savoy, and again set up as an +entertainer, visiting all the cities of Great Britain and the United +States, but retiring in 1901. Among other books he wrote _The +Reminiscences of a Society Clown_ (1888); and, with his brother Weedon, +_The Diary of a Nobody_ (1894). His humorous songs and sketches numbered +over six hundred. His younger brother, Weedon Grossmith, who was +educated as a painter and exhibited at the Academy, also took to the +stage, his first notable success being in the _Pantomime Rehearsal_; in +1894 he went into management on his own account, and had much success as +a comedian. George Grossmith's two sons, Laurence Grossmith and George +Grossmith, jun., were both actors, the latter becoming a well-known +figure in the musical comedies at the Gaiety Theatre, London. + + + + +GROS VENTRES (Fr. for "Great Bellies"), or Atsina, a tribe of North +American Indians of Algonquian stock. The name is said to have reference +to the greediness of the people, but more probably originated from their +prominent tattooing. They are settled at Fort Belknap agency, Montana. +The name has also been given to other tribes, e.g. the Hidatsa or +Minitari, now at Fort Berthold, North Dakota. + + + + +GROTE, GEORGE (1794-1871), English historian of Greece, was born on the +17th of November 1794, at Clay Hill near Beckenham in Kent. His +grandfather, Andreas, originally a Bremen merchant, was one of the +founders (1st of January 1766) of the banking-house of Grote, Prescott & +Company in Threadneedle Street, London (the name of Grote did not +disappear from the firm till 1879). His father, also George, married +(1793) Selina, daughter of Henry Peckwell (1747-1787), minister of the +countess of Huntingdon's chapel in Westminster (descended from a +Huguenot family, the de Blossets, who had left Touraine on the +revocation of the Edict of Nantes), and had one daughter and ten sons, +of whom the historian was the eldest. Educated at first by his mother, +George Grote was sent to the Sevenoaks grammar school (1800-1804) and +afterwards to Charterhouse (1804-1810), where he studied under Dr Raine +in company with Connop Thirlwall, George and Horace Waddington and Henry +Havelock. In spite of Grote's school successes, his father refused to +send him to the university and put him in the bank in 1810. He spent all +his spare time in the study of classics, history, metaphysics and +political economy, and in learning German, French and Italian. Driven by +his mother's Puritanism and his father's contempt for academic learning +to outside society, he became intimate with Charles Hay Cameron, who +strengthened him in his love of philosophy, and George W. Norman, +through whom he met his wife, Miss Harriet Lewin (see below). After +various difficulties the marriage took place on the 5th of March 1820, +and was in all respects a happy union. + +In the meanwhile Grote had finally decided his philosophic and political +attitude. In 1817 he came under the influence of David Ricardo, and +through him of James Mill and Jeremy Bentham. He settled in 1820 in a +house attached to the bank in Threadneedle Street, where his only child +died a week after its birth. During Mrs Grote's slow convalescence at +Hampstead, he wrote his first published work, the _Statement of the +Question of Parliamentary Reform_ (1821), in reply to Sir James +Mackintosh's article in the _Edinburgh Review_, advocating popular +representation, vote by ballot and short parliaments. In 1822 he +published in the _Morning Chronicle_ (April) a letter against Canning's +attack on Lord John Russell, and edited, or rather re-wrote, some +discursive papers of Bentham, which he published under the title +_Analysis of the Influence of Natural Religion on the Temporal Happiness +of Mankind by Philip Beauchamp_ (1822). The book was published in the +name of Richard Carlile, then in gaol at Dorchester. Though not a member +of J. S. Mill's Utilitarian Society (1822-1823). he took a great +interest in a society for reading and discussion, which met (from 1823) +in a room at the bank before business hours twice a week. From the +_Posthumous Papers_ (pp. 22, 24) it is clear that Mrs Grote was wrong in +asserting that she first in 1823 (autumn) suggested the _History of +Greece_; the book was already in preparation in 1822, though what was +then written was subsequently reconstructed. In 1826 Grote published in +the _Westminster Review_ (April) a criticism of Mitford's _History of +Greece_, which shows that his ideas were already in order. From 1826 to +1830 he was hard at work with J. S. Mill and Henry Brougham in the +organization of the new "university" in Gower Street. He was a member of +the council which organized the faculties and the curriculum; but in +1830, owing to a difference with Mill as to an appointment to one of the +philosophical chairs, he resigned his position. + +In 1830 he went abroad, and, attracted by the political crisis, spent +some months in Paris in the society of the Liberal leaders. Recalled by +his father's death (6th of July), he not only became manager of the +bank, but took a leading position among the city Radicals. In 1831 he +published his important _Essentials of Parliamentary Reform_ (an +elaboration of his previous _Statement_), and, after refusing to stand +as parliamentary candidate for the city in 1831, changed his mind and +was elected head of the poll, with three other Liberals, in December +1832. After serving in three parliaments, he resigned in 1841, by which +time his party ("the philosophic Radicals") had dwindled away. During +these years of active public life, his interest in Greek history and +philosophy had increased, and after a trip to Italy in 1842, he severed +his connexion with the bank and devoted himself to literature. In 1846 +the first two volumes of the _History_ appeared, and the remaining ten +between 1847 and the spring of 1856. In 1845 with Molesworth and Raikes +Currie he gave monetary assistance to Auguste Comte (q.v.), then in +financial difficulties. The formation of the Sonderbund (20th of July +1847) led him to visit Switzerland and study for himself a condition of +things in some sense analogous to that of the ancient Greek states. This +visit resulted in the publication in the _Spectator_ of seven weekly +letters, collected in book form at the end of 1847 (see a letter to de +Tocqueville in Mrs Grote's reprint of the _Seven Letters_, 1876). + +In 1856 Grote began to prepare his works on Plato and Aristotle. _Plato +and the Other Companions of Sokrates_ (3 vols.) appeared in 1865, but +the work on Aristotle he was not destined to complete. He had finished +the _Organon_ and was about to deal with the metaphysical and physical +treatises when he died on the 18th of June 1871, and was buried in +Westminster Abbey. He was a man of strong character and self-control, +unfailing courtesy and unswerving devotion to what he considered the +best interests of the nation. To colleagues and subordinates alike, he +was considerate and tolerant; he was unassuming, trustworthy in the +smallest detail, accurate and comprehensive in thought, energetic and +conscientious in action. Yet, hidden under his calm exterior there was a +burning enthusiasm and a depth of passion of which only his intimate +friends were aware. + +His work may best be considered under the following heads: + +1. _Grote's Services to Education._--He took, as already stated, an +important part in the foundation and organization of the original +university of London, which began its public work in Gower Street on the +28th of October 1828, and in 1836, on the incorporation of the +university of London proper, became known as University College. In 1849 +he was re-elected to the council, in 1860 he became treasurer, and on +the death of Brougham (1868) president. He took a keen interest in all +the work of the college, presented to it the _Marmor Homericum_, and +finally bequeathed the reversion of L6000 for the endowment of a chair +of philosophy of mind and logic. The emoluments of this sum were, +however, to be held over and added to the principal if at any time the +holder of the chair should be "a minister of the Church of England or of +any other religious persuasion." In 1850 the senate of the university +was reconstituted, and Grote was one of seven eminent men who were added +to it. Eventually he became the strongest advocate for open +examinations, for the claims not only of philosophy and classics but +also of natural science, and, as vice-chancellor in 1862, for the +admission of women to examinations. This latter reform was carried in +1868. He succeeded his friend Henry Hallam as a trustee of the British +Museum in 1859, and took part in the reorganization of the departments +of antiquities and natural science. + +The honours which he received in recognition of these services were as +follows: D.C.L. of Oxford (1853); LL.D. Cambridge (1861); F.R.S. (1857); +honorary professor of ancient history in the Royal Academy (1859). By +the French Academy of Moral and Political Sciences he was made +correspondent (1857) and foreign associate (the first Englishman since +Macaulay) (1864). In 1869 he refused Gladstone's offer of a peerage. + +2. _Political Career._--In politics Grote belonged to the "philosophic +Radicals" of the school of J. S. Mill and Bentham, whose chief +principles were representative government, vote by ballot, the abolition +of a state church, frequent elections. He adhered to these principles +throughout, and refused to countenance any reforms which were +incompatible with them. By this uncompromising attitude, he gradually +lost all his supporters save a few men of like rigidity. As a speaker, +he was clear, logical and impressive, and on select committees his +common sense was most valuable. For his speeches see A. Bain in the +_Minor Works_; see also BALLOT. + +3. _The History of Greece._--It is on this work that Grote's reputation +mainly rests. Though half a century has passed since its production, it +is still in some sense the text-book. It consists of two parts, the +"Legendary" and the "Historical" Greece. The former, owing to the +development of comparative mythology, is now of little authority, and +portions of part ii. are obsolete owing partly to the immense +accumulations of epigraphic and archaeological research, partly to the +subsequent discovery of the Aristotelian _Constitution of Athens_, and +partly also to the more careful weighing of evidence which Grote himself +misinterpreted. The interest of the work is twofold. In the first place +it contains a wonderful mass of information carefully collected from all +sources, arranged on a simple plan, and expressed in direct forcible +language. It is in this respect one of the few great comprehensive +histories in our possession, great in scope, conception and +accomplishment. But more than this it is interesting as among the first +works in which Greek history became a separate study, based on real +evidence and governed by the criteria of modern historical science. +Further Grote, a practical man, a rationalist and an enthusiast for +democracy, was the first to consider Greek political development with a +sympathetic interest (see GREECE: _History, Ancient_, section +"Authorities"), in opposition to the Tory attitude of John Gillies and +Mitford, who had written under the influence of horror at the French +Revolution. On the whole his work was done with impartiality, and more +recent study has only confirmed his general conclusions. Much has been +made of his defective accounts of the tyrants and the Macedonian empire, +and his opinion that Greek history ceased to be interesting or +instructive after Chaeronea. It is true that he confined his interest to +the fortunes of the city state and neglected the wider diffusion of the +Greek culture, but this is after all merely a criticism of the title of +the book. The value of the _History_ consists to-day primarily in its +examination of the Athenian democracy, its growth and decline, an +examination which is still the most inspiring, and in general the most +instructive, in any language. In the description of battles and military +operations generally Grote was handicapped by the lack of personal +knowledge of the country. In this respect he is inferior to men like +Ernst Curtius and G. B. Grundy. + +4. _In Philosophy_ Grote was a follower of the Mills and Bentham. J. S. +Mill paid a tribute to him in the preface to the third edition of his +_Examination of Sir Wm. Hamilton's Philosophy_, and there is no doubt +that the empirical school owed a great deal to his sound, accurate +thinking, untrammelled by any reverence for authority, technique and +convention. In dealing with Plato he was handicapped by this very common +sense, which prevented him from appreciating the theory of ideas in its +widest relations. His _Plato_ is important in that it emphasizes the +generally neglected passages of Plato in which he seems to indulge in +mere Socratic dialectic rather than to seek knowledge; it is, therefore, +to be read as a corrective to the ordinary criticism of Plato. The more +congenial study of Aristotle, though incomplete, is more valuable in the +positive sense, and has not received the attention it deserves. Perhaps +Grote's most distinctive contribution to the study of Greek philosophy +is his chapter in the _History of Greece_ on the Sophists, of whom he +took a view somewhat more favourable than has been accepted before or +since. + +His wife, HARRIET LEWIN (1792-1878), was the daughter of Thomas Lewin, a +retired Indian civilian, settled in Southampton. After her marriage with +Grote in 1820 she devoted herself to the subjects in which he was +interested and was a prominent figure in the literary, political and +philosophical circle in which he lived. She carefully read the proofs of +his work and relieved him of anxiety in connexion with his property. +Among her writings are: _Memoir of Ary Scheffer_ (1860); _Collected +Papers_ (1862); and her biography of her husband (1873). Another +publication, _The Philosophical Radicals of 1832_ (privately circulated +in 1866), is interesting for the light it throws on the Reform movement +of 1832 to 1842, especially on Molesworth. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_The History of Greece_ passed through five editions + the fifth (10 vols., 1888) being final. An edition covering the period + from Solon to 403, with new notes and excursuses, was published by J. + M. Mitchell and M. O. B. Caspari in 1907. The _Plato_ was finally + edited by Alexander Bain in 4 vols. See Mrs Grote's _Personal Life of + George Grote_, and article in _Dict. Nat. Biog._ by G. Croom + Robertson. (J. M. M.) + + + + +GROTEFEND, GEORG FRIEDRICH (1775-1853), German epigraphist, was born at +Munden in Hanover on the 9th of June 1775. He was educated partly in his +native town, partly at Ilfeld, where he remained till 1795, when he +entered the university of Gottingen, and there became the friend of +Heyne, Tychsen and Heeren. Heyne's recommendation procured for him an +assistant mastership in the Gottingen gymnasium in 1797. While there he +published his work _De pasigraphia sive scriptura universali_ (1799), +which led to his appointment in 1803 as prorector of the gymnasium of +Frankfort-on-Main, and shortly afterwards as conrector. Grotefend was +best known during his lifetime as a Latin and Italian philologist, +though the attention he paid to his own language is shown by his +_Anfangsgrunde der deutschen Poesie_, published in 1815, and his +foundation of a society for investigating the German tongue in 1817. In +1821 he became director of the gymnasium at Hanover, a post which he +retained till his retirement in 1849. In 1823-1824 appeared his revised +edition of Wenck's Latin grammar, in two volumes, followed by a smaller +grammar for the use of schools in 1826; in 1835-1838 a systematic +attempt to explain the fragmentary remains of the Umbrian dialect, +entitled _Rudimenta linguae Umbricae ex inscriptionibus antiquis +enodata_ (in eight parts); and in 1839 a work of similar character upon +Oscan (_Rudimenta linguae Oscae_). In the same year he published an +important memoir on the coins of Bactria, under the name of _Die Munzen +der griechischen, parthischen, und indoskythischen Konige von Bactrien +und den Landern am Indus_. He soon, however, returned to his favourite +subject, and brought out a work in five parts, _Zur Geographie und +Geschichte von Altitalien_ (1840-1842). Previously, in 1836, he had +written a preface to Wagenfeld's translation of the spurious +_Sanchoniathon_ of Philo Byblius, which was alleged to have been +discovered in the preceding year in the Portuguese convent of Santa +Maria de Merinhao. But it was in the East rather than in the West that +Grotefend did his greatest work. The cuneiform inscriptions of Persia +had for some time been attracting attention in Europe; exact copies of +them had been published by the elder Niebuhr, who lost his eyesight over +the work; and Grotefend's friend, Tychsen of Rostock, believed that he +had ascertained the characters in the column, now known to be Persian, +to be alphabetic. At this point Grotefend took the matter up. His first +discovery was communicated to the Royal Society of Gottingen in 1800, +and reviewed by Tychsen two years afterwards. In 1815 he gave an account +of it in Heeren's great work on ancient history, and in 1837 published +his _Neue Beitrage zur Erlauterung der persepolitanischen Keilschrift_. +Three years later appeared his _Neue Beitrage zur Erlauterung der +babylonischen Keilschrift_. His discovery may be summed up as follows: +(1) that the Persian inscriptions contain three different forms of +cuneiform writing, so that the decipherment of the one would give the +key to the decipherment of the others; (2) that the characters of the +Persian column are alphabetic and not syllabic; (3) that they must be +read from left to right; (4) that the alphabet consists of forty +letters, including signs for long and short vowels; and (5) that the +Persepolitan inscriptions are written in Zend (which, however, is not +the case), and must be ascribed to the age of the Achaemenian princes. +The process whereby Grotefend arrived at these conclusions is a +prominent illustration of persevering genius (see CUNEIFORM). A solid +basis had thus been laid for the interpretation of the Persian +inscriptions, and all that remained was to work out the results of +Grotefend's brilliant discovery, a task ably performed by Burnouf, +Lassen and Rawlinson. Grotefend died on the 15th of December 1853. + + + + +GROTESQUE, strictly a form of decorative art, in painting or sculpture, +consisting of fantastic shapes of human beings, animals and the like, +joined together by wreaths of flowers, garlands or arabesques. The word +is also applied to any whimsical design or decorative style, if +characterized by unnatural distortion, and, generally, to anything +ludicrous or extravagantly fanciful. "Grotesque" comes through the +French from the Ital. _grottesco_, an adjective formed from _grotta_, +which has been corrupted in English to "grotto." The commonly accepted +explanation of the special use of the term "grotesque" is that this +particular form of decorative art was most frequently found in the +excavated ancient Roman and Greek dwellings found in Italy, to which was +applied the name _grotte_. The derivation of _grotta_ is through popular +Lat. _crupta_ or _grupta_ (cf. "crypt"), from Gr. [Greek: kypte], a +vault, [Greek: kryptein], to hide. Such a term would be applicable both +to the buried dwellings of ancient Italy, and to a cavern, artificial or +natural, the ordinary sense of the word. An interesting parallel with +this origin of the word is found in that of "antic," now meaning a +freak, a jest, absurd fancy, &c. This word is the same as "antique," and +was, like "grotesque," first applied to the fanciful decorations of +ancient art. + + + + +GROTH, KLAUS (1819-1899), Low German poet, was born at Heide in +Schleswig-Holstein, on the 24th of April 1819. After studying at the +seminary in Tondern (1838-1841), he became a teacher at the girls' +school in his native village, but in 1847 went to Kiel to qualify for a +higher educational post. Ill-health interrupted his studies and it was +not until 1853 that he was able to resume them at Kiel. In 1856 he took +the degree of doctor of philosophy at Bonn, and in 1858 settled as +_privatdocent_ in German literature and languages at Kiel, where, in +1866, he was made professor, and where he lived until his death on the +1st of June 1899. In his Low German (_Plattdeutsch_) lyric and epic +poems, which reflect the influence of Johann Peter Hebel (q.v.), Groth +gives poetic expression to the country life of his northern home; and +though his descriptions may not always reflect the peculiar +characteristics of the peasantry of Holstein as faithfully as those of +F. Reuter (q.v.), yet Groth is a lyric poet of genuine inspiration. His +chief works are _Quickborn, Volksleben in plattdeutschen Gedichten +Ditmarscher Mundart_ (1852; 25th ed. 1900; and in High German +translations, notably by M. J. Berchem, Krefeld, 1896); and two volumes +of stories, _Vertelln_ (1855-1859, 3rd ed. 1881); also _Voer de Goern_ +(1858) and _Ut min Jungsparadies_ (1875). + + Groth's _Gesammelte Werke_ appeared in 4 vols. (1893). His + _Lebenserinnerungen_ were edited by E. Wolff in 1891; see also K. + Eggers, _K. Groth und die plattdeutsche Dichtung_ (1885); and + biographies by A. Bartels (1899) and H. Siercks (1899.) + + + + + +GROTH, PAUL HEINRICH VON (1843- ), German mineralogist, was born at +Magdeburg on the 23rd of June 1843. He was educated at Freiberg, Dresden +and Berlin, and took the degree of Ph.D. in 1868. After holding from +1872 the chair of mineralogy at Strasburg, he was in 1883 appointed +professor of mineralogy and curator of minerals in the state museum at +Munich. He carried on extensive researches on crystals and minerals, and +also on rocks; and published _Tabellarische Ubersicht der einfachen +Mineralien_ (1874-1898), and _Physikalische Krystallographie_ +(1876-1895, ed. 4, 1905). He edited for some years the _Zeitschrift fur +Krystallographie und Mineralogie_. + + + + +GROTIUS, HUGO (1583-1645), in his native country Huig van Groot, but +known to the rest of Europe by the latinized form of the name, Dutch +publicist and statesman, was born at Delft on Easter day, the 10th of +April 1583. The Groots were a branch of a family of distinction, which +had been noble in France, but had removed to the Low Countries more than +a century before. Their French name was de Cornets, and this cadet +branch had taken the name of Groot on the marriage of Hugo's +great-grandfather with a Dutch heiress. The father of Hugo was a lawyer +in considerable practice, who had four times served the office of +burgomaster of Leiden, and was one of the three curators of the +university of that place. + +In the annals of precocious genius there is no greater prodigy on record +than Hugo Grotius, who was able to make good Latin verses at nine, was +ripe for the university at twelve, and at fifteen edited the +encyclopaedic work of Martianus Capella. At Leiden he was much noticed +by J. J. Scaliger, whose habit it was to engage his young friends in the +editing of some classical text. At fifteen Grotius accompanied Count +Justin of Nassau, and the grand pensionary J. van Olden Barneveldt on +their special embassy to the court of France. After a year spent in +acquiring the language and making acquaintance with the leading men of +France, Grotius returned home. He took the degree of doctor of law at +Leiden, and entered on practice as an advocate. + +Notwithstanding his successes in his profession, his inclination was to +literature. In 1600 he edited the remains of Aratus, with the versions +of Cicero, Germanicus and Avienus. Of the _Germanicus_ Scaliger says--"A +better text than that which Grotius has given, it is impossible to +give"; but it is probable that Scaliger had himself been the reviser. +Grotius vied with the Latinists of his day in the composition of Latin +verses. Some lines on the siege of Ostend spread his fame beyond the +circle of the learned. He wrote three dramas in Latin:--_Christus +patiens; Sophomphaneas_, on the story of Joseph and his brethren; and +_Adamus exul_, a production still remembered as having given hints to +Milton. The _Sophomphaneas_ was translated into Dutch by Vondel, and +into English by Francis Goldsmith (1652); the _Christus patiens_ into +English by George Sandys (1640). + +In 1603 the United Provinces, desiring to transmit to posterity some +account of their struggle with Spain, determined to appoint a +historiographer. The choice of the states fell upon Grotius, though he +was but twenty years of age, and had not offered himself for the post. +There was some talk at this time in Paris of calling Grotius to be +librarian of the royal library. But it was a ruse of the Jesuit party, +who wished to persuade the public that the opposition to the appointment +of Isaac Casaubon did not proceed from theological motives, since they +were ready to appoint a Protestant in the person of Grotius. + +His next preferment was that of advocate-general of the fisc for the +provinces of Holland and Zeeland. This was followed by his marriage, in +1608, to Marie Reigersberg, a lady of family in Zeeland, a woman of +great capacity and noble disposition. + +Grotius had already passed from occupation with the classics to studies +more immediately connected with his profession. In the winter of 1604 he +composed (but did not publish) a treatise entitled _De jure praedae_. +The MS. remained unknown till 1868, when it was brought to light, and +printed at the Hague under the auspices of Professor Fruin. It shows +that the principles and the plan of the celebrated _De jure belli_, +which was not composed till 1625, more than twenty years after, had +already been conceived by a youth of twenty-one. It has always been a +question what it was that determined Grotius, when an exile in Paris in +1625, to that particular subject, and various explanations have been +offered; among others a casual suggestion of Peiresc in a letter of +early date. The discovery of the MS. of the _De jure praedae_ discloses +the whole history of Grotius's ideas, and shows that from youth upwards +he had steadily read and meditated in one direction, that, namely, of +which the famous _De jure belli_ was the mature product. In the _De jure +praedae_ of 1604 there is much more than the germ of the later treatise +_De jure belli_. Its main principles, and the whole system of thought +implied in the later, are anticipated in the earlier work. The +arrangement even is the same. The chief difference between the two +treatises is one which twenty years' experience in affairs could not but +bring--the substitution of more cautious and guarded language, less +dogmatic affirmation, more allowance for exceptions and deviations. The +_Jus pacis_ was an addition introduced first in the later work, an +insertion which is the cause of not a little of the confused arrangement +which has been found fault with in the _De jure belli_. + +The _De jure praedae_ further demonstrates that Grotius was originally +determined to this subject, not by any speculative intellectual +interest, but by a special occasion presented by his professional +engagements. He was retained by the Dutch East India Company as their +advocate. One of their captains, Heemskirk, had captured a rich +Portuguese galleon in the Straits of Malacca. The right of a private +company to make prizes was hotly contested in Holland, and denied by the +stricter religionists, especially the Mennonites, who considered all war +unlawful. Grotius undertook to prove that Heemskirk's prize had been +lawfully captured. In doing this he was led to investigate the grounds +of the lawfulness of war in general. Such was the casual origin of a +book which long enjoyed such celebrity that it used to be said, with +some exaggeration indeed, that it had founded a new science. + +A short treatise which was printed in 1609, Grotius says without his +permission, under the title of _Mare liberum_, is nothing more than a +chapter--the 12th--of the _De jure praedae_. It was necessary to +Grotius's defence of Heemskirk that he should show that the Portuguese +pretence that Eastern waters were their private property was untenable. +Grotius maintains that the ocean is free to all nations. The occasional +character of this piece explains the fact that at the time of its +appearance it made no sensation. It was not till many years afterwards +that the jealousies between England and Holland gave importance to the +novel doctrine broached in the tract by Grotius, a doctrine which Selden +set himself to refute in his _Mare clausum_ (1632). + +Equally due to the circumstances of the time was his small contribution +to constitutional history entitled _De antiquitate reipublicae Batavae_ +(1610). In this he vindicates, on grounds of right, prescriptive and +natural, the revolt of the United Provinces against the sovereignty of +Spain. + +Grotius, when he was only thirty, was made pensionary of the city of +Rotterdam. In 1613 he formed one of a deputation to England, in an +attempt to adjust those differences which gave rise afterwards to a +naval struggle disastrous to Holland. He was received by James with +every mark of distinction. He also cultivated the acquaintance of the +Anglican ecclesiastics John Overall and L. Andrewes, and was much in the +society of the celebrated scholar Isaac Casaubon, with whom he had been +in correspondence by letter for many years. Though the mediating views +in the great religious conflict between Catholic and Protestant, by +which Grotius was afterwards known, had been arrived at by him by +independent reflection, yet it could not but be that he would be +confirmed in them by finding in England a developed school of thought of +the same character already in existence. How highly Casaubon esteemed +Grotius appears from a letter of his to Daniel Heinsius, dated London, +13th of April 1613. "I cannot say how happy I esteem myself in having +seen so much of one so truly great as Grotius. A wonderful man! This I +knew him to be before I had seen him; but the rare excellence of that +divine genius no one can sufficiently feel who does not see his face, +and hear him speak. Probity is stamped on his features; his conversation +savours of true piety and profound learning. It is not only upon me that +he has made this impression; all the pious and learned to whom he has +been here introduced have felt the same towards him; the king especially +so!" + +After Grotius's return from England the exasperation of theological +parties in Holland rose to such a pitch that it became clear that an +appeal to force would be made. Grotius sought to find some mean term in +which the two hostile parties of Remonstrants and Anti-remonstrants, or +as they were subsequently called Arminians and Gomarists (see +Remonstrants), might agree. A form of edict drawn by Grotius was +published by the states, recommending mutual toleration, and forbidding +ministers in the pulpit from handling the disputed dogmas. To the +orthodox Calvinists the word toleration was insupportable. They had the +populace on their side. This fact determined the stadtholder, Maurice of +Nassau, to support the orthodox party--a party to which he inclined the +more readily that Olden Barneveldt, the grand pensionary, the man whose +uprightness and abilities he most dreaded, sided with the Remonstrants. + +In 1618 Prince Maurice set out on a sort of pacific campaign, disbanding +the civic guards in the various cities of Guelders, Holland and Zeeland, +and occupying the places with troops on whom he could rely. The states +of Holland sent a commission, of which Grotius was chairman, to Utrecht, +with the view of strengthening the hands of their friends, the +Remonstrant party, in that city. Feeble plans were formed, but not +carried into effect, for shutting the gates upon the stadtholder, who +entered the city with troops on the night of the 26th of July 1618. +There were conferences in which Grotius met Prince Maurice, and taught +him that Olden Barneveldt was not the only man of capacity in the ranks +of the Remonstrants whom he had to fear. On the early morning of the +31st of July the prince's _coup d'etat_ against the liberties of Utrecht +and of Holland was carried out; the civic guard was disarmed--Grotius +and his colleagues saving themselves by a precipitate flight. But it was +only a reprieve. The grand pensionary, Olden Barneveldt, the leader of +the Remonstrant party, Grotius and Hoogerbeets were arrested, brought to +trial, and condemned--Olden Barneveldt to death, and Grotius to +imprisonment for life and confiscation of his property. In June 1619 he +was immured in the fortress of Louvestein near Gorcum. His confinement +was rigorous, but after a time his wife obtained permission to share his +captivity, on the condition that if she came out, she should not be +suffered to return. + +Grotius had now before him, at thirty-six, no prospect but that of a +life-long captivity. He did not abandon himself to despair, but sought +refuge in returning to the classical pursuits of his youth. Several of +his translations (into Latin) from the Greek tragedians and other +writers, made at this time, have been printed. "The Muses," he writes to +Voss, "were now his consolation, and appeared more amiable than ever." + +The ingenuity of Madame Grotius at length devised a mode of escape. It +had grown into a custom to send the books which he had done with in a +chest along with his linen to be washed at Gorcum. After a time the +warders began to let the chest pass without opening it. Madame Grotius, +perceiving this, prevailed on her husband to allow himself to be shut up +in it at the usual time. The two soldiers who carried the chest out +complained that it was so heavy "there must be an Arminian in it." +"There are indeed," said Madame Grotius, "Arminian books in it." The +chest was carried to the house of a friend, where Grotius was released. +He was then dressed like a mason with hod and trowel, and so conveyed +over the frontier. His first place of refuge was Antwerp, from which he +proceeded to Paris, where he arrived in April 1621. In October he was +joined by his wife. There he was presented to the king, Louis XIII., and +a pension of 3000 livres conferred upon him. French pensions were easily +granted, all the more so as they were never paid. Grotius was now +reduced to great straits. He looked about for any opening through which +he might earn a living. There was talk of something in Denmark; or he +would settle in Spires, and practise in the court there. Some little +relief he got through the intervention of Etienne d'Aligre, the +chancellor, who procured a royal mandate which enabled Grotius to draw, +not all, but a large part of his pension. In 1623 the president Henri de +Meme lent him his chateau of Balagni near Senlis (dep. Oise), and there +Grotius passed the spring and summer of that year. De Thou gave him +facilities to borrow books from the superb library formed by his father. + +In these circumstances the _De jure belli et pacis_ was composed. That a +work of such immense reading, consisting in great part of quotation, +should have been written in little more than a year was a source of +astonishment to his biographers. The achievement would have been +impossible, but for the fact that Grotius had with him the first draft +of the work made in 1604. He had also got his brother William, when +reading his classics, to mark down all the passages which touched upon +law, public or private. In March 1625 the printing of the _De jure +belli_, which had taken four months, was completed, and the edition +despatched to the fair at Frankfort. His own honorarium as author +consisted of 200 copies, of which, however, he had to give away many to +friends, to the king, the principal courtiers, the papal nuncio, &c. +What remained he sold for his own profit at the price of a crown each, +but the sale did not recoup him his outlay. But though his book brought +him no profit it brought him reputation, so widely spread, and of such +long endurance, as no other legal treatise has ever enjoyed. + +Grotius hoped that his fame would soften the hostility of his foes, and +that his country would recall him to her service. Theological rancour, +however, prevailed over all other sentiments, and, after fruitless +attempts to re-establish himself in Holland, Grotius accepted service +under Sweden, in the capacity of ambassador to France. He was not very +successful in negotiating the treaty on behalf of the Protestant +interest in Germany, Richelieu having a special dislike to him. He never +enjoyed the confidence of the court to which he was accredited, and +frittered away his influence in disputes about precedence. In 1645 he +demanded and obtained his recall. He was honourably received at +Stockholm, but neither the climate nor the tone of the court suited him, +and he asked permission to leave. He was driven by a storm on the coast +near Dantzig. He got as far as Rostock, where he found himself very ill. +Stockman, a Scottish physician who was sent for, thought it was only +weakness, and that rest would restore the patient. But Grotius sank +rapidly, and died on the 29th of August 1645. + +Grotius combined a wide circle of general knowledge with a profound +study of one branch of law. History, theology, jurisprudence, politics, +classics, poetry,--all these fields he cultivated. His commentaries on +the Scriptures were the first application on an extensive scale of the +principle affirmed by Scaliger, that, namely, of interpretation by the +rules of grammar without dogmatic assumptions. Grotius's philological +skill, however, was not sufficient to enable him to work up to this +ideal. + +As in many other points Grotius inevitably recalls Erasmus, so he does +in his attitude towards the great schism. Grotius was, however, animated +by an ardent desire for peace and concord. He thought that a basis for +reconciliation of Protestant and Catholic might be found in a common +piety, combined with reticence upon discrepancies of doctrinal +statement. His _De veritate religionis Christianae_ (1627), a +presentment of the evidences, is so written as to form a code of common +Christianity, irrespective of sect. The little treatise became widely +popular, gaining rather than losing popularity in the 18th century. It +became the classical manual of apologetics in Protestant colleges, and +was translated for missionary purposes into Arabic (by Pococke, 1660), +Persian, Chinese, &c. His _Via et votum ad pacem ecclesiasticam_ (1642) +was a detailed proposal of a scheme of accommodation. Like all men of +moderate and mediating views, he was charged by both sides with +vacillation. An Amsterdam minister, James Laurent, published his +_Grotius papizans_ (1642), and it was continually being announced from +Paris that Grotius had "gone over." Hallam, who has collected all the +passages from Grotius's letters in which the prejudices and narrow +tenets of the Reformed clergy are condemned, thought he had a "bias +towards popery" (_Lit. of Europe_, ii. 312). The true interpretation of +Grotius's mind appears to be an indifference to dogmatic propositions, +produced by a profound sentiment of piety. He approached parties as a +statesman approaches them, as facts which have to be dealt with, and +governed, not suppressed in the interests of some one of their number. + +His editions and translations of the classics were either juvenile +exercises prescribed by Scaliger, or "lusus poetici," the amusement of +vacant hours. Grotius read the classics as a humanist, for the sake of +their contents, not as a professional scholar. + +His _Annals of the Low Countries_ was begun as an official duty while he +held the appointment of historiographer, and was being continued and +retouched by him to the last. It was not published till 1657, by his +sons Peter and Cornelius. + +Grotius was a great jurist, and his _De jure belli et pacis_ (Paris, +1625), though not the first attempt in modern times to ascertain the +principles of jurisprudence, went far more fundamentally into the +discussion than any one had done before him. The title of the work was +so far misleading that the _jus belli_ was a very small part of his +comprehensive scheme. In his treatment of this narrower question he had +the works of Alberico Gentili and Ayala before him, and has acknowledged +his obligations to them. But it is in the larger questions to which he +opened the way that the merit of Grotius consists. His was the first +attempt to obtain a principle of right, and a basis for society and +government, outside the church or the Bible. The distinction between +religion on the one hand and law and morality on the other is not indeed +clearly conceived by Grotius, but he wrestles with it in such a way as +to make it easy for those who followed him to seize it. The law of +nature is unalterable; God Himself cannot alter it any more than He can +alter a mathematical axiom. This law has its source in the nature of man +as a social being; it would be valid even were there no God, or if God +did not interfere in the government of the world. These positions, +though Grotius's religious temper did not allow him to rely unreservedly +upon them, yet, even in the partial application they find in his book, +entitle him to the honour of being held the founder of the modern +science of the law of nature and nations. The _De jure_ exerted little +influence on the practice of belligerents, yet its publication was an +epoch in the science. De Quincey has said that the book is equally +divided between "empty truisms and time-serving Dutch falsehoods." For a +saner judgment and a brief abstract of the contents of the _De jure_, +consult J. K. Bluntschli, _Geschichte des allgemeinen Staatsrechts_ +(Munich, 1864). A fuller analysis, and some notice of the predecessors +of Grotius, will be found in Hely, _Etude sur le droit de la guerre de +Grotius_ (Paris, 1875). The writer, however, had never heard of the _De +jure praedae_, published in 1868. Hallam, _Lit. of Europe_, ii. p. 543, +has an abstract done with his usual conscientious pains. Dugald Stewart +(_Collected Works_, i. 370) has dwelt upon the confusion and defects of +Grotius's theory. Sir James Mackintosh (_Miscell. Works_, p. 166) has +defended Grotius, affirming that his work "is perhaps the most complete +that the world has yet owed, at so early a stage in the progress of any +science, to the genius and learning of one man." + + The chief writings of Grotius have been named. For a complete + bibliography of his works, see Lehmann, _Hugonis Grotii manes + vindicati_ (Delft, 1727), which also contains a full biography. Of + this Latin life De Burigny published a rechauffee in French (2 vols., + 8vo, Paris, 1752). Other lives are: Van Brandt, _Historie van het + Leven H. de Groot_ (2 vols., 8vo, Dordrecht, 1727); Von Luden, _Hugo + Grotius nach seinen Schicksalen und Schriften dargestellt_ (8vo, + Berlin, 1806); _Life of Hugo Grotius_, by Charles Butler of Lincoln's + Inn (8vo, London, 1826). The work of the Abbe Hely contains a life of + Grotius. See also _Hugo Grotius_, by L. Neumann (Berlin, 1884); + _Opinions of Grotius_, by D. P. de Bruyn (London, 1894). + + Grotius's theological works were collected in 3 vols. fol. at + Amsterdam (1644-1646; reprinted London, 1660; Amsterdam, 1679; and + again Amsterdam, 1698). His letters were printed first in a selection, + _Epistolae ad Gallos_ (12mo, Leiden, 1648), abounding, though an + Elzevir, in errors of the press. They were collected in _H. Grotii + epistolae quotquot reperiri poluerunt_ (fol., Amsterdam, 1687). A few + may be found scattered in other collections of _Epistolae_. + Supplements to the large collection of 1687 were published at Haarlem, + 1806; Leiden, 1809; and Haarlem, 1829. The _De jure belli_ was + translated into English by Whewell (3 vols., 8vo, Cambridge, 1853); + into French by Barbeyrac (2 vols. 4to, Amsterdam, 1724); into German + in Kirchmann's _Philosophische Bibliothek_ (3 vols. 12mo, Leipzig, + 1879). (M. P.) + + + + +GROTTAFERRATA, a village of Italy, in the province of Rome, from which +it is 13 m. S.E. by electric tramway, and 2-1/2 m. S. of Frascati, 1080 +ft. above sea-level, in the Alban Hills. Pop. (1901) 2645. It is +noticeable for the Greek monastery of Basilians founded by S. Nilus in +1002 under the Emperor Otho III., and which occupies the site of a large +Roman villa, possibly that of Cicero. It was fortified at the end of the +15th century by Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere (afterwards Pope Julius +II.), whose arms may be seen about it. The massive towers added by him +give it a picturesque appearance. The church belongs to the 12th +century, and the original portal, with a mosaic over it, is still +preserved; the interior was restored in 1574 and in 1754, but there are +some remains of frescoes of the 13th century. The chapel of S. Nilus +contains frescoes by Domenico Zampieri (Domenichino) of 1610, +illustrating the life of the saint, which are among his most important +works. The abbot's palace has a fine Renaissance portico, and contains +an interesting museum of local antiquities. The library contains +valuable MSS., among them one from the hand of S. Nilus (965); and a +palaeographical school, for the copying of MSS. in the ancient style, is +maintained. An _omophorion_ of the 11th or 12th century, with scenes +from the Gospel in needlework, and a chalice of the 15th century with +enamels, given by Cardinal Bessarion, the predecessor of Giuliano della +Rovere as commendatory of the abbey, are among its treasures. An +important exhibition of Italo-Byzantine art was held here in 1905-1906. + + See A. Rocchi, _La Badia di Grottaferrata_ (Rome, 1884); A. Munoz, + _L'Art byzantin a l'exposition de Grottaferrata_ (Rome, 1905); T. + Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, iv. (1907). + (T. As.) + + + + +GROUCHY, EMMANUEL, MARQUIS DE (1766-1847), marshal of France, was born +in Paris on the 23rd of October 1766. He entered the French artillery in +1779, transferred to the cavalry in 1782, and to the _Gardes du corps_ +in 1786. In spite of his aristocratic birth and his connexions with the +court, he was a convinced supporter of the principles of the Revolution, +and had in consequence to leave the Guards. About the time of the +outbreak of war in 1792 he became colonel of a cavalry regiment, and +soon afterwards, as a _marechal de camp_, he was sent to serve on the +south-eastern frontier. In 1793 he distinguished himself in La Vendee, +and was promoted general of division. Grouchy was shortly afterwards +deprived of his rank as being of noble birth, but in 1795 he was again +placed on the active list. He served on the staff of the Army of Ireland +(1796-1797), and took a conspicuous part in the Irish expedition. In +1798 he administered the civil and military government of Piedmont at +the time of the abdication of the king of Sardinia, and in 1799 he +distinguished himself greatly as a divisional commander in the campaign +against the Austrians and Russians. In covering the retreat of the +French after the defeat of Novi, Grouchy received fourteen wounds and +was taken prisoner. On his release he returned to France. In spite of +his having protested against the _coup d'etat_ of the 18th of Brumaire +he was at once re-employed by the First Consul, and distinguished +himself again at Hohenlinden. It was not long before he accepted the new +regime in France, and from 1801 onwards he was employed by Napoleon in +military and political positions of importance. He served in Austria in +1805, in Prussia in 1806, Poland in 1807, Spain in 1808, and commanded +the cavalry of the Army of Italy in 1809 in the Viceroy Eugene's advance +to Vienna. In 1812 he was made commander of one of the four cavalry +corps of the Grand Army, and during the retreat from Moscow Napoleon +appointed him to command the escort squadron, which was composed +entirely of picked officers. His almost continuous service with the +cavalry led Napoleon to decline in 1813 to place Grouchy at the head of +an army corps, and Grouchy thereupon retired to France. In 1814, +however, he hastened to take part in the defensive campaign in France, +and he was severely wounded at Craonne. At the Restoration he was +deprived of the post of colonel-general of _chasseurs a cheval_ and +retired. He joined Napoleon on his return from Elba, and was made +marshal and peer of France. In the campaign of Waterloo he commanded the +reserve cavalry of the army, and after Ligny he was appointed to command +the right wing to pursue the Prussians. The march on Wavre, its +influence on the result of the campaign, and the controversy to which +Grouchy's conduct on the day of Waterloo has given rise, are dealt with +briefly in the article WATERLOO CAMPAIGN, and at length in nearly every +work on the campaign of 1815. Here it is only necessary to say that on +the 17th Grouchy was unable to close with the Prussians, and on the +18th, though urged to march towards the sound of the guns of Waterloo, +he permitted himself, from whatever cause, to be held up by a Prussian +rearguard while the Prussians and English united to crush Napoleon. On +the 19th Grouchy won a smart victory over the Prussians at Wavre, but it +was then too late. So far as resistance was possible after the great +disaster, Grouchy made it. He gathered up the wrecks of Napoleon's army, +and retired, swiftly and unbroken, to Paris, where, after interposing +his reorganized forces between the enemy and the capital, he resigned +his command into the hands of Marshal Davout. The rest of his life was +spent in defending himself. An attempt to have him condemned to death by +a court-martial failed, but he was exiled and lived in America till +amnestied in 1821. On his return to France he was reinstated as general, +but not as marshal nor as peer of France. For many years thereafter he +was equally an object of aversion to the court party, as a member of +their own caste who had followed the Revolution and Napoleon, and to his +comrades of the Grand Army as the supposed betrayer of Napoleon. In 1830 +Louis Philippe gave him back the marshal's baton and restored him to the +Chamber of Peers. He died at St-Etienne on the 29th of May 1847. + + See Marquis de Grouchy, _Memoires du marechal Marquis de Grouchy_ + (Paris, 1873-1874); General Marquis de Grouchy, _Le General Grouchy en + Irlande_ (Paris, 1866), and _Le Marechal Grouchy du 16 au 18 juin, + 1815_ (Paris, 1864); _Appel a l'histoire sur les faites de l'aile + droite de l'armee francaise_ (Paris, n.d.); _Severe Justice sur les + faits ... du 28 juin au 3 juillet, 1815_ (Paris, 1866); and the + literature of the Waterloo campaign. Marshal Grouchy himself wrote the + following: _Observations sur la relation de la campagne de 1815 par le + general de Gourgaud_ (Philadelphia and Paris, 1818); _Refutation de + quelques articles des memoires de M. le Duc de Rovigo_ (Paris, 1829); + _Fragments historiques relatifs a la campagne et a la bataille de + Waterloo_ (Paris, 1829-1830, in reply to Barthelemy and Mery, and to + Marshal Gerard); _Reclamation du marechal de Grouchy_ (Paris, 1834); + _Plainte contre le general Baron Berthezene_ (Berthezene, formerly a + divisional commander under Gerard, stated in reply to this defence + that he had no intention of accusing Grouchy of ill faith). + + + + +GROUND-ICE,[1] ice formed at the bottom of streams while the temperature +of the water is above freezing-point. Everything points to radiation as +the prime cause of the formation of ground-ice. It is formed only under +a clear sky, never in cloudy weather; it is most readily formed on dark +rocks, and never under any covering such as a bridge, and rarely under +surface-ice. Professor Howard T. Barnes of McGill University concludes +that the radiation from a river bed in cold and clear nights goes +through the water in long rays that penetrate much more easily from +below upwards than the sun's heat rays from above downwards, which are +mostly absorbed by the first few feet of water. On a cold clear night, +therefore, the radiation from the bottom is excessive, and loosely-grown +spongy masses of anchor-ice form on the bottom, which on the following +bright sunny day receive just sufficient heat from the sun to detach the +mass of ice, which rises to the surface with considerable force. It is +probable that owing to surface tension a thin film of stationary water +rests upon the boulders and sand over which a stream flows, and that +this, becoming frozen owing to radiation, forms the foundation for the +anchor-ice and produces a surface upon which the descending frazil-ice +(see below) can lodge. The theory of radiation from the boulders is +supported by the fact that as the ice is formed upon them in response to +a sudden fall in the air temperature, it is only released under the +influence of a strong rise of temperature during the morning. It may not +rise for several days, but the advent of bright sunlight is followed by +the appearance on the surface of masses of ground-ice. This ice has a +spongy texture and frequently carries gravel with it when it rises. It +is said that the bottom of Lake Erie is strewn with gravel that has been +floated down in this way. This "anchor-ice," as it was called by +Canadian trappers, frequently forms dams across narrow portions of the +river where the floating masses are caught. Dr H. Landor pointed out +that the Mackenzie and Mississippi rivers, which rise in the same region +and flow in opposite directions, carry ground-ice from their head-waters +for a considerable distance down stream, and suggested that here and in +Siberia many forms of vegetable and animal life may be distributed from +a centre by this agency, since the material carried by the floating ice +would contain the seeds and eggs or larvae of many forms. + +Besides ground-ice and anchor-ice this formation is called also +bottom-ice, ground-gru and lappered ice, the two last names being +Scottish. In France it is called _glace du fond_, in Germany _Grundeis_, +and in French Canada _moutonne_ from the appearance of sheep at rest, +since the ice formed at the bottom grows in woolly, spongy masses upon +boulders or other projections. + +"Frazil-ice" is a Canadian term from the French for "forge-cinders." It +is surface ice formed in spicules and carried downwards in water +agitated by winds or rapids. The frazil-ice may render swiftly moving +water turbid with ice crystals, it may be swirled downwards and +accumulated upon the ground ice, or it may be swept under the sheet of +surface-ice, coating the under surface of the sheet to a thickness as +great as 80 ft. of loose spicular ice. + + See W. G. Thompson, in _Nature_, i. 555 (1870); H. Landor, in + _Geological Magazine_, decade II., vol. iii., p. 459 (1876); H. T. + Barnes, _Ice Formation with special Reference to Anchor-ice and + Frazil_ (1906). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The O. Eng. word _grund_, ground, is common to Teutonic + languages, cf. Du. _grond_, Ger. _Grund_, but has no cognates outside + Teutonic. The suggestion that the origin is to be found in "grind," + to crush small, reduce to powder, is plausible, but the primary + meaning seems to be the lowest part or bottom of anything rather than + grit, sand or gravel. The main branches in sense appear to be, first, + bottom, as of the sea or a river, cf. the use, in the plural, for + dregs; second, base or foundation, actual, as of the first or main + surface of a painting, fabric, &c., or figurative, as of a principle + or reason; third, the surface of the earth, or a particular part of + that surface. + + + + +GROUND NUT (Earth Nut, Pistache de Terre, Monkey Nut, Pea Nut, Manilla +Nut), in botany, the fruit or pod of _Arachis hypogaea_ (nat. ord. +Leguminosae). The plant is an annual of diffuse habit, with hairy stem, +and two-paired, abruptly pinnate leaflets. The pods or legumes are +stalked, oblong, cylindrical, about 1 in. in length, the thin +reticulated shell containing one or two irregularly ovoid seeds. After +the flower withers, the stalk of the ovary has the peculiarity of +elongating and bending down, forcing the young pod underground, and thus +the seeds become matured at some distance below the surface. Hence the +specific and vernacular names of the plant. Originally a native of South +America, it is extensively cultivated in all tropical and subtropical +countries. The plant affects a light sandy soil, and is very prolific, +yielding in some instances 30 to 38 bushels of nuts per acre. The pods +when ripe are dug up and dried. The seeds when fresh are largely eaten +in tropical countries, and in taste are almost equal to almonds; when +roasted they are used as a substitute for chocolate. In America they are +consumed in large quantities as the "pea-nut"; but are not much +appreciated in England except by the poorer children, who know them as +"monkey-nuts." By expression the seeds yield a large quantity of oil, +which is used by natives for lamps, as a fish or curry oil and for +medicinal purposes. The leaves form an excellent food for cattle, being +very like clover. + +Large quantities of seeds are imported to Europe, chiefly to Marseilles, +London and Hamburg, for the sake of their contained oil. The seeds yield +from 42 to 50% of oil by cold expression, but a larger quantity is +obtained by heat, although of an inferior quality. The seeds being soft +facilitate mechanical expression, and where bisulphide of carbon or +other solvent is used, a very pure oil is obtained. + +The expressed oil is limpid, of a light yellowish or straw colour, +having a faint smell and bland taste; it forms an excellent substitute +for olive oil, although in a slight degree more prone to rancidity than +the latter. Its specific gravity is 0.916 to 0.918; it becomes turbid at +3 deg. C., concretes at +3 deg. to -4 deg. C., and hardens at +7 deg. C. +It is a non-drying oil. Ground nut oil consists of (1) oleic acid +(C18H34O2); (2) hypogaeic acid (C16H30O2), by some supposed to be +identical with a fatty acid found in whale oil; (3) palmitic acid +(C16H32O2); and (4) arachic acid (C20H40O2). The oil is used in the +adulteration of gingelly oil. + + + + +GROUND-PEARL, the glassy secretion forming the pupacase of coccid +insects of the genus _Margarodes_, belonging to the homopterous division +of the Hemiptera. + + + + +GROUND RENT. In Roman law, ground rent (_solarium_) was an annual rent +payable by the lessee of a _superficies_ or perpetual lease of building +land. In English law, it appears that the term was at one time popularly +used for the houses and lands out of which ground rents issue as well as +for the rents themselves (cf. _Maundy_ v. _Maundy_, 2 Strange, 1020); +and Lord Eldon observed in 1815 that the context in which the term +occurred may materially vary its meaning (_Stewart_ v. _Alliston_, 1 +Mer. 26). But at the present time the accepted meaning of ground rent is +the rent at which land is let for the purpose of improvement by +building, i.e. a rent charged in respect of the land only and not in +respect of the buildings to be placed thereon. It thus conveys the idea +of something lower than a rack rent (see RENT); and accordingly if a +vendor described property as property for which he paid a "ground rent," +without any further explanation of the term, a purchaser would not be +obliged to accept the property if it turned out to be held at a rack +rent. But while a rack rent is generally higher in amount than a ground +rent, the latter is usually better secured, as it carries with it the +reversionary interest in buildings and improvements put on the ground +_after_ the date at which the ground rent was fixed, and accordingly +ground rents have been regarded as a good investment. Trustees empowered +to invest money on the security of freehold or copyhold hereditaments, +may invest upon freehold ground rents reserved out of house property. In +estimating the amount that may be so invested, account may be taken of +the value of the houses, as, if the ground rents are not paid, the +landlord can re-enter. Again, where a settlement authorizes trustees to +purchase lands or hereditaments in fee-simple or possession, a purchase +of freehold ground rents has been held to be proper. A devise of "ground +rent" carries not only the rent but the reversion. Where a tenant is +compelled, in order to protect himself in the enjoyment of the land in +respect of which his rent is payable, to pay ground rent to a superior +landlord (who is of course in a position to distrain on him for it), he +is considered as having been authorized by his immediate landlord to +apply his rent, due or accruing due, in this manner, and the payment of +the ground rent will be held to be payment of the rent itself or part of +it. A lodger should make any payment of this character under the Law of +Distress Amendment Act 1908 (s. 3; and see RENT). Ground rents are +apportionable (see APPORTIONMENT). + + In Scots law, the term "ground rent" is not employed, but its place is + taken, for practical purposes, by the "ground-annual," which bears a + double meaning. (i.) At the time of the Reformation in Scotland, the + lands of the Church were parcelled out by the crown into various + lordships--the grantees being called Lords of Erection. In the 17th + century these Lords of Erection resigned their superiorities to the + crown, with the exception of the feu-duties, which were to be retained + till a price agreed upon for their redemption had been paid. This + reserved power of redemption was, however, resigned by the crown on + the eve of the Union and the feu-duties became payable in perpetuity + to the Lords of Erection as a "ground-annual." (ii.) Speculators in + building ground usually grant sub-feus to builders at a high feu-duty. + But where sub-feus are prohibited--as they might be, prior to the + Conveyancing (Scotland) Act 1874--and there is much demand for + building ground, the feuars frequently stipulate for an annual rent + from the builders rather than for a price payable at once. This annual + rent is called a "ground-annual." Interest is not due on arrears of + ground-annuals. Like other real burdens, ground-annuals may now be + freely assigned and conveyed (Conveyancing (Scotland) Act 1874, s. + 30). + +The term "ground rent" in the English sense does not seem to be +generally used in the United States, but is applied in Pennsylvania to a +kind of tenure, created by a grant in fee simple, the grantor reserving +to himself and his heirs a certain rent, which is the interest of the +money value of the land. These "ground rents" are real estate, and, in +cases of intestacy, go to the heir. They are rent services and not rent +charges--the statute _Quia Emptores_ never having been in force in +Pennsylvania, and are subject to all the incidents of such rents (see +RENT). The grantee of such a "ground rent" may mortgage, sell, or +otherwise dispose of the grant as he pleases; and while the rent is paid +the land cannot be sold or the value of the improvements lost. + +A ground rent being a freehold estate, created by deed and perpetual in +duration, no presumption could, at common law, arise from lapse of time, +that it had been released. But now, by statute (Act of 27th of April +1855, s. 7), a presumption of release or extinguishment is created where +no payment, claim or demand has been made for the rent, nor any +declaration or acknowledgment of its existence made or given by the +owner of the premises subject to it, for the period of 21 years. Ground +rents were formerly irredeemable after a certain time. But the creation +of irredeemable ground rents is now forbidden (Pennsylvania Act 7 +Assembly, 22nd of April 1850). + + For English Law see Foa, _Landlord and Tenant_ (3rd ed., London, + 1901); Scots Law, Bell's _Principles_ (10th ed., Edinburgh, 1899); + American Law, Bouvier, _Law Dict._ (Boston and London, 1897). + (A. W. R.) + + + + +GROUNDSEL (Ger. _Kreuzkraut_; Fr. _senecon_), _Senecio vulgaris_, an +annual, glabrous, or more or less woolly plant of the natural order +Compositae, having a branched succulent stem 6 to 15 in. in height, +pinnatifid irregularly and coarsely-toothed leaves, and small +cylindrical heads of yellow tubular florets enveloped in an involucre of +numerous narrow bracts; the ribbed fruit bears a soft, feathery, hoary +tuft of hairs (_pappus_). The plant is indigenous to Europe, whence it +has been introduced into all temperate climates. It is a troublesome +weed, flowering throughout the year, and propagating itself rapidly by +means of its light feathery fruits; it has its use, however, as a food +for cage-birds. _Senecio Jacobaea_, ragwort, is a showy plant with heads +of bright yellow flowers, common in pastures and by roadsides. The genus +_Senecio_ is a very large one, widely distributed in temperate and cold +climates. The British species are all herbs, but the genus also includes +shrubs and even arborescent forms, which are characteristic features of +the vegetation of the higher levels on the mountains of tropical Africa. +Many species of the genus are handsome florists' plants. The groundsel +tree, _Baccharis halimifolia_, a native of the North American sea-coast +from Massachusetts southward, is a Composite shrub, attaining 6 to 12 +ft. in height, and having angular branches, obovate or oblong-cuneate, +somewhat scurfy leaves, and flowers larger than but similar to those of +common groundsel. The long white pappus of the female plant renders it a +conspicuous object in autumn. The groundsel tree has been cultivated in +British gardens since 1683. + + The Old English word, represented by "groundsel," appears in two + forms, _grundeswylige_ and _gundaeswelgiae_; of the first form the + accepted derivation is from _grund_, ground, and _swelgau_, to + swallow; a weed of such rapid growth would not inaptly be styled a + "ground-swallower." If the form without the r be genuine, the word + might mean "pus-absorber" (O.E. _gund_, filth, matter), with reference + to its use in poultices for abscesses and the like. + + + + +GROUND-SQUIRREL, one of the names for a group of (chiefly) North +American striped terrestrial squirrel-like rodents, more generally known +as chipmunks. They are closely allied to squirrels, from which they are +distinguished by the possession of cheek-pouches for the storage of +food. The sides, or the sides and back, are marked with light stripes +bordered by dark bands; the ears are small, and without tufts; and the +tail is relatively short. With the exception of one Siberian species +(_Tamias asiaticus_), ground-squirrels are confined to North America, +where they are represented by a large number of species and races, all +referable to the genus _Tamias_. In North America ground-squirrels are +migratory, and may be abundant in a district one year, and absent the +next. They feed on nuts, beechmast, corn and roots, and also on grubs. +With the assistance of their cheek-pouches they accumulate large +supplies of food for the winter, during which season they lie dormant in +holes. Although generally keeping to the ground, when hunted they take +to trees, which they climb in search of food. One of the longest known +American species is _T. striatus_. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 12, Slice 5, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 38202.txt or 38202.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/2/0/38202/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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